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who played master ip in the legend of bruce lee | The Legend of Bruce Lee - wikipedia
The Legend of Bruce Lee is a 2008 Chinese biographical martial arts television series based on the life story of martial artist and actor Bruce Lee. The 50 - episode series was produced and broadcast by CCTV and began airing on October 12, 2008. It stars Hong Kong actor Danny Chan as Bruce Lee and American actress Michelle Lang as Lee 's wife, Linda Lee Cadwell. The production period spanned nine months, with filming taking place in China, Hong Kong, Macau, the United States, Italy, and Thailand, and with a budget of 50 million yuan (US $7.3 million).
Lee 's daughter, Shannon Lee, is credited as executive producer of the series. Other martial artists such as Mark Dacascos, Ray Park, Gary Daniels, Ernest Miller, and Michael Jai White are also featured in the series, playing the roles of martial artists prominent throughout Bruce Lee 's life and career.
The Legend of Bruce Lee has seen increasing viewership since its debut in 2008. The first 14 episodes broke China 's former record held by Chuang Guan Dong. According to the CSM survey held on 26 October 2008, the first 30 episodes of the series received viewership ratings above 10.35 %. The finale episode attained a viewership rating of 14.87 %, breaking CCTV 's all - time high record set in 2003.
Bruce Lee (Li Xiao Long) is a high school student in a school with mostly British students, with the Chinese students like him belonging in the minority. Bruce notices to his dismay that there was a subtle discrimination against his race in the school, which urges him to excel in order to prove that Chinese people are also competent and talented. Along with his childhood friend Qin Xiao Man, Bruce participates in a cha - cha competition and wins, much to the annoyance of his British schoolmate Blair Lewis. This competition, in addition to Blair 's evident dislike of the Chinese, creates tension between the two, leading to a number of physical fights. Their bitter rivalry worsened when Bruce joined the school boxing team, whose ace boxer was Blair. The two participate in the school boxing competition, and Blair loses to Bruce. Blair then realizes that unlike him, Bruce had a good chance of winning the boxing championship. He decides to help Bruce by teaching him about the three - time champion David Cafeld. This marks the end of the enmity between the two and the start of a friendship that they maintain for many years after.
Bruce 's previous run - ins with Blair had made him want to learn martial arts. He talks to Uncle Shao about this, and Uncle Shao is reluctant at first but relents to teaching Bruce some fighting techniques. Uncle Shao then also convinces Bruce 's parents to have Bruce be taught martial arts by a kung fu master.
Bruce meets Yellow Brat, a servant and student of Wang Yunsheng 's Kung Fu Center, who he fights and loses to. Bruce 's father helps him get admitted to Master Ye 's Wing Chun Academy and Bruce begins his training with Master Ye. In the boxing championship, Bruce applies the Wing Chun techniques he has learned from Master Ye and beats David Cafeld.
Now adept at fighting, Bruce uses his skills to protect the businessmen in his neighborhood from the extortions of Wang Li Chao 's gang. This angers Wang Li Chao, and he orders Ah Liang to kill Bruce. Ah Liang crashes into Bruce 's bike with a motorcycle. Bruce survives the crash but goes into a coma. This incident prompts Bruce 's parents to send him to America, realizing that staying in Hong Kong will inevitably lead to his death. Fearing that the attempt on Bruce 's life will be traced back to his gang, Wang Li Chao orders Yellow Brat to kill Ah Liang. Meanwhile, Bruce goes to America with Uncle Shao.
Bruce spends the first few weeks living at Uncle Shao 's house in Seattle. Uncle Shao then tells Bruce that he must leave Uncle Shao and have a better life. Bruce accuses Uncle Shao of getting rid of him, but he does as Uncle Shao says and leaves. He meets Jesse, an African American cab driver who cheats Bruce out of some money, but later on becomes a friend and loyal follower after Bruce saves him from some thugs. Bruce arrives at the restaurant of Ms. Ruby, a fellow Chinese and a friend of Uncle Shao 's. Ms. Ruby lets Bruce live in the basement of her restaurant, and employs him as a helper and dish washer. He later quits his job in order to go to school. He enrolls at Edison Technical School, and, with the help of Jesse, was able to rent a small room and get a job of delivering papers. At the school, he meets Arroyo, and the two briefly engage in a romantic relationship. At his school 's program, Bruce challenges the karate team with his Chinese Kung Fu. He angers the karate team, and they challenge him to a formal battle. Bruce agrees to fight, but only if Master Kimura, the karate expert of Seattle, will be the one to fight him and if reporters will cover the event. Kimura assents to this. He and Bruce fight, and Bruce defeats him in an astonishing eleven seconds. This makes Kimura question his beliefs about martial arts and become fascinated with Bruce 's Kung Fu that he asks to be taught more about it. Bruce declines, but Kimura 's persistence soon wears him down and Bruce grudgingly accepts Kimura as his student. This action of Kimura angers the Karate community. He refuses to quit learning from Bruce, and he is soon considered an outcast. Kimura becomes one of Bruce 's closest friends, and they also maintain a student - teacher relationship for many years. Bruce soon shares with Kimura the secret of his Kung Fu, which is actually a mixture of moves from Wing Chun, Boxing, and even from cha - cha. This peculiar style of Bruce stems from his belief that martial arts should be practical and usable in actual combat. He therefore often takes moves from a particular style and adapts them into his own.
Bruce passes the entrance exam at the University of Washington. Unsure of what he should major in, he asks for the advice of Professor Kane. After a lengthy discussion, Bruce decides on taking up philosophy. Bruce later applies many of what he learns at school to his martial arts. He takes a particular interest in the philosophy of Yin Yang. He also starts to teach Kung Fu for free to his schoolmates.
Kimura talks to him about opening a Chinese Kung Fu school. Bruce confesses that while it is his dream to open one, he can not afford it. Kimura then volunteers to sell his dojo and use the money to help Bruce, but Bruce refuses, saying that he does not want to be indebted to Kimura that way. Kimura sells the dojo anyway. Bruce is enraged at first, but soon accepts Kimura 's help, vowing to repay him someday.
Arroyo urges Bruce to come to the Philippines with her, where they can share a life of comfort together. Bruce tells her that he does not want to leave America because of his dream of becoming a Kung Fu master and philosopher. Arroyo expresses her dislike for Kung Fu. Bruce breaks up with her, knowing that she will never understand his passion. He then meets Linda Emery. The two start dating, and Bruce tells Linda about his dreams. She begins to share his enthusiasm with Kung Fu and even starts to take some Kung Fu lessons from Bruce.
Kimura and Bruce rent a basement for the Kung Fu school, but Linda advises them to delay the opening in order to participate in the Asian Cultural Festival, an event which she believed will serve as a good way to promote the opening of the school. Bruce agrees to this. Their promotion was going well until Bruce was challenged and defeated by Yamamoto, a 6 - dan karate master who held a grudge on Bruce for speaking low of karate. Bruce demands a rematch and loses again, but he refuses to stop challenging Yamamoto.
Blair makes a reappearance in Bruce 's life. He also enrolls at Bruce 's school and becomes a great help to Bruce 's improvement by urging his friend Professor Dan Inosanto, a Fil - Am expert on martial arts techniques, to meet with Bruce. Inosanto becomes one of Bruce 's closest friends as well as his occasional advisor on martial arts. Wally Jay, a jujitsu master, piques Bruce 's interest. He challenges Wally Jay in order to learn more about jujitsu techniques. At the end of the match, it was apparent that Bruce will win, but he chooses to let the duel in a draw so that Wally Jay may keep his prestige. This earns him respect from Wally Jay and the two exchange knowledge on martial arts.
Believing that only in fighting various martial arts masters can he improve his style, Bruce posts a sign at the gate of his school containing a brazen statement of challenge, "No matter the time, place or person, if I am challenged, I 'll be there. -- Bruce Lee. '' His display of arrogance angers the martial arts community and they send Yamamoto to defeat Bruce once and for all. However, now equipped with new techniques from jujitsu and wise advice from Inosanto, Bruce defeats Yamamoto.
Yamamoto finally agrees to teach Bruce some of his own karate in exchange for lessons on Bruce 's Kung Fu. Bruce teaches everything he knew to Yamamoto, even if he knew that the former was n't doing the same. This trade was actually a ruse on Yamamoto 's part, which allowed another martial artist named Ed Parker to learn all of Bruce 's moves. Ed Parker then fights Bruce and uses Bruce 's Thrusting Punch to defeat him. Bruce ends up in a hospital due to his injuries. Ed Parker feels guilty for this afterward, realizing that what he did was dishonorable. He visits Bruce in the hospital and formally apologizes. Ed also gives his 20 years ' worth of notes on karate to Bruce, which Bruce gladly uses to expand on his martial arts theories.
Linda 's mother meets Bruce, and it is clear that she dislikes him. She asks Linda to break up with Bruce, but Linda refuses and leaves their home. Her mother suffers a heart attack. Bruce urges Linda to visit her mother despite their differences. He goes with Linda to the hospital and wins Linda 's mother 's approval.
Bruce takes part in the California Karate Competition and defeats the three - time champion, Hoffman. After the match, Hoffman approaches Bruce and they teach each other. Hoffman also talks to Bruce about moving his Kung Fu school to Oakland, where Hoffman thinks it will gain more students and attention. Bruce agrees and decides to go to Oakland immediately, to the dismay of his friends. He drops out of college and bids goodbye to Professor Kane. Linda becomes furious with him for not discussing this with her. Bruce asks her to marry him but Linda refuses. Their quarrel ends the next day when Linda realizes how much she loves Bruce and agrees to marry him. Bruce sets up their marriage at once. They have an outdoor wedding, attended by their closest friends and Linda 's mother. Linda also decides to leave school. She soon gets pregnant with their first child, Brandon.
Bruce buys a house for him and Linda and opens a bigger Kung Fu school with the help of his friends Jesse, Kimura and Uncle Shao. The rent, however, was too expensive for Bruce, so Uncle Shao decides to lend him the money.
Meanwhile, the kung fu masters in America become enraged with Bruce for putting up a martial arts school without approaching Master Wang, the president of the Chinese Martial Arts Association in California. On top of this, Bruce also teaches many non-Chinese students, which is strictly prohibited among the Chinese. The masters challenge Bruce to an official match against Yellow Brat. Should he lose, Bruce is either to close down his school or to stop teaching non-Chinese people. But should he win, Bruce will be allowed to continue running his school whichever way he wanted. The two fight fiercely against each other, but the battle is interrupted when Linda unexpectedly goes into labor. The match is stopped, and Yellow Brat allows Bruce 15 days before they will have to fight again.
Bruce goes home to Hong Kong after receiving the grim news that his father has died. He returns to America for his match with Yellow Brat. Master Wang, seeing how the match was going to inevitably end, declares Bruce the winner. This enrages Yellow Brat, and in a fit of fury, strikes Bruce on the back with a large piece of wood. This seriously injures Bruce and paralyzes him from the waist down. He is told by his doctors that he may never walk again, let alone practice martial arts. Horrified by this news, Bruce becomes depressed and withdrawn, claiming that he would rather die than not be able to practice his Kung Fu. However, stern and encouraging words from Linda makes him become determined to walk again even while knowing it would take a miracle for him to heal. Master Wang visits Bruce along with the other Kung Fu masters. Together, they all apologize for what Yellow Brat did and knelt down to beg for Bruce 's forgiveness. Bruce bids them all to rise, saying that instead of fighting amongst themselves, they Chinese must stand united. His words earned him profound respect from the masters, especially from Wang.
His paraplegia confines Bruce to a wheelchair. Unable to teach anymore, he ordered his friends to close down the school, and they reluctantly oblige. With Linda 's help, Bruce writes a book about his martial arts theories. Linda decides to bring Brandon home, who had been staying with her mother since Bruce injured his back. She makes Brandon stand on his own and tells him to walk to Bruce. To Bruce 's horror, Brandon starts falling. Fueled by fear for his son, Bruce reflexively reaches for Brandon, and, to his and Linda 's surprise, was able to stand up. Bruce slowly regains his strength and starts training again. Together with Uncle Shao and Kimura, he decides to call his style "Jeet Kune Do ''. They reopen the Kung Fu school, and the news of Bruce 's miraculous recovery entices many people to become his students. Bruce also decides to join the Karate national championship. Inosanto tells him that Bruce 's only true rivals in the competition are Rolex, the defending champion and Piao Zhengyi, a taekwondo genius. Knowing that Bruce 's current skills will not be enough to defeat Rolex, Inosanto advises Bruce to spar with Piao and exchange techniques with him. Rolex, on the other hand, was helped by Ed Parker, Yamamoto and Wally Jay.
The two finally meet in the championship match. As Bruce and Rolex are almost evenly skilled, the fight was difficult for them both. Rolex proved to be a formidable opponent, but Bruce prevails in the end. Bruce 's fame in the world of martial arts piques the interest of George, a Hollywood producer. He talks to Bruce about making a movie featuring Bruce and his Jeet Kune Do. Bruce is delighted at the notion, for he feels that it was time to change the rather ludicrous portrayals of his people in movies. He saw movies as the medium through which the world would change their impressions of the Chinese.
Bruce decides to pursue Hollywood. In order to do so, he leaves Oakland and moves to Los Angeles with Linda and Brandon. He also decides to leave the Kung Fu school to Kimura and Uncle Chao.
George, Bruce and the screenwriter Robert brainstorm over the movie 's plot, which they then called Kung Fu. George 's boss Mr. William sees the great potential in the movie; however, he was not convinced that a Chinese man like Bruce should play the lead. Without George 's knowledge, William arranges for the Hollywood actor Robert Douglas to be taught Kung Fu by Bruce, so that he could be the lead actor for the movie. Bruce and George find out about William 's intentions. Bruce is so enraged at the deception that he even accuses George of being in on the lie. Nevertheless, Bruce refuses to go back to Oakland, and makes a living by training Los Angeles police officers instead.
Bruce goes to Hong Kong with Linda and Brandon. He pays a visit to Master Ye, who, as it turns out, was offended when Bruce created Jeet Kune Do. He felt that Bruce was being arrogant and disrespectful. Bruce assures Master Ye that Jeet Kune Do is a practical style of fighting that owes much to Master Ye 's Yong Chun Chuan.
George once again comes to Bruce with a television project. Still wary of another deception, Bruce meets George with skepticism. However, George gives him a contract and a $2000 deposit upfront. This removes Bruce 's doubts and he agrees to work on the TV series The Green Hornet as Kato. The Green Hornet turns into a hit series and a second season is promised, but Mr. William decides to discontinue the show.
Still determined to let Bruce star in a movie, George convinces Bruce to work on the movie Silent Flute. As with their past ideas, Silent Flute will feature kung fu. Mr. William grants George permission to make the movie, with the condition that it will be filmed in India. George and Bruce attempt to satisfy this term; however, they could not find suitable taping locations in India. George tells Mr. William about their predicament, and Mr. William confesses the truth: he has $800,000 deposited in India that he can only use in India. The only reason he had agreed to make the movie was so the money would not be wasted. Mr. William then gives them the choice of either filming in India, or cancelling the project entirely. Bruce refuses to compromise, and the movie is cancelled.
The movie industry, however, had not fully closed its doors on Bruce. The Hong Kong film company Golden Harvest seeks him out with a movie project, The Big Boss. The company president, Mr. Chow, saw Bruce Lee as the way to saving Golden Harvest from going into bankruptcy. They travel to Thailand, the shooting location for the movie. While the movie was being made, the master Thai boxer King Charles sends Bruce a letter of challenge. Bruce happily accepts the challenge but spends some time first to learn about Thai Boxing. He also tells King Charles that their duel will be filmed, and if Bruce won, he will get to use the footage in The Big Boss. He and King Charles fight, and Bruce wins. In addition to the footage of the fight, King Charles also teaches Bruce about the secret of his ferocious knee technique: heavy iron shoes, of which he gives Bruce a pair.
The Big Boss becomes a box office success and Bruce becomes a famous and sought - after movie star in Hong Kong and in other nearby Asian countries. Though he receives other offers from other companies, Bruce decides to stay with Golden Harvest, to the relief and appreciation of Mr. Chow. Mr. Chow gives Bruce a fully furnished house as a gift, and Linda comes to Hong Kong along with Brandon and Shannon to live with Bruce.
Bruce starts working on his second movie, Fist of Fury, but demanding beforehand that he be given the authority that a director has. Mr. Chow obliges, but this arrangement causes some friction between Bruce and the movie director, Director Ho.
Bruce had been working nonstop on the script of Way of the Dragon, a movie that he planned to direct himself. Mr. Chow is hesitant, in letting Bruce write and direct his own movie, but his doubts disappear upon reading Bruce 's script. Mr. Chow also suggests that Bruce start up his own production company under Golden Harvest. This way, Bruce will be able to fulfill all of his visions. Bruce agrees and starts the production of Way of the Dragon.
The success of Way of the Dragon far exceeds those of Bruce 's previous films, catapulting him into international stardom. Hollywood hears of his success in Asia. Mr. William, realizing his mistake in not pursuing Bruce before, sends George to offer Bruce another movie, Blood and Steel. Wary of yet another possibility of being lied to, in addition to the fact that he is currently making the movie Game of Death, Bruce refuses at first. Bruce talks to Mr. Chow, who then assures him that he may work with Hollywood. He advised Bruce to represent Golden Harvest so that the project will become a joint project between them and Hollywood. Bruce accepts the offer and postpones the making of Game of Death in order to work with Hollywood. He then changes the movie title of Blood and Steel into Enter the Dragon. In the middle of making the movie, Bruce collapses due to overwork was rushed to a hospital.
A series of prank calls in the middle of the night starts to occur in the Lee household, promptly scaring Linda. Meanwhile, still in the hospital for further examinations, Bruce becomes bored and decides to go home despite his doctor 's advice. He then receives a call from Ah Lin saying that Master Ye has died. Bruce attends the wake but does not go to the funeral. He visits Master Ye 's grave afterward, expressing his fear that Master Ye is angry at him for creating Jeet Kune Do.
Perhaps influenced by Master Ye 's death, Bruce buys a life insurance policy. He then resumes the production of his movie Game of Death. His head aches from time to time, but he refuses to rest, which makes Linda fear for his health.
It is then revealed that it was Yellow Brat who had been harassing Linda with the late - night phone calls. He challenges Bruce to yet another fight. Linda and Bruce talk about the Yellow Brat 's challenge. Linda is against it, but Bruce argues that Yellow Brat will continue harassing them if Bruce does not accept the challenge.
Linda, Kimura, Professor Inosanto, along with Bruce 's brothers from Yong Chun Chuan serve as spectators in the fight. Bruce defeats Yellow Brat but does not deliver a finishing blow. The scene ends with Linda offering a towel to Yellow Brat. Yellow Brat accepts the towel and appears to have a change of heart.
Bruce then visits Xiao Man 's home and goes to a meeting with her and Mr. Chow to discuss their upcoming projects. Meanwhile, Linda anxiously waits for Bruce to come home. Bruce suffers another headache and complains of dizziness, so he was made to lie down on a couch. Xiao Man gives him a pain reliever and he falls asleep. He does n't regain consciousness and was therefore rushed to a hospital, where he is then pronounced to be dead.
The last part of the episode features the original newspaper articles, as well as old footage on the nationwide mourning of Bruce 's death. Bruce 's grave is visited by Linda and Bruce 's friends. A voice narrates how Bruce Lee greatly influenced the world 's view on the Chinese and their Kung Fu, along with his contributions to Kung Fu films. The episode ends with a faint voice whispering, "Shh... do n't wake him. ''
Also, in the United States, Lions Gate Entertainment edited the series into a 183 minute long film and released it on DVD on September 21, 2010.
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of the following chinese dynasties which one was the most recent | Dynasties in Chinese history - wikipedia
The following is a chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history.
It is not usual for a dynasty to transition so smoothly into another, as is depicted in history timelines, since dynasties were often established before the overthrow of an existing reign, or continued for a time after they had been defeated. For example, the conventional date 1645 marks the year in which the Qing dynasty armies replaced the preceding Ming dynasty according to the dynastic cycle. However, the Qing dynasty was established in 1636 (or even 1616, albeit under a different name), while the last Ming dynasty pretender was not deposed until 1663. This change of ruling houses was a messy and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost twenty years to extend their control over the whole of China. It is therefore inaccurate to assume China changed suddenly and all at once in the year 1645.
In addition, China was divided for short periods of its history, with different regions being ruled by different groups. At times like these, there was not any single dynasty ruling a unified China. As a case in point, there is much dispute about times in and after the Western Zhou period. In the Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would write the history of the dynasty which preceded it. This cycle was disrupted, however, when the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of a republic. Even an attempt by Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the division of China into the People 's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.
(Traditional
/ Simplified)
/ 五代 十 国
/ 大理 国
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who discovered insulin which can be used for medical saver | Frederick Sanger - wikipedia
Frederick Sanger OM CH CBE FAA (/ ˈsæŋər /; 13 August 1918 -- 19 November 2013) was a British biochemist who twice won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, one of only two people to have done so in the same category (the other is John Bardeen in physics), the fourth person over all with two Nobel Prizes, and the third person over all with two Nobel Prizes in the sciences. In 1958, he was awarded a Nobel Prize in chemistry "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin ''. In 1980, Walter Gilbert and Sanger shared half of the chemistry prize "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids ''. The other half was awarded to Paul Berg "for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant DNA ''.
Frederick Sanger was born on 13 August 1918 in Rendcomb, a small village in Gloucestershire, England, the second son of Frederick Sanger, a general practitioner, and his wife, Cicely Sanger (née Crewdson). He was one of three children. His brother, Theodore, was only a year older, while his sister May (Mary) was five years younger. His father had worked as an Anglican medical missionary in China but returned to England because of ill health. He was 40 in 1916 when he married Cicely who was four years younger. Sanger 's father converted to Quakerism soon after his two sons were born and brought up the children as Quakers. Sanger 's mother was the daughter of a wealthy cotton manufacturer and had a Quaker background, but was not a Quaker.
When Sanger was around five years old the family moved to the small village of Tanworth - in - Arden in Warwickshire. The family was reasonably wealthy and employed a governess to teach the children. In 1927, at the age of nine, he was sent to the Downs School, a residential preparatory school run by Quakers near Malvern. His brother Theo was a year ahead of him at the same school. In 1932, at the age of 14, he was sent to the recently established Bryanston School in Dorset. This used the Dalton system and had a more liberal regime which Sanger much preferred. At the school he liked his teachers and particularly enjoyed scientific subjects. Able to complete his School Certificate a year early, for which he was awarded seven credits, Sanger was able to spend most of his last year of school experimenting in the laboratory alongside his chemistry master, Geoffrey Ordish, who had originally studied at Cambridge University and been a researcher in the Cavendish Laboratory. Working with Ordish made a refreshing change from sitting and studying books and awakened Sanger 's desire to pursue a scientific career.
In 1936 Sanger went to St John 's College, Cambridge to study natural sciences. His father had attended the same college. For Part I of his Tripos he took courses in physics, chemistry, biochemistry and mathematics but struggled with physics and mathematics. Many of the other students had studied more mathematics at school. In his second year he replaced physics with physiology. He took three years to obtain his Part I. For his Part II he studied biochemistry and obtained a 1st Class Honours. It was a relatively new department founded by Gowland Hopkins with enthusiastic lecturers who included Malcolm Dixon, Joseph Needham and Ernest Baldwin.
Both his parents died from cancer during his first two years at Cambridge. His father was 60 and his mother was 58. As an undergraduate Sanger 's beliefs were strongly influenced by his Quaker upbringing. He was a pacifist and a member of the Peace Pledge Union. It was through his involvement with the Cambridge Scientists ' Anti-War Group that he met his future wife, Joan Howe, who was studying economics at Newnham College. They courted while he was studying for his Part II exams and married after he had graduated in December 1940. Under the Military Training Act 1939 he was provisionally registered as a conscientious objector, and again under the National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939, before being granted unconditional exemption from military service by a tribunal. In the meantime he undertook training in social relief work at the Quaker centre, Spicelands, Devon and served briefly as a hospital orderly.
Sanger began studying for a PhD in October 1940 under N.W. "Bill '' Pirie. His project was to investigate whether edible protein could be obtained from grass. After little more than a month Pirie left the department and Albert Neuberger became his adviser. Sanger changed his research project to study the metabolism of lysine and a more practical problem concerning the nitrogen of potatoes. His thesis had the title, "The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body ''. He was examined by Charles Harington and Albert Charles Chibnall and awarded his doctorate in 1943.
Neuberger moved to the National Institute for Medical Research in London, but Sanger stayed in Cambridge and in 1943 joined the group of Charles Chibnall, a protein chemist who had recently taken up the chair in the Department of Biochemistry. Chibnall had already done some work on the amino acid composition of bovine insulin and suggested that Sanger look at the amino groups in the protein. Insulin could be purchased from the pharmacy chain Boots and was one of the very few proteins that were available in a pure form. Up to this time Sanger had been funding himself. In Chibnall 's group he was initially supported by the Medical Research Council and then from 1944 until 1951 by a Beit Memorial Fellowship for Medical Research.
Sanger 's first triumph was to determine the complete amino acid sequence of the two polypeptide chains of bovine insulin, A and B, in 1952 and 1951, respectively. Prior to this it was widely assumed that proteins were somewhat amorphous. In determining these sequences, Sanger proved that proteins have a defined chemical composition.
To get to this point, Sanger refined a partition chromatography method first developed by Richard Laurence Millington Synge and Archer John Porter Martin to determine the composition of amino acids in wool. Sanger used a chemical reagent 1 - fluoro - 2, 4 - dinitrobenzene (now, also known as Sanger 's reagent, fluorodinitrobenzene, FDNB or DNFB), sourced from poisonous gas research by Bernhard Charles Saunders at the Chemistry Department at Cambridge University. Sanger 's reagent proved effective at labelling the N - terminal amino group at one end of the polypeptide chain. He then partially hydrolysed the insulin into short peptides, either with hydrochloric acid or using an enzyme such as trypsin. The mixture of peptides was fractionated in two dimensions on a sheet of filter paper, first by electrophoresis in one dimension and then, perpendicular to that, by chromatography in the other. The different peptide fragments of insulin, detected with ninhydrin, moved to different positions on the paper, creating a distinct pattern that Sanger called "fingerprints ''. The peptide from the N - terminus could be recognised by the yellow colour imparted by the FDNB label and the identity of the labelled amino acid at the end of the peptide determined by complete acid hydrolysis and discovering which dinitrophenyl - amino acid was there.
By repeating this type of procedure Sanger was able to determine the sequences of the many peptides generated using different methods for the initial partial hydrolysis. These could then be assembled into the longer sequences to deduce the complete structure of insulin. Finally, because the A and B chains are physiologically inactive without the three linking disulfide bonds (two interchain, one intrachain on A), Sanger and coworkers determined their assignments in 1955. Sanger 's principal conclusion was that the two polypeptide chains of the protein insulin had precise amino acid sequences and, by extension, that every protein had a unique sequence. It was this achievement that earned him his first Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1958. This discovery was crucial for the later sequence hypothesis of Crick for developing ideas of how DNA codes for proteins.
From 1951 Sanger was a member of the external staff of the Medical Research Council and when they opened the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in 1962, he moved from his laboratories in the Biochemistry Department of the university to the top floor of the new building. He became head of the Protein Chemistry division.
Prior to his move, Sanger began exploring the possibility of sequencing RNA molecules and began developing methods for separating ribonucleotide fragments generated with specific nucleases. This work he did while trying to refine the sequencing techniques he had developed during his work on insulin.
The key challenge in the work was finding a pure piece of RNA to sequence. In the course of the work he discovered in 1964, with Kjeld Marcker, the formylmethionine tRNA which initiates protein synthesis in bacteria. He was beaten in the race to be the first to sequence a tRNA molecule by a group led by Robert Holley from Cornell University, who published the sequence of the 77 ribonucleotides of alanine tRNA from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1965. By 1967 Sanger 's group had determined the nucleotide sequence of the 5S ribosomal RNA from Escherichia coli, a small RNA of 120 nucleotides.
He then turned to sequencing DNA, which would require an entirely different approach. He looked at different ways of using DNA polymerase I from E. coli to copy single stranded DNA. In 1975, together with Alan Coulson, he published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the "Plus and Minus '' technique. This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3 ' termini. These could be fractionated by electrophoresis on a polyacrylamide gel and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement on what had gone before, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, his group were able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single - stranded bacteriophage φX174. This was the first fully sequenced DNA - based genome. To their surprise they discovered that the coding regions of some of the genes overlapped with one another.
In 1977 Sanger and colleagues introduced the "dideoxy '' chain - termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, also known as the "Sanger method ''. This was a major breakthrough and allowed long stretches of DNA to be rapidly and accurately sequenced. It earned him his second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1980, which he shared with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg. The new method was used by Sanger and colleagues to sequence human mitochondrial DNA (16,569 base pairs) and bacteriophage λ (48,502 base pairs). The dideoxy method was eventually used to sequence the entire human genome.
During the course of his career Sanger supervised more than ten PhD students, two of whom went on to also win Nobel Prizes. His first graduate student was Rodney Porter who joined the research group in 1947. Porter later shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Gerald Edelman for his work on the chemical structure of antibodies. Elizabeth Blackburn studied for a PhD in Sanger 's laboratory between 1971 and 1974. She shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak for her work on telomeres and the action of telomerase.
As of 2015, Sanger is the only person to have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice, and one of only four two - time Nobel laureates: The other three were Marie Curie (Physics, 1903 and Chemistry, 1911), Linus Pauling (Chemistry, 1954 and Peace, 1962) and John Bardeen (twice Physics, 1956 and 1972).
The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute (formerly the Sanger Centre) is named in his honour.
Sanger married Margaret Joan Howe in 1940. She died in 2012. They had three children -- Robin, born in 1943, Peter born in 1946 and Sally Joan born in 1960. He said that his wife had "contributed more to his work than anyone else by providing a peaceful and happy home. ''
Sanger retired in 1983, aged 65, to his home, "Far Leys '', in Swaffham Bulbeck outside Cambridge.
In 1992, the Wellcome Trust and the Medical Research Council founded the Sanger Centre (now the Sanger Institute), named after him. The Institute is located on the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus near Hinxton, only a few miles from Sanger 's home. He agreed to having the Centre named after him when asked by John Sulston, the founding director, but warned, "It had better be good. '' It was opened by Sanger in person on 4 October 1993, with a staff of fewer than 50 people, and went on to take a leading role in the sequencing of the human genome. The Institute now has over 900 people and is one of the world 's largest genomic research centres.
Sanger said he found no evidence for a God so he became an agnostic. In an interview published in the Times newspaper in 2000 Sanger is quoted as saying: "My father was a committed Quaker and I was brought up as a Quaker, and for them truth is very important. I drifted away from those beliefs -- one is obviously looking for truth, but one needs some evidence for it. Even if I wanted to believe in God I would find it very difficult. I would need to see proof. ''
He declined the offer of a knighthood, as he did not wish to be addressed as "Sir ''. He is quoted as saying, "A knighthood makes you different, does n't it, and I do n't want to be different. '' In 1986, he accepted the award of an Order of Merit, which can have only 24 living members.
In 2007 the British Biochemical Society was given a grant by the Wellcome Trust to catalogue and preserve the 35 laboratory notebooks in which Sanger recorded his research from 1944 to 1983. In reporting this matter, Science noted that Sanger, "the most self - effacing person you could hope to meet '', was spending his time gardening at his Cambridgeshire home.
Sanger died in his sleep at Addenbrooke 's Hospital in Cambridge on 19 November 2013. As noted in his obituary, he had described himself as "just a chap who messed about in a lab '', and "academically not brilliant ''.
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who does robert de niro play in the godfather part 2 | The Godfather Part II - wikipedia
The Godfather Part II is a 1974 American crime film produced and directed by Francis Ford Coppola from a screenplay co-written with Mario Puzo, starring Al Pacino and Robert De Niro. Partially based on Puzo 's 1969 novel The Godfather, the film is both sequel and prequel to The Godfather, presenting parallel dramas: one picks up the 1958 story of Michael Corleone (Pacino), the new Don of the Corleone crime family, protecting the family business in the aftermath of an attempt on his life; the prequel covers the journey of his father, Vito Corleone (De Niro), from his Sicilian childhood to the founding of his family enterprise in New York City.
The Godfather Part II opened to mixed reviews from critics, many of whom praised its cinematography while finding its nonlinear narrative disorganized. It was nominated for eleven Academy Awards, and became the first sequel to win for Best Picture. Its six Oscar wins included Best Director for Coppola, Best Supporting Actor for De Niro and Best Adapted Screenplay for Coppola and Puzo. Pacino won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor.
Both The Godfather Part II and its predecessor remain highly influential films, especially in the gangster genre, and the former has been reevaluated. In 1997, the American Film Institute ranked it as the 32nd - greatest film in American film history and it retained this position 10 years later. Some have deemed it superior to the 1972 original. It was selected for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 1993, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
The Godfather Part III, a further sequel, was released in 1990.
In 1958, during his son 's First Communion party at Lake Tahoe, Michael Corleone has a series of meetings in his role as the Don of his crime family. Corleone caporegime Frank Pentangeli is dismayed that Michael will not help him defend his Brooklyn territory against the Rosato brothers, who work for Michael 's business partner Hyman Roth. That night, Michael leaves Nevada after surviving an assassination attempt at his home.
Michael suspects Roth of planning the assassination, but meets with him in Miami and feigns ignorance. In New York, Pentangeli attempts to maintain Michael 's façade by making peace with the Rosato family but they attempt to kill him.
Roth, Michael, and several of their partners travel to Havana to discuss their future Cuban business prospects under the cooperative government of Fulgencio Batista; Michael becomes reluctant after reconsidering the viability of the ongoing Cuban Revolution. On New Year 's Eve, he tries to have Roth and Roth 's right - hand man Johnny Ola killed, but Roth survives when Michael 's bodyguard is discovered and shot by police. Michael accuses his brother Fredo of betrayal after Fredo inadvertently reveals that he 'd met with Ola previously. Batista abruptly abdicates due to rebel advances; during the ensuing chaos, Michael, Fredo, and Roth separately escape to the United States. Back home, Michael learns that his wife Kay has miscarried.
In Washington, D.C., a Senate committee on organized crime is investigating the Corleone family. Having survived the earlier attempt on his life, Pentangeli agrees to testify against Michael, who he believes had double - crossed him, and is placed under witness protection.
Fredo is returned to Nevada, where he privately explains himself to Michael: resentful at being passed over to head the family, he helped Roth in expectation of something in return -- unaware, he claims, of the plot on Michael 's life. Michael responds by disowning Fredo.
Michael is unable to reach the heavily - guarded Pentangeli, so sends for Pentangeli 's brother from Sicily, resulting in Pentangeli renouncing his previous statement; the hearing dissolves in uproar. Afterwards, Kay reveals to Michael that her miscarriage was actually an abortion, and that she intends to take their children away from Michael 's criminal life. Outraged, Michael takes custody of the children and banishes Kay from the family.
Carmela Corleone dies. At the funeral, Michael appears to forgive Fredo but later orders caporegime Al Neri to assassinate him out on the lake.
Roth is refused asylum and even entry to Israel and is forced to return to the United States. Over the dissent of consigliere Tom Hagen, Michael sends caporegime Rocco Lampone to intercept and shoot Roth on arrival. Rocco is shot dead by federal agents after completing his mission.
At the witness protection compound, Hagen reminds Pentangeli that failed plotters against the Roman Emperor often committed suicide and assures him that his family will be cared for. Pentangeli later slits his wrists in his bathtub.
Michael sits alone by the lake at the family compound.
The Godfather Part II was shot between October 1, 1973 and June 19, 1974, and was the last major American motion picture to have release prints made with Technicolor 's dye imbibition process until the late 1990s. The scenes that took place in Cuba were shot in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Charles Bluhdorn, whose Gulf + Western conglomerate owned Paramount, felt strongly about developing the Dominican Republic as a movie - making site.
The Lake Tahoe house and grounds portrayed in the film are Fleur du Lac, the summer estate of Henry J. Kaiser on the California side of the lake. The only structures used in the movie that still remain are the complex of old native stone boathouses with their wrought iron gates. Although Fleur du Lac is private property and no one is allowed ashore there, the boathouses and multimillion - dollar condominiums may be viewed from the lake.
Francis Ford Coppola originally wanted fellow director Elia Kazan to play Hyman Roth, but Kazan passed on the opportunity. On the DVD commentary track, Coppola detailed how he visited Kazan with the request, and remembered that Kazan was bare - chested. As an homage, in Roth 's first scene, he is bare - chested when Michael Corleone visits him.
Unlike with the first film, Coppola was given near - complete control over production. In his commentary, he said this resulted in a shoot that ran very smoothly despite multiple locations and two narratives running parallel within one film.
Production nearly ended before it began when Pacino 's lawyers told Coppola that he had grave misgivings with the script and was not coming. Coppola spent an entire night rewriting it before giving it to Pacino for his review. Pacino approved and the production went forward.
Coppola discusses his decision to make this the first major motion picture to use "Part II '' in its title in the director 's commentary on the DVD edition of the film released in 2002. Paramount was initially opposed because they believed the audience would not be interested in an addition to a story they had already seen. But the director prevailed, and the film 's success began the common practice of numbered sequels.
Only three weeks prior to the release, film critics and journalists pronounced Part II a disaster. The cross-cutting between Vito and Michael 's parallel stories were judged too frequent, not allowing enough time to leave a lasting impression on the audience. Coppola and the editors returned to the cutting room to change the film 's narrative structure, but could not complete the work in time, leaving the final scenes poorly timed at the opening.
Initial critical reception of The Godfather Part II was divided, with some dismissing the work and others declaring it superior to the first film. While its cinematography and acting were immediately acclaimed, many criticized it as overly slow - paced and convoluted. Vincent Canby viewed the film as "stitched together from leftover parts. It talks. It moves in fits and starts but it has no mind of its own. (...) The plot defies any rational synopsis. '' Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic accused the story of featuring "gaps and distentions (sic). '' A mildly positive Roger Ebert wrote that the flashbacks "give Coppola the greatest difficulty in maintaining his pace and narrative force. The story of Michael, told chronologically and without the other material, would have had really substantial impact, but Coppola prevents our complete involvement by breaking the tension. '' Though praising Pacino 's performance and lauding Coppola as "a master of mood, atmosphere, and period '', Ebert considered the chronological shifts of its narrative "a structural weakness from which the film never recovers ''.
The film quickly became the subject of a critical reevaluation. Whether considered separately or with its predecessor as one work, The Godfather Part II is now widely regarded as one of the greatest films in world cinema. Many critics compare it favorably with the original -- although it is rarely ranked higher on lists of "greatest '' films. Roger Ebert retrospectively awarded it a full four stars in a second review and inducted the film into his Great Movies section, praising the work as "grippingly written, directed with confidence and artistry, photographed by Gordon Willis (...) in rich, warm tones. '' Michael Sragow 's conclusion in his 2002 essay, selected for the National Film Registry web site, is that "(a) lthough "The Godfather '' and "The Godfather Part II '' depict an American family 's moral defeat, as a mammoth, pioneering work of art it remains a national creative triumph. ''
The Godfather Part II:
Many believe Pacino 's performance in The Godfather Part II is his finest acting work, and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences was criticized for awarding the Academy Award for Best Actor that year to Art Carney for his role in Harry and Tonto. It is now regarded as one of the greatest performances in film history. In 2006, Premiere issued its list of "The 100 Greatest Performances of all Time '', putting Pacino 's performance at # 20. Later in 2009, Total Film issued "The 150 Greatest Performances of All Time '', ranking Pacino 's performance fourth place.
The Godfather Part II did not surpass the original film commercially, but in North America it grossed $47.5 million on a $13 million budget. It was Paramount Pictures ' highest - grossing film of 1974 and was the fifth - highest - grossing picture in North America that year.
Coppola created The Godfather Saga expressly for American television in a 1975 release that combined The Godfather and The Godfather Part II with unused footage from those two films in a chronological telling that toned down the violent, sexual, and profane material for its NBC debut on November 18, 1977. In 1981, Paramount released the Godfather Epic boxed set, which also told the story of the first two films in chronological order, again with additional scenes, but not redacted for broadcast sensibilities. Coppola returned to the film again in 1992 when he updated that release with footage from The Godfather Part III and more unreleased material. This home viewing release, under the title The Godfather Trilogy 1901 -- 1980, had a total run time of 583 minutes (9 hours, 43 minutes), not including the set 's bonus documentary by Jeff Werner on the making of the films, "The Godfather Family: A Look Inside ''.
The Godfather DVD Collection was released on October 9, 2001 in a package that contained all three films -- each with a commentary track by Coppola -- and a bonus disc that featured a 73 - minute documentary from 1991 entitled The Godfather Family: A Look Inside and other miscellany about the film: the additional scenes originally contained in The Godfather Saga; Francis Coppola 's Notebook (a look inside a notebook the director kept with him at all times during the production of the film); rehearsal footage; a promotional featurette from 1971; and video segments on Gordon Willis 's cinematography, Nino Rota 's and Carmine Coppola 's music, the director, the locations and Mario Puzo 's screenplays. The DVD also held a Corleone family tree, a "Godfather '' timeline, and footage of the Academy Award acceptance speeches.
The restoration was confirmed by Francis Ford Coppola during a question - and - answer session for The Godfather Part III, when he said that he had just seen the new transfer and it was "terrific ''.
After a careful restoration of the first two movies, The Godfather movies were released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on September 23, 2008, under the title The Godfather: The Coppola Restoration. The work was done by Robert A. Harris of Film Preserve. The Blu - ray Disc box set (four discs) includes high - definition extra features on the restoration and film. They are included on Disc 5 of the DVD box set (five discs).
Other extras are ported over from Paramount 's 2001 DVD release. There are slight differences between the repurposed extras on the DVD and Blu - ray Disc sets, with the HD box having more content.
This film was the first sequel to have won the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Godfather and The Godfather Part II remain the only original / sequel combination both to win Best Picture. Along with The Lord of the Rings, The Godfather Trilogy shares the distinction that all of its installments were nominated for Best Picture.
The video game based on the film was released in April 2009 by Electronic Arts.
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the substrate specificity of serine proteases is primarily due to | Serine protease - wikipedia
Serine proteases (or serine endopeptidases) are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins, in which serine serves as the nucleophilic amino acid at the (enzyme 's) active site. They are found ubiquitously in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Serine proteases fall into two broad categories based on their structure: chymotrypsin - like (trypsin - like) or subtilisin - like. In humans, they are responsible for coordinating various physiological functions, including digestion, immune response, blood coagulation and reproduction.
The MEROPS protease classification system counts 16 superfamilies (as of 2013) each containing many families. Each superfamily uses the catalytic triad or dyad in a different protein fold and so represent convergent evolution of the catalytic mechanism. The majority belong to the S1 family of the PA clan (superfamily) of proteases.
For superfamilies, P = superfamily, containing a mixture of nucleophile class families, S = purely serine proteases. superfamily. Within each superfamily, families are designated by their catalytic nucleophile, (S = serine proteases).
Families of Serine proteases
Serine proteases are characterised by a distinctive structure, consisting of two beta - barrel domains that converge at the catalytic active site. These enzymes can be further categorised based on their substrate specificity as either trypsin - like, chymotrypsin - like or elastase - like.
Trypsin - like proteases cleave peptide bonds following a positively charged amino acid (lysine or arginine). This specificity is driven by the residue which lies at the base of the enzyme 's S1 pocket (generally a negatively charged aspartic acid or glutamic acid).
The S1 pocket of chymotrypsin - like enzymes is more hydrophobic than in trypsin - like proteases. This results in a specificity for medium to large sized hydrophobic residues, such as tyrosine, phenylalanine and tryptophan.
These include thrombin, tissue activating plasminogen and plasmin. They have been found to have roles in coagulation and digestion as well as in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer 's and Parkinson 's induced dementia.
Elastase - like proteases have a much smaller S1 cleft than either trypsin - or chymotrypsin - like proteases. Consequently, residues such as alanine, glycine and valine tend to be preferred.
Subtilisin is a serine protease in prokaryotes. Subtilisin is evolutionarily unrelated to the chymotrypsin - clan, but shares the same catalytic mechanism utilising a catalytic triad, to create a nucleophilic serine. This is the classic example used to illustrate convergent evolution, since the same mechanism evolved twice independently during evolution.
The main player in the catalytic mechanism in the serine proteases is the catalytic triad. The triad is located in the active site of the enzyme, where catalysis occurs, and is preserved in all superfamilies of serine protease enzymes. The triad is a coordinated structure consisting of three amino acids: His 57, Ser 195 (hence the name "serine protease '') and Asp 102. These three key amino acids each play an essential role in the cleaving ability of the proteases. While the amino acid members of the triad are located far from one another on the sequence of the protein, due to folding, they will be very close to one another in the heart of the enzyme. The particular geometry of the triad members are highly characteristic to their specific function: it was shown that the position of just four points of the triad characterize the function of the containing enzyme.
In the event of catalysis, an ordered mechanism occurs in which several intermediates are generated. The catalysis of the peptide cleavage can be seen as a ping - pong catalysis, in which a substrate binds (in this case, the polypeptide being cleaved), a product is released (the N - terminus "half '' of the peptide), another substrate binds (in this case, water), and another product is released (the C - terminus "half '' of the peptide).
Each amino acid in the triad performs a specific task in this process:
The whole reaction can be summarized as follows:
It was discovered that additional amino acids of the protease, Gly 193 and Ser 195, are involved in creating what is called an oxyanion hole. Both Gly 193 and Ser 195 can donate backbone hydrogens for hydrogen bonding. When the tetrahedral intermediate of step 1 and step 3 are generated, the negative oxygen ion, having accepted the electrons from the carbonyl double bond fits perfectly into the oxyanion hole. In effect, serine proteases preferentially bind the transition state and the overall structure is favored, lowering the activation energy of the reaction. This "preferential binding '' is responsible for much of the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme.
Host organisms must ensure that the activity of serine proteases is adequately regulated. This is achieved by a requirement for initial protease activation, and the secretion of inhibitors.
Zymogens are the usually inactive precursors of an enzyme. If the digestive enzymes were active when synthesized, they would immediately start chewing up the synthesizing organs and tissues. Acute pancreatitis is such a condition, in which there is premature activation of the digestive enzymes in the pancreas, resulting in self - digestion (autolysis). It also complicates postmortem investigations, as the pancreas often digests itself before it can be assessed visually.
Zymogens are large, inactive structures, which have the ability to break apart or change into the smaller activated enzymes. The difference between zymogens and the activated enzymes lies in the fact that the active site for catalysis of the zymogens is distorted. As a result, the substrate polypeptide can not bind effectively, and proteolysis does not occur. Only after activation, during which the conformation and structure of the zymogen change and the active site is opened, can proteolysis occur.
As can be seen, trypsinogen activation to trypsin is essential, because it activates its own reaction, as well as the reaction of both chymotrypsin and elastase. Therefore, it is essential that this activation does not occur prematurely. There are several protective measures taken by the organism to prevent self - digestion:
There are certain inhibitors that resemble the tetrahedral intermediate, and thus fill up the active site, preventing the enzyme from working properly. Trypsin, a powerful digestive enzyme, is generated in the pancreas. Inhibitors prevent self - digestion of the pancreas itself.
Serine proteases are paired with serine protease inhibitors, which turn off their activity when they are no longer needed.
Serine proteases are inhibited by a diverse group of inhibitors, including synthetic chemical inhibitors for research or therapeutic purposes, and also natural proteinaceous inhibitors. One family of natural inhibitors called "serpins '' (abbreviated from serine protease inhibitors) can form a covalent bond with the serine protease, inhibiting its function. The best - studied serpins are antithrombin and alpha 1 - antitrypsin, studied for their role in coagulation / thrombosis and emphysema / A1AT, respectively. Artificial irreversible small molecule inhibitors include AEBSF and PMSF.
A family of arthropod serine peptidase inhibitors, called pacifastin, has been identified in locusts and crayfish, and may function in the arthropod immune system.
Mutations may lead to decreased or increased activity of enzymes. This may have different consequences, depending on the normal function of the serine protease. For example, mutations in protein C can lead to protein C deficiency and predisposing to thrombosis.
Determination of serine protease levels may be useful in the context of particular diseases.
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i have seen the enemy and the enemy is me | Pogo (comic strip) - wikipedia
Pogo is the title and central character of a long - running daily American comic strip, created by cartoonist Walt Kelly (1913 -- 1973) and distributed by the Post-Hall Syndicate. Set in the Okefenokee Swamp of the southeastern United States, the strip often engaged in social and political satire through the adventures of its anthropomorphic funny animal characters.
Pogo combined both sophisticated wit and slapstick physical comedy in a heady mix of allegory, Irish poetry, literary whimsy, puns and wordplay, lushly detailed artwork and broad burlesque humor. The same series of strips can be enjoyed on different levels by both young children and savvy adults. The strip earned Kelly a Reuben Award in 1951.
Walter Crawford Kelly, Jr. was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on August 25, 1913. His family moved to Bridgeport, Connecticut, when he was only two. He went to California at age 22 to work on Donald Duck cartoons at Walt Disney Studios in 1935. He stayed until the animators ' strike in 1941 as an animator on The Nifty Nineties, The Little Whirlwind, Pinocchio, Fantasia, Dumbo and The Reluctant Dragon. Kelly then worked for Dell Comics, a division of Western Publishing of Racine, Wisconsin.
Kelly created the characters of Pogo the possum and Albert the alligator in 1941 for issue # 1 of Dell 's Animal Comics, in the story "Albert Takes the Cake ''. Both were comic foils for a young black character named Bumbazine (a corruption of bombazine, a fabric that was usually dyed black and used largely for mourning wear), who lived in the swamp. Bumbazine was retired early, since Kelly found it hard to write for a human child. He eventually phased humans out of the comics entirely, preferring to use the animal characters for their comic potential. Kelly said he used animals -- nature 's creatures, or "nature 's screechers '' as he called them -- "largely because you can do more with animals. They do n't hurt as easily, and it 's possible to make them more believable in an exaggerated pose. '' Pogo, formerly a "spear carrier '' according to Kelly, quickly took center stage, assuming the straight man role that Bumbazine had occupied.
In his 1954 autobiography for the Hall Syndicate, Kelly said he "fooled around with the Foreign Language Unit of the Army during World War II, illustrating grunts and groans, and made friends in the newspaper and publishing business. '' In 1948 he was hired to draw political cartoons for the editorial page of the short - lived New York Star; he decided to do a daily comic strip featuring the characters from Animal Comics. The first comic series to make the permanent transition to newspapers, Pogo debuted on October 4, 1948, and ran continuously until the paper folded on January 28, 1949.
On May 16, 1949, Pogo was picked up for national distribution by the Post-Hall Syndicate. George Ward and Henry Shikuma were among Kelly 's assistants on the strip. It ran continuously until (and past) Kelly 's death from complications of diabetes on October 18, 1973. According to Walt Kelly 's widow Selby Kelly, Walt Kelly fell ill in 1972 and was unable to continue the strip. At first, reprints, mostly with minor rewording in the word balloons, from the 1950s and 1960s were used, starting Sunday, June 4, 1972. Kelly returned for just eight Sunday pages, October 8, 1972 to November 26, 1972, but according to Selby was unable to draw the characters as large as he customarily did. The reprints with minor rewording returned, continuing until Kelly 's death. Other artists, notably Don Morgan, worked on the strip. Selby Kelly began to draw the strip with the Christmas strip from 1973, from scripts by Walt 's son Stephen. The strip ended July 20, 1975. Selby Kelly said in a 1982 interview that she decided to discontinue the strip because newspapers had shrunk the size of strips to the point where people could not easily read it.
In January 1989, the Los Angeles Times Syndicate revived the strip under the title Walt Kelly 's Pogo, written at first by Larry Doyle and Neal Sternecky, then by Sternecky alone. After Sternecky, who drew the panels, quit in March 1992, Kelly 's son Peter and daughter Carolyn continued to produce the strip, but interest waned and the revived strip was brought to an end in November 1993.
Kelly 's characters are a sardonic reflection of human nature -- venal, greedy, confrontational, selfish and stupid -- but portrayed good - naturedly and rendered harmless by their own bumbling ineptitude and overall innocence. Most characters were nominally male, but a few female characters also appeared regularly. Kelly has been quoted as saying that all the characters reflected different aspects of his own personality. Kelly 's characters were also self - aware of their comic strip surroundings. He frequently had them leaning up against or striking matches on the panel borders, breaking the fourth wall, or making tongue - in - cheek, "inside '' comments about the nature of comic strips in general.
It 's difficult to compile a definitive list of every character that appeared in Pogo over the strip 's 27 years, but the best estimates put the total cast at well over 1,000. Kelly created characters as he needed them, and discarded them after they served their purpose. Occasionally he reintroduced characters under different names (such as Mole or Curtis) and other inconsistencies, reflecting the fluid quality of the strip. Kelly continually tinkered with his creation to suit either his whims or the current storyline. Even though most characters have full names, some are more often referred to only by their species. For example, Howland Owl is almost always called "Owl '' or "ol ' Owl, '' Beauregard is often called "Houn ' Dog, '' Churchy LaFemme is sometimes called "Turtle '' or "Turkle '' (see Dialogue and "swamp - speak ''), etc. The following list is necessarily incomplete, but should serve as a rough beginner 's guide:
Pogo is set in the Georgia section of the Okefenokee Swamp; Fort Mudge and Waycross are occasionally mentioned.
The characters live, for the most part, in hollow trees amidst lushly rendered backdrops of North American wetlands, bayous, lagoons and backwoods. Fictitious local landmarks -- such as "Miggle 's General Store and Emporium '' (a.k.a. "Miggle 's Miracle Mart '') and the "Fort Mudge Memorial Dump, '' etc. -- are occasionally featured. The memorial dump was destroyed in an inferno caused by Owl 's disastrous attempt to launch a rocket ship, in the strips from April 27, 1990 to May 18, 1990, and was under reconstruction when the strip terminated. The landscape is fluid and vividly detailed, with a dense variety of (often caricatured) flora and fauna. The richly textured trees and marshlands frequently change from panel to panel within the same strip. Like the Coconino County depicted in Krazy Kat and the Dogpatch of Li'l Abner, the distinctive cartoon landscape of Kelly 's Okefenokee Swamp became as strongly identified with the strip as any of its characters.
Early in the strip, human artifacts have appeared: a hi - tension wire pylon, a boxcar and such.
There are occasional forays into exotic locations as well, including at least two visits to Australia (during the Melbourne Olympics in 1956, and again in 1961). The Aussie natives include a bandicoot, a lady wallaby, and a mustachioed, aviator kangaroo named "Basher ''. In 1967, Pogo, Albert and Churchy visit primeval "Pandemonia '' -- a vivid, "prehysterical '' place of Kelly 's imagination, complete with mythical beasts (including dragons and a zebra - striped unicorn), primitive humans, arks, volcanoes, saber - toothed cats, pterodactyls and dinosaurs.
Kelly also frequently parodied Mother Goose stories featuring the characters in period costume: "Cinderola, '' "Goldie Lox and the Fore - bears, '' "Handle and Gristle, '' etc. These offbeat sequences, usually presented as a staged play or a story within a story related by one of the characters, seem to take place in the fairy tale dreamscapes of children 's literature, with European storybook - style cottages and forests, etc. -- rather than in the swamp, per se.
The strip was notable for its distinctive and whimsical use of language. Kelly, a native northeasterner, had a sharply perceptive ear for language and used it to great humorous effect. The predominant vernacular in Pogo, sometimes referred to as "swamp - speak, '' is essentially a rural southern U.S. dialect laced with nonstop malapropisms, fractured grammar, "creative '' spelling and mangled polysyllables such as "incredibobble '' and "hysteriwockle, '' plus invented words such as the exasperated exclamations "Bazz Fazz!, '' "Rowrbazzle! '' and "Moomph! '' The resulting dialect is difficult to characterize, but the following fragment of dialogue may convey the general flavor:
Pogo has been engaged in his favorite pastime, fishing in the swamp from a flat - bottomed boat, and has hooked a small catfish. "Ha! '' he exclaims, "A small fry! '' At this point Hoss - Head the Champeen Catfish, bigger than Pogo himself, rears out of the swamp and the following dialogue ensues:
Kelly was an accomplished poet, and frequently added pages of original comic verse to his Pogo reprint books, complete with cartoon illustrations. The odd song parody or nonsense poem also occasionally appeared in the newspaper strip. In 1956, Kelly published Songs of the Pogo, an illustrated collection of his original songs, with lyrics by Kelly and music by Kelly and Norman Monath. The tunes were also issued on a vinyl LP, with Kelly himself contributing to the vocals.
Traditional Christmas carols were a regular feature of Kelly 's holiday strips as well -- particularly Deck the Halls. They are enthusiastically performed by the swamp 's rotating "Okefenokee Glee and Perloo Union '' Choir (perloo is a pilaf - based Cajun stew, similar to jambalaya), although in their childish innocence the chorus typically mangles the lyrics. (Churchy once sang a version of Good King Wenceslas that went: "Good King Sauerkraut look out / On his feets uneven / Beware the snoo lay ' round about / All kerchoo achievin '... '')
Kelly used Pogo to comment on the human condition, and from time to time, this drifted into politics. Pogo was a reluctant "candidate '' for President (although he never campaigned) in 1952 and 1956. (The phrase "I Go Pogo, '' originally a parody of Dwight D. Eisenhower 's iconic campaign slogan "I Like Ike, '' appeared on giveaway promotional lapel pins featuring Pogo, and was also used by Kelly as a book title.) A 1952 campaign rally at Harvard degenerated into chaos sufficient to be officially termed a riot, and police responded. The Pogo Riot was a significant event for the class of ' 52; for its 25th reunion, Pogo was the official mascot. In 1960 the swamp 's nominal candidate was an egg with two protruding webbed feet -- a comment on the relative youth of John F. Kennedy. The egg kept saying: "Well, I 've got time to learn; we rabbits have to stick together. ''
Kelly, who claimed to be against "the extreme Right, the extreme Left, and the extreme Middle, '' used these fake campaigns as excuses to hit the stump himself for voter registration campaigns, with the slogan "Pogo says: If you ca n't vote my way, vote anyway, but VOTE! ''
Perhaps the most famous example of the strip 's satirical edge came into being on May 1, 1953, when Kelly introduced a friend of Mole 's: a wildcat named "Simple J. Malarkey, '' an obvious caricature of Senator Joseph McCarthy. This showed significant courage on Kelly 's part, considering the influence the politician wielded at the time and the possibility of scaring away subscribing newspapers.
When The Providence Bulletin issued an ultimatum in 1954, threatening to drop the strip if Malarkey 's face appeared in the strip again, Kelly had Malarkey throw a bag over his head as Miss "Sis '' Boombah (a Rhode Island Red hen) approached, explaining "no one from Providence should see me! '' Kelly thought Malarkey 's new look was especially appropriate because the bag over his head resembled a Klansman 's hood. (Kelly later attacked the Klan directly, in a comic nightmare parable called "The Kluck Klams, '' included in The Pogo Poop Book, 1966.)
Malarkey appeared in the strip only once after that sequence ended, during Kelly 's tenure, on October 15, 1955. Again his face was covered, this time by his speech balloons as he stood on a soapbox shouting to general uninterest. Kelly had planned to defy the threats made by the Bulletin and show Malarkey 's face, but decided it was more fun to see how many people recognized the character and the man he lampooned by speech patterns alone. When Kelly got letters of complaint about kicking the senator when he was down (McCarthy had been censured by that time, and had lost most of his influence), Kelly responded, "They identified him, I did n't. ''
Malarkey reappeared on April 1, 1989 when the strip had been resurrected by Larry Doyle and Neal Sternecky. It was hinted that he was a ghost.
In the early 1960s, Kelly took on the ultra-conservative John Birch Society with a series of strips dedicated to Mole and Deacon 's efforts to weed out Anti-Americanism (as they saw it) in the swamp, which led them to form "The Jack Acid Society. '' ("Named after Mr. Acid? '' "Well, it was n't named before him. '') The reference is to John Birch, who was killed 13 years before the creation (in 1958) of the organization that bears his name. The Jack Acids (the name is an obvious pun on "jackasses '') modeled themselves on the only "real Americans '': Indians. Everyone the Jack Acids suspected of not being a true American was put on their blacklist, until eventually everyone but Mole himself was blacklisted. The strips were collected by themselves (with some original verse and text pieces) in The Jack Acid Society Black Book.
As the 1960s loomed, even foreign "gummint '' figures found themselves caricatured in the pages of Pogo, including communist leaders Fidel Castro, who appeared as an agitator goat named Fido, and Nikita Khrushchev, who emerged as both an unnamed Russian bear and a pig. Other Soviet characters include a pair of cosmonaut seals who arrive at the swamp in 1961 via Sputnik, initiating a topical spoof of the Space Race. An obtuse feline reporter from Newslife magazine named Typo, who resembled both Barry Goldwater and Nelson Rockefeller, arrived on the scene in 1966. He was often accompanied by a chicken photographer named Hypo, wearing a jaunty fedora with a Press tag in the hat band, and carrying a box camera with an extremely droopy accordion bellows.
By the time the 1968 presidential campaign rolled around, it seemed the entire swamp was populated by P. T. Bridgeport 's "wind - up candidates, '' including representations of George Romney, Richard Nixon, Hubert Humphrey, Robert F. Kennedy and George Wallace as wind - up toys. Wallace also appeared as The Prince of Pompadoodle, a puffed - up, diminutive rooster chick. Eugene McCarthy was a white knight tied backwards on his horse, spouting poetry. Retiring President Lyndon B. Johnson was portrayed as a befuddled, long - horned steer wearing cowboy boots. (Earlier, in the offbeat "Pandemonia '' sequence, LBJ had been cast as a prairie centaur named The Loan Arranger, whose low - hung Stetson covered his eyes like a mask.) When the material from this period was collected in Equal Time for Pogo, the publisher wanted to edit out the strips featuring Robert Kennedy 's doppelgänger, but Kelly insisted on keeping them in, to pay honor to the slain candidate.
In the early 1970s, Kelly used a collection of characters he called "the Bulldogs '' to mock the secrecy and perceived paranoia of the Nixon administration. The Bulldogs included caricatures of J. Edgar Hoover (dressed in an overcoat and fedora, and directing a covert bureau of identical frog operatives), Spiro Agnew (portrayed as an unnamed hyena festooned in ornate military regalia), and John Mitchell (portrayed as a pipe - smoking eaglet wearing high - top sneakers.) Always referred to, but never seen, was The Chief, who we are led to believe was Richard Nixon. Nixon eventually made his appearance as a reclusive, teapot - shaped spider named Sam.
The hyena character would sometimes change into Nixon for a while, then back into Agnew; at the end of the character 's run, Churchy wondered, ' How many of him was there? '. The hyena was dressed in the ornate uniform when President Nixon introduced a fancy new dress uniform for the White House guards. Its appearance in the strip was marked by comments such as ' You look like a wet refugee from a third - rate road company. ' and ' Stand back! It 's blinding! You 're the head cheese in a non-existent blintz republic, right? '. In real life, public ridicule led to the abandonment of the uniform a short time later.
J. Edgar Hoover apparently read more into the strip than was there. According to documents obtained from the Federal Bureau of Investigation under the Freedom of Information Act, Hoover had suspected Kelly of sending some form of coded messages via the nonsense poetry and Southern accents he peppered the strip with. He reportedly went so far as to have government cryptographers attempt to "decipher '' the strip. (reference not reliable)
When the strip was revived in 1989, Doyle and Sternecky attempted to recreate this tradition with a GOP Elephant that looked like Ronald Reagan, and a jackalope resembling George H.W. Bush. Saddam Hussein was portrayed as a snake, and then Vice-President Dan Quayle was depicted as an egg, which eventually hatched into a roadrunner - type chick that made the sound "Veep! Veep! ''
Kelly 's use of satire and politics often drew fire from those he was criticizing and their supporters. Due to complaints, a number of papers censored or dropped the strip altogether, while others moved it to the editorial page.
When he started a controversial storyline, Kelly usually created alternate, deliberately innocuous daily strips that papers could opt to run instead of the political ones for a given week. They are sometimes labeled "Special, '' or with a letter after the date, to denote that they were alternate offerings. Kelly referred to these strips as "bunny strips, '' because more often than not he populated the alternate strips with the least offensive material he could imagine -- fluffy little bunnies telling safe, insipid jokes. Nevertheless, many of the bunny strips are subtle reworkings of the theme of the replaced strip. As if to drive home Kelly 's point, some papers published both versions. Kelly told fans that if all they saw in Pogo were fluffy little bunnies, then their newspaper did n't believe they were capable of thinking for themselves, or did n't want them to. The bunny strips were usually not reproduced when Pogo strips were collected into book form. However, a few alternate strips were reprinted in Equal Time for Pogo and the 1982 collection, The Best of Pogo.
Probably the most famous Pogo quotation is "We have met the enemy and he is us. '' Perhaps more than any other words written by Kelly, it perfectly sums up his attitude towards the foibles of mankind and the nature of the human condition.
The quote was a parody of a message sent in 1813 from U.S. Navy Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry to Army General William Henry Harrison after his victory in the Battle of Lake Erie, stating, "We have met the enemy, and they are ours. '' It first appeared in a lengthier form in "A Word to the Fore '', the foreword of the book The Pogo Papers, first published in 1953. Since the strips reprinted in Papers included the first appearances of Mole and Simple J. Malarkey, beginning Kelly 's attacks on McCarthyism, Kelly used the foreword to defend his actions:
Traces of nobility, gentleness and courage persist in all people, do what we will to stamp out the trend. So, too, do those characteristics which are ugly. It is just unfortunate that in the clumsy hands of a cartoonist all traits become ridiculous, leading to a certain amount of self - conscious expostulation and the desire to join battle. There is no need to sally forth, for it remains true that those things which make us human are, curiously enough, always close at hand. Resolve then, that on this very ground, with small flags waving and tinny blasts on tiny trumpets, we shall meet the enemy, and not only may he be ours, he may be us. Forward!
The finalized version of the quotation appeared in a 1970 anti-pollution poster for Earth Day and was repeated a year later in the daily strip. The slogan also served as the title for the last Pogo collection released before Kelly 's death in 1973, and of an environmentally themed animated short on which Kelly had started work, but did not finish due to ill health.
In 1998, OGPI (Okefenokee Glee & Perloo Incorporated, the corporation formed by the Kelly family to administer all things Pogo) dedicated a plaque in Waycross, Georgia, commemorating the quote.
Perhaps the second best - known Walt Kelly quotation is one of Porky Pine 's philosophical observations: "Do n't take life so serious, son. It ai n't nohow permanent. '' Kelly 's widow Selby re-used the line as a tribute, in a poignant daily strip that ran on Christmas Day, 1973 -- two months after Kelly 's death.
Walt Kelly frequently had his characters poling around the swamp in a flat - bottomed skiff. Invariably, it had a name on the side that was a personal reference of Kelly 's: the name of a friend, a political figure, a fellow cartoonist, or the name of a newspaper, its editor or publisher. The name changed from one day to the next, and even from panel to panel in the same strip, but it was usually a tribute to a real - life person Kelly wished to salute in print.
Long before I could grasp the satirical significance of his stuff, I was enchanted by Kelly 's magnificent artwork... We 'll never see anything like Pogo again in the funnies, I 'm afraid.
A good many of us used hoopla and hype to sell our wares, but Kelly did n't need that. It seemed he simply emerged, was there, and was recognized for what he was, a true natural genius of comic art... Hell, he could draw a tree that would send God and Joyce Kilmer back to the drawing board.
The creator and series have received a great deal of recognition over the years. Walt Kelly has been compared to everyone from James Joyce and Lewis Carroll, to Aesop and Joel Chandler Harris (Uncle Remus). His skills as a humorous illustrator of animals has been celebrated alongside those of John Tenniel, A.B. Frost, T.S. Sullivant, Heinrich Kley and Lawson Wood. In his essay "The Decline of the Comics '' (Canadian Forum, January 1954), literary critic Hugh MacLean classified American comic strips into four types: daily gag, adventure, soap opera and "an almost lost comic ideal: the disinterested comment on life 's pattern and meaning. '' In the fourth type, according to MacLean, there were only two: Pogo and Li'l Abner. When the first Pogo collection was published in 1951, Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas declared that "nothing comparable has happened in the history of the comic strip since George Herriman 's Krazy Kat. ''
"Carl Sandburg said that many comics were too sad, but, ' I Go Pogo. ' Francis Taylor, Director of the Metropolitan Museum, said before the Herald Tribune Forum: ' Pogo has not yet supplanted Shakespeare or the King James Version of the Bible in our schools. ' '' Kelly was elected president of the National Cartoonists Society in 1954, serving until 1956. He was the first strip cartoonist invited to contribute originals to the Library of Congress.
Walt Kelly 's work has influenced a number of prominent comic artists:
At its peak, Walt Kelly 's possum appeared in nearly 500 newspapers in 14 countries. Pogo 's exploits were collected into more than four dozen books, which collectively sold close to 30 million copies. Pogo already had had a successful life in comic books, previous to syndication. The increased visibility of the newspaper strip and popular trade paperback titles allowed Kelly 's characters to branch into other media, such as television, children 's records, and even a theatrical film.
In addition, Walt Kelly appeared as himself on television at least twice. He was interviewed live by Edward R. Murrow for the CBS program Person to Person, in an episode originally broadcast on January 14, 1954. Kelly can also be seen briefly in the 1970 NBC special This Is Al Capp talking candidly about his friend, the creator of Li'l Abner.
All comic book titles are published by Dell Publishing Company, unless otherwise noted:
Three animated cartoons were created to date based on Pogo:
The Birthday Special and I Go Pogo were released on home video throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Birthday Special was released on VHS by MGM / UA Home Video in 1986 and they alongside with Turner Entertainment released it on VHS again on August 1, 1992.
I Go Pogo was handled by Fotomat for its original VHS and Betamax release in September 1980. HBO premiered a re-cut version of the film in October 1982, with added narration by Len Maxwell; this version would continue to air on HBO for some time, and then on other cable movie stations like Cinemax, TMC, and Showtime, until around February 1991. Walt Disney Home Video released a similar cut of the film in 1984, with some deleted scenes added / restored. This version of the film was released on VHS again on December 4, 1989, by Walt Disney Home Video and United American Video to the "sell through '' home video market.
As of March 17, 2016, there 's still no word of Warner Bros. and Turner Entertainment planning to release Birthday Special on DVD. That special (along with I Go Pogo) have never officially been made available on DVD. Selby Kelly had been selling specially packaged DVDs of We Have Met the Enemy and He Is Us prior to her death, but it is unknown whether or not further copies will be available.
Pogo also branched out from the comic pages into consumer products -- including TV sponsor tie - ins to the Birthday Special -- although not nearly to the degree of other contemporary comic strips, such as Peanuts. Selby Kelly has attributed the comparative paucity of licensed material to Kelly 's pickiness about the quality of merchandise attached to his characters.
All titles are by Walt Kelly:
All titles are by Walt Kelly unless otherwise noted:
In February 2007, Fantagraphics Books announced the publication of a projected 12 - volume hardcover series collecting the complete chronological run of daily and full - color Sunday syndicated Pogo strips. The first volume was originally scheduled to appear in October 2007, but difficulties in obtaining and restoring early source material delayed its publication until November 2011.
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where did the term bull market come from | Wall Street - wikipedia
Wall Street is an eight - block - long street running roughly northwest to southeast from Broadway to South Street, at the East River, in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. Over time, the term has become a metonym for the financial markets of the United States as a whole, the American financial services industry (even if financial firms are not physically located there), or New York - based financial interests.
Anchored by Wall Street, New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world, and the city is home to the world 's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization, the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ. Several other major exchanges have or had headquarters in the Wall Street area, including the New York Mercantile Exchange, the New York Board of Trade, and the former American Stock Exchange.
There are varying accounts about how the Dutch - named "de Waalstraat '' got its name. A generally accepted version is that the name of the street was derived from a wall (actually a wooden palisade) on the northern boundary of the New Amsterdam settlement, built to protect against Native Americans, pirates, and the British. A conflicting explanation is that Wall Street was named after Walloons -- the Dutch name for a Walloon is Waal. Among the first settlers that embarked on the ship "Nieu Nederlandt '' in 1624 were 30 Walloon families. While the Dutch word "wal '' can be translated as "rampart '', it only appeared as "de Walstraat '' on English maps of New Amsterdam. However, even some English maps show the name as Waal Straat, and not as Wal Straat.
According to one version of the story:
The red people from Manhattan Island crossed to the mainland, where a treaty was made with the Dutch, and the place was therefore called the Pipe of Peace, in their language, Hoboken. But soon after that, the Dutch governor, Kieft, sent his men out there one night and massacred the entire population. Few of them escaped, but they spread the story of what had been done, and this did much to antagonize all the remaining tribes against all the white settlers. Shortly after, Nieuw Amsterdam erected a double palisade for defense against its now enraged red neighbors, and this remained for some time the northern limit of the Dutch city. The space between the former walls is now called Wall Street, and its spirit is still that of a bulwark against the people.
In the 1640s basic picket and plank fences denoted plots and residences in the colony. Later, on behalf of the Dutch West India Company, Peter Stuyvesant, using both African slaves and white colonists, collaborated with the city government in the construction of a more substantial fortification, a strengthened 12 - foot (4 m) wall. In 1685, surveyors laid out Wall Street along the lines of the original stockade. The wall started at Pearl Street, which was the shoreline at that time, crossing the Indian path Broadway and ending at the other shoreline (today 's Trinity Place), where it took a turn south and ran along the shore until it ended at the old fort. In these early days, local merchants and traders would gather at disparate spots to buy and sell shares and bonds, and over time divided themselves into two classes -- auctioneers and dealers. Wall Street was also the marketplace where owners could hire out their slaves by the day or week. The rampart was removed in 1699 and a new City Hall built at Wall and Nassau in 1700.
Slavery was introduced to Manhattan in 1626, but it was not until December 13, 1711, that the New York City Common Council made Wall Street the city 's first official slave market for the sale and rental of enslaved Africans and Indians. The slave market operated from 1711 to 1762 at the corner of Wall and Pearl Streets. It was a wooden structure with a roof and open sides, although walls may have been added over the years and could hold approximately 50 men. The city directly benefited from the sale of slaves by implementing taxes on every person who was bought and sold there.
In the late 18th century there was a buttonwood tree at the foot of Wall Street under which traders and speculators would gather to trade securities. The benefit was being in proximity to each other. In 1792, traders formalized their association with the Buttonwood Agreement which was the origin of the New York Stock Exchange. The idea of the agreement was to make the market more "structured '' and "without the manipulative auctions '', with a commission structure. Persons signing the agreement agreed to charge each other a standard commission rate; persons not signing could still participate but would be charged a higher commission for dealing.
In 1789 Wall Street was the scene of the United States ' first presidential inauguration when George Washington took the oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall on April 30, 1789. This was also the location of the passing of the Bill Of Rights. Alexander Hamilton, who was the first Treasury secretary and "architect of the early United States financial system, '' is buried in the cemetery of Trinity Church, as is Robert Fulton famed for his steamboats.
In the first few decades, both residences and businesses occupied the area, but increasingly business predominated. "There are old stories of people 's houses being surrounded by the clamor of business and trade and the owners complaining that they ca n't get anything done, '' according to a historian named Burrows. The opening of the Erie Canal in the early 19th century meant a huge boom in business for New York City, since it was the only major eastern seaport which had direct access by inland waterways to ports on the Great Lakes. Wall Street became the "money capital of America ''.
Historian Charles R. Geisst suggested that there has constantly been a "tug - of - war '' between business interests on Wall Street and authorities in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States by then. Generally during the 19th century Wall Street developed its own "unique personality and institutions '' with little outside interference.
In the 1840s and 1850s most residents moved further uptown to Midtown Manhattan because of the increased business use at the lower tip of the island. The Civil War had the effect of causing the northern economy to boom, bringing greater prosperity to cities like New York which "came into its own as the nation 's banking center '' connecting "Old World capital and New World ambition '', according to one account. J.P. Morgan created giant trusts; John D. Rockefeller 's Standard Oil moved to New York. Between 1860 and 1920, the economy changed from "agricultural to industrial to financial '' and New York maintained its leadership position despite these changes, according to historian Thomas Kessner. New York was second only to London as the world 's financial capital.
In 1884 Charles H. Dow began tracking stocks, initially beginning with 11 stocks, mostly railroads, and looked at average prices for these eleven. When the average "peaks and troughs '' went up consistently, he deemed it a bull market condition; if averages dropped, it was a bear market. He added up prices, and divided by the number of stocks to get his Dow Jones average. Dow 's numbers were a "convenient benchmark '' for analyzing the market and became an accepted way to look at the entire stock market. In 1889 the original stock report, Customers ' Afternoon Letter, became The Wall Street Journal. Named in reference to the actual street, it became an influential international daily business newspaper published in New York City. After October 7, 1896, it began publishing Dow 's expanded list of stocks. A century later, there were 30 stocks in the average.
Business writer John Brooks in his book Once in Golconda considered the start of the 20th century period to have been Wall Street 's heyday. The address of 23 Wall Street, the headquarters of J.P. Morgan & Company, known as The Corner, was "the precise center, geographical as well as metaphorical, of financial America and even of the financial world ''.
Wall Street has had changing relationships with government authorities. In 1913, for example, when authorities proposed a $4 stock transfer tax, stock clerks protested. At other times, city and state officials have taken steps through tax incentives to encourage financial firms to continue to do business in the city.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the corporate culture of New York was a primary center for the construction of skyscrapers, and was rivaled only by Chicago on the American continent. There were also residential sections, such as the Bowling Green section between Broadway and the Hudson River, and between Vesey Street and the Battery. The Bowling Green area was described as "Wall Street 's back yard '' with poor people, high infant mortality rates, and the "worst housing conditions in the city ''. As a result of the construction, looking at New York City from the east, one can see two distinct clumps of tall buildings -- the financial district on the left, and the taller midtown district on the right. The geology of Manhattan is well - suited for tall buildings, with a solid mass of bedrock underneath Manhattan providing a firm foundation for tall buildings. Skyscrapers are expensive to build, but when there is a "short supply of land '' in a "desirable location '', then building upwards makes sound financial sense. A post office was built at 60 Wall Street in 1905. During the World War I years, occasionally there were fund - raising efforts for projects such as the National Guard.
On September 16, 1920, close to the corner of Wall and Broad Street, the busiest corner of the financial district and across the offices of the Morgan Bank, a powerful bomb exploded. It killed 38 and seriously injured 143 people. The perpetrators were never identified or apprehended. The explosion did, however, help fuel the Red Scare that was underway at the time. A report from The New York Times:
The tomb - like silence that settles over Wall Street and lower Broadway with the coming of night and the suspension of business was entirely changed last night as hundreds of men worked under the glare of searchlights to repair the damage to skyscrapers that were lighted up from top to bottom... The Assay Office, nearest the point of explosion, naturally suffered the most. The front was pierced in fifty places where the cast iron slugs, which were of the material used for window weights, were thrown against it. Each slug penetrated the stone an inch or two and chipped off pieces ranging from three inches to a foot in diameter. The ornamental iron grill work protecting each window was broken or shattered... the Assay Office was a wreck... It was as though some gigantic force had overturned the building and then placed it upright again, leaving the framework uninjured but scrambling everything inside. -- 1920
The area was subjected to numerous threats; one bomb threat in 1921 led to detectives sealing off the area to "prevent a repetition of the Wall Street bomb explosion ''.
September 1929 was the peak of the market. October 3, 1929 was when the market started to slip, and it continued throughout the week of the 14th. In October 1929, renowned Yale economist Irving Fisher reassured worried investors that their "money was safe '' on Wall Street. A few days later, on October 24, stock values plummeted. The stock market crash of 1929 ushered in the Great Depression in which a quarter of working people were unemployed, with soup kitchens, mass foreclosures of farms, and falling prices. During this era, development of the financial district stagnated, and Wall Street "paid a heavy price '' and "became something of a backwater in American life ''.
During the New Deal years as well as the 1940s, there was much less focus on Wall Street and finance. The government clamped down on the practice of buying equities based only on credit, but these policies began to ease. From 1946 to 1947, stocks could not be purchased "on margin '', meaning that an investor had to pay 100 % of a stock 's cost without taking on any loans. But this margin requirement was reduced four times before 1960, each time stimulating a mini-rally and boosting volume, and when the Federal Reserve reduced the margin requirements from 90 % to 70 %. These changes made it somewhat easier for investors to buy stocks on credit. The growing national economy and prosperity led to a recovery during the 1960s, with some down years during the early 1970s in the aftermath of the Vietnam War. Trading volumes climbed; in 1967, according to Time Magazine, volume hit 7.5 million shares a day which caused a "traffic jam '' of paper with "batteries of clerks '' working overtime to "clear transactions and update customer accounts ''.
In 1973 the financial community posted a collective loss of $245 million, which spurred temporary help from the government. Reforms were instituted; the SEC eliminated fixed commissions, which forced "brokers to compete freely with one another for investors ' business ''. In 1975 the Securities & Exchange Commission threw out the NYSE 's "Rule 394 '' which had required that "most stock transactions take place on the Big Board 's floor '', in effect freeing up trading for electronic methods. In 1976, banks were allowed to buy and sell stocks, which provided more competition for stockbrokers. Reforms had the effect of lowering prices overall, making it easier for more people to participate in the stock market. Broker commissions for each stock sale lessened, but volume increased.
The Reagan years were marked by a renewed push for capitalism and business, with national efforts to de-regulate industries such as telecommunications and aviation. The economy resumed upward growth after a period in the early 1980s of languishing. A report in The New York Times described that the flushness of money and growth during these years had spawned a drug culture of sorts, with a rampant acceptance of cocaine use although the overall percent of actual users was most likely small. A reporter wrote:
The Wall Street drug dealer looked like many other successful young female executives. Stylishly dressed and wearing designer sunglasses, she sat in her 1983 Chevrolet Camaro in a no - parking zone across the street from the Marine Midland Bank branch on lower Broadway. The customer in the passenger seat looked like a successful young businessman. But as the dealer slipped him a heat - sealed plastic envelope of cocaine and he passed her cash, the transaction was being watched through the sunroof of her car by Federal drug agents in a nearby building. And the customer -- an undercover agent himself - was learning the ways, the wiles and the conventions of Wall Street 's drug subculture. -- Peter Kerr in The New York Times, 1987.
In 1987 the stock market plunged and, in the relatively brief recession following, lower Manhattan lost 100,000 jobs according to one estimate. Since telecommunications costs were coming down, banks and brokerage firms could move away from Wall Street to more affordable locations. The recession of 1990 -- 91 was marked by office vacancy rates downtown which were "persistently high '' and with some buildings "standing empty ''. The day of the stock market drop, October 20, was marked by "stony - faced traders whose sense of humor had abandoned them and in the exhaustion of stock exchange employees struggling to maintain orderly trading ''. Ironically, it was the same year that Oliver Stone 's movie Wall Street appeared. In 1995, city authorities offered the Lower Manhattan Revitalization Plan which offered incentives to convert commercial properties to residential use.
Construction of the World Trade Center began in 1966 but had trouble attracting tenants when completed. Nonetheless, some substantial firms purchased space there. Its impressive height helped make it a visual landmark for drivers and pedestrians. In some respects, the nexus of the financial district moved from the street of Wall Street to the Trade Center complex. Real estate growth during the latter part of the 1990s was significant, with deals and new projects happening in the financial district and elsewhere in Manhattan; one firm invested more than $24 billion in various projects, many in the Wall Street area. In 1998, the NYSE and the city struck a $900 million deal which kept the NYSE from moving across the river to Jersey City; the deal was described as the "largest in city history to prevent a corporation from leaving town ''. A competitor to the NYSE, NASDAQ, moved its headquarters from Washington to New York.
In 2001 the Big Board, as some termed the NYSE, was described as the world 's "largest and most prestigious stock market ''. But when the World Trade Center was destroyed on September 11, 2001, it left an architectural void as new developments since the 1970s had played off the complex aesthetically. The attacks "crippled '' the communications network. One estimate was that 45 % of Wall Street 's "best office space '' had been lost. The physical destruction was immense:
Debris littered some streets of the financial district. National Guard members in camouflage uniforms manned checkpoints. Abandoned coffee carts, glazed with dust from the collapse of the World Trade Center, lay on their sides across sidewalks. Most subway stations were closed, most lights were still off, most telephones did not work, and only a handful of people walked in the narrow canyons of Wall Street yesterday morning. -- Leslie Eaton and Kirk Johnson of The New York Times, September 16, 2001.
Still, the NYSE was determined to re-open on September 17, almost a week after the attack. During this time Rockefeller Group Business Center opened additional offices at 48 Wall Street. The attack hastened a trend towards financial firms moving to midtown and contributed to the loss of business on Wall Street, due to temporary - to - permanent relocation to New Jersey and further decentralization with establishments transferred to cities like Chicago, Denver, and Boston.
After September 11, the financial services industry went through a downturn with a sizable drop in year - end bonuses of $6.5 billion, according to one estimate from a state comptroller 's office. Many brokers are paid mostly through commission, and get a token annual salary which is dwarfed by the year - end bonus.
To guard against a vehicular bombing in the area, authorities built concrete barriers, and found ways over time to make them more aesthetically appealing by spending $5000 to $8000 apiece on bollards:
To prevent a vehicle - delivered bomb from entering the area, Rogers Marvel designed a new kind of bollard, a faceted piece of sculpture whose broad, slanting surfaces offer people a place to sit in contrast to the typical bollard, which is supremely unsittable. The bollard, which is called the Nogo, looks a bit like one of Frank Gehry 's unorthodox culture palaces, but it is hardly insensitive to its surroundings. Its bronze surfaces actually echo the grand doorways of Wall Street 's temples of commerce. Pedestrians easily slip through groups of them as they make their way onto Wall Street from the area around historic Trinity Church. Cars, however, can not pass. -- Blair Kamin in the Chicago Tribune, 2006
Wall Street itself and the Financial District as a whole are crowded with highrises. Further, the loss of the World Trade Center has spurred development on a scale that had not been seen in decades. In 2006, Goldman Sachs began building a tower near the former Trade Center site. Tax incentives provided by federal, state and local governments encouraged development. A new World Trade Center complex centered on Daniel Libeskind 's Memory Foundations plan is under development, the centerpiece of which is the 1,776 - foot (541 m) tall One World Trade Center that opened in 2014. New residential buildings are sprouting up, and buildings that were previously office space are being converted to residential units, also benefiting from tax incentives. A new Fulton Center is planned to improve access. In 2007, the Maharishi Global Financial Capital of New York opened headquarters at 70 Broad Street near the NYSE, in an effort to seek investors.
The Guardian reporter Andrew Clark described the years of 2006 to 2010 as "tumultuous '' in which the heartland of America is "mired in gloom '' with high unemployment around 9.6 %, with average house prices falling from $230,000 in 2006 to $183,000, and foreboding increases in the national debt to $13.4 trillion, but that despite the setbacks, the American economy was once more "bouncing back ''. What had happened during these heady years? Clark wrote:
But the picture is too nuanced simply to dump all the responsibility on financiers. Most Wall Street banks did n't actually go around the US hawking dodgy mortgages; they bought and packaged loans from on - the - ground firms such as Countrywide Financial and New Century Financial, both of which hit a financial wall in the crisis. Foolishly and recklessly, the banks did n't look at these loans adequately, relying on flawed credit - rating agencies such as Standard & Poor 's and Moody 's, which blithely certified toxic mortgage - backed securities as solid... A few of those on Wall Street, including maverick hedge fund manager John Paulson and the top brass at Goldman Sachs, spotted what was going on and ruthlessly gambled on a crash. They made a fortune but turned into the crisis 's pantomime villains. Most, though, got burned -- the banks are still gradually running down portfolios of non-core loans worth $800 bn. -- The Guardian reporter Andrew Clark, 2010.
The first months of 2008 was a particularly troublesome period which caused Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke to "work holidays and weekends '' and which did an "extraordinary series of moves ''. It bolstered U.S. banks and allowed Wall Street firms to borrow "directly from the Fed ''. These efforts were highly controversial at the time, but from the perspective of 2010, it appeared the Federal exertions had been the right decisions. By 2010, Wall Street firms, in Clark 's view, were "getting back to their old selves as engine rooms of wealth, prosperity and excess ''. A report by Michael Stoler in The New York Sun described a "phoenix - like resurrection '' of the area, with residential, commercial, retail and hotels booming in the "third largest business district in the country ''. At the same time, the investment community was worried about proposed legal reforms, including the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act which dealt with matters such as credit card rates and lending requirements. The NYSE closed two of its trading floors in a move towards transforming itself into an electronic exchange. Beginning in September 2011, demonstrators disenchanted with the financial system protested in parks and plazas around Wall Street.
Wall Street investment banking fees in 2012 totaled approximately $40 billion, while senior bank officers managing risk and compliance functions earned as much as $324,000 annually in New York City in 2013.
On October 29, 2012, -- ironically, the 83rd anniversary of "Black Tuesday, '' the culmination of the disastrous Wall Street Crash of 1929 -- Wall Street was disrupted when New York and New Jersey, an area not normally known as a hotbed of hurricane activity the way that areas much further south are, were blasted by Hurricane Sandy. Its 14 - foot - high storm surge, a local record, caused massive street flooding in many parts of Lower Manhattan. Power to the area was knocked out by a transformer explosion at a Con Edison plant. With mass transit in New York City already suspended as a precaution even before the storm hit, the New York Stock Exchange and other financial exchanges were closed for two days, re-opening on Oct. 31. It was the first weather - related closing for the NYSE since Hurricane Gloria in September 1985 and the first two - day weather - related shutdown since the Blizzard of 1888.
Wall Street 's architecture is generally rooted in the Gilded Age, though there are also some art deco influences in the neighborhood. The streets in the area were laid out prior to the Commissioners ' Plan of 1811, a grid plan that dictates the placement of most of Manhattan 's streets north of Houston Street. Thus, it has small streets "barely wide enough for a single lane of traffic are bordered on both sides by some of the tallest buildings in the city '', according to one description, which creates "breathtaking artificial canyons '' offering spectacular views in some instances. Construction in such narrow steep areas has resulted in occasional accidents such as a crane collapse. One report divided lower Manhattan into three basic districts:
Landmark buildings on Wall Street include Federal Hall National Memorial, 14 Wall Street (Bankers Trust Company Building), 40 Wall Street (The Trump Building), 55 Wall Street (the former world headquarters of Citicorp), the New York Stock Exchange at the corner of Broad Street and the US headquarters of Deutsche Bank at 60 Wall Street. The Deutsche Bank building (formerly the J.P. Morgan headquarters) makes Deutsche Bank the last remaining major investment bank to have its headquarters on Wall Street.
The older skyscrapers often were built with elaborate facade, which have not been common in corporate architecture for decades; the nearby World Trade Center, built in the 1970s, was very plain and utilitarian in comparison. Excavation from the World Trade Center was later used as landfill for Battery Park City residential developments. 23 Wall Street, built in 1914, was known as the "House of Morgan '' and served for decades as the bank 's headquarters and, by some accounts, was viewed as an important address in American finance. Cosmetic damage from the 1920 Wall Street bombing is still visible on the Wall Street side of this building.
A key anchor for the area is the New York Stock Exchange. City authorities realize its importance, and believed that it has "outgrown its neoclassical temple at the corner of Wall and Broad streets '', and in 1998 offered substantial tax incentives to try to keep it in the financial district. Plans to rebuild it were delayed by the events of 2001. In 2011 the exchange still occupies the same site. The exchange is the locus for an impressive amount of technology and data. For example, to accommodate the three thousand persons who work directly on the Exchange floor requires 3,500 kilowatts of electricity, along with 8,000 phone circuits on the trading floor alone, and 200 miles of fiber - optic cable below ground.
During most of the 20th century, Wall Street was a business community with practically only offices which emptied out at night. A report in The New York Times in 1961 described a "deathlike stillness that settles on the district after 5: 30 and all day Saturday and Sunday ''. But there has been a change towards greater residential use of the area, pushed forwards by technological changes and shifting market conditions. The general pattern is for several hundred thousand workers to commute into the area during the day, sometimes by sharing a taxicab from other parts of the city as well as from New Jersey and Long Island, and then leave at night. In 1970 only 833 people lived "south of Chambers Street ''; by 1990, 13,782 people were residents with the addition of areas such as Battery Park City and Southbridge Towers. Battery Park City was built on 92 acres of landfill, and 3,000 people moved there beginning about 1982, but by 1986 there was evidence of more shops and stores and a park, along with plans for more residential development.
According to one description in 1996, "The area dies at night... It needs a neighborhood, a community. '' During the past two decades there has been a shift towards greater residential living areas in the Wall Street area, with incentives from city authorities in some instances. Many empty office buildings have been converted to lofts and apartments; for example, the office building of Harry Sinclair, the oil magnate involved with the Teapot Dome scandal, was converted to a co-op in 1979. In 1996, a fifth of buildings and warehouses were empty, and many were converted to living areas. Some conversions met with problems, such as aging gargoyles on building exteriors having to be expensively restored to meet with current building codes. Residents in the area have sought to have a supermarket, a movie theater, a pharmacy, more schools, and a "good diner ''. The discount retailer named Job Lot used to be located at the World Trade Center but moved to Church Street; merchants bought extra unsold items at steep prices and sold them as a discount to consumers, and shoppers included "thrifty homemakers and browsing retirees '' who "rubbed elbows with City Hall workers and Wall Street executives ''; but the firm went bust in 1993.
There were reports that the number of residents increased by 60 % during the 1990s to about 25,000 although a second estimate (based on the 2000 census based on a different map) places the residential (nighttime and weekend) population in 2000 at 12,042. By 2001 there were several grocery stores, dry cleaners, and two grade schools and a top high school. There is a barber shop across from the New York Stock Exchange which has been there a long time. By 2001 there were more signs of dogwalkers at night and a 24 - hour neighborhood, although the general pattern of crowds during the working hours and emptiness at night was still apparent. There were ten hotels and thirteen museums by 2001. Stuyvesant High School moved to its present location near Battery Park City in 1992 and has been described as one of the nation 's premier high schools with emphasis on science and mathematics. In 2007 the French fashion retailer Hermès opened a store in the financial district to sell items such as a "$4,700 custom - made leather dressage saddle or a $47,000 limited edition alligator briefcase ''. Some streets have been designated as pedestrian -- only with vehicular traffic prohibited at some times. There are reports of panhandlers like elsewhere in the city. By 2010 the residential population had increased to 24,400 residents with crime statistics showing no murders in 2010. The area is growing with luxury high - end apartments and upscale retailers.
Wall Street is a major location of tourism in New York City. One report described lower Manhattan as "swarming with camera - carrying tourists ''. Tour guides highlight places such as Trinity Church, the Federal Reserve gold vaults 80 feet below street level (worth $100 billion), and the NYSE. A Scoundrels of Wall Street Tour is a walking historical tour which includes a museum visit and discussion of various financiers "who were adept at finding ways around finance laws or loopholes through them ''. Occasionally artists make impromptu performances; for example, in 2010, a troupe of 22 dancers "contort their bodies and cram themselves into the nooks and crannies of the Financial District in Bodies in Urban Spaces '' choreographed by Willi Donner. One chief attraction, the Federal Reserve Building in lower Manhattan, paid $750,000 to open a visitors ' gallery in 1997. The New York Stock Exchange and the American Stock Exchange also spent money in the late 1990s to upgrade facilities for visitors. Attractions include the gold vault beneath the Federal Reserve and that "staring down at the trading floor was as exciting as going to the Statue of Liberty ''.
Finance professor Charles R. Geisst wrote that the exchange has become "inextricably intertwined into New York 's economy ''. Wall Street pay, in terms of salaries and bonuses and taxes, is an important part of the economy of New York City, the tri-state metropolitan area, and the United States. In 2008, after a downturn in the stock market, the decline meant $18 billion less in taxable income, with less money available for "apartments, furniture, cars, clothing and services ''. A falloff in Wall Street 's economy could have "wrenching effects on the local and regional economies ''.
Estimates vary about the number and quality of financial jobs in the city. One estimate was that Wall Street firms employed close to 200,000 persons in 2008. Another estimate was that in 2007, the financial services industry which had a $70 billion profit became 22 percent of the city 's revenue. Another estimate (in 2006) was that the financial services industry makes up 9 % of the city 's work force and 31 % of the tax base. An additional estimate (2007) from Steve Malanga of the Manhattan Institute was that the securities industry accounts for 4.7 percent of the jobs in New York City but 20.7 percent of its wages, and he estimated there were 175,000 securities - industries jobs in New York (both Wall Street area and midtown) paying an average of $350,000 annually. Between 1995 and 2005, the sector grew at an annual rate of about 6.6 % annually, a respectable rate, but that other financial centers were growing faster. Another estimate (2008) was that Wall Street provided a fourth of all personal income earned in the city, and 10 % of New York City 's tax revenue. The city 's securities industry, enumerating 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine, accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of private sector jobs in New York City, 8.5 percent (US $3.8 billion) of the city 's tax revenue, and 22 percent of the city 's total wages, including an average salary of US $360,700.
The seven largest Wall Street firms in the 2000s were Bear Stearns, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup Incorporated, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Merrill Lynch and Lehman Brothers. During the recession of 2008 -- 10, many of these firms, including Lehman, went out of business or were bought up at firesale prices by other financial firms. In 2008, Lehman filed for bankruptcy, Bear Stearns was bought by JP Morgan Chase forced by the U.S. government, and Merrill Lynch was bought by Bank of America in a similar shot - gun wedding. These failures marked a catastrophic downsizing of Wall Street as the financial industry goes through restructuring and change. Since New York 's financial industry provides almost one - fourth of all income produced in the city, and accounts for 10 % of the city 's tax revenues and 20 % of the state 's, the downturn has had huge repercussions for government treasuries. New York 's mayor Michael Bloomberg reportedly over a four - year period dangled over $100 million in tax incentives to persuade Goldman Sachs to build a 43 - story headquarters in the financial district near the destroyed World Trade Center site. In 2009, things looked somewhat gloomy, with one analysis by the Boston Consulting Group suggesting that 65,000 jobs had been permanently lost because of the downturn. But there were signs that Manhattan property prices were rebounding with price rises of 9 % annually in 2010, and bonuses were being paid once more, with average bonuses over $124,000 in 2010.
A requirement of the New York Stock Exchange was that brokerage firms had to have offices "clustered around Wall Street '' so clerks could deliver physical paper copies of stock certificates each week. There were some indications that midtown had been becoming the locus of financial services dealings even by 1911. But as technology progressed, in the middle and later decades of the 20th century, computers and telecommunications replaced paper notifications, meaning that the close proximity requirement could be bypassed in more situations. Many financial firms found that they could move to midtown Manhattan four miles away or elsewhere and still operate effectively. For example, the former investment firm of Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette was described as a Wall Street firm but had its headquarters on Park Avenue in midtown. A report described the migration from Wall Street:
The financial industry has been slowly migrating from its historic home in the warren of streets around Wall Street to the more spacious and glamorous office towers of Midtown Manhattan. Morgan Stanley, J.P. Morgan Chase, Citigroup, and Bear Stearns have all moved north.
Nevertheless, a key magnet for the Wall Street remains the New York Stock Exchange. Some "old guard '' firms such as Goldman Sachs and Merrill Lynch (bought by Bank of America in 2009), have remained "fiercely loyal to the financial district '' location, and new ones such as Deutsche Bank have chosen office space in the district. So - called "face - to - face '' trading between buyers and sellers remains a "cornerstone '' of the NYSE, with a benefit of having all of a deal 's players close at hand, including investment bankers, lawyers, and accountants.
In 2011, the Manhattan Financial District is one of the largest business districts in the United States, and second in New York City only to Midtown in terms of dollar volume of business transacted.
After Wall Street firms started to expand westward in the 1980s to New Jersey, the direct economic impacts of Wall Street activities have gone beyond New York City. The employment in the financial services industry mostly in the "back office '' roles has become an important part of New Jersey economy. In 2009, the Wall Street employment wages were paid in the amount of almost $18.5 billion in the state. The industry contributed $39.4 billion or 8.4 percent to the New Jersey 's gross domestic product in the same year.
The most significant area with Wall Street employment is in Jersey City. In 2008, the "Wall Street West '' employment contributed to one third of the private sector jobs in Jersey City. Within the Financial Service cluster, there were three major sectors: more than 60 percent were in the securities industry; 20 percent were in banking; and 8 percent in insurance.
Additionally, New Jersey has become the main technology infrastructure to support the Wall Street operations. A substantial amount of securities traded in the United States are executed in New Jersey as the data centers of electronic trading in the U.S. equity market for all major stock exchanges are located in North and Central Jersey. A significant amount of securities clearing and settlement workforce is also in the state. This includes the majority of the workforce of Depository Trust Company, the primary U.S. securities depository; and the Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation, the parent company of National Securities Clearing Corporation, the Fixed Income Clearing Corporation and Emerging Markets Clearing Corporation.
Having a direct tie to Wall Street employment is problematic for New Jersey, however. The state lost 7.9 percent of its employment base from 2007 to 2010 in the financial services sector in the fallout of the subprime mortgage crisis.
Of the street 's importance as a financial center, New York Times analyst Daniel Gross wrote:
In today 's burgeoning and increasingly integrated global financial markets -- a vast, neural spaghetti of wires, Web sites and trading platforms -- the N.Y.S.E. is clearly no longer the epicenter. Nor is New York. The largest mutual - fund complexes are in Valley Forge, Pa., Los Angeles and Boston, while trading and money management are spreading globally. Since the end of the cold war, vast pools of capital have been forming overseas, in the Swiss bank accounts of Russian oligarchs, in the Shanghai vaults of Chinese manufacturing magnates and in the coffers of funds controlled by governments in Singapore, Russia, Dubai, Qatar and Saudi Arabia that may amount to some $2.5 trillion. -- Daniel Gross in 2007
An example is the alternative trading platform known as BATS, based in Kansas City, which came "out of nowhere to gain a 9 percent share in the market for trading United States stocks ''. The firm has computers in the U.S. state of New Jersey, two salespersons in New York City, but the remaining 33 employees work in a center in Kansas.
Wall Street in a conceptual sense represents financial and economic power. To Americans, it can sometimes represent elitism and power politics, and its role has been a source of controversy throughout the nation 's history, particularly beginning around the Gilded Age period in the late 19th century. Wall Street became the symbol of a country and economic system that many Americans see as having developed through trade, capitalism, and innovation.
Wall Street has become synonymous with financial interests, often used negatively. During the subprime mortgage crisis from 2007 -- 10, Wall Street financing was blamed as one of the causes, although most commentators blame an interplay of factors. The U.S. government with the Troubled Asset Relief Program bailed out the banks and financial backers with billions of taxpayer dollars, but the bailout was often criticized as politically motivated, and was criticized by journalists as well as the public. Analyst Robert Kuttner in the Huffington Post criticized the bailout as helping large Wall Street firms such as Citigroup while neglecting to help smaller community development banks such as Chicago 's ShoreBank. One writer in the Huffington Post looked at FBI statistics on robbery, fraud, and crime and concluded that Wall Street was the "most dangerous neighborhood in the United States '' if one factored in the $50 billion fraud perpetrated by Bernie Madoff.
When large firms such as Enron, WorldCom and Global Crossing were found guilty of fraud, Wall Street was often blamed, even though these firms had headquarters around the nation and not in Wall Street. Many complained that the resulting Sarbanes - Oxley legislation dampened the business climate with regulations that were "overly burdensome ''. Interest groups seeking favor with Washington lawmakers, such as car dealers, have often sought to portray their interests as allied with Main Street rather than Wall Street, although analyst Peter Overby on National Public Radio suggested that car dealers have written over $250 billion in consumer loans and have real ties with Wall Street.
When the United States Treasury bailed out large financial firms, to ostensibly halt a downward spiral in the nation 's economy, there was tremendous negative political fallout, particularly when reports came out that monies supposed to be used to ease credit restrictions were being used to pay bonuses to highly paid employees. Analyst William D. Cohan argued that it was "obscene '' how Wall Street reaped "massive profits and bonuses in 2009 '' after being saved by "trillions of dollars of American taxpayers ' treasure '' despite Wall Street 's "greed and irresponsible risk - taking ''. Washington Post reporter Suzanne McGee called for Wall Street to make a sort of public apology to the nation, and expressed dismay that people such as Goldman Sachs chief executive Lloyd Blankfein had n't expressed contrition despite being sued by the SEC in 2009. McGee wrote that "Bankers are n't the sole culprits, but their too - glib denials of responsibility and the occasional vague and waffling expression of regret do n't go far enough to deflect anger. ''
But chief banking analyst at Goldman Sachs, Richard Ramsden, is "unapologetic '' and sees "banks as the dynamos that power the rest of the economy ''. Ramsden believes "risk - taking is vital '' and said in 2010:
You can construct a banking system in which no bank will ever fail, in which there 's no leverage. But there would be a cost. There would be virtually no economic growth because there would be no credit creation. -- Richard Ramsden of Goldman Sachs, 2010.
Others in the financial industry believe they 've been unfairly castigated by the public and by politicians. For example, Anthony Scaramucci reportedly told President Barack Obama in 2010 that he felt like a piñata, "whacked with a stick '' by "hostile politicians ''.
The financial misdeeds of various figures throughout American history sometimes casts a dark shadow on financial investing as a whole, and include names such as William Duer, Jim Fisk and Jay Gould (the latter two believed to have been involved with an effort to collapse the U.S. gold market in 1869) as well as modern figures such as Bernard Madoff who "bilked billions from investors ''.
In addition, images of Wall Street and its figures have loomed large. The 1987 Oliver Stone film Wall Street created the iconic figure of Gordon Gekko who used the phrase "greed is good '', which caught on in the cultural parlance. Stone commented in 2009 how the movie had had an unexpected cultural influence, not causing them to turn away from corporate greed, but causing many young people to choose Wall Street careers because of that movie. A reporter repeated other lines from the film: "I 'm talking about liquid. Rich enough to have your own jet. Rich enough not to waste time. Fifty, a hundred million dollars, Buddy. A player. ''
Wall Street firms have however also contributed to projects such as Habitat for Humanity as well as done food programs in Haiti and trauma centers in Sudan and rescue boats during floods in Bangladesh.
As a figure of speech contrasted to "Main Street '', the term "Wall Street '' can refer to big business interests against those of small business and the working or middle classes. It is sometimes used more specifically to refer to research analysts, shareholders, and financial institutions such as investment banks. Whereas "Main Street '' conjures up images of locally owned businesses and banks, the phrase "Wall Street '' is commonly used interchangeably with the phrase "Corporate America ''. It is also sometimes used in contrast to distinguish between the interests, culture, and lifestyles of investment banks and those of Fortune 500 industrial or service corporations.
According to the discipline of anthropology, the term culture represents the customs, values, morals, laws and rituals which a particular group or society shares. In the public imagination, Wall Street represents economics and finance. However, although Wall Street employees may exhibit greedy and self - interested behaviours to the public, these behaviours are justified through their own value system and social practices. Various anthropologists have conducted research on Wall Street and it is their research which can confirm the negative views of Wall Street while providing the public with information that can contribute to a better understanding of how Wall Street workers perceive themselves. Anthropologist Karen Ho, who has conducted ethnographic research on Wall Street, states in Situating Global Capitalisms that the markets are beginning to self - regulate themselves in terms of neoliberalism. Through the perception of the public, financial investors take on a role that has already been established for them. It is both appropriate and fitting to call Wall Street a culture because of the system of values and practices it holds onto. Moreover, anthropological insight can help improve the general public 's understanding of Wall Street and in turn allow the public to appreciate the culture of Wall Street which is both logical and sensible to the workers themselves.
Professor Katarina Sjöberg argues in The Wall Street Culture that within the media negative images of Wall Street are painted in terms of the district 's market falls, money losses and deceitful gains. However, this is not what Wall Street investors are bothered by. Instead, it is the public 's words and opinions which they feel mold their image. Sjöberg notes that in the American culture, money making is of utmost importance and knowing how to make money is considered to be respectable. Therefore, Wall Street investors prioritize their work as well as strive to climb the corporate ladder. They also feel obligated to maintain the image the public creates, because it strengthens their position as a Wall Street employee. They value seeing themselves as experts in their field, especially since they live in a society that values wealth. This justifies their acts of greed, and allows them to take part in activities often deemed as criminal because they feel as though it is expected. Moreover, they do not regret their actions because to them, it is part of being an American. Aside from living up to the public 's image, Wall Street workers justify their high salaries with an argument pointed out by Karen Ho in Disciplining Investment Bankers, Disciplining the Economy: Wall Street 's Institutional Culture of Crisis, the Downsizing of Corporate America. She argues that due to the fact that the financial market is volatile in conjunction with the existence of job insecurity, Wall Street workers are compensated through their salaries.
In Situating Global Capitalisms: A View from Wall Street Investment Bankers by Karen Ho, she interviews a banker who believes that working for Wall Street puts them at the top of the hierarchal ladder in society. The banker feels that everything goes through Wall Street, in terms of loans, investments, change or growth. From his point of view, Wall Street values are embedded in power. Similarly to Sjöberg 's article, The Wall Street Culture, she states that as she was entering the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) to conduct an interview, she was questioned by many employees regarding her purpose, how she gained access into their workplace without an appointment, and how she passed security. In their view, there is a "dividing line between ' us on the inside ' and ' those on the outside ' ''. These factors strengthen the power relations as well as establish a hierarchy between them as Wall Street employees, and the public.
Additionally, in Disciplining investment Bankers, Disciplining the Economy: Wall Street 's Institutional Culture of Crisis and the Downsizing of "Corporate America '', Karen Ho states that as we continue to learn more about Wall Street, we learn about each independent banker. As the banker brings their life experiences into the business, we can see the reasons for their actions. Each investor has a unique identity which contributes to the culture of Wall Street. Ideally, they live in the moment. However, job insecurity and the volatile nature of the market creates a constant state of fear within the investor. Therefore, they must organize themselves and follow a pattern to ensure security, profit and prosperity for the long run. Karen Ho wishes for us to see Wall Street through the lens of the everyday investor and banker, as well as understand the experiences and everyday situations that they must endure. Ho also believes that the individuals within the public can counteract the stereotypes and negativity that both the media and society associates with Wall Street by learning more about the personal experiences of the investors and their everyday lives. Similarly to regular wage earners, Wall Street employees are just trying to earn a day 's pay. Their work is sometimes undervalued, because the public does not see them in this manner. Thus, Wall Street can not be understood in black and white terms. One needs to understand that they have a value system which is not only logical to them, but also reflective of North America 's values of individual power, prestige, and social practices based on individualism. For example, throughout the 1940s and into the 1950s Manhattan was a "white - only '' community. Within that time period, there was a lot of racial segregation. The values of America and the social practices were not like they are today, so African Americans were not within the Wall Street community.
Many people associated with Wall Street have become famous; although in most cases their reputations are limited to members of the stock brokerage and banking communities, others have gained national and international fame. For some, their fame is due to skillful investment strategies, financing, reporting, legal or regulatory activities, while others are remembered for their notable failures or scandal.
With Wall Street being historically a commuter destination, a plethora of transportation infrastructure has been developed to serve it. Pier 11 at the foot of the street is a busy terminal for New York Waterway and other ferries.
The New York City Subway serves three stations under Wall Street:
Motor traffic, particularly during working hours, is often congested but driving late at night and on weekends can be easier. The roads are not arranged according to midtown 's distinctive rectangular grid pattern with staggered lights, but have small often one - lane roads with numerous stoplights and stop signs. The FDR Drive, East River Esplanade, and South Street run along the East River, and the Downtown Manhattan Heliport serves Wall Street.
Route map: Google
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kathakali dance from is associated with which state | Kathakali - wikipedia
Kathakali (Malayalam: കഥകളി) is one of the major forms of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play '' genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colorful make - up, costumes and facemasks that the traditionally male actor - dancers wear. Kathakali primarily developed as a Hindu performance art in the Malayalam - speaking southwestern region of India (Kerala). Katakali is similar to Mohiniyattam
Kathakali 's roots are unclear. The fully developed style of Kathakali originated around the 17th century, but its roots are in the temple and folk arts (such as Kutiyattam and religious drama of the southwestern Indian peninsula), which are traceable to at least the 1st millennium CE. A Kathakali performance, like all classical dance arts of India, synthesizes music, vocal performers, choreography and hand and facial gestures together to express ideas. However, Kathakali differs in that it also incorporates movements from ancient Indian martial arts and athletic traditions of South India. Kathakali also differs in that the structure and details of its art form developed in the courts and theatres of Hindu principalities, unlike other classical Indian dances which primarily developed in Hindu temples and monastic schools.
The traditional themes of the Kathakali are folk mythologies, religious legends and spiritual ideas from the Hindu epics and the Puranas. The vocal performance has traditionally been performed in Sanskritised Malayalam. In modern compositions, Indian Kathakali troupes have included women artists, as well as adapted Western stories and plays such as those by Shakespeare and from Christianity.
The term Kathakali is derived from Katha (Sanskrit: "कथा '') which means "story, or a conversation, or a traditional tale '', and Kali (from Kala, "कला '') which means "performance and art ''.
It is believed that Kathakali originated from Krishnanattam a dance form dedicated to Lord Krishna life and activities which was created by Zamorin of calicut Sri Manavedan Raja during 1585 - 1658 AD. Once Kottarakkara Thampuran, the Raja of Kottarakkara who was attracted by Krishnanattam requested the Zamorin for the loan of a troupe of performers. Due to the political rivalry between the two, Zamorin did not allow this. So Kottarakkara Thampuran created another art form called Ramanattam. King of erstwhile Vettathu kingdom introduced modifications to Ramanattam and renamed it as Kathakali. Later, king of Kottayam kingdom took measures to popularize the art form.
According to Phillip Zarrilli, elements and aspects of Kathakali can be found in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra. The Natya Shastra is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE.
The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. The text, states Natalia Lidova, describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (Shiva), the theory of rasa, of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures -- all of which are part of Indian classical dances including Kathakali. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient Hindu text, are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures.
The roots of Kathakali are unclear. Jones and Ryan state it is more than 500 years old. According to Phillip Zarrilli, Kathakali emerged as a distinct genre of performance art during the 16th and 17th centuries in a coastal population of south India that spoke Malayalam (now Kerala). The roots of Kathakali, states Mahinder Singh, are more ancient and some 1500 years old.
According to Farley Richmond and other scholars, Kathakali shares many elements such as costumes with ancient Indian performance arts such as Kutiyattam (classical Sanskrit drama) and medieval era Krishnanattam, even though a detailed examination shows differences. Kutiyattam, adds Richmond, is "one of the oldest continuously performed theatre forms in India, and it may well be the oldest surviving art form of the ancient world ''. Kutiyattam, traditionally, was performed in theatres specially designed and attached to Hindu temples, particularly dedicated to the Shiva and later to Krishna. The designs of these theatres usually matched the dimensions and architecture recommended as "ideal '' in the ancient Natya Shastra, and some of them could house 500 viewers.
Krishnanattam is the likely immediate precursor of Kathakali, states Zarrilli. Krishnanattam is dance - drama art form about the life and activities of Hindu god Krishna, that developed under the sponsorship of Sri Manavedan Raja, the ruler of Calicut (1585 - 1658 AD). The traditional legend states that Kottarakkara Thampuran (also known as Vira Kerala Varma) requested the services of a Krishnanattam troupe, but his request was denied. So Kottarakkara Thampuran created another art form based on Krishnanattam, called it Ramanattam because the early plays were based on the Hindu epic Ramayana, which over time diversified beyond Ramayana and became popular as ' Kathakali '.
Another related performance art is Ashtapadiyattom, a dance drama based on the Gita Govinda of the twelfth - century poet Jayadeva, told the story of Krishna embodied as a humble cowherd, his consort Radha, and three cow girls. Kathakali also incorporates several elements from other traditional and ritualistic art forms like Mudiyettu, Teyyam and Padayani besides folk arts such as Porattunatakam that shares ideas with the Tamil Terukkuthu tradition. The south Indian martial art of Kalarippayattu has also influenced Kathakali.
Despite the links, Kathakali is different from temple - driven arts such as "Krishnanattam '', Kutiyattam and others because unlike the older arts where the dancer - actor also had to be the vocal artist, Kathakali separated these roles allowing the dancer - actor to excel in and focus on choreography while the vocal artists focused on delivering their lines. Kathakali also expanded the performance repertoire, style and standardized the costume making it easier for the audience to understand the various performances and new plays.
Kathakali is structured around plays called Attakatha (literally, "enacted story ''), written in Sanskritized Malayalam. These plays are written in a particular format that helps identify the "action '' and the "dialogue '' parts of the performance. The Shloka part is the metrical verse, written in third person -- often entirely in Sanskrit - describing the action part of the choreography. The Pada part contains the dialogue part. These Attakatha texts grant considerable flexibility to the actors to improvise. Historically, all these plays were derived from Hindu texts such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana.
A Kathakali repertoire is an operatic performance where an ancient story is playfully dramatized. Traditionally, a Kathakali performance is long, starting at dusk and continuing through dawn, with interludes and breaks for the performers and audience. Some plays continued over several nights, starting at dusk everyday. Modern performances are shorter. The stage with seating typically in open grounds outside a temple, but in some places, special theatres called Kuttampalam built inside the temple compounds have been in use.
The stage is mostly bare, or with a few drama - related items. One item, called a Kalivilakku (kali meaning dance; vilakku meaning lamp), can be traced back to Kuttiyattam. In both traditions, the performance happens in the front of a huge Kalivilakku with its thick wick sunk in coconut oil, burning with a yellow light. Traditionally, before the advent of electricity, this special large lamp provided light during the night. As the play progressed, the actor - dancers would gather around this lamp so that audience could see what they are expressing.
The performance involves actor - dancers in the front, supported by musicians in the background stage on right (audience 's left) and with vocalists in the front of the stage (historically so they could be heard by the audience before the age of microphone and speakers). Typically, all roles are played by male actor - dancers, though in modern performances, women have been welcomed into the Kathakali tradition.
Of all classical Indian dances, Kathakali has the most elaborate costuming consisting of head dresses, face masks and vividly painted faces. It typically takes several evening hours to prepare a Kathakali troupe to get ready for a play. Costumes have made Kathakali 's popularity extend beyond adults, with children absorbed by the colors, makeup, light and sound of the performance.
The makeup follows an accepted code, that helps the audience easily identify the archetypical characters such as gods, goddesses, demons, demonesses, saints, animals and characters of a story. Seven basic makeup types are used in Kathakali, namely Pachcha (green), Pazhuppu (ripe), Kathi (knife), Kari, Thaadi, Minukku and Teppu. These vary with the styles and the predominant colours made from rice paste and vegetable colors that are applied on the face. Pachcha (green) with lips painted brilliant coral red portrays noble characters and sages such as Krishna, Vishnu, Rama, Shiva, Surya, Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Nala and philosopher - kings.
Tati (red) is the code for someone with an evil streak such as Ravana, Dushasana and Hiranyakashipu. Some characters have green face (representing heroic or excellences as a warrior) with red dots or lines on their cheeks or red colored mustache or red streaked beard (representing evil inner nature), while others have full face and beard colored red, the latter implying excessively evil characters. Kari (black) is the code for forest dwellers, hunters, and middle ground character. Demonesses and treacherous characters are also painted black but with streaks or patches of red.
Yellow is the code for monks, mendicants and women. Minukka (radiant, shining) with a warm yellow, orange or saffron typifies noble, virtuous feminine characters such as Sita, Panchali and Mohini. Men who act the roles of women also add a false top knot to their left and decorate it in a style common to the region. Vella Thadi (white beard) represents a divine being, someone with virtuous inner state and consciousness such as Hanuman. Teppu are for special characters found in Hindu mythologies, such as Garuda, Jatayu and Hamsa who act as messengers or carriers, but do not fit the other categories. Face masks and head gear is added to accentuate the inner nature of the characters. The garments colors have a similar community accepted code of silent communication.
The character types, states Zarrilli, reflect the Guṇa theory of personalities in the ancient Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. There are three Guṇas, according to this philosophy, that have always been and continue to be present in all things and beings in the world. These three Guṇas are sattva (goodness, constructive, harmonious, virtuous), rajas (passion, aimless action, dynamic, egoistic), and tamas (darkness, destructive, chaotic, viciousness). All of these three gunas (good, evil, active) are present in everyone and everything, it is the proportion that is different, according to Hindu worldview. The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, and the costumes and face coloring in Kathakali often combines the various color codes to give complexity and depth to the actor - dancers.
Like many classical Indian arts, Kathakali is choreography as much as it is acting. It is said to be one of the most difficult styles to execute on stage, with young artists preparing for their roles for several years before they get a chance to do it on stage. The actors speak a "sign language '', where the word part of the character 's dialogue are expressed through "hand signs (mudras) '', while emotions and mood is expressed through "facial and eye '' movements. In parallel, vocalists in the background sing rhythmically the play, matching the beats of the orchestra playing, thus unifying the ensemble into a resonant oneness.
Several ancient Sanskrit texts such as Natya Shastra and Hastha Lakshanadeepika discuss hand gestures or mudras. Kathakali follows the Hastha Lakshanadeepika most closely, unlike other classical dances of India.
There are 24 main mudras, and numerous more minor ones in Kathakali. There are nine facial expressions called Navarasas, which each actor masters through facial muscle control during his education, in order to express the emotional state of the character in the play. The theory behind the Navarasas is provided by classical Sanskrit texts such as Natya Shastra, but sometimes with different names, and these are found in other classical Indian dances as well. The nine Navarasas express nine Bhava (emotions) in Kathakali as follows: Sringara expresses Rati (love, pleasure, delight), Hasya expresses Hasa (comic, laugh, mocking), Karuna expresses Shoka (pathetic, sad), Raudra expresses Krodha (anger, fury), Vira expresses Utsaha (vigor, enthusiasm, heroic), Bhayanaka expresses Bhaya (fear, concern, worry), Bibhatsa expresses Jugupsa (disgust, repulsive), Adbhuta expresses Vismaya (wondrous, marvel, curious) and Shanta expresses Sama (peace, tranquility).
A Kathakali performance typically starts with artists tuning their instruments and warming up with beats, signaling to the arriving audience that the artists are getting ready and the preparations are on. The repertoire includes a series of performances. First comes the Totayam and Puruppatu performances, which are preliminary ' pure ' (abstract) dances that emphasize skill and pure motion. Totayam is performed behind a curtain and without all the costumes, while Puruppatu is performed without the curtain and in full costumes.
The expressive part of the performance, which constitutes the dance - drama, is split into four tyes: Kalasam (major and most common), Iratti (special, used with battles - related Cempata rhythm), Tonkaram (similar to Iratti but different music), and Nalamiratti (used for exits or link between the chapters of the play).
Entrance of characters onto the Kathakali stage can be varied. Many of these ways are not found in other major Indian classical dance traditions. Kathakali engages several methods: 1) direct without special effects or curtain; 2) through the audience, a method that engages the audience, led by torch bearers since Kathakali is typically a night performance; 3) tease and suspense called nokku or tirassila or tiranokku, where the character is slowly revealed by the use of a curtain. The "tease '' method is typically used for characters with hidden, dangerous intentions.
The play is in the form of verses that are metered and lyrical, sung by vocalists whose voice has been trained to various melodies (raga), music and synchronized with the dance - acting on the stage. The vocalists not only deliver the lines, but help set the context and express the inner state of the character by modulating their voice. For example, anger is expressed by the use of sharp high voice and pleading is expressed by the use of a tired tone.
Music is central to a Kathakali performance. It sets the mood and triggers emotions resonant with the nature of the scene. It also sets the rhythm to which the actor - dancers perform the choreography and scenes. Some major musical patterns, according to Clifford and Betty, that go with the moods and content of the scene are: Cempata (most common and default that applies to a range of moods, in battles and fights between good and evil, also to conclude a scene); Campa music (depict tension, dispute, disagreement between lovers or competing ideas); Pancari (for odious, preparatory such as sharpening a sword); Triputa (thought provoking, scenes involving sages and teachers); Atanta (scenes involving kings or divine beings); Muri Atanta musical style (for comic, light hearted, or fast moving scenes involving heroic or anger - driven activity).
Many musical instruments are used in Kathakali. Three major drums found are Maddalam (barrel shaped), Centa (cylindrical drum played with curved sticks) and Itaykka (Idakka, hourglass shaped drum with muted and melodious notes played when female characters perform).
Over five hundred Kathakali plays (Aattakatha) exist, most of which were written before the 20th century. Of these, about four dozen are most actively performed. These plays are sophisticated literary works, states Zarrilli, and only five authors have written more than two plays. The late 17th century Unnayi Variyar, in his short life, produced four plays which are traditionally considered the most expressive of the Kathakali playwrights. Typically, his four plays are performed on four nights, and they relate to the mythical Hindu love story of Nala and Damayanti. The Nala - Damanyanti story has roots in the texts of 1st millennium BCE, and is found in the Mahabharata, but the Kathakali play version develops the characters, their inner states, the emotions and their circumstances far more than the older texts.
A tradition Kathakali play typically consists of two interconnected parts, the third - person Shlokas and first - person Padams. The Shlokas are in Sanskrit and describe the action in the scene, while Padams are dialogues in Malayalam (Sanskritized) for the actors to interpret and play. A Padam consists of three parts: a Pallavi (refrain), Anupallavi (subrefrain) and Caranam (foot), all of which are set to one of the ancient Ragas (musical mode), based on the mood and context as outlined in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra. In historic practice of a play performance, each Padam was enacted twice by the actor while the vocalists sang the lines repeatedly as the actor - dancer played his role out.
The traditional plays were long, many written to be performed all night, some such as those based on the Ramayana and the Mahabharata written to be performed for many sequential nights. However, others such as the Prahlada Caritam have been composed so that they can be performed within four hours. Modern productions have extracted parts of these legendary plays, to be typically performed within 3 to 4 hours.
In modern days, Kathakali artists have been producing new plays based on not only traditional Hindu mythologies, but also European classics and Shakespeare 's plays. Recent productions have adapted stories from other cultures and mythologies, such as those of Christianity, Miguel de Cervantes, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and William Shakespeare.
Kathakali has lineages or distinctive schools of play interpretation and dance performance called Sampradayam. These developed in part because of the Gurukul system of its transmission from one generation to the next. By the 19th - century, many such styles were in vogue in Malayalam speaking communities of South India, of which two major styles have crystallized and survived into the modern age.
The Kidangoor style is one of the two, that developed in Travancore, and it is strongly influenced by Kutiyattam, while also drawing elements of Ramanattam and Kalladikkotan. It is traditionally attributed to Nalanunni, under the patronage of Utram Tirunal Maharaja (1815 - 1861).
The Kalluvayi style is second of the two, which developed in Palakkad (Olappamanna Mana) in central Kerala, and it is a synthesis of the older Kaplingadan and Kalladikkotan performance arts. It is traditionally attributed to Unniri Panikkar, in a Brahmin household (~ 1850), and became the dominant style established in Kerala Kalamandalam -- a school of performance arts.
Kathakali has traditionally been an art that has continued from one generation to the next through a guru - disciples (gurukkula) based training system. Artist families tended to pick promising talent from within their own extended families, sometimes from outside the family, and the new budding artist typically stayed with his guru as a student and treated like a member of the family. The guru provided both the theoretical and practical training to the student, and the disciple would accompany the guru to formal performances. In modern times, professional schools train students of Kathakali, with some such as those in Trivandrum Margi school emphasizing a single teacher for various courses, while others such as the Kerala Kalamandalam school wherein students learn subjects from different teachers. Kathakali schools are now found all over India, as well as in parts of the Western Europe and the United States.
A typical Kathakali training center auditions for students, examining health and physical fitness necessary for the aerobic and active stage performance, the body flexibility, sense of rhythm and an interview to gauge how sincere the student is in performance arts. A typical course work in Kathakali emphasizes physical conditioning and daily exercises, yoga and body massage to tone the muscles and sculpt the growing body, along with studies and dance practice. Per ancient Indian tradition, young students continue to start their year by giving symbolic gifts to the guru, such as a few coins with betel leaves, while the teacher gives the student a loin cloth, a welcome and blessings.
Kathakali is still hugely male - dominated, but since the 1970s, women have made entry into the art form on a recognisable scale. The central Kerala temple town of Tripunithura has a ladies ' troupe (with members belonging to several parts of the state) who perform Kathakali, by and large in Travancore.
The theory and foundations of Kathakali are same as other major classical Indian dances, traceable to Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra, but the expression style in each is very different and distinctive. Kathakali is different from a similar - sounding Kathak, though both are Indian classical dance traditions of "story play '' wherein the stories have been traditionally derived from the Hindu epics and the Puranas. Kathak is an ancient performance art that emerged in North India, with roots in traveling bards retelling mythical and spiritual stories through dance - acting. Kathak traditionally has included female actor - dancers, unlike Kathakali which has traditionally been performed by an all - male troupe. Kathak deploys much simpler costumes, makeup and no face masks. Both dance forms employ choreography, face and hand gestures traceable to the Natya Shastra, but Kathak generally moves around a straight leg and torso movements, with no martial art leaps and jumps like Kathakali. Kathak uses the stage space more, and does not typically include separate vocalists. Both deploy a host of similar traditional Indian musical instruments.
Kathakali - style, costume rich, musical drama are found in other cultures. For example, the Japanese Noh (能) integrates masks, costumes and various props in a dance - based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized gestures while the costumes communicate the nature of the characters in a Noh performance, as in Kathakali. In both, costumed men have traditionally performed all the roles including those of women in the play. The training regimen and initiation of the dance - actors in both cultures have many similarities.
Kabuki, another Japanese art form, has similarities to Kathakali. Jīngjù, a Chinese art of dance - acting (zuo), like Kathakali presents artists with elaborate masks, costumes and colorfully painted faces.
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what is considered living in poverty in the us | Poverty in the United States - Wikipedia
Poverty is a state of deprivation, lacking the usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions. The most common measure of poverty in the U.S. is the "poverty threshold '' set by the U.S. government. This measure recognizes poverty as a lack of those goods and services commonly taken for granted by members of mainstream society. The official threshold is adjusted for inflation using the consumer price index.
Most Americans will spend at least one year below the poverty line at some point between ages 25 and 75. Poverty rates are persistently higher in rural and inner city parts of the country as compared to suburban areas.
In 2015, 13.5 % (43.1 million) of Americans lived in poverty. Starting in the 1930s, relative poverty rates have consistently exceeded those of other wealthy nations. The lowest poverty rates are found in New Hampshire, Vermont, Minnesota and Nebraska, which have between 8.7 % and 9.1 % of their population living in poverty.
In 2009 the number of people who were in poverty was approaching 1960s levels that led to the national War on Poverty. In 2011 extreme poverty in the United States, meaning households living on less than $2 per day before government benefits, was double 1996 levels at 1.5 million households, including 2.8 million children.
In 2012 the percentage of seniors living in poverty was 14 % while 18 % of children were. The addition of Social Security benefits contributed more to reduce poverty than any other factor.
Recent census data shows that half the population qualifies as poor or low income, with one in five Millennials living in poverty. Academic contributors to The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States postulate that new and extreme forms of poverty have emerged in the U.S. as a result of neoliberal structural adjustment policies and globalization, which have rendered economically marginalized communities as destitute "surplus populations '' in need of control and punishment.
In 2011, child poverty reached record high levels, with 16.7 million children living in food insecure households, about 35 % more than 2007 levels. A 2013 UNICEF report ranked the U.S. as having the second highest relative child poverty rates in the developed world. According to a 2016 study by the Urban Institute, teenagers in low income communities are often forced to join gangs, save school lunches, sell drugs or exchange sexual favors because they can not afford food.
There were about 643,000 sheltered and unsheltered homeless people nationwide in January 2009. Almost two - thirds stayed in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program and the other third were living on the street, in an abandoned building, or another place not meant for human habitation. About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5 % of the U.S. population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program between October 1, 2008 and September 30, 2009. Around 44 % of homeless people are employed.
In June 2016, the IMF warned the United States that its high poverty rate needs to be tackled urgently by raising the minimum wage and offering paid maternity leave to women to encourage them to enter the labor force.
There are two basic versions of the federal poverty measure: the poverty thresholds (which are the primary version); and the poverty guidelines. The Census Bureau issues the poverty thresholds, which are generally used for statistical purposes -- for example, to estimate the number of people in poverty nationwide each year and classify them by type of residence, race, and other social, economic, and demographic characteristics. The Department of Health and Human Services issues the poverty guidelines for administrative purposes -- for instance, to determine whether a person or family is eligible for assistance through various federal programs.
The "Orshansky Poverty Thresholds '' form the basis for the current measure of poverty in the U.S. Mollie Orshansky was an economist working for the Social Security Administration (SSA). Her work appeared at an opportune moment. Orshansky 's article was published later in the same year that Johnson declared war on poverty. Since her measure was absolute (i.e., did not depend on other events), it made it possible to objectively answer whether the U.S. government was "winning '' this war. The newly formed United States Office of Economic Opportunity adopted the lower of the Orshansky poverty thresholds for statistical, planning, and budgetary purposes in May 1965.
The Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget) adopted Orshansky 's definition for statistical use in all Executive departments. The measure gave a range of income cutoffs, or thresholds, adjusted for factors such as family size, sex of the family head, number of children under 18 years old, and farm or non-farm residence. The economy food plan (the least costly of four nutritionally adequate food plans designed by the Department of Agriculture) was at the core of this definition of poverty.
At the time of creating the poverty definition, the Department of Agriculture found that families of three or more persons spent about one third of their after - tax income on food. For these families, poverty thresholds were set at three times the cost of the economy food plan. Different procedures were used for calculating poverty thresholds for two - person households and persons living alone. Annual updates of the SSA poverty thresholds were based on price changes in the economy food plan, but updates do not reflect other changes (food is no longer one - third of the after - tax income). Two changes were made to the poverty definition in 1969. Thresholds for non-farm families were tied to annual changes in the Consumer Price Index rather than changes in the cost of the economy food plan. Farm thresholds were raised from 70 to 85 % of the non-farm levels.
In 1981, further changes were made to the poverty definition. Separate thresholds for "farm '' and "female - householder '' families were eliminated. The largest family size category became "nine persons or more. ''
Apart from these changes, the U.S. government 's approach to measuring poverty has remained static for the past forty years.
The poverty guideline figures are not the figures the Census Bureau uses to calculate the number of poor persons. The figures that the Census Bureau uses are the poverty thresholds. The Census Bureau provides an explanation of the difference between poverty thresholds and guidelines. The Census Bureau uses a set of money income thresholds that vary by family size and composition to determine who is in poverty. The 2010 figure for a family of 4 with no children under 18 years of age is $22,541, while the figure for a family of 4 with 2 children under 18 is $22,162. For comparison, the 2011 HHS poverty guideline for a family of 4 is $22,350.
Another way of looking at poverty is in relative terms. "Relative poverty '' can be defined as having significantly less income and wealth than other members of society. Therefore, the relative poverty rate is a measure of income inequality. When the standard of living among those in more financially advantageous positions rises while that of those considered poor stagnates, the relative poverty rate will reflect such growing income inequality and increase. Conversely, the relative poverty rate can decrease, with low income people coming to have less wealth and income if wealthier people 's wealth is reduced by a larger percentage than theirs.
Some critics argue that relying on income disparity to determine who is impoverished can be misleading. The Bureau of Labor Statistics data suggests that consumer spending varies much less than income. In 2008, the poorest one fifth of Americans households spent on average $12,955 per person for goods and services (other than taxes), the second quintile spent $14,168, the third $16,255, the fourth $19,695, while the richest fifth spent $26,644. The disparity of expenditures is much less than the disparity of income.
Although the relative approach theoretically differs largely from the Orshansky definition, crucial variables of both poverty definitions are more similar than often thought. First, the so - called standardization of income in both approaches is very similar. To make incomes comparable among households of different sizes, equivalence scales are used to standardize household income to the level of a single person household. When compared to the US Census poverty line, which is based on a defined basket of goods, for the most prevalent household types both standardization methods show very similar results.
In addition to family status, race / ethnicity and age also correlate with high poverty rates in the United States. Although data regarding race and poverty are more extensively published and cross tabulated, the family status correlation is by far the strongest.
According to the US Census, in 2007 5.8 % of all people in married families lived in poverty, as did 26.6 % of all persons in single parent households and 19.1 % of all persons living alone. More than 75 % of all poor households are headed by women (2012).
Among married couple families: 5.8 % lived in poverty. This number varied by race and ethnicity as follows: 5.4 % of all white persons (which includes white Hispanics), 10.7 % of all black persons (which includes black Hispanics), and 14.9 % of all Hispanic persons (of any race) living in poverty.
Among single parent (male or female) families: 26.6 % lived in poverty. This number varied by race and ethnicity as follows: 22.5 % of all white persons (which includes white Hispanics), 44.0 % of all black persons (which includes black Hispanics), and 33.4 % of all Hispanic persons (of any race) living in poverty.
Among individuals living alone: 19.1 % lived in poverty. This number varied by race and ethnicity as follows: 18 % of white persons (which includes white Hispanics) 28.9 % of black persons (which includes black Hispanics) and 27 % of Hispanic persons (of any race) living in poverty.
The US Census declared that in 2014 14.8 % of the general population lived in poverty: 10.1 % of all white non-Hispanic persons 12.0 % of all Asian persons 23.6 % of all Hispanic persons (of any race) 26.2 % of all African American persons 28.3 % of Native Americans / Alaska Natives
As of 2010 about half of those living in poverty are non-Hispanic white (19.6 million). Non-Hispanic white children comprised 57 % of all poor rural children.
In FY 2009, African American families comprised 33.3 % of TANF families, non-Hispanic white families comprised 31.2 %, and 28.8 % were Hispanic.
Poverty is also notoriously high on Native American reservations (see Reservation poverty). 7 of the 11 poorest counties in per capita income, including the 2 poorest in the U.S., encompass Lakota Sioux reservations in South Dakota. This fact has been cited by some critics as a mechanism that enables the "kidnapping '' of Lakota children by the state of South Dakota 's Department of Social Services. The Lakota People 's Law Project, among other critics, allege that South Dakota "inappropriately equates economic poverty with neglect... South Dakota 's rate of identifying ' neglect ' is 18 % higher than the national average... In 2010, the national average of state discernment of neglect, as a percent of total maltreatment of foster children prior to their being taken into custody by the state, was 78.3 %. In South Dakota the rate was 95.8 %. ''
Poverty in the Pine Ridge Reservation in particular has had unprecedented effects on its residents ' longevity. "Recent reports state the average life expectancy is 45 years old while others state that it is 48 years old for men and 52 years old for women. With either set of figures, that 's the shortest life expectancy for any community in the Western Hemisphere outside Haiti, according to The Wall Street Journal. ''
The US Census declared that in 2010 15.1 % of the general population lived in poverty: 22 % of all people under age 18 13.7 % of all people 19 -- 21 and 9 % of all people ages 65 and older
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) uses a different measure for poverty and declared in 2008 that child poverty in the US is 20 % and poverty among the elderly is 23 %. The non-profit advocacy group Feeding America has released a study (May 2009) based on 2005 -- 2007 data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the Agriculture Department, which claims that 3.5 million children under the age of 5 are at risk of hunger in the United States. The study claims that in 11 states, Louisiana, which has the highest rate, followed by North Carolina, Ohio, Kentucky, Texas, New Mexico, Kansas, South Carolina, Tennessee, Idaho and Arkansas, more than 20 percent of children under 5 are allegedly at risk of going hungry. (Receiving fewer than 1,800 calories per day) The study was paid by ConAgra Foods, a large food company.
In 2012, 16.1 million American children were living in poverty. Outside of the 49 million Americans living in food insecure homes, 15.9 million of them were children. In 2013, child poverty reached record high levels in the U.S., with 16.7 million children living in food insecure households. Many of the neighborhoods these children live in lack basic produce and nutritious food. 47 million Americans depend on food banks, more than 30 % above 2007 levels. Households headed by single mothers are most likely to be affected. 30 percent of low - income single mothers can not afford diapers. Inability to afford this necessity can cause a chain reaction, including mental, health, and behavioral problems. Some women are forced to make use of one or two diapers, using them more than once. This causes rashes and sanitation problems as well as health problems. Without diapers, children are unable to enter into daycare. The lack of childcare can be detrimental to single mothers, hindering their ability to obtain employment. Worst affected are Oregon, Arizona, New Mexico, Florida, and the District of Columbia, while North Dakota, New Hampshire, Virginia, Minnesota and Massachusetts are the least affected. 31 million low - income children received free or reduced - price meals daily through the National School lunch program during the 2012 federal fiscal year. Nearly 14 million children are estimated to be served by Feeding America with over 3 million being of the ages of 5 and under.
A 2014 report by the National Center on Family Homelessness states the number of homeless children in the U.S. has reached record levels, calculating that 2.5 million children, or one child in every 30, experienced homelessness in 2013. High levels of poverty, lack of affordable housing and domestic violence were cited as the primary causes.
Poverty affects individual access to quality education. The U.S. education system is often funded by local communities; therefore the quality of materials and teachers can reflect the affluence of community. That said, many communities address this by supplementing these areas with funds from other districts. Low income communities are often not able to afford the quality education that high income communities do. Poor perceptions, by teachers, of families and communities in poverty can manifest itself in teachers who will not put forth the effort to teach and students who are thought to be opposed to learning; in both cases poor students are thought to be incapable. When a teacher assumes a child is linguistically deficient, they may look through a stigmatized lens when working with the student. This can create an atmosphere that can reify negative stereotypes and undermine student motivation. By the teacher not looking through such a lens, they will be able to reinforce the idea that all their students have an opportunity to increase their learning abilities, which can result in more classroom engagement and student motivation. Females in poverty are also likely to become pregnant at a young age, and with fewer resources to care for a child, young women often drop out of school. A reason for the gap in access to education is due to the fact that reforms in the instruction programs have not been implemented well or at all in high poverty schools. Due to these and other reasons the quality of education between the classes is not equal.
Some teachers will use the phrase "culture of poverty '' as a taxonomy of lower socioeconomic students and will use child poverty as an excuse for why they are not successful with certain students. The culture of poverty acknowledges the past factors of the initial condition of poverty were results of racial segregation and discrimination, and substandard housing and education, ignoring personal responsibility, yet puts the blame on the "behaviors and attitudes of the poor '', as the cause of present poverty. This idea ignores the very fact that the current housing and education in poverty is still substandard and plays a large role in the cause of present poverty,. Some people point out that poverty is a choice; that single parent families are more often to be below the poverty line.
There are multiple misconceptions in regards to poverty. Research has undermined the idea that parents of low socioeconomic status do not value education, when in truth they hold the same attitudes as wealthy families. It is not an issue of value, but more so a problem of access. A parent from a lower socioeconomic class is likely to have more factors than a parent from a wealthy socioeconomic class that may affect their involvement with their child 's education. For instance a person living in poverty is more likely to work multiple jobs, as well as not having certain means of transportation, thus hindering their access to their child 's education. The teachers, faculty, and administrators of the schools have to take these real - life factors into consideration.
89 percent of the American households were food secure throughout the entire year of 2002, meaning that they had access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life for all of the household members. The remaining households were food insecure at least some time during that year. The prevalence of food insecurity rose from 10.7 % in 2001 to 11.1 % in 2002, and the prevalence of food insecurity with hunger rose from 3.3 % to 3.5 %.
In 2007, 88.9 % of American households were food secure throughout the entire year. The number of American households that were food secure throughout the entire year dropped to 85.4 % in 2008. As of 2012, the prevalence of food insecurity has been essentially unchanged since 2008.
There are numerous factors related to poverty in the United States.
In recent years, there have been a number of concerns raised about the official U.S. poverty measure. In 1995, the National Research Council 's Committee on National Statistics convened a panel on measuring poverty. The findings of the panel were that "the official poverty measure in the United States is flawed and does not adequately inform policy - makers or the public about who is poor and who is not poor. ''
The panel was chaired by Robert Michael, former Dean of the Harris School of the University of Chicago. According to Michael, the official U.S. poverty measure "has not kept pace with far - reaching changes in society and the economy. '' The panel proposed a model based on disposable income:
Many sociologists and government officials have argued that poverty in the United States is understated, meaning that there are more households living in actual poverty than there are households below the poverty threshold. A recent NPR report states that as many as 30 % of Americans have trouble making ends meet and other advocates have made supporting claims that the rate of actual poverty in the US is far higher than that calculated by using the poverty threshold. A study taken in 2012 estimated that roughly 38 % of Americans live "paycheck to paycheck. ''
According to William H. Chafe, if one used a relative standard for measuring poverty (a standard that took into account the rising standards of living rather than an absolute dollar figure) then 18 % of families were living in poverty in 1968, not 13 % as officially estimated at that time.
As far back as 1969, the Bureau of Labor Statistics put forward suggested budgets for adequate family living. 60 % of working - class Americans lived below one of these budgets, which suggested that a far higher proportion of Americans lived in poverty than the official poverty line suggested. These findings were also used by observers on the left when questioning the long - established view that most Americans had attained an affluent standard of living in the two decades following the end of the Second World War.
Using a definition of relative poverty (reflecting disposable income below half the median of adjusted national income), it was estimated that, between 1979 and 1982, 17.1 % of Americans lived in poverty.
As noted above, the poverty thresholds used by the US government were originally developed during the Johnson administration 's War on Poverty initiative in 1963 -- 1964. Mollie Orshansky, the government economist working at the Social Security Administration who developed the thresholds, based the threshold levels on the cost of purchasing what in the mid-1950s had been determined by the US Department of Agriculture to be the minimal nutritionally - adequate amount of food necessary to feed a family. Orshansky multiplied the cost of the food basket by a factor of three, under the assumption that the average family spent one third of its income on food.
While the poverty threshold is updated for inflation every year, the basket of food used to determine what constitutes being deprived of a socially acceptable minimum standard of living has not been updated since 1955. As a result, the current poverty line only takes into account food purchases that were common more than 50 years ago, updating their cost using the Consumer Price Index. When methods similar to Orshansky 's were used to update the food basket using prices for the year 2000 instead of from nearly a half century earlier, it was found that the poverty line should actually be 200 % higher than the official level being used by the government in that year.
Yet even that higher level could still be considered flawed, as it would be based almost entirely on food costs and on the assumption that families still spend a third of their income on food. In fact, Americans typically spent less than one tenth of their after - tax income on food in 2000. For many families, the costs of housing, health insurance and medical care, transportation, and access to basic telecommunications take a much larger bite out of the family 's income today than a half century ago; yet, as noted above, none of these costs are considered in determining the official poverty thresholds. According to John Schwarz, a political scientist at the University of Arizona:
The issue of understating poverty is especially pressing in states with both a high cost of living and a high poverty rate such as California where the median home price in May 2006 was determined to be $564,430. In the Monterey area, where the low - pay industry of agriculture is the largest sector in the economy and the majority of the population lacks a college education, the median home price was determined to be $723,790, requiring an upper middle class income only earned by roughly 20 % of all households in the county.
Such fluctuations in local markets are, however, not considered in the Federal poverty threshold and thus leave many who live in poverty - like conditions out of the total number of households classified as poor.
In 2011, the Census Bureau introduced a new supplemental poverty measure aimed at providing a more accurate picture of the true extent of poverty in the United States. The SPM extends the official poverty measure by taking account of many of the government programs designed to assist low - income families and individuals that are not included in the current official poverty measure. According to this new measure, 16 % of Americans lived in poverty in 2011, compared with the official figure of 15.2 %. The new measure also estimated that nearly half of all Americans lived in poverty that year, defined as living within 200 % of the federal poverty line.
Duke University Professor of Public Policy and Economics Sandy Darity, Jr. says, "There is no exact way of measuring poverty. The measures are contingent on how we conceive of and define poverty. Efforts to develop more refined measures have been dominated by researchers who intentionally want to provide estimates that reduce the magnitude of poverty. ''
According to an 2017 academic study by MIT economist Peter Temin, Americans trapped in poverty live in conditions rivaling the developing world, and are forced to contend with substandard education, dilapidated housing, and few stable employment opportunities. A 2017 study published in The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene found that hookworm, a parasite that thrives on extreme poverty, is flourishing in the Deep South. A report on the study in The Guardian stated:
Scientists in Houston, Texas, have lifted the lid on one of America 's darkest and deepest secrets: that hidden beneath fabulous wealth, the US tolerates poverty - related illness at levels comparable to the world 's poorest countries. More than one in three people sampled in a poor area of Alabama tested positive for traces of hookworm, a gastrointestinal parasite that was thought to have been eradicated from the US decades ago.
Some critics assert that the official U.S. poverty definition is inconsistent with how it is defined by its own citizens and the rest of the world, because the U.S. government considers many citizens statistically impoverished despite their ability to sufficiently meet their basic needs. According to a heavily criticised 2011 paper by The Heritage Foundation research fellow Robert Rector, of the 43.6 million Americans deemed by the U.S. Census Bureau to be below the poverty level in 2009, the majority had adequate shelter, food, clothing and medical care. In addition, the paper stated that those assessed as below the poverty line in 2011 have a much higher quality of living than those who were identified by the census 40 years ago as being in poverty. For example, in 2005, 63.7 % of those living in poverty had cable or satellite television. In some cases the report even said that people currently living in poverty were actually better off than middle class people of the recent past. For example, in 2005, 78.3 % of households living in poverty had air conditioning, whereas in 1970, 36.0 % of all households had air conditioning.
According to The Heritage Foundation, the federal poverty line also excludes income other than cash income, especially welfare benefits. Thus, if food stamps and public housing were successfully raising the standard of living for poverty stricken individuals, then the poverty line figures would not shift, since they do not consider the income equivalents of such entitlements.
A 1993 study of low income single mothers titled Making Ends Meet, by Kathryn Edin, a sociologist at the University of Pennsylvania, showed that the mothers spent more than their reported incomes because they could not "make ends meet '' without such expenditures. According to Edin, they made up the difference through contributions from family members, absent boyfriends, off - the - book jobs, and church charity.
According to Edin: "No one avoided the unnecessary expenditures, such as the occasional trip to the Dairy Queen, or a pair of stylish new sneakers for the son who might otherwise sell drugs to get them some money or something, or the Cable TV subscription for the kids home alone and you are afraid they will be out on the street if they are not watching TV. '' However many mothers skipped meals or did odd jobs to cover those expenses. According to Edin, for "most welfare - reliant mothers food and shelter alone cost almost as much as these mothers received from the government. For more than one - third, food and housing costs exceeded their cash benefits, leaving no extra money for uncovered medical care, clothing, and other household expenses. ''
In the age of inequality, such anti-poverty policies are more important than ever, as higher inequality creates both more poverty along with steeper barriers to getting ahead, whether through the lack of early education, nutrition, adequate housing, and a host of other poverty - related conditions that dampen ones chances in life.
There have been many governmental and nongovernmental efforts to reduce poverty and its effects. These range in scope from neighborhood efforts to campaigns with a national focus. They target specific groups affected by poverty such as children, people who are autistic, immigrants, or people who are homeless. Efforts to alleviate poverty use a disparate set of methods, such as advocacy, education, social work, legislation, direct service or charity, and community organizing.
Recent debates have centered on the need for policies that focus on both "income poverty '' and "asset poverty. '' Advocates for the approach argue that traditional governmental poverty policies focus solely on supplementing the income of the poor through programs such as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and Food Stamps. According to the CFED 2012 Assets & Opportunity Scorecard, 27 percent of households -- nearly double the percentage that are income poor -- are living in "asset poverty. '' These families do not have the savings or other assets to cover basic expenses (equivalent to what could be purchased with a poverty level income) for three months if a layoff or other emergency leads to loss of income. Since 2009, the number of asset poor families has increased by 21 percent from about one in five families to one in four families. In order to provide assistance to such asset poor families, Congress appropriated $24 million to administer the Assets for Independence Program under the supervision of the US Department for Health and Human Services. The program enables community - based nonprofits and government agencies to implement Individual Development Account or IDA programs, which are an asset - based development initiative. Every dollar accumulated in IDA savings is matched by federal and non-federal funds to enable households to add to their assets portfolio by buying their first home, acquiring a post-secondary education, or starting or expanding a small business.
Additionally, the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC or EIC) is a credit for people who earn low - to - moderate incomes. This credit allows them to get money from the government if their total tax outlay is less than the total credit earned, meaning it is not just a reduction in total tax paid but can also bring new income to the household. The Earned Income Tax Credit is viewed as the largest poverty reduction program in the United States. There is an ongoing debate in the U.S. about what the most effective way to fight poverty is, through the tax code with the EITC, or through the minimum wage laws.
Government safety net programs put in place since the War on Poverty have helped reduce the poverty rate from 26 % in 1967 to 16 % in 2012, according to a Supplemental Poverty Model (SPM) created by Columbia University, while the official U.S. Poverty Rate has not changed, as the economy by itself has done little to reduce poverty. According to the 2013 Columbia University study which created the (SPM) method of measuring poverty, without such programs the poverty rate would be 29 % today. An analysis of the study by Kevin Drum suggests the American welfare state effectively reduces poverty among the elderly but provides relatively little assistance to the working - age poor. A 2014 study by Pew Charitable Trusts shows that without social programs like food stamps, social security and the federal EITC, the poverty rate in the U.S. would be much higher. Nevertheless, the U.S. has the weakest social safety net of all developed nations. Sociologist Monica Prasad of Northwestern University argues that this developed because of government intervention rather than lack of it, which pushed consumer credit for meeting citizens ' needs rather than applying social welfare policies as in Europe.
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when did the song its tricky come out | It 's Tricky - wikipedia
"It 's Tricky '' is the fourth and final single released from Run -- D.M.C. 's third album, Raising Hell. It was released early in 1987 through Profile Records and was co-produced by Rick Rubin and the group themselves. The song peaked at No. 57 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 21 on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs. In the UK, the song made # 16 on the UK Singles Chart upon its original release and # 74 in 1998, while the Jason Nevins remix of their song "It 's Like That '' spent its fifth week at # 1. Two decades after the song 's release, The Knack sued Run - D.M.C. on the grounds "It 's Tricky '' sampled their song "My Sharona '' without permission.
The song is used in the promotional clip for the FX television series Snowfall, which began airing in July 2017. The original song appeared in the movies Road Trip and The Bounty Hunter and in the video games SSX Tricky, WWE 2K16 and Forza Horizon 3.
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The music video features Penn and Teller, who are hustling a group of people with a game of three - card Monte in front of the Rialto Theater in downtown Los Angeles. Run -- D.M.C. are called and shut their business down by winning every hand they play. Penn then asks the group if they can teach them to dance, which they do after insisting that Penn and Teller change their clothes. The video ends with Run -- D.M.C. showing up to a gig in Japan six months later, where they find the duo impersonating them; unable to tell the difference, the concert promoters deny Run -- D.M.C. the chance to perform.
This song contains samples of "My Sharona '' by The Knack, as well as the entire vocal structure from "Mickey '' by Toni Basil. The Knack sued Run DMC over the track in 2006, and the lawsuit was settled out of court.
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where is thermal power station established in india | List of power stations in India - wikipedia
The total installed power station capacity in India as on June 29, 2016 is 303,083 MW with sector wise & type wise break up as given below.
The break up of other renewable energy sources (RES) is: wind power (28,700.44 MW), Solar power (9,012.69 MW), Biomass power & gasification (7,856.94 MW), small hydro (4,333.86 MW), Waste - to - energy (114.08 MW).
For the state wise allocation of the installed utility power capacity, refer to States of India by allocated power capacity.
The following lists name many of the power stations in India.
Nuclear power is the fifth - largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and renewable sources of electricity. As of 2016, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation at seven sites, having an installed capacity of 6780 MW. and producing a total of 30,292.91 GWh of electricity 11 more reactors are under construction to generate an additional 8,100 MW.
All the twenty two nuclear power reactors with an installed capacity of 6,780 MW equal to 2.2 % of total installed utility capacity, are operated by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India. India ranked seventh in number of operated reactors (22) and fourteenth in total installed capacity.
Thermal power is the "largest '' source of power in India. There are different types of thermal power plants based on the fuel used to generate the steam such as coal, gas, and Diesel. About 71 % of electricity consumed in India are generated by thermal power plants.
More than 62 % of India 's electricity demand is met through the country 's vast coal reserves. Public sector undertaking National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and several other state level power generating companies are engaged in operating coal - based thermal power plants. Apart from NTPC and other state level operators, some private companies are also operating the power plants. Here is some list of operating coal - based thermal power plants in India.
The total installed capacity of Natural gas based power plants in India, is nearly 24,508.63 MW. Here is a list of plants operating and waiting for natural gas to start operations.
The total installed capacity of major grid connected diesel - based power plants in India, is 993.53 MW. The installed capacity of captive power DG sets is estimated to be nearly 90,000 MW. Here is the part list of grid connected plants.
India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in early 1980s. India 's cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached about 42.75 GW,
This is a list of major hydroelectric power plants in India.
Hydro power units with pumped storage features.
India has many large wind power production farms (10MW and greater)
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what is the program that allows the computer to communicate with a peripheral | Peripheral - Wikipedia
A peripheral is "an ancillary device used to put information into and get information out of the computer ''.
There are three different types of peripherals:
Touchscreens are an example that combines different devices into a single hardware component that can be used both as an input and output device.
A peripheral device is generally defined as any auxiliary device such as a computer mouse or keyboard that connects to and works with the computer in some way. Other examples of peripherals are image scanners, tape drives, microphones, loudspeakers, webcams, and digital cameras. Many modern devices, such as digital watches, smartphones and tablet computers, have interfaces that allow them to be used as a peripheral by desktop computers, although they are not host - dependent in the same way as other peripheral devices.
Common input peripherals include keyboards, computer mice, graphic tablets, touchscreens, barcode readers, image scanners, microphones, webcams, game controllers, light pens, and digital cameras. Common output peripherals include computer displays, printers, projectors, and computer speakers.
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which side of the civil war does baron represent | Pyotr Wrangel - wikipedia
Baron Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, also Vrangel; German: Freiherr Peter von Wrangel; (August 27, 1878 -- April 25, 1928) was an officer in the Imperial Russian Army and later commanding general of the anti-Bolshevik White Army in Southern Russia in the later stages of the Russian Civil War. After his side lost the civil war in 1920, he left Russia and became one of the most prominent exiled White émigrés.
Wrangel was born in Mukuliai, Kovno Governorate in the Russian Empire (in present - day Zarasai District Municipality, Lithuania). The Wrangel family was of the local Baltic German nobility. Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel was only distantly related to the famed Arctic explorer Ferdinand von Wrangel.
After graduating from the Rostov Technical High School in 1896 and the Institute of Mining Engineering in St. Petersburg in 1901, Wrangel volunteered for the prestigious Life Guards cavalry and was commissioned a reserve officer in 1902 after graduating from the Nikolaev Cavalry School. He soon resigned his commission, and travelled to Irkutsk, where he was assigned to special missions by the Governor - General.
At the start of the Russo - Japanese War, in February 1904 he reenlisted and was assigned to the 2nd Regiment of the Transbaikal Cossack Corps. In December 1904, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant.
After the war ended, in January 1906, he was reassigned to the 55th Finland Dragoon Regiment, which under General A.N. Orlov took part in pacifying rebels in Siberia. In 1907, he returned to the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment. In 1908 he married Olga Mikhaylovna Ivanenko in St. Petersburg, and the marriage produced two sons and two daughters. Wrangel graduated from the Nicholas Imperial General Staff Academy in 1910 and the Cavalry Officers ' School in 1911.
With the start of World War I, Wrangel was promoted to captain and assigned command of a cavalry squadron. On October 13, 1914 he became one of the first Russian officers to be awarded the Order of St. George (4th degree) in the war, the highest military decoration of the Russian Empire. In December 1914, he was promoted to the rank of colonel. In October 1915 Wrangel was transferred to the Southwestern Front and was appointed commander of the 1st Regiment of the Transbaikal Cossacks.
This unit was very active in Galicia against the Austrians, and Wrangel distinguished himself especially during the Brusilov Offensive. He was promoted to the rank of major general in January 1917, and took command of the 2nd Brigade of the Ussuri Cavalry Division, which was merged with other cavalry units to become the Consolidated Cavalry Corps in July of the same year. He was further decorated with the George Cross (4th degree) for his defense of the Zbruch River in the summer of 1917.
Following the end of Russia 's participation in the war, Wrangel resigned his commission and went to live at his dacha at Yalta in the Crimea. Arrested by the Bolsheviks at the end of 1917, he was released and escaped to Kiev, where he joined Pavlo Skoropadskyi 's Ukrainian State. However, it was soon apparent to him that the new government existed only through the waning support of Germany, and in August 1918, he joined the anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army based at Yekaterinodar, where he was given command of the 1st Cavalry Division and the rank of major general in the White movement. After the Second Kuban Campaign in late 1918, he was promoted to lieutenant general, and his Division was raised to that of a corps.
As an aggressive commander, he won a number of victories in the north Caucasus. From January 1919, his military force was renamed the Caucasus Volunteer Army. Wrangel soon clashed politically with Armed Forces of South Russia leader Anton Denikin, who demanded a quick march on Moscow. Wrangel insisted instead that his forces should take Tsaritsyn first, to join up with the army of Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak, which his troops accomplished on June 30, 1919 after three previous attempts by Pyotr Krasnov had failed in 1918.
Wrangel gained a reputation as a skilled and just administrator, who, in contrast to some other White Army generals, did not tolerate lawlessness or looting by his troops. However, after he was unable to join forces with Admiral Kolchak and at the insistence of Denikin, he led his forces north towards Moscow on a failed attempt by the Whites to take the capital in November 1919. Continuing disagreement with Denikin led to his removal from command, and Wrangel departed for exile to Constantinople on February 8, 1920.
Yet Denikin was forced to resign on March 20, 1920 and a military committee led by General Abram Dragomirov in Sevastopol asked that Wrangel return as Commander - in - Chief of the White forces in Crimea. He assumed the post on April 4, 1920 and put forth a coalition government which attempted to institute sweeping reforms (including land reforms). He also recognized and established relations with the new (and short lived) anti-Bolshevik independent republics of Ukraine and Georgia, among others. However, by this stage in the Russian Civil War, such measures were too late, and the White movement was rapidly losing support both domestically and overseas. Wrangel is immortalized by the nickname of "Black Baron '' in the marching song The Red Army is the Strongest composed as a rallying call for a final effort on the part of the Bolsheviks to end the war; the song became immensely popular in the early Soviet Union during the 1920s.
After defeats in which he lost half his standing army, and facing defeat in Northern Tavria and the Crimea, Wrangel organized a mass evacuation on the shores of the Black Sea. Wrangel gave every officer, soldier, and civilian the choice to evacuate and go with him into the unknown, or remain in Russia and face the wrath of the Red Army. Wrangel evacuated the White forces from the Crimea in 1920 in remnants of the Russian Imperial Navy that became known as Wrangel 's fleet. The last military and civilian personnel left Russia with Wrangel on board the General Kornilov on November 14, 1920.
Initially, Wrangel lived on his yacht Lucullus at Constantinople, which was rammed and sunk by the Italian steamer Adria, which had sailed from Soviet - held Batum. Wrangel, who was on shore at the time, escaped with his life in what was widely regarded as an assassination attempt.
In 1922, he moved to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes as the head of all Russian refugees, and arguably became the most prominent of all exiled White emigres. In 1924, in the Serbian town of Sremski Karlovci he established the Russian All - Military Union, an ostensibly non-military organization designed to embrace all Russian military émigrés the world over with a view to preserving a Russian military organisation for the eventuality of having to fight Bolshevism again.
In September 1927, Wrangel and his family settled in Brussels, Belgium, where he worked as a mining engineer.
Wrangel 's memoirs were published in the magazine White Cause (Белое дело) in Berlin in 1928.
Wrangel died suddenly on 25 April 1928, and Wrangel 's family believed that he had been poisoned by his butler 's brother, who lived in the Wrangel household in Brussels briefly and was allegedly a Soviet agent.
Pyotr Wrangel 's burial took place in Brussels; however, more than a year later, on 6 October 1929, his body was brought to Belgrade, where in a solemn public ceremony it was re-interred in the Russian church in Belgrade, in accordance with his wishes.
The town of Sremski Karlovci, which served as his headquarters and was at the time of his death the location of the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia and the Russian Ministry of Culture, erected a monument in his honour.
Media related to Pyotr Wrangel at Wikimedia Commons
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where is the youngest oceanic crust in the pacific ocean | Oceanic crust - wikipedia
Oceanic crust is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate. It is composed of the upper oceanic crust, with pillow lavas and a dike complex, and the lower oceanic crust, composed of troctolite, gabbro and ultramafic cumulates. The crust overlies the solidified and uppermost layer of the mantle. The crust and the solid mantle layer together constitute oceanic lithosphere.
Oceanic crust is primarily composed of mafic rocks, or sima, which is rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than continental crust, or sial, generally less than 10 kilometers thick; however it is denser, having a mean density of about 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter as opposed to continental crust which has a density of about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter.
The crust uppermost is the result of the cooling of magma derived from mantle material below the plate. The magma is injected into the spreading center, which consists mainly of a partly solidified crystal mush derived from earlier injections, forming magma lenses that are the source of the sheeted dikes that feed the overlying pillow lavas. As the lavas cool they are, in most instances, modified chemically by seawater. These eruptions occur mostly at mid-ocean ridges, but also at scattered hotspots, and also in rare but powerful occurrences known as flood basalt eruptions. But most magma crystallises at depth, within the lower oceanic crust. There, newly intruded magma can mix and react with pre-existing crystal mush and rocks.
Although a complete section of oceanic crust has not yet been drilled, geologists have several pieces of evidence that help them understand the ocean floor. Estimations of composition are based on analyses of ophiolites (sections of oceanic crust that are thrust onto and preserved on the continents), comparisons of the seismic structure of the oceanic crust with laboratory determinations of seismic velocities in known rock types, and samples recovered from the ocean floor by submersibles, dredging (especially from ridge crests and fracture zones) and drilling. Oceanic crust is significantly simpler than continental crust and generally can be divided in three layers. According to mineral physics experiments, at lower mantle pressures, oceanic crust becomes denser than the surrounding mantle.
The most voluminous volcanic rocks of the ocean floor are the mid-oceanic ridge basalts, which are derived from low - potassium tholeiitic magmas. These rocks have low concentrations of large ion lithophile elements (LILE), light rare earth elements (LREE), volatile elements and other highly incompatible elements. There can be found basalts enriched with incompatible elements, but they are rare and associated with mid-ocean ridge hot spots such as surroundings of Galapagos Islands, the Azores and Iceland.
Oceanic crust is continuously being created at mid-ocean ridges. As plates diverge at these ridges, magma rises into the upper mantle and crust. As it moves away from the ridge, the lithosphere becomes cooler and denser, and sediment gradually builds on top of it. The youngest oceanic lithosphere is at the oceanic ridges, and it gets progressively older away from the ridges.
As the mantle rises it cools and melts, as the pressure decreases and it crosses the solidus. The amount of melt produced depends only on the temperature of the mantle as it rises. Hence most oceanic crust is the same thickness (7 ± 1 km). Very slow spreading ridges (< 1 cm yr half - rate) produce thinner crust (4 -- 5 km thick) as the mantle has a chance to cool on upwelling and so it crosses the solidus and melts at lesser depth, thereby producing less melt and thinner crust. An example of this is the Gakkel Ridge under the Arctic Ocean. Thicker than average crust is found above plumes as the mantle is hotter and hence it crosses the solidus and melts at a greater depth, creating more melt and a thicker crust. An example of this is Iceland which has crust of thickness ~ 20 km.
The age of the oceanic crust can be used to estimate the (thermal) thickness of the lithosphere, where young oceanic crust has not had enough time to cool the mantle beneath it, while older oceanic crust has thicker mantle lithosphere beneath it. The oceanic lithosphere subducts at what are known as convergent boundaries. These boundaries can exist between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and oceanic lithosphere on another, or between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and continental lithosphere on another. In the second situation, the oceanic lithosphere always subducts because the continental lithosphere is less dense. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old. The process of super-continent formation and destruction via repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the Wilson cycle.
The oldest large scale oceanic crust is in the west Pacific and north - west Atlantic - both are about up to 180 - 200 million years old. However, parts of the eastern Mediterranean Sea are remnants of the much older Tethys ocean, at about 270 and up to 340 million years old.
The oceanic crust displays a pattern of magnetic lines, parallel to the ocean ridges, frozen in the basalt. A symmetrical pattern of positive and negative magnetic lines emanates from the mid-ocean ridge. New rock is formed by magma at the mid-ocean ridges, and the ocean floor spreads out from this point. When the magma cools to form rock, its magnetic polarity is aligned with the then - current positions of the magnetic poles of the Earth. New magma then forces the older cooled magma away from the ridge. This process results in parallel sections of oceanic crust of alternating magnetic polarity.
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where in nevada did they test nuclear bombs | Nevada Test Site - wikipedia
The Nevada National Security Site (N2S2 or NNSS), previously the Nevada Test Site (NTS), is a United States Department of Energy reservation located in southeastern Nye County, Nevada, about 65 miles (105 km) northwest of the city of Las Vegas. Formerly known as the Nevada Proving Grounds, the site was established on 11 January 1951 for the testing of nuclear devices, covering approximately 1,360 square miles (3,500 km) of desert and mountainous terrain. Nuclear weapons testing at the Nevada Test Site began with a 1 - kiloton - of - TNT (4.2 TJ) bomb dropped on Frenchman Flat on 27 January 1951. Many of the iconic images of the nuclear era come from the NTS. NNSS is operated by Mission Support and Test Services, LLC.
During the 1950s, the mushroom clouds from the 100 atmospheric tests could be seen for almost 100 mi (160 km). The city of Las Vegas experienced noticeable seismic effects, and the distant mushroom clouds, which could be seen from the downtown hotels, became tourist attractions. St. George, Utah, received the brunt of the fallout of above - ground nuclear testing in the Yucca Flats / Nevada Test Site. Winds routinely carried the fallout of these tests directly through St. George and southern Utah. Marked increases in cancers, such as leukemia, lymphoma, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, bone cancer, brain tumors, and gastrointestinal tract cancers, were reported from the mid-1950s through 1980. A further 828 nuclear tests were carried out underground.
From 1986 through 1994, two years after the United States put a hold on full - scale nuclear weapons testing, 536 anti-nuclear protests were held at the Nevada Test Site involving 37,488 participants and 15,740 arrests, according to government records. Those arrested included the astronomer Carl Sagan, musician Kris Kristofferson, and the actors Martin Sheen, and Robert Blake.
The Nevada Test Site contains 28 areas, 1,100 buildings, 400 miles (640 km) of paved roads, 300 miles of unpaved roads, 10 heliports, and two airstrips.
Currently, the Management & Operating (M&O) Contractor is Mission Support and Test Services (MSTS). They manage and operate the NNSS for the NNSA. The Security Protective Force Contractor is SOC LLC as they provide the safeguards and security to the NNSS.
The Nevada Test Site was established as a 680 - square - mile (1,800 km) area by President Harry S. Truman on December 18, 1950, within the Nellis Air Force Gunnery and Bombing Range.
The Nevada Test Site was the primary testing location of American nuclear devices from 1951 to 1992; 928 announced nuclear tests occurred there. Of those, 828 were underground. (Sixty - two of the underground tests included multiple, simultaneous nuclear detonations, adding 93 detonations and bringing the total number of NTS nuclear detonations to 1,021, of which 921 were underground.) The site is covered with subsidence craters from the testing.
The NTS was the United States ' primary location for tests in the 500 - to - 1,000 kt (2,100 - to - 4,200 TJ) range. 126 tests were conducted elsewhere, including most larger tests. Many of these occurred at the Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands.
During the 1950s, the mushroom clouds from atmospheric tests could be seen for almost 100 mi (160 km). The city of Las Vegas experienced noticeable seismic effects, and the distant mushroom clouds, which could be seen from the downtown hotels, became tourist attractions. The last atmospheric test detonation at the Nevada Test Site was "Little Feller I '' of Operation Sunbeam, on 17 July 1962.
Although the United States did not ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty, it honors the articles of the treaty, and underground testing of weapons ended as of 23 September 1992. Subcritical tests not involving a critical mass continue.
One notable test shot was the "Sedan '' shot of Operation Storax on 6 July 1962, a 104 - kiloton - of - TNT (440 TJ) shot for Operation Plowshare, which sought to prove that nuclear weapons could be used for peaceful means in creating bays or canals. It created a crater 1,280 feet (390 m) wide and 320 feet (100 m) deep that can still be seen today.
The site was scheduled to be used to conduct the testing of a 1,100 - ton conventional explosive in an operation known as Divine Strake in June 2006. The bomb is a possible alternative to nuclear bunker busters. After objections from Nevada and Utah 's members of Congress, the operation was postponed until 2007. On 22 February 2007, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) officially canceled the experiment. On December 7, 2012 the most - recent explosion was conducted, an underground sub-critical test of the properties of plutonium.
Testing of the various effects of detonation of nuclear weapons was carried out during above - ground tests. Many kinds of vehicles (ranging from cars to aircraft), nuclear - fallout and standard bomb - shelters, public - utility stations and other building structures and equipment were placed at measured distances away from "ground zero '', the spot on the surface immediately under or over the center of the blast. Operation Cue tested civil defense measures. Such civilian and commercial effects testing was done with many of the atomic tests of Operation Greenhouse on Eniwetok Atoll, Operation Upshot - Knothole and Operation Teapot at the NTS.
Homes and commercial buildings of many different types and styles were built to standards typical of American and (less - often) European cities. Other such structures included military fortifications (of types used by both NATO and the Soviet - led Warsaw Pact) and civil - defense as well as "backyard '' - type shelters. In such a typical test, several of the same buildings and structures might be built using the same layouts and plans with different types of materials, paints, general landscaping, cleanliness of the surrounding yards, wall - angles or varying distances from ground zero. Mannequins were placed in and around the test vehicles and buildings, aside from some left out in the open, for testing clothing and shock effects.
High - speed cameras were placed in protected locations to capture effects of radiation and shock waves. Typical imagery from these cameras shows paint boiling off the buildings, which are then pushed violently away from ground zero by the shock wave before being drawn toward the detonation by the suction caused by the climbing mushroom cloud. Footage from these cameras has become iconic, used in various media and available in the public domain and on DVD.
This testing allowed the development of Civil Defense guidelines, distributed to the public, to increase the likelihood of survival in case of air - or spaceborne nuclear attack.
Each of the below ground explosions -- some as deep as 5,000 feet -- vaporized a large chamber, leaving a cavity filled with radioactive rubble. About a third of the tests were conducted directly in aquifers, and others were hundreds or thousands of feet below the water table.
When underground explosions ended in 1992, the Department of Energy estimated that more than 300 megacuries (11 EBq) of radioactivity remained in the environment at that time, making the site one of the most radioactively contaminated locations in the United States. In the most seriously affected zones, the concentration of radioactivity in groundwater reaches millions of picocuries per liter. (The federal standard for drinking water is 20 picocuries per liter (0.74 Bq / l).) Although radioactivity levels in the water continue to decline over time, the longer - lived isotopes like plutonium or uranium could pose risks to workers or future settlers on the NNSS for tens of thousands of years.
The Energy Department has 48 monitoring wells at the site, and began drilling nine deep wells in 2009. Because the contaminated water poses no immediate health threat, the department has ranked Nevada as low priority for cleaning up major nuclear weapons sites, and it operates far fewer wells than at most other contaminated sites. In 2009, tritium with a half - life of 12.3 years was first detected in groundwater off - site of the NTS northwest corner in Pahute Mesa, near where the 1968 Benham and 1975 Tybo tests were conducted.
The DOE issues an annual environmental monitoring report containing data from the 48 monitoring wells both on and off site.
From 1986 through 1994, two years after the United States put a hold on full - scale nuclear weapons testing, 536 demonstrations were held at the Nevada Test Site involving 37,488 participants and 15,740 arrests, according to government records.
On February 5, 1987, more than 400 people were arrested, when they tried to enter the nation 's nuclear proving grounds after nearly 2,000 demonstrators held a rally to protest nuclear weapons testing. Those arrested included the astronomer Carl Sagan and the actors Kris Kristofferson, Martin Sheen, and Robert Blake. Five Democratic members of Congress attended the rally: Thomas J. Downey, Mike Lowry, Jim Bates, Leon E. Panetta, and Barbara Boxer.
American Peace Test (APT) and Nevada Desert Experience (NDE) held most of these. In March 1988, APT held an event where more than 8,000 people attended a ten - day action to "Reclaim the Test Site '', where nearly 3,000 people were arrested with more than 1,200 in one day. This set a record for most civil disobedience arrests in a single protest. American Peace Test was collectively run by a group of individuals residing in Las Vegas, but leadership for the group was national. It originated with a small group of people who were active in the National Nuclear Weapons Freeze. APT was a breakaway organization beginning in 1986, with first public events held in 1987.
In the years that followed 1994, Shundahai Network in cooperation with Nevada Desert Experience and Corbin Harney continued the protests of the government 's continued nuclear weapons work and also staged efforts to stop a repository for highly radioactive waste adjacent to the test site at Yucca Mountain, 100 mi (160 km) northwest of Las Vegas.
The test site offers monthly public tours, often fully booked months in advance. Visitors are not allowed to bring in cameras, binoculars, or cell phones, nor are they permitted to pick up rocks for souvenirs.
While there are no longer any explosive tests of nuclear weapons at the site, there is still testing done to determine the viability of the United States ' aging nuclear arsenal. Additionally, the site is the location of the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Complex, which sorts and stores low - level radioactive waste that is not transuranic and has a half life not longer than 20 years. Bechtel Nevada Corporation (a joint venture of Lockheed Martin, Bechtel, and Johnson Controls) ran this complex until 2006. Several other companies won the bid for the contract since and combined to form a new company called National Security Technologies, LLC (a joint venture of Northrop Grumman, AECOM, CH2M Hill, and Nuclear Fuel Services until 2017.). Mission Support and Test Services, LLC took over the contract that year. AECOM, known earlier as Holmes and Narver, held the Nevada Test Site contract for many years before Bechtel Nevada Corporation had it.
The Radiological / Nuclear WMD Incident Exercise Site (T - 1), which replicates multiple terrorist radiological incidents with train, plane, automobile, truck, and helicopter props is located in Area 1, at the former site of tests EASY, SIMON, APPLE - 2, and GALILEO.
A table of interesting places in and around the NNSS is presented here, which corresponds with many of the descriptions in the Nevada Test Site Guide.
St. George, Utah received the brunt of the fallout of above - ground nuclear testing in the Yucca Flats / Nevada Test Site. Winds routinely carried the fallout of these tests directly through St. George and southern Utah. Marked increases in cancers such as leukemia, lymphoma, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, bone cancer, brain tumors, and gastrointestinal tract cancers were reported from the mid-1950s through 1980.
On May 19, 1953, the United States government detonated the 32 - kiloton (130 TJ) atomic bomb (nicknamed "Harry '') at the Nevada Test Site. The bomb later gained the name "Dirty Harry '' because of the tremendous amount of off - site fallout generated by the bomb. Winds carried fallout 135 miles (217 km) to St. George, where residents reported "an oddly metallic sort of taste in the air. ''
The Howard Hughes motion picture, The Conqueror, was being filmed in the area of St. George at the time of the detonation. The fallout is often blamed for the unusually high percentage of cancer deaths among the cast and crew. However, the rates of cancer from that cast and crew (> 90 out of 220) were almost identical to the general population, in which 43 % may be expected to contract cancer in their lifetimes, and 23 % die from it. Nonetheless, there are speculations of a connection.
A 1962 United States Atomic Energy Commission report found that "children living in St. George, Utah may have received doses to the thyroid of radioiodine as high as 120 to 440 rads '' (1.2 to 4.4 Gy). A 1979 study reported in the New England Journal of Medicine concluded that:
A significant excess of leukemia deaths occurred in children up to 14 years of age living in Utah between 1959 and 1967. This excess was concentrated in the cohort of children born between 1951 and 1958, and was most pronounced in those residing in counties receiving high fallout.
In 1982, a lawsuit brought by nearly 1,200 people accused the government of negligence in atomic and / or nuclear weapons testing at the Nevada Test Site in the 1950s, which they said had caused leukemia and other cancers. Dr. Karl Z. Morgan, Director of Health Physics at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, testified that radiation protection measures in the tests were substandard to what was becoming known of best practices at the time.
In a report by the National Cancer Institute, released in 1997, it was determined that ninety atmospheric tests at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) deposited high levels of radioactive iodine - 131 (5.5 exabecquerels) across a large portion of the contiguous United States, especially in the years 1952, 1953, 1955, and 1957 -- doses large enough, they determined, to produce 10,000 to 75,000 cases of thyroid cancer. The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 allowed for people living downwind of NTS for at least two years in particular Nevada, Arizona, or Utah counties, between 21 January 1951 and 31 October 1958, or 30 June and 31 July 1962, and suffering from certain cancers or other serious illnesses deemed to have been caused by fallout exposure to receive compensation of $50,000. By January 2006, over 10,500 claims had been approved, and around 3,000 denied, for a total amount of over $525 million in compensation dispensed to "downwinders ''. By May 2014, the numbers of claims approved had reached 28,880, for a total compensation of $1.9 billion. Additionally, the Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act of 2000 provides compensation and medical benefits for nuclear weapons workers who may have developed certain work - related illnesses.
Uranium miners, mill workers, and ore transporters are also eligible for $100,000 compassionate payment under the Radiation Exposure Compensation Program, while $75,000 is the fixed payment amount for workers who were participants in the above - ground nuclear weapons tests.
The Test Site is broken down into areas. Some of the areas and their uses include the following:
Area 1 held eight nuclear tests for a total of nine detonations. Four early atmospheric tests were conducted above Area 1 in the early 1950s, as well as three underground tests in 1971 and 1990. In 1955, a Civil Defense experiment (called Operation Cue in the press) studied nuclear blast effects on various building types; a few structures still stand.
Heavy drilling equipment and concrete construction facilities are sited in Area 1. Non-destructive X-ray, gamma ray, and subcritical detonation tests continue to be conducted in Area 1.
The radioactivity present on the ground in Area 1 provides a radiologically contaminated environment for the training of first responders.
Area 2 is a division of the Nevada Test Site in the Mojave Desert. The area is located 18 miles south - west of Area 51.
Area 2 was the site of 144 tests comprising 169 detonations. Shot "Gabbs '', intended for 1993, was abandoned in place.
Area 3 held 266 nuclear tests for a total of 288 detonations, more than in any other area of the NTS.
As part of Operation Tinderbox, on 24 June 1980, a small satellite prototype (DSCS III) was subjected to radioactivity from the "Huron King '' shot in a vertical line - of - sight (VLOS) test undertaken in Area 3. This was a program to improve the database on nuclear hardening design techniques for defense satellites.
The final nuclear test detonation at Nevada Test Site was Operation Julin 's "Divider '' on 23 September 1992, just prior to the moratorium temporarily ending all nuclear testing. Divider was a safety experiment test shot that was detonated at the bottom of a shaft sunk into Area 3.
In 1995 and 1997, plutonium - contaminated soil from "Double Tracks '' and "Clean Slate 1 '' of Operation Roller Coaster (1963) was picked up from the Tonopah Test Range and brought to the Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site as a first step in eventually returning Tonopah Test Range to an environmentally neutral state. Corrective action regarding the contaminated material from the "Clean Slate 2 '' and "Clean Slate 3 '' tests has yet to be agreed upon.
Area 4 held 40 nuclear tests for a total of 44 detonations.
It is home to the Big Explosives Experimental Facility (BEEF).
Area 5 held 19 nuclear tests. Five atmospheric tests were detonated, starting on 27 January 1951 at Area 5 as part of Operation Ranger. These were the first nuclear tests at NTS. Further tower detonations were studied at Area 5, and the Grable shot which was fired from a M65 Atomic Cannon located in Area 11 exploded in Area 5. The Priscilla test was conducted at Area 5 on 24 June 1957.
Five underground tests were set up at Area 5; four of those suffered accidental release of radioactive materials. On 16 March 1968, physicist Glenn T. Seaborg toured the upcoming Milk Shake shot of Operation Crosstie. Milk Shake 's radioactive release was not detected outside of NTS boundaries.
Area 6 held four nuclear tests for a total of six detonations. The only two towns to be established within the boundaries of NTS prior to 1947, BJ Wye and Mule Lick, are located in Yucca Flats, in Area 6. The area features an asphalt runway, that was constructed on top of a dirt landing strip, that existed since the 1950s. Some buildings, including a hangar, are situated near the runway.
The Device Assembly Facility (DAF) was originally built to consolidate nuclear explosives assembly operations. It now serves as the Criticality Experiments Facility (CEF).
The Control Point is the communication hub of the NTS. It was used by controllers to trigger and monitor nuclear test explosions.
In 1982, while a live nuclear bomb was being lowered underground, the base came under attack by armed combatants. The combatants turned out to be a security team conducting an improperly scheduled drill.
Area 7 held 92 nuclear tests.
During Operation Buster, four successful tests were conducted via airdrop, with bomber aircraft releasing nuclear weapons over Area 7.
It is also the site of Matthew Reilly 's book called Area 7.
Shot "Icecap '' planned for 1993 was abandoned in Area 7 following 1992 's testing moratorium. The tower, shaft and wiring remain in place, along with a crane intended to lower the nuclear test package into the shaft.
Area 8 held 13 nuclear tests for a total of 15 detonations.
Area 8 hosted the "Baneberry '' shot of Operation Emery on 18 December 1970. The Baneberry 10 kt (42 TJ) test detonated 900 feet (270 m) below the surface but its energy cracked the soil in unexpected ways, causing a fissure near ground zero and the failure of the shaft stemming and cap. A plume of fire and dust was released, raining fallout on workers in different locations within NTS. The radioactive plume released 6.7 megacuries (250 PBq) of radioactive material, including 80 kCi (3.0 PBq) of Iodine.
Area 9 held 115 nuclear tests for a total of 133 detonations.
In Area 9, the 74 kt (310 TJ) "Hood '' test on 5 July 1957, part of Operation Plumbbob, was the largest atmospheric test ever conducted within the continental United States; nearly five times larger in yield than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima. A balloon carried Hood up to 460 meters above the ground where it was detonated. Over 2,000 troops took part in the test in order to train them in conducting operations on the nuclear battlefield. 11 megacuries (410 PBq) of iodine - 131 (I) were released into the air.
Area 10 held 57 nuclear tests for a total of 71 detonations.
The first underground test at NTS was the "Uncle '' shot of Operation Jangle. Uncle detonated on 29 November 1951 within a shaft sunk into Area 10.
The "John '' shot of Plumbbob, on 19 July 1957, was the first test firing of the nuclear - tipped AIR - 2 Genie air - to - air rocket designed to destroy incoming enemy bombers with a nuclear explosion. The 2 kt (8.4 TJ) warhead exploded approximately three miles above five volunteers and a photographer who stood unprotected at "ground zero '' in Area 10 to show the apparent safety of battlefield nuclear weapons to personnel on the ground. The test also demonstrated the ability of a fighter aircraft to deliver a nuclear - tipped rocket and avoid being destroyed in the process. A Northrop F - 89J fired the rocket.
The "Sedan '' test of Operation Storax on 6 July 1962, a 104 kt (440 TJ) shot for the Operation Plowshare which sought to discover whether nuclear weapons could be used for peaceful means in creating lakes, bays or canals. The explosion displaced twelve million tons of earth, creating the Sedan crater which is 1,280 feet (390 m) wide and 320 feet (100 m) deep.
Area 11 held 9 nuclear tests. Four of the tests were weapons safety experiments conducted as Project 56; they spread so much harmful radioactive material around the test sites that Area 11 has been called "Plutonium Valley ''. As is the case with Area 1, background radiation levels make Area 11 suitable for realistic training in methods of radiation detection.
Area 12 held 61 nuclear tests between 1957 and 1992, one of which involved two detonations. All tests were conducted below Rainier and Aqueduct mesas.
Area 12 was the primary location for tunnel tests and used almost exclusively for that purpose. The tunnel complexes mined into Rainier and Aqueduct Mesa include the B -, C -, D -, E -, F -, G -, I -, J -, K -, N -, P -, and T - Tunnel complexes, and the R - and S - shafts.
There is no Area 13 within NNSS, though such a name is attached to a section of Nellis Air Force Range which abuts the northeastern corner of Area 15. Project 57 's weapons safety test was conducted here on 24 April 1957, spreading particles emitting alpha radiation over a large area.
Area 14 occupies approximately 26 square miles (67 km) in the central portion of the NNSS. Various outdoor experiments are conducted in this area. No atmospheric or underground nuclear tests were conducted in Area 14.
Three underground detonations took place in area 15 in the 1960s.
Pile Driver was a notable Department of Defense test. A large underground installation was built to study the survivability of hardened underground bunkers undergoing a nuclear attack. Information from the test was used in designing hardened missile silos and the North American Aerospace Defense Command facility in Colorado Springs.
The abandoned Crystal and Climax mines are found in Area 15. Storage tanks hold contaminated materials.
From 1964 to 1981, the Environmental Protection Agency operated a 36 - acre (150,000 m) experimental farm in Area 15. Extensive plant and soil studies evaluated the uptake of pollutants in farm - grown vegetables and from the forage eaten by a dairy herd of some 30 Holstein cows. Scientists also studied horses, pigs, goats, and chickens.
Area 16 held six nuclear tests.
No nuclear tests took place in Area 17.
Area 18 held five nuclear tests. and includes the Pahute Mesa Airstrip.
Pahute Mesa is one of four major nuclear test regions within the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS). It occupies 243 square miles (630 km) in the northwest corner of the NNSS. The eastern section is known as Area 19 and the western section as Area 20.
A total of 85 nuclear tests were conducted in Pahute Mesa between 1965 and 1992. Three of them -- Boxcar, Benham and Handley -- had a yield of over one megaton. Three tests were conducted as part of Operation Plowshare and one as part of Vela Uniform.
No nuclear tests took place in Area 22. Area 22 once held Camp Desert Rock, a staging base for troops undergoing atmospheric nuclear blast training; as many as 9,000 troops were camped there in 1955. Desert Rock Airport 's runway was enlarged to a 7,500 ft (2,300 m) length in 1969 by the Atomic Energy Commission. It is a transport hub for personnel and supplies going to NNSS and also serves as an emergency landing strip.
No nuclear tests took place in Area 23. The town of Mercury, Nevada lies within Area 23. The area is the main pathway to and from NNSS test locations by way of U.S. Route 95. An open sanitary landfill is located to the west of Mercury, and a closed hazardous waste site abuts the landfill. Mercury is also the main management area for the site which includes a bar and large cafeteria, printing plant, medical center, warehousing, fleet management, liquidation and recycling center, engineering offices, dormitories, and other administrative areas for both the O&M contractors, LLNL, LANL, and SNL personnel. At its height in the 1950s and ' 60s it also held several restaurants, a bowling alley, a movie theater, and a motel.
No nuclear tests took place in Area 26, the most arid section of the NNSS. An old abandoned mine, the Horn Silver Mine, was used for waste disposal between 1959 and the 1970s; some of the waste is radioactive. Water flow past the shaft could pose a human health risk, so corrective action has been planned.
In 1983 the Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency performed the NUWAX - 83 tests near Port Gaston in Area 26, simulating the explosion of a nuclear - armed helicopter and the resulting spread of nuclear debris over 65 acres. The radioactive material used to simulate the accident became inert in less than six months.
An eight - square - mile complex was constructed in Area 26 in support of Project Pluto. It consisted of six miles of roads, the critical assembly building, the control building, the assembly and shop buildings, and utilities. Those buildings have been used recently as mock reactor facilities in the training of first responders.
Area 28 no longer exists; it was absorbed into Areas 25 and 27.
No nuclear tests took place in Area 29. The rugged terrain of Area 29 serves as a buffer between other areas of NNSS. A helipad is present at Shoshone Peak.
Area 30 occupies approximately 59 square miles (150 km) at the center of the western edge of the NNSS. Area 30 has rugged terrain and includes the northern reaches of Fortymile Canyon. It is used primarily for military training and exercises.
Area 30 was the site of a single nuclear test, the Crosstie Buggy row charge experiment, part of Operation Plowshare, which involved five simultaneous detonations.
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top 10 goal scorers in la liga history | List of La Liga top scorers - wikipedia
Since the 1929 formation of La Liga, Spain 's top division of association football, a total of 56 players have finished as the competition 's top goalscorer. As no official recognition exists in Spain for the league top scorer, the following data is based on official match reports provided by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional and may differ from independent research and the unofficial Pichichi Trophy awarded by the newspaper Marca.
La Liga 's all - time top goalscorer is Barcelona 's Lionel Messi, who also holds the record for most goals scored in a season with 50 goals in 2011 -- 12. Athletic Bilbao 's Telmo Zarra, who was the competition 's all - time top scorer until 2014, was top scorer in six seasons between 1945 and 1953. Three other players -- Real Madrid 's Alfredo Di Stéfano, Quini of Sporting de Gijón and Barcelona, and Hugo Sánchez of Atlético Madrid and Real Madrid -- each finished as top scorer in five seasons.
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who plays mary cooper on big bang theory | Laurie Metcalf - Wikipedia
Laura Elizabeth Metcalf (born June 16, 1955) is an American actress. The recipient of numerous acting awards and nominations, she has won three Primetime Emmy Awards, two Tony Awards, and has been nominated at the Golden Globe Awards and Academy Awards in her 40 + year career.
Metcalf began her career with the Steppenwolf Theater Company and frequently works in Chicago theater, including the 1983 revival of Balm in Gilead. From 1988 to 1997 and in 2018, Metcalf played the role of Jackie Harris on the ABC sitcom Roseanne, for which she won three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1992 -- 1994). She also was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards. A ten - time Emmy Award nominee, Metcalf 's television credits include 3rd Rock from the Sun, The Norm Show, Frasier, Desperate Housewives, and The Big Bang Theory. From 2013 to 2015, she played a leading role of Dr. Jenna James in the HBO comedy series Getting On, for which she received critical acclaim and a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series.
For her stage performances and work on Broadway, Metcalf has received five Tony Award nominations, winning Best Actress in a Play in 2017 for her performance in A Doll 's House, Part 2 and Best Featured Actress in a Play for the 2018 revival of Edward Albee 's Three Tall Women. She starred as Mary Tyrone in a London production of Eugene O'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night at the Apollo Theatre in 2012. She has also received a Theatre World Award and two Obie Awards for her Off - Broadway work.
Metcalf has starred in numerous films, including Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), Uncle Buck (1989), Internal Affairs (1990), Pacific Heights (1990), JFK (1991), A Dangerous Woman (1993), Leaving Las Vegas (1995), Dear God (1996), Scream 2 (1997), and Meet the Robinsons (2007). She also voiced the role of Mrs. Davis in the acclaimed Toy Story film series. In 2017, Metcalf received critical acclaim for her performance in Greta Gerwig 's comedy - drama film Lady Bird, for which she was nominated for an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a SAG Award, and a BAFTA Award.
Metcalf was born in Carbondale, Illinois, the eldest of three children. She, her brother James and her sister Linda were raised in Edwardsville, Illinois, which she has said "is n't anywhere near a theatre. '' Her father, James, was the budget director at Southern Illinois University - Edwardsville at the time of his sudden death in 1984. Her mother, Libby, was a librarian. Her great - aunt was the Pulitzer Prize - winning playwright Zoë Akins. She is an alumna of Illinois State University, class of 1976.
Metcalf, who worked as a secretary while in college, said she enjoyed seeing a pile of paper in the to - do box on one side of her desk move over to the completed side by the end of the day. She was often so focused on her work she missed lunch. She originally majored in German, thinking she could work as an interpreter, and then in Anthropology before accepting that majoring in Theatre was her true passion. She has said that theatre work also involves interpreting and studying human behavior. She has described herself as hideously shy, and yet she found the courage to audition for a few plays in high school and was "hooked. '' She initially did not choose acting as a career because it was unlikely to lead to regular work.
Metcalf attended Illinois State University and earned her Bachelor of Arts in Theater in 1976. While at ISU, she met fellow theater students, among them John Malkovich, Glenne Headly, Joan Allen, Terry Kinney, and Jeff Perry, the latter two of whom, along with Perry 's high school classmate Gary Sinise, went on to establish Chicago 's famed Steppenwolf Theatre Company. Metcalf began her professional career at Steppenwolf, of which she was a charter member. Metcalf went to New York to appear in an Off - Broadway Steppenwolf production of Balm in Gilead at Circle Repertory in 1984 for which she received the 1984 Obie Award for Best Actress and a 1984 -- 85 Theatre World Award (for best debut in a Broadway or Off - Broadway performance). Metcalf was praised for her performance as Darlene, and was specifically singled out for her twenty - minute act two monologue. Chicago critic Richard Christiansen said of her performance:
There 's a moment when Laurie Metcalf -- who plays this poor young thing that comes to the big city and hangs out at this greasy spoon diner where the play is set -- is talking about her once boyfriend who is an albino; I think it 's a monologue of about five, six, seven minutes. Just to sit there and watch and hear Laurie unspool that story, it just brought tears coming down your eyes -- oh, boy, it was something.
Metcalf relocated to New York City and began to work in both film and theater, including such productions as David Mamet 's November on Broadway in 2008.
Through June 2009, Metcalf starred with French Stewart in Justin Tanner 's play, Voice Lessons, in Hollywood before beginning rehearsals to play Kate Jerome in the Broadway revival of Neil Simon 's semi-autobiographical plays Brighton Beach Memoirs and Broadway Bound, directed by David Cromer. The former production 's run, however, lasted for 9 performances in October 2009, while the latter was canceled prior to opening.
Voice Lessons, however, with its original cast intact, went on to three more runs -- one Off - Broadway in May 2010, another in Hollywood in May 2011, and another in Chicago in May 2016.
In September 2010, Metcalf returned to Steppenwolf and starred in Lisa D'Amour 's play, Detroit.
In March 2011, she appeared Off - Broadway in The Other Place by Sharr White. She won the 2011 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Lead Actress, and the 2011 Obie Award, Performance for The Other Place.
In 2012, Metcalf joined David Suchet in a West End production of Eugene O'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night, for which she was nominated for the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actress.
The Other Place transferred to Broadway in 2013, with Metcalf reprising her role and earning Tony and Drama League nominations. She starred with her real - life daughter, Zoe Perry.
In October 2013, Metcalf performed with Jeff Goldblum in Domesticated, by Bruce Norris at the Off - Broadway Mitzi Newhouse Theater of Lincoln Center. She was nominated for the 2014 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Play; the 2014 Drama League Award, Distinguished Performance; and the 2014 Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actress in a Play for Domesticated.
She was then cast in the role of Annie Wilkes in the Broadway production of Stephen King 's Misery, opposite Bruce Willis. The play premiered on November 15, 2015. It received mixed reviews from critics, however Metcalf 's performance was widely acclaimed. She was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, her third Tony nomination overall.
Metcalf returned to Broadway in A Doll 's House, Part 2 by Lucas Hnath, which opened in April 2017. She received critical acclaim for her performance and earned nominations for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, the Drama Desk Award, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance, and the Outer Critics Circle Award, winning the Tony Award.
Metcalf returned to Broadway in the 2018 revival of Three Tall Women. She won her second consecutive Tony Award, this time for Best Featured Actress in a Play.
Metcalf has performed in roles that range from very large to very small in many films, including Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), Making Mr. Right, Miles from Home, Internal Affairs, Stars and Bars, Beer League, Mistress, A Dangerous Woman, Uncle Buck, Blink, The Secret Life of Houses, Treasure Planet, Toy Story, Runaway Bride, Bulworth, Meet the Robinsons, Georgia Rule, Fun with Dick and Jane, Leaving Las Vegas, Scream 2, Stop Loss, and Hop.
Metcalf has often appeared against type in both film and television; in JFK (1991), she played a dramatic role as one of Jim Garrison 's chief investigators. She appeared as the murderous mother of Billy Loomis in the horror film Scream 2 (1997); and portrayed real - life Carolyn McCarthy in the television movie The Long Island Incident (1998).
Metcalf has appeared in several television series, including being a cast member for a single episode of Saturday Night Live -- the final episode of the show 's tumultuous 1980 -- 1981 season. In 1981, she appeared as a feature player on the first Dick Ebersol - produced episode of Saturday Night Live following the firing of Jean Doumanian. She appeared in a Weekend Update segment about taking a bullet for the President of the United States. Because of the sketch show 's severe decline in quality at the time and the 1981 Writers Guild of America strike, the show was put on hiatus for retooling. Metcalf was never asked back to be a cast member.
Metcalf is perhaps best known for her role as Jackie Harris, the multiple - careered, low self - esteemed, amiable sister of the title character, in the hit series Roseanne. Her performance garnered three consecutive Emmy Awards. Roseanne originally ran from 1988 to 1997. On April 28, 2017, it was announced that a revival of Roseanne was in the works and that Metcalf along with most of the original cast and some of the producers would return for the limited series that was being shopped around with ABC and Netflix the frontrunners to land the show. On May 16, 2017 it was confirmed that eight episodes would air mid-season in 2018 on ABC. On May 29, 2018, in the wake of racist remarks made by Barr on Twitter regarding Valerie Jarrett (an advisor of former president Barack Obama), ABC cancelled the revival after a single season. Metcalf appeared as Jackie over the show 's entire run. Metcalf reprised her role in The Conners, a spinoff of Roseanne without Barr 's involvement which premiered in fall 2018.
She subsequently appeared with Norm Macdonald on The Norm Show (or Norm), which ran for three seasons (1999 -- 2001), and was also a regular character on the 2003 Nathan Lane series Charlie Lawrence, which was cancelled after the airing of two episodes. Metcalf has made guest appearances on Absolutely Fabulous, Malcolm in the Middle, My Boys, Dharma & Greg, Frasier, The Big Bang Theory, Without a Trace, 3rd Rock from the Sun, and Monk. She was nominated for the Emmy Award as Outstanding Guest Actress In A Comedy Series for both of the latter two listed roles.
Metcalf took a recurring role on Desperate Housewives -- for which she received Emmy (also in the category Outstanding Guest Actress In A Comedy Series) and Satellite Award nominations -- and also appeared alongside her ex-husband Jeff Perry in an episode of Grey 's Anatomy. In fall 2008, Metcalf starred in the CW dramedy Easy Money, as the matriarch of a family of loan sharks. The series was canceled after three episodes.
Metcalf starred in HBO comedy series Getting On during its run from 2013 -- 15. Alongside this role, she was the lead actress in the short - lived CBS sitcom The McCarthys (2014 -- 15).
In 2017, Metcalf received critical acclaim for her performance in Lady Bird, a comedy - drama film directed by Greta Gerwig. For her performance, she was nominated for numerous awards, including the Golden Globe Award, the SAG Award, and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.
In 1983, Metcalf married Jeff Perry, co-founding member of Steppenwolf Theatre Company. They had a daughter, Zoe Perry, in 1983. They divorced in 1992.
Metcalf later began a relationship with Matt Roth, the Roseanne co-star who played her abusive boyfriend, Fisher. By November 1993 they had a son, Will, and eventually married. They also worked together on occasion, as in the 1994 feature film thriller Blink and the 1998 drama Chicago Cab; they also appeared together in an episode of Desperate Housewives. Their daughter, Mae Akins, was born in 2005 via surrogate. They had a second son, Donovan, whom they fostered at six years old in 2006 and permanently adopted. On November 26, 2008, Metcalf and Roth separated. In September 2011, Roth filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. In May 2014, the divorce was finalized.
Metcalf has self - disclosed as a workaholic and that she is hard on herself during rehearsals. She has often said that she prefers theatre over other acting mediums as it is where she feels most comfortable.
She has also appeared in commercials for Plan USA, a humanitarian organization which helps children in need around the world.
Sources: TCM; Film Reference; Rotten Tomatoes; AllMovie
Sources: Film Reference; Rotten Tomatoes; AllMovie
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what does the ductus arteriosus become following birth | Ductus arteriosus - wikipedia
In the developing fetus, the ductus arteriosus, also called the ductus Botalli, is a blood vessel connecting the main pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta. It allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to bypass the fetus 's fluid - filled non-functioning lungs. Upon closure at birth, it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum. There are two other fetal shunts, the ductus venosus and the foramen ovale.
The ductus arteriosus is formed from the left 6th aortic arch during embryonic development and attaches to the final part of the aortic arch (the isthmus of aorta) and the first part of the pulmonary artery
Failure of the DA to close after birth results in a condition called patent ductus arteriosus and the generation of a left - to - right shunt. If left uncorrected, patency leads to pulmonary hypertension and possibly congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias.
The E series of prostaglandins are responsible for maintaining the patency of the DA (by dilation of vascular smooth muscle) throughout the fetal period. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE), produced by both the placenta and the DA itself, is the most potent of the E prostaglandins, but prostaglandin E1 (PGE) also has a role in keeping the DA open. PGE and PGE keep the DA open via involvement of specific PGE - sensitive receptors (such as EP4 and EP2). EP4 is the major receptor associated with PGE - induced dilation of the DA and can be found across the DA in smooth muscle cells. Immediately after birth, the levels of both PGE and the EP4 receptors reduce significantly, allowing for closure of the DA and establishment of normal postnatal circulation. According to one study, median DA persistency times were 27.42 and 45.10 h after birth in boys and girls, respectively. A statistically significant sex difference was observed (p < 0.0001). Additionally, significant time differences were observed between vaginal and scheduled caesarean deliveries, at 26.97 and 28.93 h, respectively (p = 0.0245).
In some types of congenital heart defect (e.g., transposition of the great arteries), prostaglandins may be administered to maintain DA patency, allowing for the continual circulation and oxygenation of blood, until surgery can be performed.
DA closure may be induced by administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which inhibit prostaglandin production. The most common NSAID that is used to force DA closure is Indomethacin (a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor), which can be administered after birth (used in first week of life). However, in the presence of a congenital defect with impaired lung perfusion (e.g. Pulmonary stenosis and left - to - right shunt through the ductus), it may be advisable to improve oxygenation by maintaining the ductus open with prostaglandin treatment. However, such treatments are ineffective in an abnormal ductus. Persistence of the ductus may be associated with other abnormalities, and is much more common in females. By inhibiting PGE formation, EP4 receptor activation will decrease and normal circulation can begin. NSAIDs taken late in pregnancy can cross the placenta and lead to premature closure of the DA in the fetus. In this case, exogenous PDE can be administered to reverse the effects of the NSAIDs and maintain the patency of the DA for the remainder of the pregnancy.
A patent ductus arteriosus affects approximately 4 % of infants with Down syndrome (DS). A failure to thrive is a very common sign of this condition.
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when did the show big brother first air | Big Brother (U.S. TV series) - Wikipedia
In the House:
Out of the House: Housemates were evicted unless noted.
Runner - up: Ross Mathews
Others: Mark McGrath, Ariadna Gutiérrez, Omarosa, James Maslow, Brandi Glanville, Metta World Peace, Shannon Elizabeth, Keshia Knight Pulliam, Chuck Liddell
Runner - up: Paul Abrahamian
Others: Christmas Abbott, Kevin Schlehuber, Alex Ow, Raven Walton, Jason Dent, Matthew Cines, Mark Jansen, Elena Davies, Cody Nickson, Jessica Graf, Ramses Soto, Dominique Cooper, Jillian Parker, Megan Lowder (walked), Cameron Heard
Runner - up: Jason Roy
2nd Runner - up: Kryssie Ridolfi
Others: Justin Duncan, Shelby Stockton, Danielle Lickey, Whitney Hogg, Alex Willett, Scott Dennis, Neeley Jackson, Shane Chapman, Monte Massongill, Michael "Cornbread '' Ligon
Runner - up: Paul Abrahamian
Others: James Huling, Corey Brooks, Victor Arroyo, Natalie Negrotti, Michelle Meyer, Paulie Calafiore, Bridgette Dunning, Zakiyah Everette, Da'Vonne Rogers, Frank Eudy, Tiffany Rousso, Bronte D'Acquisto, Jozea Flores, Glenn Garcia
Runner - up: Liz Nolan
Others: Vanessa Rousso, John McGuire, Austin Matelson, Julia Nolan, James Huling, Meg Maley, Becky Burgess, Jackie Ibarra, Shelli Poole, Clay Honeycutt, Jason Roy, Audrey Middleton, Jeff Weldon, Da'Vonne Rogers, Jace Agolli
Runner - up: Cody Calafiore
Others: Victoria Rafaeli, Caleb Reynolds, Frankie Grande, Christine Brecht, Nicole Franzel, Donny Thompson, Zach Rance, Hayden Voss, Jocasta Odom, Amber Borzotra, Brittany Martinez, Devin Shepherd, Paola Shea, Joey Van Pelt
Runner - up: GinaMarie Zimmerman
Others: Spencer Clawson, McCrae Olson, Judd Daugherty, Elissa Slater, Amanda Zuckerman, Aaryn Gries, Helen Kim, Jessie Kowalski, Candice Stewart, Howard Overby, Kaitlin Barnaby, Jeremy McGuire, Nick Uhas, David Girton
Runner - up: Dan Gheesling
Others: Danielle Murphree, Shane Meaney, Jenn Arroyo, Joe Arvin, Frank Eudy, Britney Haynes, Ashley Iocco, Mike "Boogie '' Malin, Wil Heuser, Janelle Pierzina, JoJo Spatafora, Willie Hantz (expelled), Kara Monaco, Jodi Rollins
Runner - up: Porsche Briggs
Others: Adam Poch, Jordan Lloyd, Kalia Booker, Shelly Moore, Jeff Schroeder, Daniele Donato, Brendon Villegas, Lawon Exum, Dominic Briones, Cassi Colvin, Keith Henderson, Dick Donato (walked)
Runner - up: Lane Elenburg
Others: Enzo Palumbo, Britney Haynes, Ragan Fox, Brendon Villegas, Matt Hoffman, Kathy Hillis, Rachel Reilly, Kristen Bitting, Andrew Gordon, Monet Stunson, Annie Whittington
Runner - up: Natalie Martinez
Others: Kevin Campbell, Michele Noonan, Jeff Schroeder, Russell Kairouz, Lydia Tavera, Chima Simone (expelled), Jessie Godderz, Ronnie Talbott, Casey Turner, Laura Crosby, Braden Bacha
Runner - up: Robert "Memphis '' Garrett
Others: Jerry MacDonald, Keesha Smith, Lorenza "Renny '' Martyn, Bryan Ollie, Michelle Costa, April Dowling, Libra Thompson, Jessie Godderz, Angie Swindell, Steven Daigle, Brian Hart
Runner - up: Ryan Quicksall
Others: Sheila Kennedy, Sharon Obermueller, Natalie Cunial, James Zinkland, Joshuah Welch, Chelsia Hart, Matt McDonald, Allison Nichols, Alex Coladonato, Amanda Hansen, Jen Diturno, Parker Somerville, Neil Garcia (walked), Jacob Heald
Runner - up: Daniele Donato
Others: Zach Swerdzewski, Jameka Cameron, Eric Stein, Jessica Hughbanks, Amber Tomcavage, Jen Johnson, Dustin Erikstrup, Kail Harbick, Nick Starcevic, Mike Dutz, Joe Barber, Carol Journey
Runner - up: Erika Landin
Others: Janelle Pierzina, Will Kirby, George Boswell, Danielle Reyes, James Rhine, Howie Gordon, Marcellas Reynolds, Kaysar Ridha, Diane Henry, Jase Wirey, Nakomis Dedmon, Alison Irwin
Runner - up: Ivette Corredero
Others: Janelle Pierzina, April Lewis, Howie Gordon, Beau Beasley, James Rhine, Rachel Plencner, Jennifer Vasquez, Kaysar Ridha, Sarah Hrejsa, Eric Littmann, Michael Donnellan, Ashlea Evans
Runner - up: Michael "Cowboy '' Ellis
Others: Diane Henry, Jennifer "Nakomis '' Dedmon, Karen O'Neil Ganci, Marvin Latimer, Adria Montgomery - Klein, Natalie Montgomery - Carroll, Will Wikle, Jase Wirey, Scott Long, Holly King, Lori Valenti, Mike Lubinski
Runner - up: Alison Irwin
Others: Robert Roman, Erika Landin, Jee Choe, Jack Owens, Justin Giovinco, Nathan Marlow, Dana Varela, David Lane, Michelle Maradie, Amanda Craig, Scott Weintraub (expelled)
Runner - up: Danielle Reyes
Others: Jason Guy, Amy Crews, Marcellas Reynolds, Roddy Mancuso, Gerry Lancaster, Chiara Berti, Josh Feinberg, Eric Ouellette, Tonya Paoni, Lori Olsen
Runner - up: Nicole Schaffrich
Others: Monica Bailey, Hardy Ames - Hill, Bill "Bunky '' Miller, Krista Stegall, Kent Blackwelder, Mike "Boogie '' Malin, Shannon Dragoo, Autumn Daly, Sheryl Braxton, Justin Sebik (expelled)
Runner - up: Josh Souza
2nd Runner - up: Curtis Kin
Others: Jamie Kern, George Boswell, Cassandra Waldon, Brittany Petros, Karen Fowler, Jean Jordan, William Collins
Big Brother is a television reality game show based on an originally Dutch TV series of the same name created by producer John de Mol in 1997. The series follows a diverse group of contestants, known as HouseGuests, who are living together in a custom - built home under constant surveillance. The HouseGuests are completely isolated from the outside world and can have no communication with those not in the house. The contestants are competing for a $500,000 grand prize, with weekly competitions and evictions determining who will win the show. The series takes its name from the character in George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty - Four. The series launched on July 5, 2000 to a successful start, though ratings and critical reaction continued to grow increasingly negative. This led to the second season being a revamp of the show, featuring a more competition - based challenge. The series has since continued to be a hit for CBS, and is the second longest - running adaptation of the series to date, after the Spanish adaptation.
The series currently has two spin - offs: Big Brother: Over The Top, which was the first reality game show to air exclusively on a streaming platform airing in Fall 2016 on CBS 's streaming service, CBS All Access; and Celebrity Big Brother, which aired on CBS in February 2018.
CBS also renewed the series for a 19th and 20th season. The 19th season premiered on June 28, 2017, the 20th season premiered on June 27, 2018.
The series was bought by CBS in early 2000 for an estimated $20 million. The United States version of the series officially premiered on July 5, 2000 when the original ten housemates entered the house. Since its inception, the show has been hosted by television personality Julie Chen. It is produced by Allison Grodner and Rich Meehan for Fly on the Wall Entertainment and Endemol Shine North America (formerly Endemol USA). The success of the series has spawned several spin - offs. The series airs once a year, during the summer, with the exception of the ninth season which aired in spring of 2008 and the Over the Top spinoff series broadcasting in fall 2016. Currently, 19 seasons of the show have aired, along with one digital season. The show has aired a total of 545 episodes since it premiered, with the September 5, 2013 airing marking the 500th episode. To date, there have been a total of 253 HouseGuests compete in the series. Upon entering the house, the HouseGuests who leave the house without permission are not allowed to return. Should a HouseGuest break the rules set in the house, they can be expelled from the house. To date, three HouseGuests have self - evicted for personal matters, while four HouseGuests were expelled from the house because of acts of violence and / or rule - breaking.
Since its premiere, there have been numerous companion programs to the show. In 2004, the web series House Calls: The Big Brother Talk Show (2004 -- 08) began airing. The series, which lasted for thirty minutes and aired on weeknights, allowed fans to call in and discuss the events of the game. This made House Calls the first live Internet talk show produced exclusively for a television network. The series was initially hosted by Gretchen Massey and Big Brother 3 (2002) HouseGuest Marcellas Reynolds during its first two seasons. Beginning with the show 's third season, a new co-host was featured on the series each day, with some returning more than once. During the show 's fifth and sixth seasons, each co-host was given a designated day of the week to host alongside Gretchen. Following the show 's sixth season, it was confirmed that it would not be renewed.
Big Brother: After Dark, a second companion series, was debuted in 2007 and aired on Showtime Too nightly from 12 a.m. to 3 a.m. Eastern Time. The series continued this schedule until 2013, when it was moved to TVGN (now Pop).
Former HouseGuest Jeff Schroeder began hosting the Big Brother: Live Chat online discussion show in 2012, where he interviewed the HouseGuests both before they enter the house and following their evictions. He also performed post-finale backyard interviews with the cast. On August 10, 2017, Schroeder announced that he was moving to Colorado and would no longer be able to do the interviews.
For Big Brother 20, the "Live Chat '' was replaced by Off the Block with Ross and Marissa. Hosted by former Celebrity HouseGuests Marissa Jaret Winokur and Ross Mathews, the show is set to air on Fridays on Facebook following the live eviction.
There have been two spin - off editions of Big Brother. In October 2016, CBS premiered a spin - off web series, Big Brother: Over the Top, as an original series for CBS All Access. Unlike the flagship, television version, it was broadcast exclusively online with a shorter, 10 - week season.
The second spin - off, Celebrity Big Brother, was aired on CBS on February 7, 2018.
Though not an actual spin - off, the Canadian edition of the series is the first and currently only series to adopt the American format of Big Brother. However, other franchises such as Big Brother Brasil soon adopted the Veto Competition, Have / Have - Nots, and Head of Household into their format while still incorporating the international public vote format.
Big Brother is a game show in which a group of contestants, referred to as HouseGuests, live in a custom - built "house '' (actually a set built on a CBS stage in Los Angeles, Stage 18 since season 6), constantly under video surveillance. While in the house, the contestants are completely isolated from the outside world, meaning no phone, television, Internet, magazines, newspaper, or contact with those not in the house. This rule could be broken, however, in the event of a medical injury, a family emergency, or death. The format of the series is mainly seen as a social experiment, and requires HouseGuests to interact with others who may have differing ideals, beliefs, and prejudices. While a competition, the series allows viewers to witness the relationships formed in the house and the behavior of the HouseGuests. Though locked in the house, the HouseGuests are free to quit the game, though will not be allowed entry back into the house. Should a HouseGuest break the rules of the game, they could be expelled from the house, and unable to return. The contestants compete for a grand prize of $500,000.
The premiere season used the original format of the series, which originated in the Netherlands. HouseGuests were required to nominate two of their fellow contestants for potential banishment, and the two with the most votes would be nominated. Should multiple HouseGuests receive the most nominations, then more than two HouseGuests were marked for banishment. This process was mandatory for all HouseGuests, and failure to comply could result in expulsion from the house. The HouseGuests in these seasons were forbidden from discussing nominations, and doing so could result in punishment. The public, through a vote conducted by phone, would vote to banish one of the nominated HouseGuests from the house, and the HouseGuest with the most votes from the viewers would be banished from the house. When only three HouseGuests remained, the viewers would vote for which of them should win the series, and the HouseGuest with the most votes would become the winner. The format, during that season, was plagued with a negative reception from both critics and viewers.
Having spent millions on the series, CBS issued a second season of the series and announced that various changes would occur with the format. The current format of the series is focused more on competition and strategy than the original series, which makes resemblance to the format from another CBS show, Survivor. At the start of each week in the house, the HouseGuests compete for the title of Head of Household. The Head of Household for each week is given luxuries such as their own personal bedroom and free laundry service, but is responsible for nominating two HouseGuests for eviction. The Head of Household would not be able to compete in the following week 's Head of Household competition, meaning that a HouseGuest could not hold the title for two weeks in a row, except for the final week or other stated circumstances. All HouseGuests excluding the Head of Household and nominees later vote to determine which of the two nominees should be evicted, and the nominated HouseGuest who received the most votes is evicted during a live episode. If there is a tie in the voting, the reigning Head of Household is required to make the tie - breaker decision. Unlike other versions of Big Brother, the HouseGuests may discuss the nomination and eviction process openly and freely. The HouseGuests also competed in Have - Not competitions, in which the losers were required to solely eat slop for the rest of the week, as well as sleep in a special bedroom. Upon reaching a point in the game, the evicted HouseGuests go on to become members of the Jury; the Jury is responsible for choosing who wins the series. The members of the Jury are not shown any Diary Room interviews or any footage that may include strategy or details regarding nominations. Once only two HouseGuests remain, the members of the Jury cast their votes for who should win the series.
To keep the series intriguing, each season typically features a new twist to change the format of the game. This began with Big Brother 3 (2002) and the "Expect the Unexpected '' twist. Other seasons feature smaller twists that have a smaller impact on the game, usually affecting that sole week. The most notable example of this is Pandora 's Box, a twist that originated in Big Brother 11 (2009). The twist sees the current Head of Household for that week being tempted by the box, and can choose to either open the box or leave it. Should a HouseGuest choose to open Pandora 's Box, both good and bad consequences could be unleashed into the house; these can affect not only the Head of Household but the other housemates. Similar formats are applied in later seasons, for example, the Den of Temptation introduced in season 19. Secret powers have also appeared in the past. Mike Malin was the first HouseGuest to receive a secret power, earning the Coup d'État during Big Brother: All - Stars (2006). The Coup d'État allowed the holder to remove one or both nominees from the block on eviction night, as well as choose who is nominated in their place. Malin chose not to use the power, and it subsequently returned during Big Brother 11 (2009) when Jeff Schroeder was given the power by the viewers. Matt Hoffman was given a Diamond Power of Veto during Big Brother 12 (2010), which allowed him to remove one HouseGuest from the block and choose the replacement nominee. During Big Brother 14 (2012), HouseGuest Ian Terry won a second Power of Veto, which could be used the same as the normal Power of Veto.
Many seasons have featured twists in which evicted HouseGuests can win reentry into the house, either by public vote or competition. Normally this involves sequestering each eliminated contestant individually or in the jury house (depending on whether the twist occurred pre-jury or post-jury respectively). Contestants who ' self - evict ' (quit the game voluntarily) are ineligible to return in these twists. Examples of the twists employed in various seasons are listed below.
In Big Brother 3, the first four evictees were asked what they would give up to re-enter the house and the two that listed the most faced a public vote. In Big Brother 6, the first four evictees faced a public vote. In Big Brother 9, the first six evictees faced a public vote, before facing a house vote on whether to bring back the most recent evictee or the "mystery HouseGuest '' chosen by America, In Big Brother 13, the first four evictees faced a public vote, before the winner competed against the most recent, fifth evictee for reentry. Each Season from Big Brother 15 until Big Brother 18, the first four jurors competed alongside the remaining HouseGuests in the following HoH competition, with the winner eligible for HoH. In Big Brother 18 and Big Brother 19 the first five evictees competed in a series of knockout competitions until the one final HouseGuest won reentry. In Big Brother 20, one of the Power Apps granted a contestant a chance at reentry upon eviction.
Jessie Godderz has made the most Big Brother appearances in the show 's history, appearing in seasons 10 and 11 as a HouseGuest and in seasons 12 -- 14 and 17 -- 20 as well as the Celebrity edition in a special guest appearance.
Victor Arroyo is the only HouseGuest to be evicted three times in the same season, having won a competition to gain reentry into the house twice.
Dan Gheesling and Paul Abrahamian are the only players that have lasted until the Final 2 in two separate seasons and face a jury vote. However, Abrahamian was unable to win in either of his two appearances and holds the distinction of first HouseGuest to do so.
Since its launch in the United States, Big Brother has aired on CBS. The show is simulcast in Canada on Global. The fourth and ninth seasons have both aired in the United Kingdom, the latter airing in the Spring season. The first season featured a total of six episodes per week, though all future installments would air three nights per week. Of these three episodes, the weekly eviction episode is the only one that is live; this is the only episode to feature host Julie Chen. This show generally airs on Thursdays. To date, there have been a total of 558 episodes of the series to air. With the exception of the ninth season, the series typically airs once a year during the Summer season. The first fifteen seasons aired in standard definition, with the sixteenth season being the first to be produced in HD. Before the series made the transfer, it was the last remaining regularly scheduled Primetime series to remain in standard definition. CBS released the entire third season as a nine - disc set on Region 1 DVD. This made it the first season to receive an official release, and has since become a rare item to find. The fourth season saw the release of a two - disc highlights DVD, featuring previously unseen footage deemed too racy for the main broadcast. To date, these are the only seasons to see a physical release. Beginning with the seventh season, all future seasons are available for purchase on digital retail sites. With the fifteenth season, TVGN (now Pop) began airing re-runs of the series at later dates, making it the first season to be aired following its premiere; this continued with the sixteenth season.
Subscribers to CBS All Access are able to stream the complete run of Big Brother, including the differently - formatted first season, and an episode of Big Brother 2 that did not air in most markets due to ongoing coverage of the September 11 attacks.
One of the main aspects of the series is the live feeds, in which viewers can view inside the house at any time. The live feeds have been a part of the series since its inception, initially being offered as a free service during the first season. From the second season onward, a subscription to the live feeds has been required, with the price ranging each year. The first season 's feeds were available on the show 's official site, hosted by AOL. From the second season to the fourteenth season, the feeds were available through RealNetworks either as a subscription or as a free addition for Gold members. With the fifteenth season onward, the live feeds have aired on the official CBS website, again requiring a subscription from users. Though advertised as being available at any time, the feeds are shut off during the weekly nomination ceremony, Power of Veto ceremony, and the competitions and evictions for that week; this is to provide suspense for the series. Slanderous statements and singing of copyrighted music are also blocked for legal reasons.
CBS aired the spin - off series Celebrity Big Brother from February 7 -- 25, 2018. It was the first spin - off to air on the broadcast network, and the second season overall to air in the winter television season. The celebrity edition aired in a concentrated run with fewer episodes, but with multiple episodes each week.
The Head of Household competition is held at the beginning of each week, and is most often performed on the live eviction episode. Most often, the first Head of Household competition will require HouseGuests to participate either in pairs or in teams. While the fourth, fifth, and eighth seasons had the HouseGuests competing in pairs, the sixth, seventh, eleventh, twelfth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth editions all saw HouseGuests competing as part of a group. The live Head of Household competitions are typically question based, and will see HouseGuests eliminated each round. Competitions such as "Majority Rules '' have been used numerous times, with the game being played in the fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth, tenth, and twelfth seasons; a variation of the competition was used in the seventh season. Some competitions will attempt to cause drama in the house, such as the "En Garde '' Head of Household competition in which the winner of each round selected the next two to face off against one another. This competition was later used in the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth seasons. Various competitions throughout the season will be endurance, requiring HouseGuests to be the last one remaining in the competition. Endurance competitions are often held after game changing announcements, such as when a previously evicted HouseGuest returns. Various endurance competitions may have punished or reward contestants who either fall off first or last. Skill based competitions also appear frequently throughout the season, some of which may last for numerous hours. Skill competitions, such as the thirteenth season 's "Big Brother Open '', are finished during the live eviction broadcast. The final Head of Household competition of each season features three rounds; the first is endurance, the second is skill, and the final is question based. The record for most Head of Household competitions won in a single season is held by Drew Daniel, Janelle Pierzina, Hayden Moss, Rachel Reilly, Ian Terry, Aaryn Gries, Caleb Reynolds, Vanessa Rousso and Steve Moses in terms of reigns. Frankie Grande won HOH 5 times the sixteenth season, however he was dethroned twice due to the dual HoH twist that was in play during his season, and third reign was rewound due to the rewind button twist. This leaves Frankie with just two full reigns as HoH. Ian Terry has the record for most consecutive Head of Household wins, with four (winning at the Final 9, 7, 5 and 3 rounds). One of the Head of Household 's duties is to nominate 2 people for eviction. Victoria from the sixteenth season holds the record for most times being nominated with nine.
The Power of Veto is a power first introduced in Big Brother 3. During its first season, it did not allow a nominated HouseGuest to use it on themselves. The final Power of Veto that season was the Golden Power of Veto, and allowed a nominated HouseGuest to remove themself from the block. Following this, the Golden Power of Veto was used in all subsequent seasons. The Diamond Power of Veto, used in Big Brother 12 allowed one HouseGuest to remove themselves from the block, as well as choose the replacement nominee only moments before the live eviction. Power of Veto competitions differ drastically from the Head of Household competition, with PoV competitions being more skill based in nature. Competitions such as the "Pop Goes the Veto! '' competition, which required HouseGuest to find letter tiles and spell the longest word, have been used in numerous consecutive seasons. Competitions such as the "Big Brother Boardwalk '' competition see HouseGuests attempting to guess how much of an item there is; this is one of various competitions that do not require HouseGuests to compete in a physical based competition. The "How Bad Do You Want It? '' Power of Veto competition, first introduced in the seventh season, saw HouseGuests taking punishments in exchange for advancing in the competition. Variations of this competition have been used in numerous subsequent seasons. HouseGuests Janelle Pierzina, Daniele Donato & Paul Abrahamian currently hold the record for most Power of Veto wins in a single season, with five wins each. HouseGuests James Zinkand, Frank Eudy, and Shane Meaney all hold the record for most consecutive Power of Veto wins, with three each.
Food and luxury competitions have been a part of the series since it first premiered. In early seasons, the losers of the food competition would be placed on a peanut butter and jelly diet, and would not be permitted to eat any other foods. Beginning with Big Brother 7, the losers of the Have - Not competition were required to eat "Big Brother Slop '' for food, sleep in the Have - Not bedroom, and take cold showers for the week. Slop has proven to be an issue for some HouseGuests; Hypoglycemic HouseGuest Amanda Hansen fainted and had a seizure after only a few days of being on the slop diet, while HouseGuest Allison Nichols had an allergic reaction to the slop (both of these cases occurred in Big Brother 9). Both women were medically evacuated from the house, though they returned the following morning. HouseGuests who choose to break the slop rule are punished by Big Brother. HouseGuest Jen Johnson from Big Brother 8 was the first HouseGuest to break the food restriction rules, and earned a penalty eviction vote for doing so; she was ultimately evicted that week. Audrey Middleton from Big Brother 17 and Matt Clines from Big Brother 19 also broke the rules and earned a penalty vote and ultimately evicted. HouseGuests Jeff Schroeder and Kevin Campbell of Big Brother 11 also broke the rules, to a lesser degree, and earned an extra day on the slop diet. The HouseGuests also frequently compete in luxury competitions during their time in the house. Most frequently, HouseGuests will compete for the right to watch a film or television show in the house. When competitions for films or television shows occur, an actor or actress from the series may enter the house to host the competition or speak with the HouseGuests. Actors such as Jeremy Piven, David Hasselhoff, and Neil Patrick Harris have all entered the house to participate in luxury competitions or rewards.
The Battle of the Block was first introduced during Big Brother 16, and was reintroduced during the premiere of Big Brother 17. Instead of the normal singular Head of Household (HOH), two HOHs were named for that week. Each would then nominate a pair of nominees. These two pairs of nominees would compete against each other in a competition. The winning pair was safe from eviction and dethroned the HOH that nominated, allowing for the other HOH to remain in power for the rest of the week. While the winning pair was safe from eviction for the rest of the week, the dethroned HOH was not. There were eight Battle of the Block competitions in season 16 and five in season 17.
The Battle Back Competition allows an evicted house guest to return into the house and play as if they had never left. This competition was first introduced in Season 18 and returned to play a role in Season 19 as well.
During Season 18, the first two evicted house guests battled one on one, and the winner went on to compete against the third. The winner of that matchup would face the next evicted HouseGuest, and the winner of the final match - up re-entered the game. Victor Arroyo was the winner. Also that season, jury members competed alongside the HouseGuests still in the game. The last HouseGuest standing became the new HoH while the last Jury member standing returned to the game. Victor won this Battle Back making him the first HouseGuest in Big Brother history to reenter the game in the same season for a third time. This version of the Battle Back did not return for season 19.
During Season 19, the four evicted house guests played against each other in one competition. The top two then played head - to - head, and the winner then had to face off against a member inside the house. If the evicted house guest won, they would re-enter the game. However, if the non-evicted house guest won, no one would re-enter the game and all four evicted house guests would be permanently eliminated. Cody Nickson beat Paul Abrahamian in the final round and reentered the game.
^ 1 For the first season of the main edition and Over the Top, the public voted to determine the winner between the three finalists. However, the voting percentages were not revealed for Over the Top. ^ 2 Thirteen HouseGuests were originally announced with a set of identical twins secretly playing as one HouseGuest. After surviving the first four evictions, the twins were allowed to compete as individuals. ^ 3 The 14 returning HouseGuests were chosen among 20 candidates -- eight through public vote, and six by the producers. ^ 4 The returning HouseGuest was chosen among four candidates, determined by a competition. ^ 5 One of the HouseGuests was expelled from the house during the season. Due to this, their vote was instead decided by the American public. ^ 6 Sixteen HouseGuests were originally announced with a set of identical twins secretly playing as one HouseGuest. After surviving the first five evictions, the twins were allowed to compete as individuals. ^ 7 The returning HouseGuest entered the house as a result of an opening night twist. ^ 8 A returning HouseGuest from the main edition was chosen among two candidates, determined by public vote. The candidates were from the main edition.
Since its inception, Big Brother has been criticized following reports of "HIB '' (Harassment, Intimidation, and Bullying), violence in the house, obscene language, breach of integrity, and the physical and mental strain of appearing on the series.
Coordinates: 34 ° 8 ′ 40.12 '' N 118 ° 23 ′ 20.71 '' W / 34.1444778 ° N 118.3890861 ° W / 34.1444778; - 118.3890861
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solve this there are some tirth sthan holy place of hindu | Hindu pilgrimage sites in India - wikipedia
In Hindu religion and spirituality, the pilgrimage has great significance. Members of the faith participate in the following types of pilgrimage. The pilgrimage to each sacred site has its own religious significance.
Holy Place: Himalayan Char Dham - Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri. Varanasi / Kashi, Allahabad / Prayag, Haridwar - Rishikesh, Mathura - Vrindavan, Somnath and Ayodhya.
Holy Fairs: The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival '') is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every three years; the location is rotated among the four cities of Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. Shravani Mela of Deoghar and Pitrapaksha Mela of Gaya are also notable holy fairs.
Holy Temples: the Char Dham of Rameswaram, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath. Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Puri home to Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; Sabarimala home to Swami Ayyappan; the Shakti Peethas; the twelve Jyotirlingas; the seven Sapta Puri; the Pancha Bhoota Stalam.
Mahamaham: the world - famous festival in temple town of Kumbakonam which is celebrated once in 12 years. More than 25 lakhs of people gather here from different parts of the world.
Holy Deity: Kuladaivat Hindu families have their own family patron deity. This deity is common to a lineage, a clan or a locality.
Tombs and Samadhis of Saints: Alandi, Samadhi of Dnyaneshwar: Mantralayam, samadhi of Raghavendra Tirtha, Belur Math which enshrine that Holy remains of Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Sarada Devi, Swami Vivekananda Puri, and other direct Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna, Tulsi Ghat, Varanasi where Saint Tulsidas left his mortal coil, Samadhi Mandir of Saint Kabir at Gorakhpur, near Varanasi, Panchaganga Ghat, Varanasi where Trailanga Swami lived and left his mortal body, Karar Ashram, Puri where Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri, attained the Mahasamadhi.
There are three Dhams and twelve Jyotirlings along with 51 Shakti Peeths in India. The twelve Jyotirlings are Kedarnath distance 18 km from Gorikund, reached by trek or helicopter service by Uttara Tourism.
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which airport is the biggest in the united states | List of the busiest airports in the United States - wikipedia
These are lists of the busiest airports in the United States, based on various ranking criteria.
The FAA uses passenger boarding for a full calendar year to determine Airport Improvement Program (AIP) entitlements. The term hub is used by the FAA to identify very busy commercial service airports. For instance, large hubs are those airports that each account for at least one percent of total U.S. passenger enplanements. Medium hubs are defined as airports that each account for between 0.25 percent and one percent of the total passenger enplanements. According to preliminary FAA data, in 2014 there were 30 large hubs and 30 medium hubs.
Listed according to data compiled by Airports Council International North America, and ranked according to total passengers during 2015.
This list has the same 99 airports as the FAA list, but the order is slightly different. The FAA ranks by passengers boarding. ACI ranks by sum of boarding, disembarking, and flying through without leaving airplane. The statistics are slightly more than twice as high.
Listed according to data compiled by the Office of Aviation Analysis, part of the United States Department of Transportation, and ranked according to total international passengers during 2016.
Listed according to data compiled by the Federal Aviation Administration for the United States, and ranked according to total cargo throughput in pounds during 2015.
United States Department of Transportation:
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where did the parents go on good times | Good Times - wikipedia
Good Times is an American sitcom that aired on CBS from February 8, 1974, to August 1, 1979. Created by Eric Monte and Mike Evans, and developed by Norman Lear, the series ' primary executive producer, it was television 's first African American family sitcom. Good Times was billed as a spin - off of Maude, which was itself a spin - off of All in the Family.
Florida and James Evans and their three children live at 921 North Gilbert Avenue, apartment 17C, in a housing project in a poor, black neighborhood in inner - city Chicago. The project is unnamed on the show, but is implicitly the infamous Cabrini -- Green projects, shown in the opening and closing credits. Florida and James have three children: James Jr., also known as "J.J. ''; Thelma; and Michael, called "the militant midget '' by his father due to his passionate activism. When the series begins, J.J. is seventeen years old, Thelma is sixteen, and Michael is eleven. Their exuberant neighbor, and Florida 's best friend, is Willona Woods, a recent divorcée who works at a boutique. Their building superintendent is Nathan Bookman (seasons 2 -- 6), who James, Willona and later J.J. refer to as "Buffalo Butt '', or, even more derisively, "Booger ''.
The characters originated on the sitcom Maude as Florida and Henry Evans, with Florida employed as Maude Findlay 's housekeeper in Tuckahoe, New York, and Henry employed as a New York City firefighter. When producers decided to feature the Florida character in her own show, they changed the characters ' history to fit a new series that was well into development rather than start from scratch to create a consistent starring vehicle. Henry 's name became James, he worked various odd jobs, there was no mention of Maude, and the couple lived in Chicago.
Episodes of Good Times deal with the characters ' attempts to overcome poverty living in a high rise project building in Chicago. James Evans often works at least two jobs, mostly manual labor such as dishwasher, construction laborer, etc. Often he is unemployed, but he is a proud man who will not accept charity. When he has to, he hustles money playing pool, although Florida disapproves of this.
Good Times was intended to be a good show for Esther Rolle and John Amos. Both expected the show to deal with serious topics in a comedic way while providing positive characters for viewers to identify with.
However, Jimmie Walker 's character of J.J. was an immediate hit with audiences and became the breakout character of the series. J.J. 's frequent use of the expression "Dy - no - mite! '' (often in the phrase "Kid Dy - no - mite! ''), credited to director John Rich, became a popular catchphrase (later included in TV Land 's The 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases special). Rich insisted Walker say it in every episode. Walker and executive producer Norman Lear were skeptical of the idea, but the phrase and the J.J. Evans character caught on with the audience. As a result of the character 's popularity, the writers focused more on J.J. 's comedic antics instead of serious issues.
Through seasons two and three, Rolle and Amos grew increasingly disillusioned with the direction of the show and especially with J.J. 's antics and stereotypically buffoonish behavior. Rolle was vocal about her hate of his character. In a 1975 interview with Ebony magazine she stated:
He 's 18 and he does n't work. He ca n't read or write. He does n't think. The show did n't start out to be that... Little by little -- with the help of the artist, I suppose, because they could n't do that to me -- they have made J.J. more stupid and enlarged the role. Negative images have been slipped in on us through the character of the oldest child.
Although doing so less publicly, Amos also was outspoken about his dissatisfaction with the J.J. character. Amos stated:
The writers would prefer to put a chicken hat on J.J. and have him prance around saying "DY - NO - MITE '', and that way they could waste a few minutes and not have to write meaningful dialogue.
While Amos was less public with his dissatisfaction, he was ultimately fired after season three due to disagreements with Norman Lear. Amos ' departure was initially attributed to his desire to focus on a film career, but he admitted in a 1976 interview that Lear called him and told him that his contract option with the show was not being renewed. Amos stated, "That 's the same thing as being fired. '' The producers decided not to recast the character of James Evans, instead opting to kill off the character in the two - part season four episode, "The Big Move ''.
By the end of season four, Esther Rolle had also become dissatisfied with the show 's direction and decided to leave the series. In the final two episodes of the season, "Love Has a Spot On His Lung '', Rolle 's character gets engaged to Carl Dixon (Moses Gunn), a man she began dating toward the end of season four. In the season five premiere episode, it is revealed that Florida and Carl married off screen and moved to Arizona for the sake of Carl 's health.
With Amos and Rolle gone, Ja'net Dubois took over as the lead character, as Willona checked in on the Evans children since they were now living alone. In season five Janet Jackson joined the cast, playing Penny Gordon Woods, an abused girl who is abandoned by her mother and eventually adopted by Willona.
Before taping of season six began, CBS and the show 's producers decided that they had to do "something drastic '' to increase viewership. According to then - vice president of CBS programming Steve Mills, "We had lost the essence of the show. Without parental guidance the show slipped. Everything told us that: our mail, our phone calls, our research. We felt we had to go back to basics. ''
Producers approached Esther Rolle with an offer to appear in a guest role on the series. Rolle was initially hesitant but when producers agreed to a number of her demands (including an increased salary and higher quality scripts), she agreed to return to the series on a full - time basis. Rolle also wanted producers to make the character of J.J. more responsible, as she felt the character was a poor role model for black American youths. She also requested that producers write out the character of Carl Dixon; Rolle reportedly disliked the storyline surrounding the Carl Dixon character, as she believed Florida would not have moved on so quickly after James ' death or leave her children. Rolle also thought the writers had disregarded Florida 's devout Christian beliefs by having her fall for and marry Carl, who was an atheist.
In the season six premiere episode "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 1 '', Florida returns from Arizona without Carl to attend Thelma 's upcoming wedding to professional football player Keith Anderson (Ben Powers, who joined the cast for the final season). In a rare uncut version of "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 2 '', after Florida arrives home from Arizona, Willona briefly pulls her aside and mentions Carl, to which Florida sadly smiles and shakes her head implying that Carl had died from cancer. Florida later mentions Carl one last time when she tells Michael about a book they 'd both bought him. Despite changes in the series at Esther Rolle 's request and her return, ratings did not improve and CBS canceled the series during the 1978 -- 79 season.
In the series finale, "The End of the Rainbow '', each character finally gets a "happy ending. '' J.J. gets his big break as an artist for a comic book company with his newly created character, DynoWoman, which is based on Thelma (much to her surprise and delight), and is moving into an apartment with some lady friends. Michael attends college and moves into an on - campus dorm. Keith 's bad knee heals due to his exercise and own physical therapy, leading to the Chicago Bears offering him a contract to play football. Keith announces that he and Thelma are moving into a luxury apartment in the city 's upscale Gold Coast district. Thelma also announces that she is pregnant with the couple 's first child. Keith offers Florida the chance to move in with them so she can help Thelma with the new baby. Willona becomes the head buyer of the boutique she works in and announces that she and Penny are also moving out of the projects. Willona then reveals that her new apartment is in the same apartment building that Keith, Thelma and Florida are moving to; once again, she and Penny become the Evans ' downstairs neighbors.
Good Times was created by Eric Monte and actor Mike Evans. The series also features a character named "Michael Evans '', after co-creator Mike Evans who portrayed Lionel Jefferson on the Norman Lear - produced series All in the Family and The Jeffersons.
The gospel - styled theme song was composed by Dave Grusin with lyrics written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman. It was sung by Jim Gilstrap and Motown singer Blinky Williams with a gospel choir providing background vocals.
The lyrics to the theme song are notorious for being hard to discern, notably the line "Hangin ' in a chow line '' / "Hangin ' in and jivin ' '' (depending on the source used). Dave Chappelle used this part of the lyrics as a quiz in his "I Know Black People '' skit on Chappelle 's Show in which the former was claimed as the answer. The insert for the Season One DVD box set has the lyric as "Hangin ' in a chow line ''. However, the Bergmans confirmed that the lyric is actually "Hangin ' in and jivin '. '' Slightly different lyrics were used for the closing credits, with the song beginning on a verse instead of the chorus.
The program premiered in February 1974; high ratings led CBS to renew the program for the 1974 -- 75 season, as it was the seventeenth - highest - rated program that year. During its first full season on the air, 1974 -- 75, the show was the seventh - highest - rated program in the Nielsen ratings, with more than 25 % of all American households tuning into an episode each week. Three of the top ten highest - rated programs on American TV that season centered on the lives of African - Americans: Sanford and Son, The Jeffersons, and Good Times.
The Nielsen ratings for the series declined over time, partly because of its many time slot changes and the departure of John Amos. The ratings went down considerably when the show entered its final two seasons:
The cable network TV One aired reruns of the show since its launch on January 19, 2004 until 2012. The network began airing the series again in June 2013. Good Times has also aired at various times on TV Land, Antenna TV and on the Canadian specialty cable channel DejaView. As of January 1, 2018, Good Times airs on GetTV. Minisodes of the show are available for free on Crackle.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 between February 2003 and August 2006, with a complete box set following the separate seasons on October 28, 2008. Season 1 was released on DVD in Region 4 on December 27, 2006.
On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including Good Times. They have subsequently re-released the first four seasons on DVD.
On September 1, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released Good Times - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.
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when did the first starbucks open in pennsylvania | Starbucks - Wikipedia
Starbucks Corporation is an American coffee company and coffeehouse chain. Starbucks was founded in Seattle, Washington in 1971. As of 2017, the company operates 27,339 locations worldwide.
Starbucks is considered the main representative of "second wave coffee '', initially distinguishing itself from other coffee - serving venues in the US by taste, quality, and customer experience while popularizing darkly roasted coffee. Since the 2000s, third wave coffee makers have targeted quality - minded coffee drinkers with hand - made coffee based on lighter roasts, while Starbucks nowadays uses automated espresso machines for efficiency and safety reasons.
Starbucks locations serve hot and cold drinks, whole - bean coffee, microground instant coffee known as VIA, espresso, caffe latte, full - and loose - leaf teas including Teavana tea products, Evolution Fresh juices, Frappuccino beverages, La Boulange pastries, and snacks including items such as chips and crackers; some offerings (including their annual fall launch of the Pumpkin Spice Latte) are seasonal or specific to the locality of the store. Many stores sell pre-packaged food items, hot and cold sandwiches, and drinkware including mugs and tumblers; select "Starbucks Evenings '' locations offer beer, wine, and appetizers. Starbucks - brand coffee, ice cream, and bottled cold coffee drinks are also sold at grocery stores.
Starbucks first became profitable in Seattle in the early 1980s. Despite an initial economic downturn with its expansion into the Midwest and British Columbia in the late 1980s, the company experienced revitalized prosperity with its entry into California in the early 1990s. The first Starbucks location outside North America opened in Tokyo in 1996; overseas properties now constitute almost one - third of its stores. The company opened an average of two new locations daily between 1987 and 2007.
On December 1, 2016, Howard Schultz announced he would resign as CEO effective April 2017 and would be replaced by Kevin Johnson. Johnson assumed the role of CEO on April 3, 2017.
The first Starbucks opened in Seattle, Washington, on March 31, 1971, by three partners who met while they were students at the University of San Francisco: English teacher Jerry Baldwin, history teacher Zev Siegl, and writer Gordon Bowker were inspired to sell high - quality coffee beans and equipment by coffee roasting entrepreneur Alfred Peet after he taught them his style of roasting beans. The company took the name of the chief mate in the book Moby - Dick: Starbuck, after considering "Cargo House '' and "Pequod ''. Bowker recalls that Terry Heckler, with whom Bowker owned an advertising agency, thought words beginning with "st '' were powerful. The founders brainstormed a list of words beginning with "st ''. Someone pulled out an old mining map of the Cascade Range and saw a mining town named "Starbo '', which immediately put Bowker in mind of the character "Starbuck ''. Bowker said, "Moby - Dick did n't have anything to do with Starbucks directly; it was only coincidental that the sound seemed to make sense. ''
The first Starbucks store was located in Seattle at 2000 Western Avenue from 1971 -- 1976. This cafe was later moved to 1912 Pike Place; never to be relocated again. During this time, the company only sold roasted whole coffee beans and did not yet brew coffee to sell. The only brewed coffee served in the store were free samples. During their first year of operation, they purchased green coffee beans from Peet 's, then began buying directly from growers.
In 1984, the original owners of Starbucks, led by Jerry Baldwin, purchased Peet 's. During the 1980s, total sales of coffee in the US were falling, but sales of specialty coffee increased, forming 10 % of the market in 1989, compared with 3 % in 1983. By 1986, the company operated six stores in Seattle and had only just begun to sell espresso coffee.
In 1987, the original owners sold the Starbucks chain to former manager Howard Schultz, who rebranded his Il Giornale coffee outlets as Starbucks and quickly began to expand. In the same year, Starbucks opened its first locations outside Seattle at Waterfront Station in Vancouver, British Columbia, and Chicago, Illinois. By 1989, 46 stores existed across the Northwest and Midwest, and annually Starbucks was roasting over 2,000,000 pounds (907,185 kg) of coffee.
At the time of its initial public offering (IPO) on the stock market in June 1992, Starbucks had 140 outlets, with a revenue of US $ 73.5 million, up from US $1.3 million in 1987. The company 's market value was US $271 million by this time. The 12 % portion of the company that was sold raised around US $25 million for the company, which facilitated a doubling of the number of stores over the next two years. By September 1992, Starbucks ' share price had risen by 70 % to over 100 times the earnings per share of the previous year.
In July 2013, over 10 % of in - store purchases were made on customer 's mobile devices using the Starbucks app. The company once again utilized the mobile platform when it launched the "Tweet - a-Coffee '' promotion in October 2013. On this occasion, the promotion also involved Twitter and customers were able to purchase a US $5 gift card for a friend by entering both "@ tweetacoffee '' and the friend 's handle in a tweet. Research firm Keyhole monitored the progress of the campaign and a December 6, 2013, media article reported that the firm had found that 27,000 people had participated and US $180,000 of purchases were made to date.
The first Starbucks location outside North America opened in Tokyo, Japan, in 1996. On December 4, 1997, the Philippines became the third market to open outside North America with its first branch in the country located at 6750 Ayala Building in Makati City, Philippines. Starbucks entered the U.K. market in 1998 with the $83 million USD acquisition of the then 56 - outlet, UK - based Seattle Coffee Company, re-branding all the stores as Starbucks. In September 2002, Starbucks opened its first store in Latin America, at Mexico City. Currently, there are over 500 locations in Mexico and there are plans for the opening of up to 850 by 2018.
In 1999, Starbucks experimented with eateries in the San Francisco Bay area through a restaurant chain called Circadia. These restaurants were soon "outed '' as Starbucks establishments and converted to Starbucks cafes.
In October 2002, Starbucks established a coffee trading company in Lausanne, Switzerland to handle purchases of green coffee. All other coffee - related business continued to be managed from Seattle.
In April 2003, Starbucks completed the purchase of Seattle 's Best Coffee and Torrefazione Italia from AFC Enterprises for $72 m. The deal only gained 150 stores for Starbucks, but according to the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, the wholesale business was more significant. In September 2006, rival Diedrich Coffee announced that it would sell most of its company - owned retail stores to Starbucks. This sale included the company - owned locations of the Oregon - based Coffee People chain. Starbucks converted the Diedrich Coffee and Coffee People locations to Starbucks, although the Portland International Airport Coffee People locations were excluded from the sale.
In August 2003, Starbucks opened its first store in South America in Lima, Peru.
In 2007, the company opened its first store in Russia, ten years after first registering a trademark there.
In 2008, they purchased the manufacturer of the Clover Brewing System. They began testing the "fresh - pressed '' coffee system at several Starbucks locations in Seattle, California, New York, and Boston.
In early 2008, Starbucks started a community website, My Starbucks Idea, designed to collect suggestions and feedback from customers. Other users comment and vote on suggestions. Journalist Jack Schofield noted that "My Starbucks seems to be all sweetness and light at the moment, which I do n't think is possible without quite a lot of censorship ''. The website is powered by Salesforce.com software.
In May 2008, a loyalty program was introduced for registered users of the Starbucks Card (previously simply a gift card) offering perks such as free Wi - Fi Internet access, no charge for soy milk and flavored syrups, and free refills on brewed drip coffee, iced coffee, or tea. In 2009, Starbucks began beta testing its mobile app for the Starbucks card, a stored value system in which consumers access pre-paid funds to purchase products at Starbucks. Starbucks released its complete mobile platform on January 11, 2011.
On November 14, 2012, Starbucks announced the purchase of Teavana for US $620 million in cash and the deal was formally closed on December 31, 2012.
On February 1, 2013, Starbucks opened its first store in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, and this was followed by an announcement in late August 2013 that the retailer will be opening its inaugural store in Colombia. The Colombian announcement was delivered at a press conference in Bogota, where the company 's CEO explained, "Starbucks has always admired and respected Colombia 's distinguished coffee tradition. ''
In August 2014, Starbucks opened their first store in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. This location will be one of 30 Starbucks stores that will serve beer and wine.
In September 2014, it was revealed that Starbucks would acquire the remaining 60.5 percent stake in Starbuck Coffee Japan that it does not already own, at a price of $913.5 million.
In August 2015, Starbucks announced that it will enter Cambodia, its 16th market in the China / Asia Pacific region. The first location will open in the capital city of Phnom Penh by the end of 2015.
In February 2016, Starbucks announced that it will enter Italy, its 24th market in Europe. The first location will open in Milan by 2018. In August, startup company FluxPort introduced Qi inductive charging pads at select locations in Germany.
In September 2016, Starbucks announced a debut of its first - ever original content series called "Upstanders '' which aims to inspire Americans with stories of compassion, citizenship, and civility. The series features podcasts, written word, and video, and will be distributed via the Starbucks mobile app, online, and through the company 's in - store digital network.
On July 27, 2017, Starbucks acquired the remaining 50 % stake in their Chinese venture from long - term joint venture partners Uni-President Enterprises Corporation (UPEC) and President Chain Store Corporation (PCSC).
On March 21, 2018, Starbucks announced that it is considering the use of blockchain technology with an idea to connect coffee drinkers with coffee farmers who eventually can take advantage of new financial opportunities. The pilot program is going to start with farmers in Costa Rica, Colombia and Rwanda in order to develop a new way to track the bean to cup journey.
Starbucks ' chairman, Howard Schultz, has talked about making sure growth does not dilute the company 's culture
Howard Schultz served as the company 's CEO until 2000. Orin C. Smith was President and CEO of Starbucks from 2001 to 2005.
In January 2008, Schultz resumed his roles as President and CEO after an eight - year hiatus, replacing Jim Donald, who took the posts in 2005 but was asked to step down after sales slowed in 2007. Schultz aims to restore what he calls the "distinctive Starbucks experience '' in the face of rapid expansion. Analysts believe that Schultz must determine how to contend with higher materials prices and enhanced competition from lower - price fast food chains, including McDonald 's and Dunkin ' Donuts. Starbucks announced it would discontinue the warm breakfast sandwich products they originally intended to launch nationwide in 2008 and refocus on coffee, but they reformulated the sandwiches to deal with complaints and kept the product line.
As of January 2015, the chief operating officer of Starbucks was Troy Alstead, though at that time he announced he was taking an extended leave of absence of undetermined length. Subsequently, Kevin Johnson was appointed to succeed Alstead as president and COO.
In October 2015, Starbucks hired its first Chief Technology Officer, Gerri Martin - Flickinger, to lead their technology team. In April 2017, Schultz became executive chairman of Starbucks with Johnson becoming President and CEO.
Starbucks maintains control of production processes by communicating with farmers to secure beans, roasting its own beans, and managing distribution to all retail locations. Additionally, Starbucks ' Coffee and Farmer Equity Practices require suppliers to inform Starbucks what portion of wholesale prices paid reaches farmers.
In 1994, Starbucks bought The Coffee Connection, gaining the rights to use, make, market, and sell the "Frappuccino '' beverage. The beverage was introduced under the Starbucks name in 1995 and as of 2012, Starbucks had annual Frappuccinos sales of over $2 billion.
The company began a "skinny '' line of drinks in 2008, offering lower - calorie and sugar - free versions of the company 's offered drinks that use skim milk, and can be sweetened by a choice of "natural '' sweeteners (such as raw sugar, agave syrup, or honey), artificial sweeteners (such as Sweet'N Low, Splenda, Equal), or one of the company 's sugar - free syrup flavors. Starbucks stopped using milk originating from rBGH - treated cows in 2007.
In June 2009, the company announced that it would be overhauling its menu and selling salads and baked goods without high fructose corn syrup or artificial ingredients. This move was expected to attract health - and cost - conscious consumers and will not affect prices.
Starbucks introduced a new line of instant coffee packets, called VIA "Ready Brew '', in March 2009. It was first unveiled in New York City with subsequent testing of the product also in Seattle, Chicago, and London. The first two VIA flavors include Italian Roast and Colombia, which were then rolled out in October 2009, across the U.S. and Canada with Starbucks stores promoting the product with a blind "taste challenge '' of the instant versus fresh roast, in which many people could not tell the difference between the instant and fresh brewed coffee. Analysts speculated that by introducing instant coffee, Starbucks would devalue its own brand.
Starbucks began selling beer and wine at some US stores in 2010. As of April 2012, it is available at seven locations and others have applied for licenses.
In 2011, Starbucks introduced its largest cup size, the Trenta, which can hold 31 ounces. In September 2012, Starbucks announced the Verismo, a consumer - grade single - serve coffee machine that uses sealed plastic cups of coffee grounds, and a "milk pod '' for lattes.
On November 10, 2011, Starbucks Corporation announced that it had bought juice company Evolution Fresh for $30 million in cash and planned to start a chain of juice bars starting in around middle of 2012, venturing into territory staked out by Jamba Inc. Its first store released in San Bernardino, California and plans for a store in San Francisco were to be launched in early 2013.
In 2012, Starbucks began selling a line of iced Starbucks Refresher beverages that contain an extract from green arabica coffee beans. The beverages are fruit flavored and contain caffeine but advertised as having no coffee flavor. Starbucks ' green coffee extraction process involves soaking the beans in water.
On June 25, 2013, Starbucks began to post calorie counts on menus for drinks and pastries in all of their U.S. stores.
In 2014, Starbucks began producing their own line of "handcrafted '' sodas, dubbed "Fizzio ''.
In 2015, Starbucks began serving coconut milk as an alternative to dairy and soy.
In March 2017, Starbucks announced to launch limited - edition of two new specialty drinks made from beans aged in whiskey barrels at its Seattle roastery. Starbucks ' barrel - aged coffee will be sold with a small batch of unroasted Starbucks Reserve Sulawesi beans, which are then hand - scooped into whiskey barrels from Washington D.C.
Starbucks entered the tea business in 1999 when it acquired the Tazo brand for US $ 8,100,000. In late 2012, Starbucks paid US $620 million to buy Teavana. As of November 2012, there is no intention of marketing Starbucks ' products in Teavana stores, though the acquisition will allow the expansion of Teavana beyond its current main footprint in shopping malls. In January 2015, Starbucks began to roll out Teavana teas into Starbucks stores, both in to - go beverage and retail formats.
Kevin Knox, who was in charge of doughnuts quality at Starbucks from 1987 to 1993, recalled on his blog in 2010 how George Howell, coffee veteran and founder of the Cup of Excellence, had been appalled at the dark roasted beans that Starbucks was selling in 1990. Talking to the New York Times in 2008, Howell stated his opinion that the dark roast used by Starbucks does not deepen the flavor of coffee, but instead can destroy purported nuances of flavor. The March 2007 issue of Consumer Reports compared American fast - food chain coffees and ranked Starbucks behind McDonald 's Premium Roast. The magazine called Starbucks coffee "strong, but burnt and bitter enough to make your eyes water instead of open ''. As reported by TIME in 2010, third wave coffee proponents generally criticize Starbucks for over-roasting beans.
In 2012, Starbucks introduced Starbucks Verismo, a line of coffee makers that brew espresso and regular chocolate from coffee capsules, a type of pre-apportioned single - use container of ground coffee and flavorings utilizing the K - Fee pod system. In a brief review of the 580 model, Consumer Reports described the results of a comparative test of the Verismo 580 against two competitive brands: "Because you have to conduct a rinse cycle between each cup, the Verismo was n't among the most convenient of single - serve machines in our coffeemaker tests. Other machines we 've tested have more flexibility in adjusting brew strength -- the Verismo has buttons for coffee, espresso, and latte with no strength variation for any type. And since Starbucks has limited its coffee selection to its own brand, there are only eight varieties so far plus a milk pod for the latte. ''
The company 's headquarters is located in Seattle, Washington, United States, where 3,501 people worked as of January 2015. The main building in the Starbucks complex was previously a Sears distribution center.
As of July 7, 2016, Starbucks is present on 6 continents and in 75 countries and territories, with a total of 23,768 locations
In 2008, Starbucks continued its expansion, settling in Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, and Portugal.
European and Scandinavian expansion continued in 2009 with Poland (April), Utrecht, Netherlands (August), and Sweden at Arlanda Airport outside Stockholm (October).
In 2010, growth in new markets continued. In May 2010, Southern Sun Hotels South Africa announced that they had signed an agreement with Starbucks to brew Starbucks coffees in select Southern Sun and Tsonga Sun hotels in South Africa. The agreement was partially reached so Starbucks coffees could be served in the country in time for the 2010 FIFA World Cup hosted by South Africa. In June 2010, Starbucks opened its first store in Budapest, Hungary and in November, the company opened the first Central American store in El Salvador 's capital, San Salvador.
In December 2010, Starbucks debuted their first ever Starbucks at sea, where with a partnership with Royal Caribbean International; Starbucks opened a shop aboard their Allure of the Seas Royal Caribbean 's second largest ship, and also the second largest ship in the world.
Starbucks is planning to open its fourth African location, after South Africa, Egypt, and Morocco, in Algeria. A partnership with Algerian food company Cevital will see Starbucks open its first Algerian store in Algiers.
In January 2011, Starbucks and Tata Coffee, Asia 's largest coffee plantation company, announced plans for a strategic alliance to bring Starbucks to India and also to source and roast coffee beans at Tata Coffee 's Kodagu facility. Despite a false start in 2007, in January 2012, Starbucks announced a 50: 50 joint venture with Tata Global Beverages called Tata Starbucks. Tata Starbucks will own and operate Starbucks outlets in India as Starbucks Coffee "A Tata Alliance ''. Starbucks opened its first store in India in Mumbai on October 19, 2012.
In February 2011, Starbucks started selling their coffee in Norway by supplying Norwegian food shops with their roasts. The first Starbucks - branded Norwegian shop opened on February 8, 2012, at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. In October 2011, Starbucks opened another location in Beijing, China, at the Beijing Capital International Airport 's Terminal 3, international departures hall; making the company 's 500th store in China. The store is the 7th location at the airport. The company planned to expand to 1,500 stores in China by 2015. In May 2012, Starbucks opened its first coffeehouse in Finland, with the location being Helsinki - Vantaa Airport in Vantaa. Starbucks recently opened a store in San Jose Costa Rica, in 2 popular locations. 1 opened in a mall and the other in Avenida Escazu.
In October 2012, Starbucks announced plans to open 1,000 stores in the United States in the next five years. The same month, the largest Starbucks in the US opened at the University of Alabama 's Ferguson Center.
In 2013, Starbucks met with Dansk Supermarked, which is the biggest retail company in Denmark. The first Starbucks inside Dansk Supermarked opened in August 2013 in the department stores Salling in Aalborg and Aarhus.
Starbucks has announced its first café in Bolivia would open in 2014 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra and the first in Panama in 2015.
On June 19, 2015, a Starbucks opened at Disney 's Animal Kingdom on Discovery Island. Since the park does not allow plastic straws due to the animals, this location features special green eco-friendly straws with their cold drinks. This was the sixth Starbucks to open in Walt Disney World, following locations in the Magic Kingdom (Main Street, U.S.A.), Epcot (Future World), Disney 's Hollywood Studios (Hollywood Boulevard), and two in Disney Springs (Marketplace and West Side). In addition to these six, there are locations in Disneyland (Main Street, U.S.A.), Disney California Adventure (Buena Vista Street), Anaheim 's Downtown Disney, and Disney Village at Disneyland Paris. The Downtown Disney and Disney Springs locations are Starbucks - operated, while the locations inside of the theme parks are Disney - operated.
Bill Sleeth, Starbucks ' vice president of global design, has overseen efforts to make a neighborhood feel for new stores, saying "What you do n't want is a customer walking into a store in downtown Seattle, walking into a store in the suburbs of Seattle and then going into a store in San Jose, and seeing the same store. '' Sleeth said "The customers were saying, ' Everywhere I go, there you are, ' and not in a good way. We were pretty ubiquitous. '' As part of a change in compact direction, Starbucks management wanted to transition from the singular brand worldwide to focusing on locally relevant design for each store.
Starbucks ' first Channel Island store was opened in early 2015, in the primary business area of St Peter Port in Guernsey.
In 2014 Starbucks was scheduled to open a store in Azerbaijan, in the Port Baku Mall.
In August 2013, Starbucks ' CEO, Howard Schultz, personally announced the opening of Starbucks stores in Colombia. The first café was set to open in 2014 in Bogotá and add 50 more stores throughout Colombia 's main cities in a 5 - year limit. Schultz also stated that Starbucks will work with both the Colombian Government and USAID to continue "empowering local coffee growers and sharing the value, heritage and tradition of its coffee with the world. '' Starbucks noted that the aggressive expansion into Colombia was a joint venture with Starbucks ' Latin partners, Alsea and Colombia 's Grupo Nutresa that has previously worked with Starbucks by providing coffee through Colcafe. This announcement comes after Starbucks ' Farmer Support Center was established in Manizales, Colombia the previous year making Colombia an already established country by the corporation.
On April 21, 2015, Kesko, the second largest retailer in Finland, announced its partnership with Starbucks, with stores opened next to K - Citymarket hypermarkets. As of June 2017, 3 stores had been opened next to K - Citymarkets: In Sello in Espoo and in Myyrmanni and Jumbo in Vantaa.
On December 18, 2015, Starbucks opened in Almaty, Kazakhstan. On the next day, 1 more coffee shop was opened.
The first Starbucks store in Slovakia opened in Aupark Shopping Center in Bratislava on May 31, 2016, with two more stores confirmed to open in Bratislava by the end of 2016.
In February 2016, Howard Schultz announced the opening of stores in Italy. The first Italian Starbucks store will open in Milan in 2017.
After Taste Holdings acquired outlet licensing for South African stores, Starbucks opened its first store in South Africa in Rosebank, Johannesburg on Thursday, April 21, 2016, and its second in the country at the end of April in Mall of Africa.
In May 2017, Starbucks announced it was commencing operations in Jamaica, where the first store is to open in the resort city of Montego Bay. The company announced that its first store would be on located on the shores of the world - famous Doctor 's Cave Beach, offering views of the Caribbean Sea. Three other Starbucks locations were scheduled to be opened at the Sangster International Airport, the busiest international airport in the Anglophone Caribbean, also in the city of Montego Bay, in late 2017 (now set to February 2018). Starbucks Jamaica expects thereafter to roll out a further 14 locations across the island by the year 2020. The company also reaffirmed its commitment to working with local coffee farmers to "implement systems to increase productivity and yields, while also increasing compliance to international standards. '' Starbucks Jamaica officially opened its first store on November 21, 2017, with plans to open 15 locations islandwide over a 5 - year period. The next store is set to open in Jamaica 's capital city, Kingston, in early 2018. Starbucks Jamaica, recently opened its 3 stores at the Sangster International Airport in Montego Bay and one at the Historic Falmouth Pier, in Falmouth, Jamaica. Its Kingston store is due to open in April.
At the end of December in 2017, the world biggest Starbucks store opened in Shanghai, China.
In 2003, after struggling with fierce local competition, Starbucks closed all six of its locations in Israel, citing "on - going operational challenges '' and a "difficult business environment. ''
The Starbucks location in the former imperial palace in Beijing closed in July 2007. The coffee shop had been a source of ongoing controversy since its opening in 2000 with protesters objecting that the presence of the American chain in this location "was trampling on Chinese culture. ''
In July 2008, the company announced it was closing 600 underperforming company - owned stores and cutting U.S. expansion plans amid growing economic uncertainty. On July 29, 2008, Starbucks also cut almost 1,000 non-retail jobs as part of its bid to re-energize the brand and boost its profit. Of the new cuts, 550 of the positions were layoffs and the rest were unfilled jobs. These closings and layoffs effectively ended the company 's period of growth and expansion that began in the mid-1990s.
Starbucks also announced in July 2008 that it would close 61 of its 84 stores in Australia in the following month. Nick Wailes, an expert in strategic management of the University of Sydney, commented that "Starbucks failed to truly understand Australia 's cafe culture. '' In May 2014, Starbucks announced ongoing losses in the Australian market, which resulted in the remaining stores being sold to the Withers Group.
In January 2009, Starbucks announced the closure of an additional 300 underperforming stores and the elimination of 7,000 positions. CEO Howard Schultz also announced that he had received board approval to reduce his salary. Altogether, from February 2008 to January 2009, Starbucks terminated an estimated 18,400 U.S. jobs and began closing 977 stores worldwide.
In August 2009, Ahold announced closures and rebranding for 43 of their licensed store Starbucks kiosks for their US based Stop & Shop and Giant supermarkets.
In July 2012, the company announced that they may begin closing unprofitable European stores immediately.
In 2009, at least three stores in Seattle were de-branded to remove the logo and brand name, and remodel the stores as local coffee houses "inspired by Starbucks. '' CEO Howard Schultz says the unbranded stores are a "laboratory for Starbucks ''. The first, 15th Avenue Coffee and Tea, opened in July 2009 on Capitol Hill. It served wine and beer and hosted live music and poetry readings. It has since been remodeled and reopened as a Starbucks - branded store. Another is Roy Street Coffee and Tea at 700 Broadway E., also on Capitol Hill. Although the stores have been called "stealth Starbucks '' and criticized as "local - washing '', Schultz says that "It was n't so much that we were trying to hide the brand, but trying to do things in those stores that we did not feel were appropriate for Starbucks. ''
Independently operated Starbucks locations exist. Stores that independently operate locations include Ahold Delhaize, Barnes & Noble, Target, and Tom Thumb stores. As of 2015, 4,962 licensed locations exist.
In the EMEA (Europe, Middle East, and Africa) markets, Starbucks holds a franchising program. Different to the License program in which existing corporations may apply to operate a Starbucks kiosk within an existing store, Franchises have the ability to create new freestanding stores.
Starbucks has automated systems in some areas. These machines have 280 possible drink combinations to choose from. They have touchscreens and customers can play games while they wait for their order.
Free Wi - Fi Internet access varies in different regions. In Germany, customers get unlimited free Wi - Fi through BT Openzone, and in Switzerland and Austria, customers can get 30 minutes with a voucher card (through T - Mobile).
Since 2003, Starbucks in the UK rolled out a paid Wi - Fi based on one - time, hourly or daily payment. Then, in September 2009, it was changed to a 100 % free Wi - Fi at most of its outlets. Customers with a Starbucks Card are able to log - on to the Wi - Fi in - store for free with their card details, thereby bringing the benefits of the loyalty program in - line with the United States. Since July 2010, Starbucks has offered free Wi - Fi in all of its US stores via AT&T and information through a partnership with Yahoo!. This is an effort to be more competitive against local chains, which have long offered free Wi - Fi, and against McDonald 's, which began offering free wireless internet access in 2010. On June 30, 2010, Starbucks announced it would begin to offer unlimited and free Internet access via Wi - Fi to customers in all company - owned locations across Canada starting on July 1, 2010.
In October 2012, Starbucks and Duracell Powermat announced a pilot program to install Powermat charging surfaces in the tabletops in selected Starbucks stores in the Boston area. Furthermore, Starbucks announced its support in the Power Matters Alliance (PMA) and its membership in the PMA board, along with Google and AT&T, in an effort to create "a real - world ecosystem of wireless power '' through a universal wireless charging standard that customers could use to recharge smartphones.
Starbucks launched a new Mobile Order & Pay app in Portland, Oregon on December 2015. This includes a bar code in mobile. This bar code needs to be scanned by a small scanner at the counter. Customers can pay from their smartphone by just waving their phone off the scanner. In one - quarter, 16 % of transactions were made through this mobile app.
In 2006, Valerie O'Neil, a Starbucks spokeswoman, said that the logo is an image of a "twin - tailed mermaid, or siren as she 's known in Greek mythology ''. The logo has been significantly streamlined over the years. In the first version, the Starbucks siren was topless and had a fully visible double fish tail. The image also had a rough visual texture and has been likened to a melusine. The image is said by Starbucks to be based on a 16th - century "Norse '' woodcut, although other scholars note that it is apparently based on a 15th - century woodcut in J.E. Cirlot 's Dictionary of Symbols.
In the second version, which was used from 1987 -- 92, her breasts were covered by her flowing hair, but her navel was still visible. The fish tail was cropped slightly, and the primary color was changed from brown to green, a nod to the Alma Mater of the three founders, the University of San Francisco. In the third version, used between 1992 and 2011, her navel and breasts are not visible at all, and only vestiges remain of the fish tails. The original "woodcut '' logo has been moved to the Starbucks ' Headquarters in Seattle.
At the beginning of September 2006 and then again in early 2008, Starbucks temporarily reintroduced its original brown logo on paper hot - drink cups. Starbucks has stated that this was done to show the company 's heritage from the Pacific Northwest and to celebrate 35 years of business. The vintage logo sparked some controversy due in part to the siren 's bare breasts, but the temporary switch garnered little attention from the media. Starbucks had drawn similar criticism when they reintroduced the vintage logo in 2006. The logo was altered when Starbucks entered the Saudi Arabian market in 2000 to remove the siren, leaving only her crown, as reported in a Pulitzer Prize - winning column by Colbert I. King in The Washington Post in 2002. The company announced three months later that it would be using the international logo in Saudi Arabia.
In January 2011, Starbucks announced that they would make small changes to the company 's logo, removing the Starbucks wordmark around the siren, enlarging the siren image, and making it green.
Starbucks has agreed to a partnership with Apple to collaborate on selling music as part of the "coffeehouse experience ''. In October 2006, Apple added a Starbucks Entertainment area to the iTunes Store, selling music similar to that played in Starbucks stores. In September 2007, Apple announced that customers would be able to browse the iTunes Store at Starbucks via Wi - Fi in the US -- with no requirement to log into the Wi - Fi network -- targeted at iPhone, iPod touch, iPad, and MacBook users. The iTunes Store will automatically detect recent songs playing in a Starbucks and offer users the opportunity to download the tracks. Some stores feature LCD screens with the artist name, song, and album information of the current song playing. This feature has been rolled out in Seattle, New York City, and the San Francisco Bay Area, and was offered in limited markets during 2007 -- 2008. During the fall of 2007, Starbucks also began to sell digital downloads of certain albums through iTunes. Starbucks gave away 37 different songs for free download through iTunes as part of the "Song of the Day '' promotion in 2007, and a "Pick of the Week '' card is now available at Starbucks for a free song download. Since 2011, Starbucks also gives away a "Pick of the Week '' card for app downloads from the App Store. A Starbucks app is available in the iPhone App Store.
Starting on June 1, 2009, the MSNBC morning news program Morning Joe has been presented as "brewed by Starbucks '' and the show 's logo changed to include the company logo. Although the hosts have previously consumed Starbucks coffee on air "for free '' in the words of MSNBC president Phil Griffin, it was not paid placement at that time. The move was met with mixed reactions from rival news organizations, viewed as both a clever partnership in an economic downturn and a compromise of journalistic standards.
Starbucks and Kraft Foods entered into a partnership in 1998 to sell Starbucks products in the Mondelez grocery stores owned by the latter. Starbucks claimed that Kraft did not sufficiently promote its products and offered Kraft US $750 million to terminate the agreement; however, Kraft declined the offer, but Starbucks proceeded with the termination anyway. Starbucks wanted to terminate the agreement because at the time, single coffee packs were beginning to become popular. In their agreement, Starbucks was confined to selling packs that only worked in Kraft 's Tassimo machines. Starbucks did n't want to fall behind in the market opportunities for k cups. In mid-November 2013, an arbitrator ordered Starbucks to pay a fine of US $2.8 billion to Kraft spin - off Mondelez International for its premature unilateral termination of the agreement.
In June 2014, Starbucks announced a new partnership with Arizona State University (ASU) that would allow Starbucks employees in their Junior and Senior years of college to complete four years of college at Arizona State University 's online program for only around 23K. Starbucks employees admitted into the program will receive a scholarship from the college, College Achievement Plan (CAP), that will cover 44 % of their tuition. The remaining balance and all other expenses would be paid by the student or through traditional financial aid. In April 2015, Starbucks and ASU announced an expansion of the College Achievement Program. The program would now allow all eligible part - time and full - time employees working in a U.S. Starbucks to enroll in the program for full - tuition reimbursement. After the completion of each semester, Starbucks reimburses the student their portion of the tuition. The student can then use the reimbursement to pay any loans or debt incurred during the semester.
In 2015, Starbucks signed a deal with PepsiCo to market and distribute Starbucks products in several Latin American countries for 2016.
In May 2015, Starbucks entered a partnership with music streaming service Spotify. The partnership entailed giving U.S. - based employees a Spotify premium subscription and to help influence the music played in store via playlists made using Spotify. Starbucks was also given its own curated Spotify playlist to be featured on Spotify 's mobile app.
Starbucks has been a target of parodies and imitations of its logo, particularly the 1992 version, and has used legal action against those it perceives to be infringing on its intellectual property. In 2000, San Francisco cartoonist Kieron Dwyer was sued by Starbucks for copyright and trademark infringement after creating a parody of its siren logo and putting it on the cover of one of his comics; later placing it on coffee mugs, T - shirts, and stickers that he sold on his website and at comic book conventions. Dwyer felt that since his work was a parody it was protected by his right to free speech under U.S. law. The case was eventually settled out of court, as Dwyer claimed he did not have the financial ability to endure a trial case with Starbucks. The judge agreed that Dwyer 's work was a parody and thus enjoyed constitutional protection; however, he was forbidden from financially "profiting '' from using a "confusingly similar '' image of the Starbucks siren logo. Dwyer was allowed to display the image as an expression of free speech, but he can no longer sell it. In a similar case, a New York store selling stickers and T - shirts using the Starbucks logo with the phrase "Fuck Off '' was sued by the company in 1999. An anti-Starbucks website, starbuckscoffee.co.uk, which encouraged people to deface the Starbucks logo was transferred to Starbucks in 2005, but has since resurfaced at www.starbuckscoffee.org.uk. Christian bookstores and websites in the US are selling a T - shirt featuring a logo with the siren replaced by Jesus and the words "Sacrificed for me '' around the edge.
Other successful cases filed by Starbucks include the case won in 2006 against the chain Xingbake in Shanghai, China for trademark infringement, because the chain used a green - and - white circular logo with a name that sounded phonetically similar to the Chinese for Starbucks. Starbucks did not open any stores after first registering its trademark in Russia in 1997 and in 2002 a Russian lawyer successfully filed a request to cancel the trademark. He then registered the name with a Moscow company and asked for $600,000 to sell the trademark to Starbucks, but was ruled against in November 2005.
In 2003, Starbucks sent a cease - and - desist letter to "HaidaBucks Coffee House '' in Masset, British Columbia, Canada. The store was owned by a group of young Haida men, who claimed that the name was a coincidence, due to "buck '' being a Haida word for "young man '' (a claim that can not be substantiated). After facing criticism, Starbucks dropped its demand after HaidaBucks dropped "coffee house '' from its name. Sam Buck Lundberg, who owns a coffee store in Oregon, was prohibited from using "Sambuck 's Coffee '' on the shop front in 2006. Starbucks lost a trademark infringement case against a smaller coffee vendor in South Korea that operates coffee stations under the name Starpreya. The company, Elpreya, says Starpreya is named after the Norse goddess, Freja, with the letters of that name changed to ease pronunciation by Koreans. The court rejected Starbucks ' claim that the logo of Starpreya is too similar to their own logo. A bar owner in Galveston, Texas, USA won the right to sell "Star Bock Beer '' after a lawsuit by Starbucks in 2003 after he registered the name, but the 2005 federal court ruling also stated that the sale of the beer must be restricted to Galveston, a ruling upheld by the Supreme Court in 2007.
Ongoing cases include a dispute over the copyright application for Seattle 's Rat City Rollergirls logo in 2008. The company claimed the roller derby league 's logo by a Washington artist was too similar to its own. Starbucks requested an extension to further examine the issue and possibly issue a complaint, which was granted by the Trademark Office. The July 16, 2008, deadline passed without action by the corporation.
Starbucks launched action against an Indian cosmetics business run by Shahnaz Husain, after she applied to register the name Starstruck for coffee and related products. She said she aimed to open a chain of stores that would sell coffee and chocolate - based cosmetics. A cafe in Al - Manara Square, Ramallah, Palestinian Territories, opened in 2009 with the name "Stars and Bucks '' and a logo using a similar green circle and block lettering. Like Starbucks, the Stars and Bucks serves cappuccinos in ceramic cups, and offers free Wifi. According to speculation cited in the Seattle Post Intelligencer, the cafe 's name and imitation Starbucks style may be a political satire of American consumerism. Starbucks is not known to have taken action against this business.
In 2014, Nathan Fielder, a Canadian comedian behind the hit show Nathan for You, opened a store called "Dumb Starbucks Coffee '' in Los Feliz, Los Angeles CA. The store resembled a typical Starbucks with one exception: everything was preceded by the word "dumb. '' For example, the drinks he carried included Dumb Skinny Vanilla Lattes and Dumb Frapuccinos. The store carried music titled "Dumb Jazz Standards '' and "Dumb Norah Jones Duets. '' He thought he could bypass infringement and copyright claims through the "Parody Law '', referring to the parody aspect of Fair Use laws (that protect parodists such as "Weird Al '' Yankovic and SNL). No lawsuits were filed though because the store was short - lived. The Los Angeles Health Department shut it down after 4 days because Fielder lacked the proper permits.
Others have used the Starbucks logo unaltered and without permission, such as a café in Pakistan that used the logo in 2003 in its advertisements and a cafe in Cambodia in 2009, the owner saying that "whatever we have done we have done within the law ''.
In 1999, Starbucks started "Grounds for your Garden '' to make their business environmentally friendlier. This gives leftover coffee grounds to anyone requesting it for composting. Although not all stores and regions participate, customers can request and lobby their local store to begin the practice.
In 2004, Starbucks began reducing the size of their paper napkins and store garbage bags, and lightening their solid waste production by 816.5 t (1,800,000 lb). In 2008, Starbucks was ranked No. 15 on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's list of Top 25 Green Power Partners for purchases of renewable energy.
In October 2008, The Sun newspaper reported that Starbucks was wasting 23.4 million liters (6.2 million US gal) of water a day by leaving a tap constantly running for rinsing utensils in a ' dipper well ' in each of its stores, but this is often required by governmental public health code.
In June 2009, in response to concerns over its excessive water consumption, Starbucks re-evaluated its use of the dipper well system. In September 2009, company - operated Starbucks stores in Canada and the United States successfully implemented a new water saving solution that meets government health standards. Different types of milk are given a dedicated spoon that remains in the pitcher and the dipper wells were replaced with push button metered faucets for rinsing. This will reportedly save up to 150 US gal (570 l) of water per day in every store.
Starbucks began using 10 % recycled paper in its beverage cups in 2006 -- the company claimed that the initiative was the first time that recycled material had been used in a product that came into direct contact with a food or beverage. Allen Hershkowitz of the Natural Resources Defense Council called the 10 % content "minuscule '', but Starbucks received the National Recycling Coalition Recycling Works Award in 2005 for the initiative.
In a 2008 media article, Starbucks ' vice president of corporate social responsibility acknowledged that the company continued to struggle with environmental responsibility, as none of its cups were recyclable and stores did not have recycling bins. At the time that the article was published, Starbucks gave customers who brought in their own reusable cup a 10 - cent discount, in addition to using corrugated cup sleeves made from 85 percent post-consumer recycled fiber, which is 34 percent less paper than the original. During the same period, Starbucks entered into a partnership with Conservation International -- pledging US $7.5 million over three years -- to help protect the natural environment of coffee - growing communities in Mexico and Indonesia.
Starbucks began drafting plans for corporate social responsibility in 1994. Since Starbucks has partnered with Conservation International (CI) to draft plans and audit its coffee and farmer equity (C.A.F.E.) program, Starbucks ' C.A.F.E. practices are based on a rating system of 249 indicators. Farmers who earn high overall scores receive higher prices than those who achieve lower scores. Ratings categories include economic accountability, social responsibility, environmental leadership in coffee growing and processing. Indicators for social responsibility have evolved and now include ' zero tolerance ' indicators that require workers to be paid in cash, check, or direct deposit, ensure that all workers are paid the established minimum wage, that workplaces are free of harassment and abuse, that workplaces are nondiscriminatory and do not employ persons under the age of 14, and several more. Starbucks has moved 90 % of its coffee purchases to preferred C.A.F.E. certified providers, and the company is approaching its stated goal to purchase 100 % of its coffee through C.A.F.E. or other ' ethically sourced ' certification systems. Washington State University Assistant Professor Daniel Jaffee argues that Starbucks ' C.A.F.E. practices merely ' green wash ' "to burnish their corporate image. '' Additionally, Professor Marie - Christine Renard of Rural Sociology of Chapingo University in Mexico wrote a case study of Starbucks ', Conservation International 's, and Agro-industries United of Mexico (AMSA) joint conservation effort in Chiapas, Mexico in which she concluded that "(w) hile the CI - Starbucks - AMSA Alliance paid better prices, it did not allow the producers to appropriate the knowledge that was necessary for the organizations to improve the quality of their coffee. ''
In 2000, the company introduced a line of fair trade products. Of the approximately 136,000 metric tons (300 million pounds) of coffee Starbucks purchased in 2006, only about 6 % was certified as fair trade.
According to Starbucks, they purchased 2,180 metric tons (4.8 million pounds) of Certified Fair Trade coffee in fiscal year 2004 and 5,220 metric tons (11.5 million pounds) in 2005. They have become the largest buyer of Certified Fair Trade coffee in North America (10 % of the global market). Transfair USA, a third - party certifier of Fair Trade Certified coffee in the United States, has noted the impact Starbucks has made in the area of Fair Trade and coffee farmer 's lives:
Since launching its FTC coffee line in 2000, Starbucks has undeniably made a significant contribution to family farmers through their rapidly growing FTC coffee volume. By offering FTC coffee in thousands of stores, Starbucks has also given the FTC label greater visibility, helping to raise consumer awareness in the process.
All espresso roast sold in the UK and Ireland is Fairtrade. Questions have been raised regarding the legitimacy of the Fair Trade designation.
Groups such as Global Exchange are calling for Starbucks to further increase its sales of fair trade coffees.
According to Starbucks, in 2004 it paid on average $1.42 per pound ($2.64 kg) for high - quality coffee beans, 74 % above the commodity prices at the time.
After a long - running dispute between Starbucks and Ethiopia, Starbucks agreed to support and promote Ethiopian coffees. An article in BBC NEWS, states that Ethiopian ownership of popular coffee designations such as Harrar and Sidamo is acknowledged, even if they are not registered. Ethiopia fought hard for this acknowledgement mainly to help give its poverty - stricken farmers a chance to make more money. Unfortunately, this has not been the case. In 2006, Starbucks says it paid $1.42 per pound for its coffee. The coffee Starbucks bought for $1.42 per pound, had a selling price -- after transportation, processing, marketing, store rentals, taxes, and staff salary and benefits -- of $10.99 per pound. As of August 2010, the Starbucks website sells only one Ethiopian coffee, which it says is new.
In addition, Starbucks is an active member of the World Cocoa Foundation.
Ethos, a brand of bottled water acquired by Starbucks in 2003, is sold at locations throughout North America. Ethos bottles feature prominent labeling stating "helping children get clean water '', referring to the fact that US $0.05 from each US $1.80 bottle sold (US $0.10 per bottle in Canada) is used to fund clean water projects in under - developed areas. Although sales of Ethos water have raised over US $6,200,000 for clean water efforts, the brand is not incorporated as a charity. Critics have argued that the claim on the label misleads consumers into thinking that Ethos is primarily a charitable organization when it is actually a for - profit brand and the vast majority of the sale price (97.2 %) does not support clean - water projects. The founders of Ethos have stated that the brand is intended to raise awareness of third - world clean water issues and provide socially responsible consumers with an opportunity to support the cause by choosing Ethos over other brands. Starbucks has since redesigned the American version of the Ethos water bottles, stating the amount of money donated per bottle in the description.
Since 2010, Starbucks has been donating leftover pastries in the United States to local food banks through a food collection service named Food Donation Connection.
In March 2016, Starbucks unveiled a five - year plan to donate 100 percent of unsold food from its 7,600 company - operated stores in the U.S. to local food banks and pantries. Perishable food will be transported in refrigerated trucks to area food banks through the company 's partnerships with the Food Donation Connection and Feeding America. This program, called FoodShare, is expected to provide up to 50 million meals over the next five years.
As of 2017, the program was in 10 different markets, including New York City. In New York, Starbucks works with Feeding America and City Harvest, both non-profits, to donate food from 45 locations. It plans to expand the program to all 305 Manhattan stores.
Starbucks has been accused of selling unhealthy products.
Some of the methods Starbucks has used to expand and maintain their dominant market position, including buying out competitors ' leases, intentionally operating at a loss, and clustering several locations in a small geographical area (i.e., saturating the market), have been labeled anti-competitive by critics. For example, Starbucks fueled its initial expansion into the UK market with a buyout of Seattle Coffee Company but then used its capital and influence to obtain prime locations, some of which operated at a financial loss. Critics claimed this was an unfair attempt to drive out small, independent competitors, who could not afford to pay inflated prices for premium real estate.
While relations with independent coffeehouse chains have been strained, some owners have credited Starbucks with educating customers on coffee.
Starbucks workers in seven stores have joined the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) as the Starbucks Workers Union since 2004.
According to a Starbucks Union press release, since then, the union membership has begun expanding to Chicago and Maryland in addition to New York City, where the movement originated. On March 7, 2006, the IWW and Starbucks agreed to a National Labor Relations Board settlement in which three Starbucks workers were granted almost US $2,000 in back wages and two fired employees were offered reinstatement. According to the Starbucks Union, on November 24, 2006, IWW members picketed Starbucks locations in more than 50 cities around the world in countries including Australia, Canada, Germany, and the UK, as well as U.S. cities including New York, Chicago, Minneapolis, and San Francisco, to protest the firing of five Starbucks Workers Union organizers by Starbucks and to demand their reinstatement.
Some Starbucks baristas in Canada, Australia and New Zealand, and the United States belong to a variety of unions.
In 2005, Starbucks paid out US $165,000 to eight employees at its Kent, Washington, roasting plant to settle charges that they had been retaliated against for being pro-union. At the time, the plant workers were represented by the International Union of Operating Engineers. Starbucks admitted no wrongdoing in the settlement.
A Starbucks strike occurred in Auckland, New Zealand, on November 23, 2005. Organized by Unite Union, workers sought secure hours, a minimum wage of NZ $ 12 an hour, and the abolition of youth rates. The company settled with the Union in 2006, resulting in pay increases, increased security of hours, and an improvement in youth rates.
In March 2008, Starbucks was ordered to pay baristas over US $100 million in back tips in a Californian class action lawsuit launched by baristas alleging that granting shift - supervisors a portion of tips violates state labor laws. The company plans to appeal. Similarly, an 18 - year - old barista in Chestnut Hill, MA has filed another suit with regards to the tipping policy. Massachusetts law also states that managers may not get a cut of tips. A similar lawsuit was also filed in Minnesota on March 27, 2008.
In November 2015, Starbucks introduced solid red seasonal cups, unlike previous seasonal iterations that were decorated with winter or Christmas - oriented imagery (such as reindeer and ornaments), but no overtly religious symbols. The cup design was discussed extensively on social media, with some citing it as another example of the "War on Christmas '', calling it "cup-gate '', and others expressed puzzlement over the outrage generated by a simple cup. A man named Joshua Feuerstien then released a video suggesting that customers tell the baristas that their name was "Merry Christmas '' so that baristas were forced to write it on the cups and shout "Merry Christmas '' when calling off the drinks. This also started the trend # MerryChristmasStarbucks.
Starbucks has been accused by local authorities of opening several stores in the UK in retail premises, without the planning permission for a change of use to a restaurant. Starbucks has argued that "Under current planning law, there is no official classification of coffee shops. Starbucks, therefore, encounters the difficult scenario whereby local authorities interpret the guidance in different ways. In some instances, coffee shops operate under A1 permission, some as mixed use A1 / A3 and some as A3 ''.
In May 2008, a branch of Starbucks was completed on St. James 's Street in Kemptown, Brighton, England, despite having been refused permission by the local planning authority, Brighton and Hove City Council, who claimed there were too many coffee shops already present on the street. Starbucks appealed the decision by claiming it was a retail store selling bags of coffee, mugs, and sandwiches, gaining a six - month extension, but the council ordered Starbucks to remove all tables and chairs from the premises, to comply with planning regulations for a retail shop. 2500 residents signed a petition against the store, but after a public inquiry in June 2009, a government inspector gave permission for the store to remain.
A Starbucks in Hertford won its appeal in April 2009 after being open for over a year without planning permission. Two stores in Edinburgh, one in Manchester, one in Cardiff, one in Pinner and Harrow, were also opened without planning permission. The Pinner cafe, opened in 2007, won an appeal to stay open in 2010. One in Blackheath Village, Lewisham was also under investigation in 2002 for breach of its licence, operating as a restaurant when it only had a licence for four seats and was limited to take away options. There was a considerable backlash from members of the local community who opposed any large chains opening in what is a conservation area. To this date, the Starbucks is still operating as a takeaway outlet.
There have been calls for boycott of Starbucks stores and products because it has been wrongly claimed that Starbucks sends part of its profits to the Israeli military, but such allegations are based on a hoax letter attributed to the President, Chairman, and CEO of Starbucks Howard Schultz, who is Jewish and supports Israel 's right to exist. He is a recipient of several Israeli awards including "The Israel 50th Anniversary Tribute Award '' for "playing a key role in promoting a close alliance between the United States and Israel ''.
The hoax letter claiming that Schultz had donated money to the Israeli military was actually written by an Australian weblogger, Andrew Winkler, who has admitted fabricating the document. Starbucks responded to these claims, widely circulated on the internet, stating that "Neither Chairman Howard Schultz nor Starbucks fund support the Israeli Army. Starbucks is a non-political organization and does not support individual political causes ''. The protests against Starbucks derived from the Winkler letter were not the first; earlier protests occurred in June 2002 in Cairo, Dubai and Beirut universities in response to Schultz 's criticism of Yasser Arafat. Starbucks has been a regular target of activists protesting against Israel 's role in the Gaza War over the claims.
Organizations have urged a boycott of Starbucks, accusing Starbucks of serving as an ally of Israeli militarists. Starbucks was forced to close a store in Beirut, Lebanon due to demonstrators shouting anti-Israel slogans and causing customers to flee. Demonstrators hung several banners on the shop 's window and used white tape to paste a Star of David over the green - and - white Starbucks sign. They also distributed a letter saying, Schultz "... is one of the pillars of the American Jewish lobby and the owner of the Starbucks, '' which they said donates money to the Israeli military.
On January 2009, two Starbucks stores in London were the target of vandalism by pro-Palestinian demonstrators who broke windows and reportedly ripped out fittings and equipment after clashes with riot police.
Quotes by artists, writers, scientists, and others have appeared on Starbucks cups since 2005 in a campaign called "The Way I See It ''. Some of the quotes have caused controversy, including one by writer Armistead Maupin and another by Jonathan Wells that linked ' Darwinism ' to eugenics, abortion and racism. Disclaimers were added to the cups noting that these views were not necessarily those of Starbucks.
A US Marines Sergeant emailed ten of his friends in August 2004 having wrongly been told that Starbucks had stopped supplying the military with coffee donations because the company did not support the Iraq War. The email became viral, being sent to tens of millions of people. Starbucks and the originator sent out a correction, but Starbucks ' VP of global communications, Valerie O'Neil, said in September 2009 that the email was still being forwarded to her every few weeks.
As gun laws in many US states have become more relaxed, and more states have adopted open carry or concealed carry statutes, some gun owners have begun carrying guns while performing everyday shopping or other tasks. Many stores and companies have responded by banning the carrying of guns on their premises, as allowed by many states ' local laws. Starbucks has not instituted an official policy banning guns in their stores.
In 2010, the Brady Campaign proposed a boycott of Starbucks due to their gun policy. At that time, Starbucks released a statement saying "We comply with local laws and statutes in all the communities we serve. That means we abide by the laws that permit open carry in 43 U.S. states. Where these laws do n't exist, openly carrying weapons in our stores is prohibited. The political, policy and legal debates around these issues belong in the legislatures and courts, not in our stores. ''
In 2012, the National Gun Victims Action Council published an open letter to Starbucks, asking them to revise their policy, and also proposed a "Brew not Bullets '' boycott of the chain until the policy is changed, with Valentine 's Day selected as a particular day to boycott the chain.
In response, gun rights advocates started a counter "Starbucks Appreciation Day '' buycott to support Starbucks ' stance, and suggested paying for products using two - dollar bills as a sign of Second Amendment support.
On July 29, 2013, Moms Demand Action for Gun Sense in America, initiated a petition demanding a ban on guns in Starbucks stores.
On September 17, 2013, founder and CEO Howard Schultz asked customers to no longer bring guns into its stores. He made the comments in an open letter on the company 's website. Schultz said he was not banning guns, but making a request.
In January 2012, a Starbucks executive stated that the company supports the legalization of same - sex marriage. This resulted in a boycott by the National Organization for Marriage, a political organization that opposes same - sex marriage, who received 22,000 signatures in favor of their boycott. When another shareholder (who had been quoted by NOM before) mentioned during a meeting that recent earnings had been "disappointing '' since the boycott began, CEO Howard Schultz responded: "If you feel, respectfully, that you can get a higher return than the 38 percent you got last year, it 's a free country. You can sell your shares of Starbucks and buy shares in another company. Thank you very much. '' In addition, 640,000 people also signed a petition thanking Starbucks for its support. (As of June 26, 2015, same - sex marriage in the United States is legal in all states following the Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges.)
In October 2012, Starbucks faced criticism after a Reuters investigation found that the company reportedly paid only £ 8.6 million in corporation tax in the UK over 14 years, despite generating over £ 3 billion in sales -- this included no tax payments on £ 1.3 billion of sales in the three years prior to 2012. It is alleged that Starbucks was able to do this by charging high licensing fees to the UK branch of the business, allowing them to declare a £ 33 million loss in 2011. The UK subsidiary pays patent fees to the US subsidiary, purchases coffee beans from the Netherlands subsidiary (where corporation tax is lower than in the UK), and uses the Swiss subsidiary for other "miscellaneous services ''. A YouGov survey suggested that Starbucks ' brand image was substantially weakened by the controversy surrounding how much tax it pays in the UK several weeks after the allegations surfaced.
Starbucks ' chief financial officer (CFO) appeared before the Public Accounts Committee in November 2012 and admitted that the Dutch government granted a special tax rate to their European headquarters, which the UK business pays royalties to. Dutch law permits companies to transfer royalties collected from other countries to tax havens without incurring taxes, unlike in the rest of the EU. The CFO denied that they chose the Netherlands as their European headquarters to avoid tax, explaining that the company 's Dutch coffee roasting plant was the reason for the decision. Until 2009, the royalty rate was 6 % of UK sales, but after being challenged by UK tax authorities it was reduced to 4.7 %. The CFO told the committee this reflected costs such as designing new stores and products, but admitted that there was no detailed analysis by which the rate is decided. The coffee they serve in the UK is purchased from the Swiss subsidiary, which charges a 20 % markup on the wholesale price and pays 12 % corporation tax on profits. Coffee is not transported to Switzerland but the 30 people who work in the subsidiary assess coffee quality. Regarding Starbucks ' frequent reports of loss in the UK, the CFO told the committee that Starbucks are "not at all pleased '' about their financial performance in the UK. MPs replied that it "just does n't ring true '' that the business made a loss, pointing out that the head of the business had been promoted to a new post in the US and they consistently told shareholders that the business was profitable.
In Ireland, Starbucks ' subsidiary Ritea only paid € 35,000 in tax between 2005 and 2011 and the subsidiary recorded losses in every year other than 2011. Ritea is owned by Netherlands - based Starbucks Coffee Emea. Their French and German subsidiaries make large losses because they are heavily in debt to the Dutch subsidiary, which charges them higher interest rates than the group pays to borrow. Reuters calculated that without paying interest on the loans and royalty fees, the French and German subsidiaries would have paid € 3.4 million in tax. The Dutch subsidiary that royalties are paid to made a € 507,000 profit in 2011 from revenues of € 73 million, while the company that roasts coffee made a profit of € 2 million in 2011 and paid tax of € 870,000.
Protesters, who were unimpressed by the company 's offer to pay £ 20 million in tax over the next two years, staged demonstrations in December 2012 in affiliation with UK Uncut.
In June 2014, the European Commission anti-trust regulator launched an investigation of the company 's tax practices in the Netherlands, as part of a wider probe of multi-national companies ' tax arrangements in various European countries. The investigation ended in October 2015, with the EC ordering Starbucks to pay up to € 30 million in overdue taxes, which the EC regards as illegal state support for corporations. A pair of economists from the KU Leuven noted that the Commission did not forbid Starbucks ' tax construction as such, pretending that Starbucks is a Dutch company and effectively rewarding the Dutch state for its lenient tax policy.
In October 2013, China Central Television accused Chinese Starbucks of over-pricing. The report compared the price of a tall (12 fl. oz., 354 mL) latte in Beijing, Chicago, London, and Mumbai. It was found that Beijing stores charged the most while Mumbai stores charged the least. It was also found that a tall latte cost 4 Chinese yuan (approx. USD $0.67) to make, but it sold at 27 yuan (approx. USD $4.50).
On Monday, March 16, 2015, Starbucks launched a marketing campaign to promote conversations about race between customers and employees. This marketing campaign also called for baristas to write the hashtag # RaceTogether on customers ' cups -- similar to how Starbucks is already known for writing customers ' names on each cup. It was characterised as a "fiasco '' by some media outlets, to the extent that Starbucks ' vice president of public relations deleted his Twitter account. On March 22, Starbucks CEO advised his employees there is no longer a need to write # racetogether on cups. Reuters reported that "Starbucks said the phase of the campaign that involved messages on drink cups was always scheduled to end Sunday. ''
On January 27, 2017, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to indefinitely suspend the entry of Syrian refugees into the United States and suspended entry into the United States of nearly all citizens of seven countries until proper vetting measures could be implemented. The same day, Starbucks ' Chairman and CEO Howard Schultz wrote a letter to Starbucks ' employees, stating in part, "There are more than 65 million citizens of the world recognized as refugees by the United Nations, and we are developing plans to hire 10,000 of them over five years in the 75 countries around the world where Starbucks does business. And we will start this effort here in the U.S. by making the initial focus of our hiring efforts on those individuals who have served with U.S. troops as interpreters and support personnel in the various countries where our military has asked for such support. ''
As a result of Schultz 's letter, supporters of President Trump 's executive order supported a boycott of Starbucks, with some saying that Starbucks should give more help to American veterans.
In 2014, Starbucks established a program to support veterans and their families. Starbucks hired 8,000 veterans and military spouses since 2014. Starbucks operates 30 stores located near military bases that help provide assistance to military families. Organizations that offer free legal help and other services to military families hold meetings at Starbucks stores on Military Mondays.
Muhammadiyah, the second largest Muslim group in Indonesia with 29 million members, and Perkasa, a group with 700,000 members, have called for a boycott of Starbucks over its support of gay rights.
In March 2018, a California judge ruled that Starbucks and other companies must provide warning labels on all coffee products, warning consumers of chemicals that may cause cancer, a requirement by California law which Starbucks was found in violation of. The chemical in question is acrylamide, a carcinogen byproduct of roasted coffee beans found in high levels throughout brewed coffee. Declining to comment, Starbucks instead referred to a statement by the National Coffee Association claiming that cancer warnings on products would be "misleading ''.
After the first phase of the trial, Starbucks may be subject to civil proceeding penalties of fines up to $2,500 per consumer exposed over the last eight years.
On April 12, 2018, two African American men were arrested in a Starbucks store in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A witness at the time of the arrests said that the men asked the staff if they could use the bathroom to which an employee said it was reserved for paying customers. The men waited at a table for another person without ordering and were instructed by the staff to leave. When they did n't comply, the store manager called the police, saying the men were trespassing, which led to the arrests. They were released without charges being pressed. The video of the arrest went viral and prompted the CEO of Starbucks to issue an apology. The mayor of Philadelphia criticized the company and called for revisions of the company 's policies. The incident led to protests at the shop where the arrests occurred and caused outrage. The company had announced that the store manager was no longer working at the store. The police commisioner, Richard Ross, said the police officers "did nothing wrong '' and defended their actions. As tension grew, the cafe was closed for a few hours on April 16. Starbucks released an issue about plans to shut stores and corporate offices on May 29, 2018 for racial - bias education for approximately 175,000 U.S employees.
Hear Music is the brand name of Starbucks ' retail music concept. Hear Music began as a catalog company in 1990, adding a few retail locations in the San Francisco Bay Area. Hear Music was purchased by Starbucks in 1999. Nearly three years later, in 2002, they produced a Starbucks opera album, featuring artists such as Luciano Pavarotti, followed in March 2007 by the hit CD "Memory Almost Full '' by Paul McCartney, making McCartney the first artist signed to New Hear Music Label sold in Starbucks outlets. Its inaugural release was a big non-coffee event for Starbucks the first quarter of 2007.
In 2006, the company created Starbucks Entertainment, one of the producers of the 2006 film Akeelah and the Bee. Retail stores advertised the film before its release and sold the DVD.
Starbucks has become the subject of a protest song, "A Rock Star Bucks a Coffee Shop '' by Neil Young and his band, Promise of the Real. The single from Young 's album, The Monsanto Years aims at Starbucks ' alleged use of genetically modified food, but also at the GMO company Monsanto. By May 31, 2015, the song was Video of the week on the Food Consumer website.
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where does the word chocolate come from how was it originally eaten | History of chocolate - wikipedia
The history of chocolate begins in Mesoamerica. Fermented beverages made from chocolate date back to 350 BC. The Aztecs believed that cacao seeds were the gift of Quetzalcoatl, the god of wisdom, and the seeds once had so much value that they were used as a form of currency. Originally prepared only as a drink, chocolate was served as a bitter, from a liquid, mixed with spices or corn puree. It was believed to have aphrodisiac powers and to give the drinker strength. Today, such drinks are also known as "Chilate '' and are made by locals in the South of Mexico. After its arrival to Europe in the sixteenth century, sugar was added to it, rendering it an aphrodisiac, and it became popular throughout society, first among the ruling classes and then among the common people. In the 20th century, chocolate was considered essential in the rations of United States soldiers at war.
The word "chocolate '' comes from the Classical Nahuatl word chocolātl, and entered the English language from the Spanish language.
Cultivation, consumption, and cultural use of cacao were extensive in Mesoamerica where the cacao tree is native. When pollinated, the seed of the cacao tree eventually forms a kind of sheath, or ear, 20 '' long, hanging from the tree trunk itself. Within the sheath are 30 to 40 brownish - red almond - shaped beans embedded in a sweet viscous pulp. While the beans themselves are bitter due to the alkaloids within them, the sweet pulp may have been the first element consumed by humans.
Cacao pods themselves can range in a wide range of colors, from pale yellow to bright green, all the way to dark purple or crimson. The skin can also vary greatly - some are sculpted with craters or warts, while others are completely smooth. This wide range in type of pods is unique to cacaos in that their color and texture does not necessarily determine the ripeness or taste of the beans inside.
Evidence suggests that it may have been fermented and served as an alcoholic beverage as early as 1400 BC.
Cultivation of the Cacao was not an easy processes. Part of the reason was that was due to the fact that, Cacao trees in their natural environment grew up to 60 or more feet tall. When the trees were grew in a plantation however, they grew around 20 feet tall.
While researchers do not agree which Mesoamerican culture first domesticated the cacao tree, the use of the fermented bean in a drink seems to have arisen in North America (Mesoamerica -- Central America and Mexico). Scientists have been able to confirm its presence in vessels around the world by evaluating the "chemical footprint '' detectable in the microsamples of contents that remain. Ceramic vessel with residues from the preparation of chocolate beverages have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the Early Formative (1900 -- 900 BC) period. For example, one such vessel found at an Olmec archaeological site on the Gulf Coast of Veracruz, Mexico dates chocolate 's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC. On the Pacific coast of Chiapas, Mexico, a Mokayanan archaeological site provides evidence of cacao beverages dating even earlier, to 1900 BC.
Pueblo people, who lived in an area that is now the U.S. Southwest, imported cacao from Mesoamerican cultures in southern Mexico or Central America between 900 and 1400. They used it in a common beverage consumed by everyone in their society.
The first example of chemically tracing cacao was in 1984, when a team of archaeologists in Guatemala explored the Mayan site of Rio Azul. They discovered fifteen vessels surrounding male skeletons in the royal tomb. One of these such vessels was beautifully decorated and covered in various Mayan glyphs. One of these glyphs translated to "kakaw '', also known as cacao. The inside of the vessel was lined with a dark colored powder, which was scraped off for further testing. Once the archaeologists took this powder to the Hershey Center for Health and Nutrition to be tested, they found trace amounts of theobromine in the powder, a major indicator of cacao. This cacao was dated to sometime between 460 and 480 AD
Cacao powder was also found in beautifully decorated bowls and jars, known at tecomates, in the city of Puerto Escondido. Once thought to have been a very rare commodity, cacao was found in many more tecomates than once thought possible. However since this powder was only found in bowls of higher quality, it led archaeologists to believe that only wealthier people could afford such bowls, and therefore the cacao. The cacao tecomates are thought to have been a center piece to social gatherings between people of high social status.
Earliest evidence of domestication of the cacao plant dates to the Olmec culture from the Preclassic period. The Olmecs used it for religious rituals or as a medicinal drink, with no recipes for personal use. Little evidence remains of how the beverage was processed.
The Maya people, by contrast, do leave some surviving writings about cacao which confirm the identification of the drink with the gods. The Dresden Codex specifies that it is the food of the rain deity Kon, the Madrid Codex that gods shed their blood on the cacao pods as part of its production. The Maya people gathered once a year to give thanks to the god Ek Chuah who they saw as the Cacao god. The consumption of the chocolate drink is also depicted on pre-Hispanic vases. The Maya seasoned their chocolate by mixing the roasted cacao seed paste into a drink with water, chile peppers and cornmeal, transferring the mixture repeatedly between pots until the top was covered with a thick foam.
There were many uses for cacao among the Maya. It was used in official ceremonies and religious rituals, at feasts and festivals, as funerary offerings, as tribute, and for medicinal purposes. Both cacao itself and vessels and instruments used for the preparation and serving of cacao were used for important gifts and tribute. Cacao beans were used as currency, to buy anything from avocados to turkeys to sex. A rabbit, for example, was worth ten cacao beans, (called "almonds '' by the early sixteenth - century chronicler Francisco Oviedo y Valdés), a slave about a hundred, and the services of a prostitute, eight to ten "according to how they agree, ''. The beans were also used in betrothal and marriage ceremonies among the Maya, especially among the upper classes.
"The form of the marriage is: the bride gives the bridegroom a small stool painted in colors, and also gives him five grains of cacao, and says to him "These I give thee as a sign that I accept thee as my husband. '' And he also gives her some new skirts and another five grains of cacao, saying the same thing. ''
Mayan preparation of cacao started with cutting open cacao pods to expose the beans and the fleshy pulp. The beans were left out to ferment for a few days. In some cases, the beans were also roasted over an open fire in order to add a smoky flavor to it. The beans then had their husks removed and were ground into a paste. Since sweeteners were rarely used by Mayans, they flavored their cacao paste with additives like flowers, vanilla pods, and chilies. The vessel used to serve this chocolate liquid was stubbier by nature to help froth the liquid better, which was very important to the Mayans. The vessels also tended to be decorated in intricate designs and patterns, which tended to only be accessible by the rich.
By 1400, the Aztec Empire took over a sizable part of Mesoamerica. They were not able to grow cacao themselves, but were forced to import it. All of the areas that were conquered by the Aztecs that grew cacao beans were ordered to pay them as a tax, or as the Aztecs called it, a "tribute ''. The cacao bean became a form of currency. The Spanish conquistadors left records of the value of the cacao bean, noting for instance that 100 beans could purchase a canoe filled with fresh water or a turkey hen. The Aztecs associated cacao with the god Quetzacoatl, whom they believed had been condemned by the other gods for sharing chocolate with humans. Unlike the Maya of Yucatán, the Aztecs drank chocolate cold. It was consumed for a variety of purposes, as an aphrodisiac or as a treat for men after banquets, and it was also included in the rations of Aztec soldiers.
Until the 16th century, the cacao tree was wholly unknown to Europeans.
Christopher Columbus encountered the cacao bean on his fourth mission to the Americas on August 15, 1502, when he and his crew seized a large native canoe that proved to contain among other goods for trade, cacao beans. His son Ferdinand commented that the natives greatly valued the beans, which he termed almonds, "for when they were brought on board ship together with their goods, I observed that when any of these almonds fell, they all stooped to pick it up, as if an eye had fallen. '' But while Columbus took cacao beans with him back to Spain, it made no impact until Spanish friars introduced chocolate to the Spanish court.
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés may have been the first European to encounter chocolate when he observed it in the court of Montezuma in 1519. In 1568, Bernal Diaz, who accompanied Cortés in the conquest of Mexico, wrote of this encounter which he witnessed:
From time to time they served him (Montezuma) in cups of pure gold a certain drink made from cacao. It was said that it gave one power over women, but this I never saw. I did see them bring in more than fifty large pitchers of cacao with froth in it, and he drank some of it, the women serving with great reverence.
Jose de Acosta, a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century, described its use more generally:
Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women that are accustomed to the country are very greedy of this Chocolate. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that "chili ''; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh.
After the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, chocolate was imported to Europe. At the beginning Spaniards would use it as a medicine to treat illnesses such as abdominal pain because it had a bitterness to it. Once sweetened, it transformed. It quickly became a court favorite. It was still served as a beverage, but the addition of sugar or honey counteracted the natural bitterness. The Spaniards initially intended to recreate the original taste of the Mesoamerican chocolate by adding similar spices, but this habit had faded away by the end of the eighteenth century. Within about a hundred years, chocolate established a foothold throughout Europe.
How the word "chocolate '' came into Spanish is not certain. The authority on the Spanish language, the Royal Spanish Academy, derives it from the Nahuatl word "xocolatl '' (pronounced (ʃoˈkolaːtɬ)) made up from the words "xococ '' meaning sour or bitter, and "atl '' meaning water or drink. However, as William Bright noted the word "chocolatl '' does n't occur in central Mexican colonial sources making this an unlikely derivation. Santamaria gives a derivation from the Yucatec Maya word "chokol '' meaning hot, and the Nahuatl "atl '' meaning water. More recently Dakin and Wichman derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl '' from Eastern Nahuatl meaning "beaten drink ''. They derive this term from the word for the frothing stick, "chicoli ''. The word xocoatl means beverage of maize. The words "cacaua atl '' mean drink of cacao. The word "xocolatl '' does not appear in Molina 's dictionary, Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana.
The new craze for chocolate brought with it a thriving slave market, as between the early 17th and late 19th centuries the laborious and slow processing of the cacao bean was manual. Cacao plantations spread, as the English, Dutch, and French colonized and planted. With the depletion of Mesoamerican workers, largely to disease, cacao production was often the work of poor wage laborers and African slaves. Wind - powered and horse - drawn mills were used to speed production, augmenting human labor. Heating the working areas of the table - mill, an innovation that emerged in France in 1732, also assisted in extraction. The Chocolaterie Lombart, created in 1760, claimed to be the first chocolate company in France, ten years before Pelletier et Pelletier.
New processes that speed the production of chocolate emerged early in the Industrial Revolution. In 1815, Dutch chemist Coenraad van Houten introduced alkaline salts to chocolate, which reduced its bitterness. A few years thereafter, in 1828, he created a press to remove about half the natural fat (cacao butter) from chocolate liquor, which made chocolate both cheaper to produce and more consistent in quality. This innovation introduced the modern era of chocolate. Known as "Dutch cocoa '', this machine - pressed chocolate was instrumental in the transformation of chocolate to its solid form when in 1847 Joseph Fry learned to make chocolate moldable by adding back melted cacao butter. Milk had sometimes been used as an addition to chocolate beverages since the mid-17th century, but in 1875 Daniel Peter invented milk chocolate by mixing a powdered milk developed by Henri Nestlé with the liquor. In 1879, the texture and taste of chocolate was further improved when Rodolphe Lindt invented the conching machine.
Lindt & Sprüngli AG, a Swiss - based concern with global reach, had its start in 1845 as the Sprüngli family confectionery shop in Zurich that added a solid - chocolate factory the same year the process for making solid chocolate was developed and later bought Lindt 's factory. Besides Nestlé, several chocolate companies had their start in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Cadbury was manufacturing boxed chocolates in England by 1868. In 1893, Milton S. Hershey purchased chocolate processing equipment at the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago and soon began the career of Hershey 's chocolates with chocolate - coated caramels.
Although it was men leading the charge towards mass production of chocolate for everyday people, advertisements targeted women, who "were charged with providing wholesome cocoa for respectable consumption within the family, ''. Women were also targeted by advertising campaigns within heterosexual courtship rituals, though most early advertising was aimed more at housewives and mothers than at single women.
Roughly two - thirds of the world 's cocoa is produced in Western Africa, with Ivory Coast being the largest source, producing a total crop of 1,448,992 tonnes. Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon are other West African countries among the top 5 cocoa producing countries in the world. Like many food industry producers, individual cocoa farmers are at the mercy of volatile world markets. The price can vary from between £ 500 ($945) and £ 3,000 ($5,672) per ton in the space of just a few years. While investors trading in cocoa can dump shares at will, individual cocoa farmers can not ramp up production and abandon trees at anywhere near that pace.
Only three to four percent of "cocoa futures '' contracts traded in the cocoa markets ever end up in the physical delivery of cocoa. Every year seven to nine times more cocoa is bought and sold on the exchange than exists.
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what are the two different kinds of cinnamon | Cinnamon - wikipedia
Cinnamon (/ ˈsɪnəmən / SIN - ə - mən) is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. Cinnamon is used mainly as an aromatic condiment and flavoring additive in a wide variety of cuisines, sweet and savoury dishes, breakfast cereals, snackfoods, and traditional foods. The aroma and flavor of cinnamon derive from its essential oil and principal component, cinnamaldehyde, as well as numerous other constituents, including eugenol.
The term "cinnamon '' also is used to describe its mid-brown colour. Cinnamon is the name for several species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae. Only a few Cinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice. Cinnamomum verum is sometimes considered to be "true cinnamon '', but most cinnamon in international commerce is derived from related species, also referred to as "cassia ''. In 2016, Indonesia and China produced 75 % of the world 's supply of cinnamon.
The English word "cinnamon '', attested in English since the fifteenth century, derives from the Greek κιννάμωμον kinnámōmon (later kínnamon), via Latin and medieval French intermediate forms. The Greek was borrowed from a Phoenician word, which was similar to the related Hebrew קינמון (qinnamon).
The name "cassia '', first recorded in English around AD 1000, was borrowed via Latin and ultimately derives from Hebrew q'tsīʿāh, a form of the verb qātsaʿ, "to strip off bark ''.
Early Modern English also used the names canel and canella, similar to the current names of cinnamon in several other European languages, which are derived from the Latin word cannella, a diminutive of canna, "tube '', from the way the bark curls up as it dries.
Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BC, but those who report that it had come from China confuse it with cassia. Cinnamon was so highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a gift fit for monarchs and even for a deity; a fine inscription records the gift of cinnamon and cassia to the temple of Apollo at Miletus. Although its source was kept mysterious in the Mediterranean world for centuries by those in the spice trade to protect their monopoly as suppliers, cinnamon is native to India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
The first Greek reference to kasia is found in a poem by Sappho in the seventh century BC. According to Herodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense, myrrh, and labdanum, and were guarded by winged serpents.
In Ancient Egypt, cinnamon was used to embalm mummies. From Hellenistic times onward, Ancient Egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon.
Cinnamon was brought around the Arabian peninsula on "rafts without rudders or sails or oars '', taking advantage of the winter trade winds. Pliny the Elder also mentions cassia as a flavouring agent for wine.
According to Pliny the Elder, a Roman pound (327 grams (11.5 oz)) of cassia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost up to 1500 denarii, the wage of fifty months ' labour. Diocletian 's Edict on Maximum Prices from 301 AD gives a price of 125 denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25 denarii per day. Cinnamon was too expensive to be commonly used on funeral pyres in Rome, but the Emperor Nero is said to have burned a year 's worth of the city 's supply at the funeral for his wife Poppaea Sabina in AD 65.
Malabathrum leaves (folia) were used in cooking and for distilling an oil used in a caraway sauce for oysters by the Roman gourmet, Gaius Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is among the spices that, according to Apicius, any good kitchen should contain.
Through the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon remained a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the trading ports of Egypt, but where it came from was less than clear. When the Sieur de Joinville accompanied his king to Egypt on crusade in 1248, he reported -- and believed -- what he had been told: that cinnamon was fished up in nets at the source of the Nile out at the edge of the world (i.e., Ethiopia). Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic. Herodotus and other authors named Arabia as the source of cinnamon: they recounted that giant "cinnamon birds '' collected the cinnamon sticks from an unknown land where the cinnamon trees grew and used them to construct their nests, and that the Arabs employed a trick to obtain the sticks. Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century that traders had made this up to charge more, but the story remained current in Byzantium as late as 1310.
The first mention that the spice grew in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al - Qazwini 's Athar al - bilad wa - akhbar al - ' ibad ("Monument of Places and History of God 's Bondsmen '') about 1270. This was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292.
Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from the Moluccas to East Africa (see also Rhapta), where local traders then carried it north to Alexandria in Egypt. Venetian traders from Italy held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria. The disruption of this trade by the rise of other Mediterranean powers, such as the Mamluk sultans and the Ottoman Empire, was one of many factors that led Europeans to search more widely for other routes to Asia.
During the 1500s, Ferdinand Magellan was searching for spices on behalf of Spain, and in the Philippines found Cinnamomum mindanaense, which was closely related to C. zeylanicum, the cinnamon found in Sri Lanka. This cinnamon eventually competed with Sri Lankan cinnamon, which was controlled by the Portuguese.
In 1638, Dutch traders established a trading post in Sri Lanka, took control of the manufactories by 1640, and expelled the remaining Portuguese by 1658. "The shores of the island are full of it, '' a Dutch captain reported, "and it is the best in all the Orient. When one is downwind of the island, one can still smell cinnamon eight leagues out to sea. '' The Dutch East India Company continued to overhaul the methods of harvesting in the wild and eventually began to cultivate its own trees.
In 1767, Lord Brown of the British East India Company established Anjarakkandy Cinnamon Estate near Anjarakkandy in the Cannanore district of Kerala; it became Asia 's largest cinnamon estate. The British took control of Ceylon from the Dutch in 1796.
Cinnamon is an evergreen tree characterized by oval - shaped leaves, thick bark, and a berry fruit. When harvesting the spice, the bark and leaves are the primary parts of the plant used. Cinnamon is cultivated by growing the tree for two years, then coppicing it, i.e., cutting the stems at ground level. The following year, about a dozen new shoots form from the roots, replacing those that were cut. A number of pests such as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Diplodia spp., and Phytophthora cinnamomi (stripe canker) can affect the growing plants.
The stems must be processed immediately after harvesting while the inner bark is still wet. The cut stems are processed by scraping off the outer bark, then beating the branch evenly with a hammer to loosen the inner bark, which is then pried off in long rolls. Only 0.5 mm (0.02 in) of the inner bark is used; the outer, woody portion is discarded, leaving metre - long cinnamon strips that curl into rolls ("quills '') on drying. The processed bark dries completely in four to six hours, provided it is in a well - ventilated and relatively warm environment. Once dry, the bark is cut into 5 - to 10 - cm (2 - to 4 - in) lengths for sale. A less than ideal drying environment encourages the proliferation of pests in the bark, which may then require treatment by fumigation. Fumigated bark is not considered to be of the same premium quality as untreated bark.
A number of species are often sold as cinnamon:
Cassia induce a strong, spicy flavour and is often used in baking, especially associated with cinnamon rolls, as it handles baking conditions well. Among cassia, Chinese cinnamon is generally medium to light reddish brown in colour, hard and woody in texture, and thicker (2 -- 3 mm (0.079 -- 0.118 in) thick), as all of the layers of bark are used. Ceylon cinnamon, using only the thin inner bark, has a lighter brown colour, a finer, less dense and more crumbly texture. It is considered to be subtle and more aromatic in flavour than cassia and it loses much of its flavour during cooking.
Levels of the blood - thinning agent coumarin in Ceylon cinnamon are much lower than those in cassia.
The barks of the species are easily distinguished when whole, both in macroscopic and microscopic characteristics. Ceylon cinnamon sticks (quills) have many thin layers and can easily be made into powder using a coffee or spice grinder, whereas cassia sticks are much harder. Indonesian cinnamon is often sold in neat quills made up of one thick layer, capable of damaging a spice or coffee grinder. Saigon cinnamon (C. loureiroi) and Chinese cinnamon (C. cassia) are always sold as broken pieces of thick bark, as the bark is not supple enough to be rolled into quills.
The powdered bark is harder to distinguish, but if it is treated with tincture of iodine (a test for starch), little effect is visible with pure Ceylon cinnamon, but when Chinese cinnamon is present, a deep - blue tint is produced.
The Sri Lankan grading system divides the cinnamon quills into four groups:
These groups are further divided into specific grades. For example, Mexican is divided into M00 000 special, M000000, and M0000, depending on quill diameter and number of quills per kilogram.
Any pieces of bark less than 106 mm (4.2 in) long are categorized as quillings. Featherings are the inner bark of twigs and twisted shoots. Chips are trimmings of quills, outer and inner bark that can not be separated, or the bark of small twigs.
Combined, Indonesia and China produced 75 % of the world 's cinnamon in 2016 when global production was 223,574 tonnes (table). Four countries accounted for 99 % of the world total: Indonesia, China, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka.
Cinnamon bark is used as a spice. It is principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavouring material. It is used in the preparation of chocolate, especially in Mexico. Cinnamon is often used in savoury dishes of chicken and lamb. In the United States, cinnamon and sugar are often used to flavour cereals, bread - based dishes, such as toast, and fruits, especially apples; a cinnamon - sugar mixture is sold separately for such purposes. It is also used in Turkish cuisine for both sweet and savoury dishes. Cinnamon can also be used in pickling and Christmas drinks such as eggnog. Cinnamon powder has long been an important spice in enhancing the flavour of Persian cuisine, used in a variety of thick soups, drinks, and sweets.
Ground cinnamon is composed of around 11 % water, 81 % carbohydrates (including 53 % dietary fiber), 4 % protein, and 1 % fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount (100 g allows comparison to other foods and spices; typical serving size is one teaspoon or 2.6 grams), ground cinnamon is a rich source (20 % of more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin K, calcium, and iron, while providing moderate amounts (10 to 19 % DV) of vitamin B6, vitamin E, magnesium, and zinc (table).
The flavour of cinnamon is due to an aromatic essential oil that makes up 0.5 to 1 % of its composition. This essential oil is prepared by roughly pounding the bark, macerating it in sea water, and then quickly distilling the whole. It is of a golden - yellow colour, with the characteristic odour of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. The pungent taste and scent come from cinnamaldehyde (about 90 % of the essential oil from the bark) and, by reaction with oxygen as it ages, it darkens in colour and forms resinous compounds.
Cinnamon constituents include some 80 aromatic compounds, including eugenol found in the oil from leaves or bark of cinnamon trees.
Cinnamon is a popular flavouring in numerous alcoholic beverages, such as Fireball Cinnamon Whisky.
Cinnamon brandy concoctions, called "cinnamon liqueur '' and made with distilled alcohol, are popular in parts of Greece. In Europe, popular examples of such beverages are Maiwein (white wine with woodruff) and Żubrówka (vodka flavoured with bison grass).
Cinnamon has a long history of use in traditional medicine. It has been tested in a variety of clinical conditions, such as bronchitis or diabetes, but there is no scientific evidence to date that consuming cinnamon has any health benefits.
In 2008, The European Food Safety Authority considered toxicity of coumarin, a significant component of cinnamon, and confirmed a maximum recommended tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.1 mg of coumarin per kg of body weight. Coumarin is known to cause liver and kidney damage in high concentrations and metabolic effect in humans with CYP2A6 polymorphism. Based on this assessment, the European Union set a guideline for maximum coumarin content in foodstuffs of 50 mg per kg of dough in seasonal foods, and 15 mg per kg in everyday baked foods.
According to the maximum recommended TDI of 0.1 mg of coumarin per kg of body weight, which is 5 mg of coumarin for a body weight of 50 kg:
Note: Due to the highly variable amount of coumarin in C. cassia, usually well over 1,000 mg of coumarin per kg of cinnamon and sometimes up to 12 times that, C. cassia has a very low safe intake level to adhere to the above TDI.
Quills of Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) on the left, and Indonesian cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii) on the right
Essential oil prepared from cinnamon bark
Besides use as flavourant and spice in foods, cinnamon - flavoured tea is consumed as a hot beverage
Cinnamon toast
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when was the game snakes and ladders invented | Snakes and Ladders - wikipedia
Snakes and Ladders is an ancient Indian board game regarded today as a worldwide classic. It is played between two or more players on a gameboard having numbered, gridded squares. A number of "ladders '' and "snakes '' are pictured on the board, each connecting two specific board squares. The object of the game is to navigate one 's game piece, according to die rolls, from the start (bottom square) to the finish (top square), helped or hindered by ladders and snakes respectively.
The game is a simple race contest based on sheer luck, and is popular with young children. The historic version had root in morality lessons, where a player 's progression up the board represented a life journey complicated by virtues (ladders) and vices (snakes). A commercial version with different morality lessons, Chutes and Ladders, is published by Milton Bradley.
The size of the grid (most commonly 8 × 8, 10 × 10 or 12 × 12) varies, as does the exact arrangement of the snakes and ladders, with both factors affecting the duration of play. Each player is represented by a distinctly coloured game piece token. A single die is rolled to determine random movement of a player 's token in the traditional form of play.
Snakes and Ladders originated in India as part of a family of dice board games that included Gyan chauper and pachisi (present - day Ludo and Parcheesi). The game made its way to England and was sold as "Snakes and Ladders '', then the basic concept was introduced in the United States as Chutes and Ladders (an "improved new version of England 's famous indoor sport '') by game pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.
Gyan chauper / Jnan chauper (game of wisdom), the version associated with the Jain philosophy encompassed the concepts like karma and Moksha.
The game was popular in ancient India by the name Moksha Patam. It was also associated with traditional Hindu philosophy contrasting karma and kama, or destiny and desire. It emphasized destiny, as opposed to games such as pachisi, which focused on life as a mixture of skill (free will) and luck. The underlying ideals of the game inspired a version introduced in Victorian England in 1892. The game has also been interpreted and used as a tool for teaching the effects of good deeds versus bad. The board was covered with symbolic images, the top featuring gods, angels, and majestic beings, while the rest of the board was covered with pictures of animals, flowers and people. The ladders represented virtues such as generosity, faith, and humility, while the snakes represented vices such as lust, anger, murder, and theft. The morality lesson of the game was that a person can attain salvation (Moksha) through doing good, whereas by doing evil one will inherit rebirth to lower forms of life. The number of ladders was less than the number of snakes as a reminder that a path of good is much more difficult to tread than a path of sins. Presumably, reaching the last square (number 100) represented the attainment of Moksha (spiritual liberation).
When the game was brought to England, the Indian virtues and vices were replaced by English ones in hopes of better reflecting Victorian doctrines of morality. Squares of Fulfillment, Grace and Success were accessible by ladders of Thrift, Penitence and Industry and snakes of Indulgence, Disobedience and Indolence caused one to end up in Illness, Disgrace and Poverty. While the Indian version of the game had snakes outnumbering ladders, the English counterpart was more forgiving as it contained each in the same amount. This concept of equality signifies the cultural ideal that for every sin one commits, there exists another chance at redemption.
The association of Britain 's Snakes and Ladders with India and gyan chauper began with the returning of colonial families from one of Britain 's most important imperial possessions, India. The décor and art of the early English boards of the 20th century reflect this relationship. By the 1940s, very few pictorial references to the Indian culture were found due to the economic demands of the war and the collapse of British rule in India. Although the game 's sense of morality has lasted through the game 's generations, the physical allusions to religious and philosophical thought in the game as presented in Indian models appear to have all but faded. There has even been evidence of a possible Buddhist version of the game existing in India during the Pala - Sena time period.
In Andhra Pradesh, this game is popularly called Vaikunthapali or Paramapada Sopana Patam (the ladder to salvation) in Telugu. In Hindi, this game is called Saanp aur Seedhi, Saanp Seedhi and Mokshapat.
In the original game the squares of virtue are: Faith (12), Reliability (51), Generosity (57), Knowledge (76), and Asceticism (78). The squares of vice or evil are: Disobedience (41), Vanity (44), Vulgarity (49), Theft (52), Lying (58), Drunkenness (62), Debt (69), Murder (73), Rage (84), Greed (92), Pride (95), and Lust (99).
Each player starts with a token on the starting square (usually the "1 '' grid square in the bottom left corner, or simply, off the board next to the "1 '' grid square). Players take turns rolling a single die to move their token by the number of squares indicated by the die roll. Tokens follow a fixed route marked on the gameboard which usually follows a boustrophedon (ox - plow) track from the bottom to the top of the playing area, passing once through every square. If, on completion of a move, a player 's token lands on the lower - numbered end of a "ladder '', the player moves the token up to the ladder 's higher - numbered square. If the player lands on the higher - numbered square of a "snake '' (or chute), the token must be moved down to the snake 's lower - numbered square.
If a player rolls a 6, the player may, after moving, immediately take another turn; otherwise play passes to the next player in turn. The player who is first to bring their token to the last square of the track is the winner.
A variant exists where a player must roll the exact number to reach the final square. Depending on the variation, if the die roll is too large, the token either remains in place or goes off the final square and back again. (For example, if a player requiring a 3 to win rolls a 5, the token moves forward three spaces, then back two spaces.) In certain circumstances (such as a player rolling a 6 when a 1 is required to win), a player can end up further away from the final square after their move, than before it.
The most widely known edition of Snakes and Ladders in the United States is Chutes and Ladders released by Milton Bradley in 1943. The playground setting replaced the snakes, which were received negatively by children at the time. It is played on a 10 × 10 board, and players advance their pieces according to a spinner rather than a die. The theme of the board design is playground equipment, showing children climbing ladders and descending chutes.
The artwork on the board teaches morality lessons: squares on the bottom of the ladders show a child doing a good or sensible deed, at the top of the ladder there is an image of the child enjoying the reward; squares at the top of the chutes show children engaging in mischievous or foolish behavior, on the bottom of the chute the image shows the children suffering the consequences.
Black children were depicted in the Milton Bradley game for the first time in 1974. There have been many pop culture versions of the game, with graphics featuring such children 's television characters as Dora the Explorer and Sesame Street. It has been marketed as "The Classic Up and Down Game for Preschoolers ''. In 1999, Hasbro released Chutes and Ladders for PCs.
In Canada the game has been traditionally sold as "Snakes and Ladders '', and produced by the Canada Games Company. Several Canadian specific versions have been produced over the years, including a version substituting Toboggan runs for the snakes. With the demise of the Canada Games Company, Chutes and Ladders produced by Milton Bradley / Hasbro has been gaining in popularity.
The most common in the United Kingdom is Spear 's Games ' edition of Snakes and Ladders, played on a 10 × 10 board where a single die is used. Another early British version of the game depicts the path of a young boy and girl making their way through a cartoon railroad and train system.
During the early 1990s in South Africa, Chutes and Ladders games made from cardboard were distributed on the back of egg boxes as part of a promotion.
Even though the concept of major virtues against vices and related Eastern spiritualism is not much emphasized in modern incarnations of the game, the central mechanism of Snakes and Ladders makes it an effective tool for teaching young children about various subjects. In two separate Indonesian schools, the implementation of the game as media in English lessons of fifth graders not only improved the students ' vocabulary but also stimulated their interest and excitement about the learning process. Researchers from Carnegie Mellon University found that pre-schoolers from low income backgrounds who played an hour of numerical board games like Snakes and Ladders matched the performance of their middle - class counterparts by showing improvements in counting and recognizing number shapes. An eco-inspired version of the game was also used to teach students and teachers about climate change and environmental sustainability.
Any version of Snakes and Ladders can be represented exactly as an absorbing Markov chain, since from any square the odds of moving to any other square are fixed and independent of any previous game history. The Milton Bradley version of Chutes and Ladders has 100 squares, with 19 chutes and ladders. A player will need an average of 39.6 spins to move from the starting point, which is off the board, to square 100. A two - player game is expected to end in 47.76 moves with a 50.9 % chance of winning for the first player.
In the book Winning Ways the authors show how to treat Snakes and Ladders as an impartial game in combinatorial game theory even though it is very far from a natural fit to this category. To this end they make a few rule changes such as allowing players to move any counter any number of spaces, and declaring the winner as the player who gets the last counter home. Unlike the original game, this version, which they call Adders - and - Ladders, involves skill.
The phrase "back to square one '' originates in the game of snakes and ladders, or at least was influenced by it -- the earliest attestation of the phrase refers to the game: "Withal he has the problem of maintaining the interest of the reader who is always being sent back to square one in a sort of intellectual game of snakes and ladders. ''
The game is a central metaphor of Salman Rushdie 's Midnight 's Children. The narrator describes the game as follows:
All games have morals; and the game of Snakes and Ladders captures, as no other activity can hope to do, the eternal truth that for every ladder you hope to climb, a snake is waiting just around the corner, and for every snake a ladder will compensate. But it 's more than that; no mere carrot - and - stick affair; because implicit in the game is unchanging twoness of things, the duality of up against down, good against evil; the solid rationality of ladders balances the occult sinuosities of the serpent; in the opposition of staircase and cobra we can see, metaphorically, all conceivable oppositions, Alpha against Omega, father against mother.
Bibliography
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the metropolitan police in london was established by | History of the Metropolitan Police Service - wikipedia
The history of the Metropolitan Police Service is long and complex, with many different events taking place between its inception in 1829 to the present day.
Before the passing of the Metropolitan Police Act 1829, law enforcement among the general population in England was carried out by unpaid parish constables who were elected, and later appointed by the local justice of the peace. In certain circumstances, such as serious public disorder, the army would intervene to support the local authorities; yeomanry were extensively used for this purpose before police forces developed. Because this system of policing was largely unorganised and lacked a criminal investigation capability, the novelist Henry Fielding (who had been appointed a Magistrate in 1748) introduced the first detective force, known as the Bow Street Runners, in 1753. Fielding 's house at 4 Bow Street had been established as a courtroom by the previous owner, in 1739.
Fielding 's force was made up of eight constables who also investigated crimes handed over to them by the volunteer constables and watchmen. Runners were identified by carrying a tipstaff with the Royal Crown on it, which had a compartment inside to store official identification and documents. In 1805 the Bow Street Horse Patrol, the first form of uniformed policing seen in the capital, was established alongside the Runners, later amalgamating into the Metropolitan Police in 1837. Unofficial "thief - takers '' operated independently from the Bow Street Runners, being employed by fee - paying members of the public to catch criminals and present them before a magistrate.
By 1798, the year the Marine Police Force was established, salaried constables were being paid by local magistrates. The Marine Police was initially made up of 220 Constables assisted by 1,000 registered dock workers, and was responsible for preventing the theft of cargo in and around the River Thames. The London Marine Police Force is widely regarded as being the first modern police force in the world, in the sense that they were not government controlled and were responsible for the prevention of crime. In its first year of operation 2,000 offenders were found guilty of theft from the docks. This success led to the enacting of the Marine Police Bill, which made it the first publicly funded preventive police force in the history of English policing. In 1839, the Marine Police amalgamated with the Metropolitan Police to form the Thames Division, being recently renamed to the Marine Policing Unit. Although this has previously been the basis for a claim by the Metropolitan Police to be the oldest police force in the world, it ceased making such claims when it entered into a written undertaking with the Advertising Standards Authority not to do so, following a complaint to the ASA (upheld) that this claim is untrue.)
The lack of organisation and efficiency of early law enforcement was often a source of public controversy. Because of this, a parliamentary committee was appointed to investigate the current system of policing. Upon Sir Robert Peel being appointed as Home Secretary in 1822, he established a second and more effective committee, and acted upon its findings. Robert Peel, believing that the way to standardise the police was to make it an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public. After he presented his ideas to Parliament, they were approved and made official with the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829.
During the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution witnessed London becoming larger geographically and more significant economically. It became clear that the locally maintained system of volunteer constables and "watchmen '' was ineffective, both in detecting and preventing crime. Due to this, Royal Assent was given to the Metropolitan Police Act on 19 June 1829, placing the policing arrangements for the capital directly under the control of Sir Robert Peel.
Due to public fears concerning the deployment of the military in domestic matters, Robert Peel organised the force along civilian lines, rather than paramilitary. To appear neutral, the uniform was deliberately manufactured in blue, rather than red which was then a military colour, along with the officers being armed only with a wooden truncheon and a rattle to signal the need for assistance. Along with this, police ranks did not include military titles, with the exception of Sergeant.
The force did not routinely carry firearms, although Sir Robert Peel authorised the Commissioner to purchase fifty flintlock pocket pistols for use in exceptional circumstances, such as those which involved the use of firearms. Later, the obsolete flintlocks were decommissioned from service, superseded by early revolvers. At the time, burglary (or "house breaking '' as it was then called) was a common problem for police. "House breakers '' were usually armed. It was then also legal (under the Bill of Rights 1689) for members of the public who were Protestants, as most were, to own and use firearms. Following the deaths of officers by firearms on the outer districts of the metropolis, and public debate on arming the force, the Commissioner applied to Robert Peel for authorisation to supply officers on the outer districts with revolvers. The authorisation was issued on the condition that revolvers would only be issued if, in the opinion of the senior officer, the officer could be trusted to use it safely and with discretion. From then, officers could be armed. The practice lasted until 1936, although the vast majority of the system was phased out by the end of the 19th century.
During the 1860s, the flintlock pistols that had been purchased in 1829 were decommissioned from service, being superseded by 622 Beaumont -- Adams revolvers firing the. 450 cartridge which were loaned from the army stores at the Tower of London following the Clerkenwell bombing. In 1883, a ballot was carried out to gather information on officers ' views on whether they wished to be armed, and 4,430 out of 6,325 officers serving on outer divisions requested to be issued with revolvers. The now obsolete Adams revolver was returned to stores for emergencies, and the Bulldog ' Metropolitan Police ' revolver was issued to officers on the outer districts who felt the need to be armed. On the night of 18 February 1887 PC 52206 Henry Owen became the first officer to fire a revolver while on duty, doing so after he was unable to alert the owners of premises on fire. Following the Siege of Sidney Street, one thousand self - loading Webley & Scott pistols were purchased. In 1914 the Bulldogs were withdrawn from service and returned to stores. Lord Trenchard standardised the issue of pistols among divisions with the division size determining the number of firearms (with thirty - two rounds per pistol) issued: ten pistols with 320 rounds of ammunition were issued to each divisional station; six pistols with 192 rounds to each sub-divisional station; three pistols with 96 rounds to each section station. In 1936 the authorisation to carry revolvers on outer districts was revoked, and at the same time Canadian Ross rifles were purchased in the prelude to the Second World War. In 1952 following the Derek Bentley case, when an officer was shot dead, 15 % of firearms in service with the Metropolitan Police were found to be defective, leading to Special Branch and Royalty Protection Officers being armed with an early version of the Beretta automatic pistol.
The original headquarters of the newly formed Metropolitan Police was near Government, at 4 Whitehall Place, with a back entrance on Great Scotland Yard. Scotland Yard soon became established as a name for the force itself. Once formed, the force become the third official non-paramilitary city police force in the world, after the City of Glasgow Police and the Paris Police.
The original standard wage for a Constable was one guinea (£ 1.05) a week. Recruitment criteria required applicants to be under the age of 35, in good health, and to be at least 5 ft 7 in (1.70 m). Working shifts lasted 12 hours, 6 days a week, with Sunday as a rest day. Until 1897, Metropolitan Police officers did not receive a boot allowance.
From the Metropolitan Police 's foundation, the force had relied on the use of hand rattles for officers to signal the need for assistance. In 1884 the Home Secretary invited competition from many companies to invent a "police whistle '' to replace the rattle. J. Hudson & Company of Birmingham were awarded the contract for 7,175 whistles at the price of 11d each. At the same time, a competition for the contract to supply the Metropolitan Police with new truncheons was under way. This contract was won by Ross & Company, who supplied the Metropolitan Police with Lignum vitae truncheons. In 1886, during a riot between warring working parties in Hyde Park, many truncheons were damaged or broken, samples were sent off to be tested by the Royal Army Clothing Department, at a cost of 16 shillings per day. In October 1886, 900 pounds worth of Lance and Cocuswood were purchased, to use in place of Lignum vitae that was deemed unsuitable after Army testing.
Since the MPS 's inception, the force has been headed by a Commissioner, rather than a Chief Constable which is the highest rank in police forces outside London. The first Commissioners to hold the post were Lieutenant - Colonel Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne. When Sir Charles Rowan died, leaving Sir Richard Mayne as the surviving Commissioner, Captain William Hay was drafted in to jointly run the force with Mayne. However, because the two Commissioners did not agree on methods of running the force, since 1855 it was decided that only one Commissioner would run the force.
Metropolitan Police patrols took to the streets on 29 September 1829, despite resistance from certain elements of the community who saw them to be a threat to civil liberties. The initial force consisted of two Commissioners, eight Superintendents, 20 Inspectors, 88 Sergeants and 895 Constables. Patrolling the streets within a seven - mile (11 km) radius of Charing Cross, in order to prevent crime and pursue offenders. Between 1829 and 1830, 17 local divisions each with its own police station were established, each lettered A to V, allocating each London borough with a designated letter. These divisions were: A (Westminster); B (Chelsea); C (Mayfair and Soho); D (Marylebone); E (Holborn); F (Kensington); G (Kings Cross); H (Stepney); K (West Ham); L (Lambeth); M (Southwark); N (Islington); P (Peckham); R (Greenwich); S (Hampstead); T (Hammersmith) and V (Wandsworth). In 1865 three more divisions were created, W (Clapham); X (Willesden) and Y (Tottenham); J Division (Bethnal Green) was added in 1886.
On 28 June 1830, Constable Joseph Grantham became the first member of the force to be killed in the line of duty, an incident described by the Coroner 's Inquest as "justifiable homicide ''. Other indications of the Constabulary 's unpopularity of the time, were such nicknames as ' Raw Lobsters ', ' Blue Devils ' and ' Peel 's Bloody Gang '. Officers were physically assaulted, others impaled, blinded, and on one occasion held down while a vehicle was driven over them.
One of the priorities of the Metropolitan Police from the beginning was "maintaining public order '', which they were active in doing, against the major Chartist demonstrations (1839 -- 48) and the Bloody Sunday demonstration of the unemployed in Trafalgar Square in 1887.
In 1839, the Bow Street Runners, the Foot and Horse Patrol and the Thames River Police were amalgamated with the Metropolitan Police. However, the City of London Police, created in the same year was an independent force. In 1842 taking over a function formerly the responsibility of the Runners, a new investigative force was formed as the "Detective Branch ''. And first consisted of; two Inspectors, six Sergeants and a number of Constables.
One of the first cases investigated by the newly formed Detective Branch was The Bermondsey Horror of 1849, in which a married couple, Frederick and Marie Manning, murdered Patrick O'Connor and buried his body under the kitchen floor. After going on the run they were tracked down by Detective Sergeants Thornton and Langley and publicly hanged outside Horsemonger Gaol in Southwark.
After Rowan 's death in 1852, Mayne presided as sole Commissioner. In 1857 he was paid a salary of £ 1,883 (a fortune, roughly equivalent to £ 1.2 m in 2009), and his two Assistant Commissioners were paid salaries £ 800 each, approximately £ 526,000 in 2009.
It took some time to establish the standards of discipline expected today from a police force. In 1863, 215 officers were arrested for being intoxicated while on duty, In 1872 there was a police strike, and during 1877 three high ranking detectives were tried for corruption at the Old Bailey. Due to this latter scandal the Detective Branch was re-organised in 1878 by C.E. Howard Vincent, and renamed the Criminal Investigation Department (CID). This was separated from the uniformed branch and its head had direct access to the Home Secretary, by - passing the Commissioner.
Special Constables were first introduced by the Special Constables Act 1831, empowering Magistrates to appoint ordinary citizens as temporary police officers in times of emergency. In 1834, the Act was extended to allow citizens appointed as Specials to act outside of their Parish area. In 1848, 150,000 Specials were sworn in, to assist regular officers in preventing Chartists from reaching Kennington, and then marching to Westminster. In 1912, the Specials were reorganised, scrapping the old system of anyone being liable to be appointed, instead they had to volunteer. In 1934, it was named the Metropolitan Special Constabulary (MSC), a name which it keeps today in its present form. For a short period of time after the MSC was formed, Specials did not receive uniforms like that of a full - time policeman. Instead, they were issued with armbands which identified them as Special Constables, along with being issued a truncheon and a whistle.
The threat of Irish terrorism was combated by the formation of the Special Irish Branch, in March 1883. The "Irish '' sobriquet was dropped in 1888 as the department remit was extended to cover other threats, and became known simply as Special Branch.
Important criminal investigations of the period included the Whitechapel murders (1888) and the Cleveland Street scandal (1889).
By 1900, the force had grown to nearly 16,000 officers, organised into 21 divisions, responsible for law enforcement within an area of nearly 700 square miles.
Detection of crimes was much improved when Edward Henry, the Commissioner from 1903 -- 18, set up a Fingerprint Bureau at Scotland Yard in 1901. A landmark case for the Met in forensic investigation was the Stratton Brothers case of 1905, concerning a double murder in Deptford, committed by Alfred and Albert Stratton, in which, for the first time, fingerprint evidence secured the conviction. Another important investigation of this period was that into the murderer Hawley Harvey Crippen in 1910.
Along with law enforcement within the Metropolitan Police District, the Metropolitan Police also had responsibility for the policing of the Royal Dockyards and other royal naval bases between 1860 until 1934, including Portsmouth, Chatham, Devonport, Royal Naval Air Station Pembroke and the Royal Woolwich Arsenal. They also policed Rosyth Dockyard from 1914 until 1926.
Before the 1970s, police forces often called for assistance from the Metropolitan Police because of their detective experience. The last case of this was when the now defunct Buckinghamshire Constabulary called upon the MPS to help in the investigation of the Great Train Robbery.
In 1931, Hugh Trenchard was appointed as Police Commissioner Trenchard served as head of the Metropolitan Police until 1935 and during his tenure he instigated several changes. These included limiting membership of the Police Federation, introducing limited terms of employment and the short - lived creation of separate career paths for the lower and higher ranks akin to the military system of officer and non-commissioned career streams. Perhaps Trenchard 's most well known achievement during his time as Commissioner was the establishment of the Hendon Police College which originally was the institution from which Trenchard 's junior station inspectors graduated before following a career in the higher ranks.
When Great Britain entered World War II on September 3, 1939, the strength of the Metropolitan Police stood at 18,428, which was 900 officers short of full strength. Due to the increased responsibilities of the police during war - time, three reserve groups were mobilised. The first consisted of 2,737 ex-police pensioners who were re-engaged, a second of 5,380 Special Constables serving on a full - time basis for the duration of the war, and the third being 18,868 War Reserve Constables employed on the same basis as the Special Constables. On the same day as the Battle of Dunkirk, Scotland Yard issued a memorandum detailing the police use of firearms in wartime. The memorandum detailed the planned training for all officers in the use of pistols and revolvers, as despite the police being a non-combatant force, while the war was in progress they would be responsible for providing armed protection at premises deemed at risk from enemy sabotage and would assist the British Armed Forces in the event of an invasion. Due to these added roles, on 1 June 1940, 3,500 Canadian Ross Rifles and 72,384 rounds of. 303 ammunition were received from the military and distributed among divisions. Thames Division were allocated the smallest amount of 61 rifles, and "S '' Division the largest with 190. Fifty rifles were also issued to the London Fire Brigade and the Port of London Authority Police.
After staying stable for decades, crime rates in London soared during and after the Second World War, posing a new challenge to police. The chaotic conditions of the City under aerial attack were followed by crime, such as looting, and theft of goods and foodstuffs for illicit sales as black market rationed goods. This also fuelled the activities of criminal gangs who continued and expanded their activities after the war. By 1948, the number of recorded crimes in London had risen tenfold from the 1920s, to more than 126,000. By 1959 they had reached 160,000.
On the night of 2 November 1952, Derek Bentley and Christopher Craig set out to break into the confectionery manufacturers Barlow & Parker in Croydon. Bentley and Craig were spotted climbing up a drain pipe to gain access to the roof by a member of the public, who called the police. The first officer to arrive on scene was Detective Sergeant Frederick Fairfax; by this time both Bentley and Craig had hidden behind the lift shaft. DS Fairfax gained entry to the roof and apprehended Bentley, but while doing so was shot in the shoulder by Craig. Upon armed uniformed officers arriving, Constable Sidney Miles was shot dead by Craig. After trial, Bentley was sentenced to death and Craig to be remanded at Her Majesty 's Pleasure. For DS Fairfax 's role in the incident, he received a George Cross, as did Constables Norman Harrison and James McDonald. Constable Robert Jaggs was awarded the British Empire Medal, with Sidney Miles awarded a posthumous Queen 's Police Medal for Gallantry.
During the 1950s and 1960s, London was subject to many protests by organisations. On more than one occasion, police clashed with violent protesters, making newspaper headlines. The need for a public order trained police unit was realised, and in 1965 the Special Patrol Group was formed. The Officers attached to the SPG received higher training in public order policing than divisional counterparts. The group often received controversy and accusations of police brutality. The best known of the police brutality cases was the killing of Blair Peach. (In 1986, the SPG was succeeded by the Territorial Support Group which did much of the same role, but was a modernised form.)
In the late 1970s Operation Countryman investigated allegations of endemic corruption in the 1960s and 1970s. It concluded that there had been corruption at many levels. Only 8 prosecutions were brought but several hundred officers retired or resigned as a result.
In 1981, a report issued by Lord Scarman stated that the Metropolitan Police were having problems regarding racial discrimination. The issue arose again in the 1999 Macpherson Report, which stated that institutional racism existed in the force.
The official title was changed from "Metropolitan Police Force '' to "Metropolitan Police Service '' as part of the "PLUS Programme '' in 1989, under the then Commissioner Sir Peter Imbert, following the presentation of a report entitled "A Force for Change: Report on the Corporate Identity of the Metropolitan Police '' to the force 's Policy Committee by Wolff Olins corporate identity consultants in August 1988.
The current uniform for MPS officers is largely the same as forces outside London, apart from insignia differences. Officers on patrol are most likely to carry on the duty belt; extendible / rigid baton, Airwave personal radio, CS / PAVA Incapacitant Spray, Speedcuffs, a very small first aid kit containing a face shield for artificial respiration, protective gloves and sometimes some sticking plasters and a torch at night.
The force continued to be controlled directly by the Home Secretary until 2000, when the newly created Greater London Authority was given responsibility to oversee the force, through the Metropolitan Police Authority. The MPA is made up of members appointed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly, and several independent members. However, the Metropolitan Police Commissioner is still appointed by the Home Secretary.
Since the creation of the MPS in 1829, 2 Albert Medals, 174 King 's Police Medals for Gallantry (including 33 for entering waters to save life, 41 for stopping runaway horses, and 26 for saving lives by entering burning buildings) 30 King 's Police and Fire Services Medals, 4 Queen 's Police Medals for gallantry awarded posthumously, 5 George Crosses, 123 George Medals (including 85 for connection with war activities), 81 British Empire Medals for gallantry, and 49 Queen 's Gallantry Medals have been awarded to officers.
Officers (both City and Metropolitan) on duty during various royal jubilees and coronations were eligible for commemorative medals. Since 1951, in common with all members of U.K. police forces, officers can receive the Police Long Service and Good Conduct Medal after 20 (formerly 22) years of duty.
When a male police officer was asked in 1916 whether women would ever be police constables, he burst out laughing, replying: "No, not even if the war lasts 50 years. '' However, the Women 's Police Service, made up of volunteers, had been founded in 1914. Female police officers first joined the Metropolitan Police in 1919, although the then Commissioner, Sir Nevil Macready, insisted he did not want any "vinegary spinsters '' or "blighted middle - aged fanatics '' in its ranks. The female police officers were distinguished from their male counterparts, who had wider authority, by the prefix ' woman ' before their rank, such as "Woman Police Constable '' (WPC) and "Woman Police Sergeant '' (WPS).
The first female police officer in the Metropolitan Police was Sofia Stanley in 1919, and she designed the first women 's police uniform, known as the Stanley uniform. Initial duties of female police officers included patrolling areas frequented by prostitutes, along with care and observation of female and juvenile detainees, deterring prostitution, helping prevent the deceitful practice of fortune telling (then illegal), and looking after women who attempted to commit suicide (also then illegal). Female officers were allowed to go into brothels, nightclubs and betting houses to observe and gather evidence of untoward behaviour, but at the first sign of crime being committed, they had to call in male colleagues. They were not allowed to carry handcuffs unless instructed to by a senior officer, and were not allowed to make arrests until 1923.
Female police officers were initially given six - day, 48 - hour work weeks, and were not allowed to work night shifts apart from when on - call duties until 1973. Female officers did in fact do a week of nights at least from 1965. Female officers were usually seconded to the Criminal Investigation Department, but in 1921 Lilian Wyles was appointed the first female Inspector to the Criminal Intelligence Department. A policy in place from 1927 until 1946 forced women to leave the Metropolitan Police if they got married. Female police officers were not authorised to take fingerprints until 1937. The Police Federation, the rank - and - file staff association, let women join in 1948.
The first women police officers to receive George Medals for courage were Sergeant Ethel Bush and Kathleen Parrott, who had been separately attacked by a sex offender they were on a stakeout in pursuit of in 1955. In 1968 Sislin Fay Allen became the Metropolitan Police 's first black female officer. On February 1, 1971, Karpal Kaur Sandhu, born in Zanzibar but of Indian heritage, joined the Metropolitan Police and thus became the Metropolitan Police 's (and Britain 's) first female Asian police officer. This was before India itself had female police officers (the first female police officer in India was Kiran Bedi in 1972).
The first Woman Detective Constable was appointed in 1973. 1973 was also the year that the separate Women 's Department was fully integrated into the Metropolitan Police. Female police officers did not get equal pay with male police officers until 1974. In 1976 the first Woman Chief Superintendent was appointed to take charge of a subdivision. In 1977 the first female traffic officer, Dee O'Donoghue, was hired. In 1979 the first female dog handler, Nicola Gray, was hired. Prior to this, women were prohibited from being dog handlers since rules stated that an officer should have a wife who could look after a puppy while the officer went to work. In 1995 Pauline Clare became the first female chief constable, for Lancashire. The prefix "Woman '' in front of female officers ' ranks has been obsolete since 1999. In 2017 Cressida Dick became the first female Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Service and therefore the most senior Police Officer in England and Wales.
Between 1990 and 2010, over 50 serving MPS officers died in service, with eight being murdered or fatally injured by an assailant.
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who wins in play it to the bone | Play it to the Bone - wikipedia
Play It to the Bone is a 2000 sports / comedy - drama film, starring Antonio Banderas and Woody Harrelson, written and directed by Ron Shelton.
It follows the adventures of two boxers and best friends who travel to Las Vegas in order to fight each other for the sake of a chance to compete for the middleweight title. The film also starred Lolita Davidovich, Tom Sizemore, Lucy Liu, and Robert Wagner.
Cameo appearances include: Steve Lawrence, Tony Curtis, Wesley Snipes, Mike Tyson, Kevin Costner, Rod Stewart, Jennifer Tilly, Natasha Gregson Wagner, Drew Carey and Chuck Bodak. The film was released to neither critical acclaim nor commercial success.
Aging prizefighters and longtime pals Cesar Dominguez (Banderas) and Vince Boudreau (Harrelson) always regretted not getting one last shot. Out of the blue, such an opportunity comes their way -- except it is to fight each other.
Boxing promoter Joe Domino (Sizemore) has a problem on his hands. The fighters scheduled to be on his undercard in Las Vegas, a preliminary to a main event featuring heavyweight Mike Tyson, suddenly become unavailable at the last minute. He needs replacements fast, so a call is made to a gym in Los Angeles to see if Dominguez or Boudreau would be available. Both are. Domino hatches the idea to have them both fight.
The boxers negotiate one condition: the winner will be given a chance to fight for the middleweight championship. Domino agrees, although the untrustworthy promoter is not necessarily a man of his word.
Cesar and Vince have only a day to get to the fight. They decide to drive rather than fly, so they call upon friend Grace (Davidovich) to drive them in her lime green Oldsmobile 442. She has been a love interest of both. Grace 's own plan is to pitch her various money - making ideas to Vegas bigshots like hotel and casino boss Hank Goody (Wagner) and raise venture capital. Along the way, they pick up a hitchhiker (Liu) whose insults finally result in Grace 's flattening her with a solid right cross worthy of her traveling companions.
The fight between the two friends is sparsely attended, ringside fans and celebrities remaining uninterested until the night 's main event. Cesar and Vince mix it up so savagely, however, beating each other to a bloody pulp, that fans in the arena begin paying more and more attention, as do commentators on TV.
When the action - packed and dramatic bout comes to an end, Cesar and Vince are paid off, but promptly spend most of their money in the casino. Grace, too, comes away bruised and empty - handed, except for her everlasting relationship between a couple of hard - headed but soft - hearted guys.
The film garnered a generally poor reception, with Rotten Tomatoes giving it a score of 11 % based on 79 reviews and an average rating of 3.9 out of 10. Professional critical reception was similar, with Empire magazine giving it just 2 stars out of 5.
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what do the buttons on the playstation controller mean | PlayStation Controller - wikipedia
The PlayStation Controller is the first gamepad released by Sony Computer Entertainment for its PlayStation video game console. The original version (model SCPH - 1010) was released alongside the PlayStation on December 3, 1994.
Based on the basic button configuration established with Nintendo 's Super NES Controller, the PlayStation Controller added a second pair of shoulder buttons for the middle fingers. Intended to update the gamepad for navigating 3D environments such as the ones PlayStation was designed to generate, the concept behind featuring shoulder buttons for both the index and middle fingers was to implement two - way directional depth controls using the two sets of buttons. To compensate for the less stable grip from shifting the middle fingers ' placement to the shoulders, grip handles were added to the controller.
Using the simple geometric shapes of a green triangle, a red circle, a blue cross, and a pink square (,,,) to label its action buttons rather than traditionally used letters or numbers, the PlayStation Controller established a trademark which would be incorporated heavily into the PlayStation brand. In an interview with Teiyu Goto, designer of the original PlayStation Controller, he explained what the symbols mean: The circle and cross represent "yes '' and "no, '' respectively; the triangle symbolizes a point of view and the square is equated to a sheet of paper there to be used to access menus. The order of the shapes also coincides with the order children are able to draw them from ages 3 to 6 years, moving clockwise, starting with the circle and ending with the triangle.
The North American model of the PlayStation controller is roughly 10 % larger than the Japanese model, to account for the fact the average person in the region has significantly larger hands than the average Japanese person.
The PlayStation 2 controller is backward - compatible with the original PlayStation controller.
On April 2, 1996, Sony released a revised version of the PlayStation Controller (model SCPH - 1080), featuring a longer cord with a ferrite bead. After briefly selling the Dual Analog Controller in 1997, Sony began phasing out the PlayStation Controller later that year with the introduction of the DualShock controller, which would become the new standard controller for the PlayStation.
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who wrote the book lamentations in the bible | Book of Lamentations - wikipedia
The Book of Lamentations (Hebrew: אֵיכָה , ' Êykhôh, from its incipit meaning "how '') is a collection of poetic laments for the destruction of Jerusalem. In the Hebrew Bible it appears in the Ketuvim ("Writings ''), beside the Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, Ecclesiastes and the Book of Esther (the Megilloth or "Five Scrolls ''), although there is no set order; in the Christian Old Testament it follows the Book of Jeremiah, as the prophet Jeremiah is its traditional author. Jeremiah 's authorship is no longer generally accepted, although it is generally accepted that the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BCE forms the background to the poems. The book is partly a traditional "city lament '' mourning the desertion of the city by God, its destruction, and the ultimate return of the divinity, and partly a funeral dirge in which the bereaved bewails and addresses the dead. The tone is bleak: God does not speak, the degree of suffering is presented as undeserved, and expectations of future redemption are minimal.
The book is traditionally recited on the fast day of Tisha B'Av ("Ninth of Av ''), mourning the destruction of both the First Temple and the Second; in Christianity it is traditionally read during Tenebrae of the Holy Triduum.
Lamentations consists of five distinct poems, corresponding to its five chapters. The first four are written as acrostics -- chapters 1, 2, and 4 each have 22 verses, corresponding to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, the first lines beginning with the first letter of the alphabet, the second with the second letter, and so on. Chapter 3 has 66 verses, so that each letter begins three lines, and the fifth poem is not acrostic but still has 22 lines. The purpose or function of this form is unknown.
The book consists of five separate poems. In the first (chapter 1), the city sits as a desolate weeping widow overcome with miseries. In Chapter 2 these miseries are described in connection with national sins and acts of God. Chapter 3 speaks of hope for the people of God: the chastisement would only be for their good; a better day would dawn for them. Chapter 4 laments the ruin and desolation of the city and temple, but traces it to the people 's sins. Chapter 5 is a prayer that Zion 's reproach may be taken away in the repentance and recovery of the people. The five chapters can be seen as the five truths.
Lamentations has traditionally been ascribed to Jeremiah, probably on the grounds of the reference in 2 Chronicles 35: 25 to the prophet composing a lament on the death of King Josiah, but there is no reference to Josiah in the book and no reason to connect it to Jeremiah. The language fits an Exilic date (586 -- 520 BCE), and the poems probably originated from Judeans who remained in the land. Scholars are divided over whether they are the work of one or multiple authors. One clue pointing to multiple authors is that the gender and situation of the first - person witness changes -- the narration is feminine in the first and second lamentation, and masculine in the third, while the fourth and fifth are eyewitness reports of Jerusalem 's destruction; conversely, the similarities of style, vocabulary, and theological outlook, as well as the uniform historical setting, are arguments for one author.
Lamentations combines elements of the qinah, a funeral dirge for the loss of the city, and the "communal lament '' pleading for the restoration of its people. It reflects the view, traceable to Sumerian literature of a thousand years earlier, that the destruction of the holy city was a punishment by God for the communal sin of its people.
Beginning with the reality of disaster, Lamentations concludes with the bitter possibility that God may have finally rejected Israel (chapter 5: 22). Sufferers in the face of grief are not urged to a confidence in the goodness of God; in fact God is accountable for the disaster. The poet acknowledges that this suffering is a just punishment, still God is held to have had choice over whether to act in this way and at this time. Hope arises from a recollection of God 's past goodness, but although this justifies a cry to God to act in deliverance, there is no guarantee that he will. Repentance will not persuade God to be gracious, since he is free to give or withhold grace as he chooses. In the end, the possibility is that God has finally rejected his people and may not again deliver them: if God is predictable, then God is just a tool of humans. Nevertheless, it also affirms confidence that the mercies of Yahweh (the God of Israel) never end, but are new every morning (3: 22 -- 33).
The Book of Lamentations is recited annually by Jews on Tisha b'Av (Ninth of Av), the anniversary of the destruction of both of the Jewish Temples.
In Western Christianity, readings, chantings, and choral settings of the book are used in the Lenten religious service known as the Tenebrae (Latin for darkness). In the Church of England, readings are used at Morning and Evening Prayer on the Monday and Tuesday of Holy Week, and at Evening Prayer on Good Friday.
In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the book 's third chapter is chanted on the twelfth hour of the Good Friday service, that commemorates the burial of Jesus.
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who drove the first lunar vehicle on which apollo mission | Lunar Roving vehicle - Wikipedia
The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) or lunar rover is a battery - powered four - wheeled rover used on the Moon in the last three missions of the American Apollo program (15, 16, and 17) during 1971 and 1972. It was popularly known as "moon buggy '', a play on the words "dune buggy ''.
The LRV was transported to the Moon on the Apollo Lunar Module (LM) and, once unpacked on the surface, could carry one or two astronauts, their equipment, and lunar samples. The three LRVs remain on the Moon.
The concept of a lunar rover predated Apollo, with a 1952 -- 1954 series in Collier 's Weekly magazine by Wernher von Braun and others, "Man Will Conquer Space Soon! '' In this, von Braun described a six - week stay on the Moon, featuring 10 - ton tractor trailers for moving supplies.
In 1956, Mieczyslaw G. Bekker published two books on land locomotion. At the time, Bekker was a University of Michigan professor and a consultant to the U.S. Army Tank - Automotive Command 's Land Locomotion Laboratory. The books provided much of the theoretical base for future lunar vehicle development.
In the February 1964 issue of Popular Science, von Braun, then director of NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), discussed the need for a lunar surface vehicle, and revealed that studies had been underway at MSFC in conjunction with Lockheed, Bendix, Boeing, General Motors, Brown Engineering, Grumman, and Bell Aerospace.
Beginning in the early 1960s, a series of studies centering on lunar mobility were conducted under MSFC. This began with the Lunar Logistics System (LLS), followed by the Mobility Laboratory (MOLAB), then the Lunar Scientific Survey Module (LSSM), and finally the Mobility Test Article (MTA). In early planning for the Apollo program, it had been assumed that two Saturn V launch vehicles would be used for each lunar mission: one for sending the crew aboard a Lunar Surface Module (LSM) to lunar orbit, landing, and returning, and a second for sending an LSM - Truck (LSM - T) with all of the equipment, supplies, and transport vehicle for use by the crew while on the surface. All of the first MSFC studies were based on this dual - launch assumption, allowing a large, heavy, roving vehicle.
The LLS studies were begun by Grumman and Northrop in the fall of 1962; these were designs for pressurized cabin vehicles with electric motors for each wheel. At about this same time, Bendix and Boeing were conducting internal studies on lunar transportation systems. Bekker, now with General Motors Defense Research Laboratories (GMDRL) at Santa Barbara, California, was completing a study for NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on a small, unmanned lunar roving vehicle for the Surveyor program. Ferenc Pavlics, originally from Hungary, used a wire - mesh design for "resilient wheels, '' a design that would be followed in future small rovers.
In early 1963, NASA selected MSFC for studies in an Apollo Logistics Support System (ALSS). Following reviews of all earlier efforts, this resulted in a 10 - volume report. Included was the need for a pressurized vehicle in the 6,490 -- 8,470 lb (2,940 -- 3,840 kg) weight range, accommodating two men with their expendables and instruments for traverses up to two weeks in duration. This was called a Mobility Laboratory (MOLAB). In June 1964, MSFC awarded contracts for MOLAB studies and Mobility Test Articles (MTAs) to Bendix and to Boeing, with GMDRL as vehicle technology subcontractor. Bell Aerospace was already under contract for studies of Lunar Flying Vehicles.
Even as ALSS was underway, MSFC was examining a less ambitious surface exploration activity, the Local Scientific Surface Module (LSSM). This would be composed of a fixed, habitable shelter - laboratory (SHELAB) with a small lunar - traversing vehicle (LTV) that could either carry one man or be remotely controlled. LSSM would be carried on an LSM - T, thus still requiring a dual launch. The Propulsion and Vehicle Engineering (P&VE) support contractor Hayes International made a preliminary study of the shelter and vehicle. Also, for the potential need of a MOLAB - like vehicle in future, enlarged lunar explorations, the MOLAB efforts were continued for some time, resulting in several full - scale MTAs.
With pressure from Congress to hold down Apollo costs, Saturn V production was reduced, allowing only a single booster per mission. It would then be necessary for any roving vehicle to be carried on the same Lunar Module as transporting the astronauts. In November 1964, ALSS was put on indefinite hold, but Bendix and Boeing were given study contracts for small rovers under the LSSM program. The name of the Lunar Excursion Module was changed to simply the Lunar Module, indicating that the capability for powered "excursions '' away from a lunar - lander base did not yet exist. There could be no SHELAB -- the astronauts would work out of the LM -- and the LTV accommodating two persons took the name Local Scientific Surface Module (LSSM). MSFC was also examining unmanned robotic rovers that could be controlled from the Earth.
From the start of MSFC, Huntsville, Alabama - based Brown Engineering Company (BECO) had participated in all of its lunar mobility efforts. In 1965, BECO became the prime support contractor for MSFC 's P&VE Laboratory. With an urgent need to determine the feasibility of a two - man LSSM, von Braun bypassed the usual procurement process and had P&VE 's Advanced Studies Office directly task BECO to design, build, and test a MTA for the vehicle. While Bendix and Boeing would continue with work leading to LSSM concepts and designs, the MTA was vital for MSFC human factors studies involving spacesuit - clad astronauts interfacing with power, telemetry, navigation, and life - support equipment on the rover.
In designing the LSSM MTA, full use was made of all earlier small - rover studies, and commercially available components were incorporated wherever possible. The selection of wheels was of great importance, and almost nothing was known at that time about the lunar surface. The MSFC Space Sciences Laboratory (SSL) was responsible for predicting surface properties. BECO was also the prime support contractor for the SSL and set up a test area to examine a wide variety of wheel - surface conditions. To simulate Pavlics ' "resilient wheel, '' a four - foot - diameter inner tube wrapped with nylon ski rope was used. On the MTA, each wheel had a small electric motor, with overall power provided by standard truck batteries. A roll bar gave protection from overturn accidents.
In early 1966, BECO 's MTA became available for examining human factors and other testing. MSFC built a small test track with craters and rock debris where the LSSM and MOLAB MTAs were compared; it was soon obvious that a small rover would be best for the proposed missions. The vehicle was also operated in remote mode to determine characteristics in tests that might be dangerous to the operator, such as acceleration, bounce - height, and turn - over tendency as it traveled at higher speeds and over simulated obstacles. The LSSM performance under one - sixth gravity was obtained through flights on a KC - 135A aircraft in a Reduced Gravity parabolic maneuver; among other things, the need for a very soft wheel and suspension combination was shown. Although Pavlics ' wire - mesh wheels were not available for the MTA, testing of these was conducted on various soils at the Waterways Experiment Station of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Later, when wire - mesh wheels were tested on low - g flights, the need for wheel fenders to reduce dust contamination was found. The LSSM MTA was extensively tested at the U.S. Army 's Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona, as well as the Army 's Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland.
During 1965 and 1967, the Summer Conference on Lunar Exploration and Science brought together leading scientists to assess NASA 's planning for exploring the Moon and to make recommendations. One of their findings was that the LSSM was critical to a successful program and should be given major attention. At MSFC, von Braun established the Lunar Roving Task team, and in May 1969, NASA selected the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) for use in manned lunar missions and approved the Manned Lunar Rover Vehicle Program as a MSFC hardware development. Saverio F. "Sonny '' Morea was named the LRV program manager.
On 11 July 1969, just before the successful Moon landing of Apollo 11, a request for proposal for the final development and building the Apollo LRV was released by MSFC. Boeing, Bendix, Grumman, and Chrysler submitted proposals. Following three months of proposal evaluation and negotiations, Boeing was selected as the Apollo LRV prime contractor on 28 October 1969. Boeing would manage the LRV project under Henry Kudish in Huntsville, Alabama. As a major subcontractor, General Motors ' Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California, would furnish the mobility system (wheels, motors, and suspension); this effort would be led by Ferenc Pavlics. Boeing in Seattle, Washington, would furnish the electronics and navigation system. Vehicle testing would take place at the Boeing facility in Kent, Washington, and the chassis manufacturing and overall assembly would be at the Boeing facility in Huntsville.
The first cost - plus - incentive - fee contract to Boeing was for $19,000,000 and called for delivery of the first LRV by 1 April 1971. Cost overruns, however, led to a final cost of $38,000,000, which was about the same as NASA 's original estimate. Four lunar rovers were built, one each for Apollo missions 15, 16, and 17; and one used for spare parts after the cancellation of further Apollo missions. Other LRV models were built: a static model to assist with human factors design; an engineering model to design and integrate the subsystems; two one - sixth gravity models for testing the deployment mechanism; a one - gravity trainer to give the astronauts instruction in the operation of the rover and allow them to practice driving it; a mass model to test the effect of the rover on the LM structure, balance, and handling; a vibration test unit to study the LRV 's durability and handling of launch stresses; and a qualification test unit to study integration of all LRV subsystems. A paper by Savero Morea gives details of the LRV system and its development.
LRVs were used for greater surface mobility during the Apollo J - class missions, Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17. The rover was first used on 31 July 1971, during the Apollo 15 mission. This greatly expanded the range of the lunar explorers. Previous teams of astronauts were restricted to short walking distances around the landing site due to the bulky space suit equipment required to sustain life in the lunar environment. The range, however, was operationally restricted to remain within walking distance of the lunar module, in case the rover broke down at any point. The rovers were designed with a top speed of about 8 mph (13 km / h), although Eugene Cernan recorded a maximum speed of 11.2 mph (18.0 km / h), giving him the (unofficial) lunar land - speed record.
The LRV was developed in only 17 months and performed all its functions on the Moon with no major anomalies. Scientist - astronaut Harrison Schmitt of Apollo 17 said, "The Lunar Rover proved to be the reliable, safe and flexible lunar exploration vehicle we expected it to be. Without it, the major scientific discoveries of Apollo 15, 16, and 17 would not have been possible; and our current understanding of lunar evolution would not have been possible. ''
The LRVs experienced some minor problems. The rear fender extension on the Apollo 16 LRV was lost during the mission 's second extra-vehicular activity (EVA) at station 8 when John Young bumped into it while going to assist Charles Duke. The dust thrown up from the wheel covered the crew, the console, and the communications equipment. High battery temperatures and resulting high power consumption ensued. No repair attempt was mentioned.
The fender extension on the Apollo 17 LRV broke when accidentally bumped by Eugene Cernan with a hammer handle. Cernan and Schmitt taped the extension back in place, but due to the dusty surfaces, the tape did not adhere and the extension was lost after about one hour of driving, causing the astronauts to be covered with dust. For their second EVA, a replacement "fender '' was made with some EVA maps, duct tape, and a pair of clamps from inside the Lunar Module that were nominally intended for the moveable overhead light. This repair was later undone so that the clamps could be taken inside for the return launch. The maps were brought back to Earth and are now on display at the National Air and Space Museum. The abrasion from the dust is evident on some portions of the makeshift fender.
The color TV camera mounted on the front of the LRV could be remotely operated by Mission Control in pan and tilt axes as well as zoom. This allowed far better television coverage of the EVA than the earlier missions. On each mission, at the conclusion of the astronauts ' stay on the surface, the commander drove the LRV to a position away from the Lunar Module so that the camera could record the ascent stage launch. The camera operator in Mission Control experienced difficulty in timing the various delays so that the LM ascent stage was in frame through the launch. On the third and final attempt (Apollo 17), the launch and ascent were successfully tracked.
NASA 's rovers, left behind, are among the artificial objects on the Moon, as are the Soviet Union 's unmanned rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.
The Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle was an electric - powered vehicle designed to operate in the low - gravity vacuum of the Moon and to be capable of traversing the lunar surface, allowing the Apollo astronauts to extend the range of their surface extravehicular activities. Three LRVs were used on the Moon, one on Apollo 15 by astronauts David Scott and Jim Irwin, one on Apollo 16 by John Young and Charles Duke, and one on Apollo 17 by Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt. The mission commander served as the driver, occupying the left - hand seat of each LRV. Features are available in papers by Morea, Baker, and Kudish.
The Lunar Roving Vehicle had a mass of 460 pounds (210 kg), and was designed to hold a payload of 1,080 pounds (490 kg). This resulted in weights in the approximately one - sixth g on the lunar surface of 77 pounds - force (35 kgf) empty and 260 pounds - force (116 kgf) fully loaded. The frame was 10 feet (3.0 m) long with a wheelbase of 7.5 feet (2.3 m). The height of the vehicle was 3.6 feet (1.1 m). The frame was made of 2219 aluminium alloy tubing welded assemblies and consisted of a three - part chassis that was hinged in the center so it could be folded up and hung in the Lunar Module Quadrant 1 bay. It had two side - by - side foldable seats made of tubular aluminium with nylon webbing and aluminum floor panels. An armrest was mounted between the seats, and each seat had adjustable footrests and a Velcro - fastened seat belt. A large mesh dish antenna was mounted on a mast on the front center of the rover. The suspension consisted of a double horizontal wishbone with upper and lower torsion bars and a damper unit between the chassis and upper wishbone. Fully loaded, the LRV had a ground clearance of 14 inches (36 cm).
The wheels were designed and manufactured by General Motors Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California. Ferenc Pavlics was given special recognition by NASA for developing the "resilient wheel ''. They consisted of a spun aluminum hub and a 32 inches (81 cm) diameter, 9 inches (23 cm) wide tire made of zinc - coated woven 0.033 inches (0.84 mm) diameter steel strands attached to the rim and discs of formed aluminum. Titanium chevrons covered 50 % of the contact area to provide traction. Inside the tire was a 25.5 inches (65 cm) diameter bump stop frame to protect the hub. Dust guards were mounted above the wheels. Each wheel had its own electric drive made by Delco, a direct current (DC) series - wound motor capable of 0.25 horsepower (190 W) at 10,000 rpm, attached to the wheel via an 80: 1 harmonic drive, and a mechanical brake unit.
Maneuvering capability was provided through the use of front and rear steering motors. Each series - wound DC steering motor was capable of 0.1 horsepower (75 W). The front and rear wheels would turn in opposite directions to achieve a tight turning radius of 10 feet (3 m), or could be decoupled so only front or rear would be used for steering. They could free - wheel in case of drive failure.
Power was provided by two 36 - volt silver - zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries with a capacity of 121 A h each (a total of 242 A h), yielding a range of 57 miles (92 km). These were used to power the drive and steering motors and also a 36 - volt utility outlet mounted on the front of the LRV to power the communications relay unit or the TV camera. LRV batteries and electronics were passively cooled, using change - of - phase wax thermal capacitor packages and reflective, upward - facing radiating surfaces. While driving, radiators were covered with mylar blankets to minimize dust accumulation. When stopped, the astronauts would open the blankets, and manually remove excess dust from the cooling surfaces with hand brushes.
A T - shaped hand controller situated between the two seats controlled the four drive motors, two steering motors, and brakes. Moving the stick forward powered the LRV forward, left and right turned the vehicle left or right, and pulling backwards activated the brakes. Activating a switch on the handle before pulling back would put the LRV into reverse. Pulling the handle all the way back activated a parking brake. The control and display modules were situated in front of the handle and gave information on the speed, heading, pitch, and power and temperature levels.
Navigation was based on continuously recording direction and distance through use of a directional gyro and odometer and feeding this data to a computer that would keep track of the overall direction and distance back to the LM. There was also a Sun - shadow device that could give a manual heading based on the direction of the Sun, using the fact that the Sun moved very slowly in the sky.
Each rover was used on three traverses, one per day over the three - day course of each mission, with the individual performances logged as follows:
An operational constraint on the use of the LRV was that the astronauts must be able to walk back to the LM if the LRV were to fail at any time during the EVA (called the "Walkback Limit ''). Thus, the traverses were limited in the distance they could go at the start and at any time later in the EVA. Therefore, they went to the farthest point away from the LM and worked their way back to it so that, as the life support consumables were depleted, their remaining walk back distance was equally diminished. This constraint was relaxed during the longest traverse on Apollo 17, based on the demonstrated reliability of the LRV and spacesuits on previous missions. A paper by Burkhalter and Sharp provides details on usage.
Deployment of the LRV from the LM 's Quadrant 1 bay by the astronauts was achieved with a system of pulleys and braked reels using ropes and cloth tapes. The rover was folded and stored in the bay with the underside of the chassis facing out. One astronaut would climb the egress ladder on the LM and release the rover, which would then be slowly tilted out by the second astronaut on the ground through the use of reels and tapes. As the rover was let down from the bay, most of the deployment was automatic. The rear wheels folded out and locked in place. When they touched the ground, the front of the rover could be unfolded, the wheels deployed, and the entire frame let down to the surface by pulleys.
The rover components locked into place upon opening. Cabling, pins, and tripods would then be removed and the seats and footrests raised. After switching on all the electronics, the vehicle was ready to back away from the LM.
A total of four flight - ready rovers were manufactured. Three were transported to and left on the moon via the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions, with the fourth rover used for spare parts on the first three following the cancellation of Apollo 18. Since only the upper stages of the lunar excursion modules could return to lunar orbit from the surface, the vehicles, along with the lower stages were abandoned. As a result, the only lunar rovers on display are test vehicles, trainers, and mock - ups. The rover used on Apollo 15 was left on the lunar surface at Hadley - Apennine (26 ° 06 ′ N 3 ° 39 ′ E / 26.10 ° N 3.65 ° E / 26.10; 3.65 (Apollo 15 Lunar Roving Vehicle at Hadley -- Apennine)). The rover used on Apollo 16 was left on the lunar surface at Descartes (8 ° 59 ′ S 15 ° 31 ′ E / 8.99 ° S 15.51 ° E / - 8.99; 15.51 (Apollo 16 Lunar Roving Vehicle at Descartes Highlands)). The rover used on Apollo 17 was left on the lunar surface at Taurus - Littrow (20 ° 10 ′ N 30 ° 46 ′ E / 20.16 ° N 30.76 ° E / 20.16; 30.76 (Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle at Taurus - Littrow)) and was seen by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter during passes in 2009 and 2011.
Several rovers were created for testing, training, or validation purposes. The engineering mockup is on display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. The Qualification Test Unit is on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. The rover used for vibration testing is on display in the Davidson Saturn V Center at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Additional test units are on display at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex in Cape Canaveral, Florida. Replicas of rovers are on display at the National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida, the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon, and the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas. A replica on loan from the Smithsonian Institution is on display at the Mission: Space attraction at Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida.
Apollo 16 Commander John Young drives Lunar Rover 002
Dave Scott and Jim Irwin train on Earth to use the Lunar Rover on Apollo 15
The LRV appears in the TV miniseries From the Earth to the Moon.
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who played hal munson on as the world turns | Benjamin Hendrickson - wikipedia
Benjamin Hendrickson (August 26, 1950 -- July 3, 2006) was an American actor known for playing Harold "Hal '' Munson, Jr., the Chief of Detectives for the mythical town of Oakdale on the daytime soap opera As the World Turns.
Hendrickson was born in Huntington, New York. He studied at the prestigious Juilliard School as part of the institution 's first drama division class and was a founding member of John Houseman 's The Acting Company.
Prior to his television appearances, Hendrickson acted in theatre. From 1973 to 1984, he appeared in a host of productions that included The Elephant Man (taking over the title part in 1981 after serving as David Bowie 's understudy), Awake and Sing and Strider.
Hendrickson also acted in feature films. His credits include Dreams Do n't Die (1982), Manhunter (1986), Russkies (1987), Regarding Henry (1991), Consenting Adults (1992) and Spanking the Monkey (1994).
Hendrickson made appearances on daytime television in the early 1980s; his credits included Another World, Texas, and a notable role on Guiding Light as the villainous Silas Crocker. Years later, he also appeared as a judge on Boston Legal.
However, Hendrickson was best known for playing Harold "Hal '' Munson Jr., the Chief of Detectives for the mythical town of Oakdale on the long - running daytime soap opera As the World Turns.
He played Hal for over 20 years, from October 1985 to September 2004 and from June 2005 to July 2006. Hal was initially a short - term role, but as Hendrickson joked, when he "impregnated the leading lady '' (the character of Margo, then played by Hillary B. Smith), he signed a contract with a longer term.
Hendrickson won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor for playing Hal in 2003. During his acceptance speech, he honored his source of moral support with a joke: "To my mother, who scrimped and saved to send me to Juilliard to study the classics... I 'm sorry. ''
Hendrickson 's body was discovered on July 3, 2006 at his Huntington, New York home. The Suffolk County Police labeled his death a suicide; his body had been found with a gunshot wound to the head.
Since daytime soap operas follow tape - ahead shooting schedules, Hendrickson 's final scenes on As the World Turns were broadcast July 12, 2006, nine days after his death. The July 12 episode featured a brief dedication at the end alerting viewers to his death.
A July 5, 2006 TV Guide article indicated that the role would not be recast; the show addressed the fate of the character onscreen in October 2006, and had Hal Munson die in the line of duty.
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what arsenal player was in on the buses | Bob McNab - wikipedia
Robert McNab (born 20 July 1943) is an English former footballer who played as a defender. McNab featured for clubs Huddersfield Town, Arsenal, Wolverhampton Wanderers, San Antonio Thunder, Barnet, Vancouver Whitecaps and Tacoma Stars in his playing career. He also played for England 's national football team.
As a manager he was at the helm of teams Vancouver Whitecaps, Tacoma Stars, San Jose Grizzlies and Portsmouth.
Born in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, McNab started out at local club, Huddersfield Town, where he made close to seventy appearances. In October 1966 he was signed by Bertie Mee for Arsenal for £ 50,000.
He made his debut for the club in a defeat to Leeds United on 15 October 1968. McNab went on to become a regular and so play in the 1969 Football League Cup Final which Arsenal lost to Swindon Town.
As so with Arsenal he went on to lift the 1969 -- 70 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. Being a stalwart in the back line alongside Pat Rice and Frank McLintock, McNab played 62 matches in Arsenal 's double - winning season, missing just two games. He thus featured throughout that campaign, going on to win a League and FA Cup Double in 1970 -- 71 with the Gunners.
With such he missed much of the 1971 -- 72 season due to injury with Sammy Nelson deputising for him. McNab though was able to again play at Wembley in the 1972 FA Cup Final which Arsenal lost to Leeds United.
McNab returned to full fitness in playing over 50 matches the following season. However, in 1973 -- 74 he suffered another curtailing injury. With this being the case he again had to share the role of left back. With the younger Nelson being in favour, the 32 - year - old McNab left the club on a free transfer in the summer of 1975. In total he played 365 matches for Arsenal, scoring six goals.
After leaving Arsenal, he at first played for Wolverhampton Wanderers before linking up in the U.S. with the NASL 's San Antonio Thunder. He then returned to England to join up with Barnet only to move back across the Atlantic to Canada. Whilst there he played for the NASL 's Vancouver Whitecaps, where he brought his playing days to a close.
McNab went on to coach the Whitecaps and thereafter the Tacoma Stars of the Major Indoor Soccer League. He left being at the helm of the Stars in December 1983 only to become the club 's assistant manager. During the 1983 -- 84 season, whilst in the aforesaid role he also played a solo game for the Stars. He was reappointed as the side 's manager in March 1985.
McNab later emigrated to Los Angeles, California, where he presently lives and works as a property developer. In 1999, he was part of a consortium led by Milan Mandaric that took over Portsmouth. He was for an instance a caretaker manager of the side until the appointment of Tony Pulis within the following month.
McNab made his debut for England on 6 November 1968 against Romania. He made a sum of four appearances for England. These caps came wherein home and away draws to Romania as well as a 3 -- 1 win to Northern Ireland at Belfast and another 1 -- 1 tie at Wembley to Belgium altogether.
As well as being a footballer, Bob McNab was a media personality in the 1970s, appearing on the panel for ITV 's coverage of the 1970 FIFA World Cup, and he had a cameo role in the 1973 On The Buses episode "The Football Match ''. His daughter, Mercedes McNab is a notable actress.
McNab was injured for the majority of the 1970 -- 71 season and was thus doubtful for the FA Cup semi final played at the neutral venue of Villa Park against Stoke City. This scenario was referenced in the film Fever Pitch, where Paul Ashworth correctly predicts part of the game 's lineup with the line, "McNab wo n't play. Bertie Mee would n't risk him. ''
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who did the voice of reagan in the exorcist | Mercedes McCambridge - wikipedia
Carlotta Mercedes Agnes McCambridge (March 16, 1916 -- March 2, 2004) was an American actress of radio, stage, film, and television. Orson Welles called her "the world 's greatest living radio actress. '' She won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for All the King 's Men (1949) and was nominated in the same category for Giant (1956). She also provided the voice of ' The Demon ' in The Exorcist (1973).
McCambridge was born in Joliet, Illinois, the daughter of Irish American Roman Catholic parents Marie (née Mahaffry) and John Patrick McCambridge, a farmer. She graduated from Mundelein College in Chicago before embarking on a career.
She began her career as a radio actor during the 1930s while also performing on Broadway and continued through the 40s and 50s. In 1941, she played Judy 's girl friend in A Date with Judy. She had the title role in Defense Attorney, a crime drama broadcast on ABC in 1951 - 52. Her other work on radio included:
She frequently did feature roles on the CBS Radio Mystery Theater, and was an original cast member on The Guiding Light (before the Bauers took over as the central characters). She also starred in her own show, Defense Attorney on ABC 1951 -- 52, as Martha Ellis Bryan.
From June 22, 1953, to March 5, 1954, McCambridge starred in the soap opera Family Skeleton on CBS.
She played Katherine Wells in Wire Service - an American drama series aired on ABC from 1956 - 7, produced by Desilu productions. The series starred Mercedes McCambridge, George Brent and Dane Clark as reporters for the fictional Trans Globe wire service.
Her Hollywood break came when she was cast opposite Broderick Crawford in All the King 's Men (1949). McCambridge won the 1949 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role, while the film won Best Picture for that year. McCambridge also won the Golden Globe Awards for Best Supporting Actress and New Star of the Year - Actress for her performance.
In 1954, the actress co-starred with Joan Crawford and Sterling Hayden in the offbeat western drama, Johnny Guitar, now regarded as a cult classic. McCambridge and Hayden publicly declared their dislike of Crawford, with McCambridge labeling the film 's star "a mean, tipsy, powerful, rotten - egg lady. ''
McCambridge played the supporting role of ' Luz ' in the George Stevens classic Giant (1956), which starred Elizabeth Taylor, Rock Hudson, and James Dean. She was nominated for another Academy Award as Best Supporting Actress but lost to Dorothy Malone in Written on the Wind. In 1959, McCambridge appeared opposite Katharine Hepburn, Montgomery Clift and Elizabeth Taylor in Joseph L. Mankiewicz ' film adaptation of Tennessee Williams ' Suddenly, Last Summer.
McCambridge provided the dubbed voice of Pazuzu, the demon possessing the young girl Regan (acted by Linda Blair) in The Exorcist. To sound as disturbing as possible, McCambridge insisted on swallowing raw eggs, chain smoking and drinking whiskey to make her voice harsh and her performance aggressive. Director William Friedkin also arranged for her to be bound to a chair during recordings, so that the demon seemed to be struggling against its restraints. According to Friedkin, she initially requested no credit for the film -- fearing it would take away from the attention of Blair 's performance - but later complained about her absence of credit during the film 's premiere. Her dispute with Friedkin and the Warner Bros. brass over her exclusion ended when, with the help of the Screen Actors Guild, she was properly credited for her vocal work in the film.
In the 1970s, she toured in a road company production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof as Big Mama, opposite John Carradine as Big Daddy. She appeared as a guest artist in college productions, such as El Centro College 's 1979 The Mousetrap, in which she received top billing despite her character being murdered (by actor Jim Beaver) less than 15 minutes into the play.
El Centro brought her back the following year in the title role of The Madwoman of Chaillot.
She also starred with longtime character actor Lyle Talbot (of ABC 's The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet) in the 1970 production of Come Back, Little Sheba in the University of North Alabama Summer Theatre Productions. In the mid-1970s, McCambridge briefly took a position as director of Livingrin, a Pennsylvania rehabilitation center for alcoholics. She was at the same time putting the finishing touches on her soon - to - be released autobiography, The Quality of Mercy: An Autobiography (Times Books, 1981), ISBN 0 - 8129 - 0945 - 3.
McCambridge married her first husband, William Fifield, in 1939 when she was 23 years old. The couple had a son, John Lawrence Fifield, born in December, 1941. The couple divorced in 1946 after seven years of marriage.
In 1950, when she was 34 years old, McCambridge married Canadian Fletcher Markle, an actor / producer / director who directed McCambridge in productions on Ford Theater and Studio One. Her son, John, later took Markle 's name, thereafter being known as John Markle. During the marriage and afterward, McCambridge battled alcoholism, often being hospitalized after episodes of heavy drinking. She and Markle divorced in 1962, after twelve years of marriage. In 1969, after years with Alcoholics Anonymous, she achieved sobriety.
McCambridge 's son, John Markle, a UCLA graduate, had a Ph. D. in Economics. He became a futures trader at Stephens and Company, but after a meteoric rise through the company 's ranks, things began to unravel in the fall of 1987 when it was discovered he was engaging in fraud -- essentially by charging all his losing trades to Stephens, while depositing the revenue from winning trades in a trust account in McCambridge 's name. (Markle was later shown to have forged his mother 's signature in opening this account.)
Markle was put on temporary leave, then fired from his position as a futures trader at Stephens and Company for mishandling funds. McCambridge refused to co-operate with Markle and the company in instituting a repayment scheme that would have kept the matter from becoming public. Shortly thereafter, in November 1987, Markle killed his family -- his wife Christine and daughters Amy (age 13) and Suzanne (age 9) -- and then himself in a murder / suicide. He left both a note taking responsibility for his crimes, and a long, bitter letter to his mother. A $5 million lawsuit was filed against Markle 's estate and McCambridge claiming fraud and misappropriation of funds. Although some of the mishandled funds had been handled under McCambridge 's name through Markle 's power of attorney, she herself was subsequently cleared of any wrongdoing.
From 1975 to 1982, McCambridge devoted her time to the nonprofit Livengrin Foundation of Bensalem Pennsylvania. She first served as a volunteer member of the Board of Directors, then as President and CEO, responsible for the day - to - day operations of the treatment center, which at the time was a 76 - bed residential program for both male and female alcoholics. Livengrin still operates today, and has 129 beds and 8 outpatient clinics throughout southeastern Pennsylvania, treating both alcoholism and drug addiction. McCambridge, through her celebrity and larger - than - life personality, helped bring public recognition to, and acceptance of the disease of addiction, as well as the benefits of seeking treatment for the disease. She freely shared her own story of addiction and recovery as a means of reaching others in need of help.
She was a staunch outspoken liberal Democrat who campaigned for Adlai Stevenson.
McCambridge died on March 2, 2004, in La Jolla in San Diego, California, of natural causes, two weeks before her 88th birthday.
For her contributions to television and the motion picture industry, Mercedes McCambridge has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one for motion pictures at 1722 Vine Street, and one for television at 6243 Hollywood Boulevard.
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where are the cast of as the world turns | As the World Turns Cast members - wikipedia
This is a list of actors and actresses who have had roles on the soap opera As the World Turns.
Paul Leyden as Simon Frasier 2000 - 2003, 2004, 2006 - 2007, 2009 - 2010
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who won the booker prize for the novel the god of small things | The God of Small Things - Wikipedia
The God of Small Things (1996) is the debut novel of Indian writer Arundhati Roy. It is a story about the childhood experiences of fraternal twins whose lives are destroyed by the "Love Laws '' that lay down "who should be loved, and how. And how much. '' The book explores how the small things affect people 's behavior and their lives. It won the Booker Prize in 1997.
The God of Small Things was Roy 's first book and only novel, until the 2017 publication of The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, twenty years later. She began writing the manuscript in 1992 and finished four years later in 1996. It was published the following year. The potential of the story was first recognized by Pankaj Mishra, an editor with HarperCollins, who sent it to three British publishers. Roy received 500,000 Pounds in advance and rights to the book were sold in 21 countries.
In 2013, Talkhiyan, a Pakistani serial based on the novel, was aired on Express Entertainment.
The story is set in Ayemenem, now part of Kottayam district in Kerala, India. The temporal setting shifts back and forth between 1969, when fraternal twins Rahel and Esthappen are seven years old, and 1993, when the twins are reunited.
Lacking sufficient dowry to marry, Ammu Ipe is desperate to escape her ill - tempered father, known as Pappachi, and her bitter, long - suffering mother, known as Mammachi. She persuades her parents to let her spend a summer with a distant aunt in Calcutta. To avoid returning to Ayemenem, she marries a man there but later discovers that he is an alcoholic, and he physically abuses her and tries to pimp her to his boss. She gives birth to Rahel and Estha, leaves her husband, and returns to Ayemenem to live with her parents and brother, Chacko. Chacko has returned to India from England after his divorce from an English woman, Margaret, and the subsequent death of Pappachi.
The multi-generational family home in Ayemenem also includes Pappachi 's sister, Navomi Ipe, known as Baby Kochamma. As a young girl, Baby Kochamma fell in love with Father Mulligan, a young Irish priest who had come to Ayemenem. To get closer to him, Baby Kochamma converted to Roman Catholicism and joined a convent against her father 's wishes. After a few months in the convent, she realized that her vows brought her no closer to the man she loved. Her father eventually rescued her from the convent and sent her to America. Because of her unrequited love for Father Mulligan, Baby Kochamma remained unmarried for the rest of her life, becoming deeply embittered over time. Throughout the book, she delights in the misfortune of others and constantly manipulates events to bring calamity.
The death of Margaret 's second husband in a car accident prompts Chacko to invite her and Sophie (Margaret 's and Chacko 's daughter) to spend Christmas in Ayemenem. One day on the way to a theatre, the family encounters a group of Communist protesters who surround the car and force Baby Kochamma to wave a red flag and chant a Communist slogan, thus humiliating her. Rahel thinks she sees Velutha, a servant who works for the family 's pickle factory among the protesters. Later at the theater, Estha is sexually molested by the "Orangedrink Lemondrink Man, '' a vendor working the snack counter. Estha 's experience factors into the tragic events at the heart of the narrative.
Rahel 's assertion that she saw Velutha in the Communist mob causes Baby Kochamma to associate Velutha with her humiliation at the protesters ' hands, and she begins to harbor enmity toward him. Velutha is a dalit (lower caste in India). Rahel and Estha form an unlikely bond with Velutha and come to love him despite his caste status. It is her children 's love for Velutha that causes Ammu to realize her own attraction to him, and eventually, she comes to "love by night the man her children loved by day. '' Ammu and Velutha begin a short - lived affair that culminates in tragedy for the family.
When her relationship with Velutha is discovered, Ammu is locked in her room and Velutha is banished. In her rage, Ammu blames the twins for her misfortune and calls them "millstones around her neck. '' Distraught, Rahel and Estha decide to run away. Their cousin, Sophie also joins them. During the night, as they try to reach an abandoned house across the river, their boat capsizes and Sophie drowns. When Margaret and Chacko return from a trip, they see Sophie 's body laid out on the sofa.
Baby Kochamma goes to the police and accuses Velutha of being responsible for Sophie 's death. A group of policemen hunt Velutha down, savagely beat him for crossing caste lines, and arrest him on the brink of death. The twins, huddling in the abandoned house, witness the horrific scene. Later, when they reveal the truth to the chief of police he is alarmed. He knows that Velutha is a Communist, and is afraid that if word gets out that the arrest and beating were wrongful, it will cause unrest among the local Communists. He threatens to hold Baby Kochamma responsible for falsely accusing Velutha. To save herself, Baby Kochamma tricks Rahel and Estha into believing that the two of them would be implicated as having murdered Sophie out of jealousy and were facing sure imprisonment for them and their Ammu. She thus convinces them to lie to the inspector that Velutha had kidnapped them and had murdered Sophie. Velutha dies of his injuries overnight.
After Sophie 's funeral, Ammu goes to the police to tell the truth about her relationship with Velutha. Afraid of being exposed, Baby Kochamma convinces Chacko that Ammu and the twins were responsible for his daughter 's death. Chacko kicks Ammu out of the house and forces her to send Estha to live with his father. Estha never sees Ammu again. She dies alone a few years later at the age of 31.
After a turbulent childhood and adolescence in India, Rahel gets married and goes to America. There, she divorces before returning to Ayemenem after years of working dead - end jobs. Rahel and Estha, now 31, are reunited for the first time since they were children. They had been haunted by their guilt and their grief - ridden pasts. It becomes apparent that neither twin ever found another person who understood them in the way they understand each other. Toward the end of the novel, the twins have sex. The novel comes to a close with a nostalgic recounting of Ammu and Velutha 's love affair.
Estha
Estha, which is short for Esthappen Yako, is Rahel 's twin brother. He is a serious, intelligent, and somewhat nervous child who wears "beige and pointy shoes '' and has an "Elvis puff. '' His experience of the circumstances surrounding Sophie 's visit is somewhat more traumatic than Rahel 's, beginning when he is sexually abused by a man at a theater. The narrator emphasizes that Estha 's "Two Thoughts '' in the pickle factory, stemming from this experience -- that "Anything can happen to Anyone '' and that "It 's best to be prepared '' -- are critical in leading to his cousin 's death.
Estha is the twin chosen by Baby Kochamma, because he is more "practical '' and "responsible, '' to go into Velutha 's cell at the end of the book and condemn him as his and Rahel 's abductor. This trauma, in addition to the trauma of being shipped (or "Returned '') to Calcutta to live with his father, contributes to Estha 's becoming mute at some point in his childhood. He never goes to college and acquires a number of habits, such as wandering on very long walks and obsessively cleaning his clothes. He is so close to his sister that the narrator describes them as one person, despite having been separated for most of their lives. He is repeatedly referred to as "Silent. ''
Rahel
Rahel is the partial narrator of the story, and is Estha 's younger sister by 18 minutes. As a girl of seven, her hair sits "on top of her head like a fountain '' in a "Love - in - Tokyo '' band, and she often wears red - tinted plastic sunglasses with yellow rims. An intelligent and straightforward person who has never felt socially comfortable, she is impulsive and wild, and it is implied that everyone but Velutha treats her as somehow lesser than her brother. In later life, she becomes something of a drifter; several times, the narrator refers to her "Emptiness. '' After the tragedy that forms the core of the story, she remains with her mother, later training as an architectural draftsman and engaging in a failed relationship with a European, elements of which parallel the author 's own life story.
Ammu
Ammu is Rahel 's and Estha 's mother. She married their father (referred to as Baba) only to get away from her family. He was an alcoholic, and she divorced him when he started to be violent toward her and her children. She went back to Ayemenem, where people avoided her on the days when the radio played "her music '' and she got a wild look in her eyes. When the twins are seven, she has an affair with Velutha. This relationship is one of the cataclysmic events in the novel. She is a strict mother, and her children worry about losing her love.
Velutha
Velutha is a Paravan, an Untouchable, who is exceptionally smart and works as a carpenter at the Ipe family 's pickle factory. His name means white in Malayalam, because he is so dark. He returns to Ayemenem to help his father, Vellya Paapen, take care of his brother, who was paralyzed in an accident. He is an active member of the Marxist movement. Velutha is extremely kind to the twins, and has an affair with Ammu for which he is brutally punished.
Chacko
Chacko is Estha 's and Rahel 's maternal uncle. He is four years elder to Ammu. He meets Margaret in his final year at Oxford and marries her afterward. They have a daughter, Sophie, whose death in Ayemenem is central to the story.
Baby Kochamma
Baby Kochamma is the twins ' maternal great aunt. She is of petite build as a young woman but becomes enormously overweight, with "a mole on her neck, '' by the time of Sophie 's death. She maintains an attitude of superiority because of her education as a garden designer in the United States and her burning, unrequited love for an Irish Catholic priest, her relationship with whom is the only meaningful event in her life. Her own emptiness and failure spark bitter spite for her sister 's children, further driven by her prudish code of conventional values. Her spite ultimately condemns the twins, the lovers, and herself to a lifetime of misery.
Indian history and politics shape the plot and meaning of The God of Small Things in a variety of ways. Some of Roy 's commentary is on the surface, with jokes and snippets of wisdom about political realities in India. However, the novel also examines the historical roots of these realities and develops profound insights into the ways in which human desperation and desire emerge from the confines of a firmly entrenched caste society.
During the time in India, class was a major issue and still is in many parts of India.
In addition to her commentary on Indian history and politics, Roy evaluates the Indian post-colonial complex, or the cultural attitudes of many Indians toward their former British rulers. After Ammu calls her father a "(shit) - wiper '' in Hindi for his blind devotion to the British, Chacko explains to the twins that they come from a family of Anglophiles, or lovers of British culture, "trapped outside their own history and unable to retrace their steps. '' He goes on to say that they despise themselves because of this.
A related inferiority complex is evident in the interactions between Untouchables and Touchables in Ayemenem. Vellya Paapen is an example of an Untouchable so grateful to the Touchable class that he is willing to kill his son, Velutha, when he discovers that Velutha has broken the most important rule of class segregation -- that there be no inter-caste sexual relations. In part, this reflects how many Untouchables have internalized caste segregation. Nearly all of the relationships in the novel are somehow colored by cultural and class tension, including the twins ' relationship with Sophie, Chacko 's relationship with Margaret, Pappachi 's relationship with his family, and Ammu 's relationship with Velutha. Characters such as Baby Kochamma and Pappachi are the most rigid and vicious in their attempts to uphold that social code, while Ammu and Velutha are the most unconventional and daring in unraveling it. Roy implies that this is why they are punished so severely for their transgression.
One interpretation of Roy 's theme of forbidden love is that love is such a powerful and uncontrollable force that it can not be contained by any conventional social code. Another is that conventional society somehow seeks to destroy real love, which is why love in the novel is consistently connected to loss, death, and sadness. Also, because all romantic love in the novel relates closely to politics and history, it is possible that Roy is stressing the connection of personal desire to larger themes of history and social circumstances. Love would therefore be an emotion that can be explained only in terms of two peoples ' cultural backgrounds and political identities.
The story is set in the caste society of India, at a time when members of the Untouchable Paravan or Paryan caste were not permitted to touch members of higher castes or enter their houses. The Untouchables were considered polluted beings. They had the lowliest jobs and lived in subhuman conditions. In India, the caste system was considered a way to organize society. Roy 's book shows how terribly cruel such a system can be.
Along with the caste system, readers see an economic class struggle. The Ipes are considered upper class. They are factory owners, the dominating class. Mammachi and Baby Kochamma would not deign to mix with those of a lower class.
However, Roy shows other types of less evident discrimination. For example, there is religious discrimination. It is unacceptable for a Syrian Christian to marry a Hindu and vice versa, and Hindus can only marry a Hindu from the same caste. In more than one passage of the book, the reader feels Rahel 's and Estha 's discomfort at being half Hindu. Baby Kochamma constantly makes disparaging comments about Hindus. On the other hand, there is discomfort even between Christian denominations as is shown by Pappachi 's negative reaction when Baby Kochamma converts to Catholicism.
Chacko suffers more veiled racial discrimination, as it seems his daughter also does. His English wife 's parents were shocked and disapproving that their daughter would marry an Indian, no matter how well educated. Sophie, at one point, mentions to her cousins that they are all "wog, '' while she is "half - wog. ''
The Ipes are very class - conscious and feel a need to maintain their status. Discrimination is a way of protecting their privileged position in society.
Betrayal is a constant element in this story. Love, ideals, and confidence are all forsaken, consciously and unconsciously, innocently and maliciously, and these deceptions affect all of the characters deeply.
Baby Kochamma is capable of lying and double - crossing anyone whom she sees as a threat to her social standing. This is a consequence of her loss of respectability after becoming a Roman Catholic nun to be close to Father Mulligan, despite her father 's disapproval. Her fear is reminiscent of that of Comrade Pillai, who betrays both Velutha and Chacko to further his own interests and that of his political party.
The greatest tragedy is that of Velutha, the only truly non-corrupt adult in the story, who becomes the repeated victim of everyone 's deception -- from Comrade Pillai 's to Baby Kochamma 's, to his own father 's and, most heartbreakingly, that of Estha, who at seven years old is manipulated into accusing Velutha of crimes that he did not commit.
With this in mind, the novel asks the question: Up until what point can we trust others, or even ourselves? How easy is it to put our own interests and convenience over loyalty?
Another important aspect of social discrimination that Roy deals with is misogyny, mainly through the character of Ammu. She often draws attention to the different opportunities on offer for women and men in India and the fact that, since Ammu has been married and divorced, she sees her life as effectively over. This is one of the main factors that influences her to start her love affair with Velutha. We also see her treatment by a police officer, who taps her breasts with his baton as ' though he was choosing mangoes from a basket, ' commenting on objectification of women. A number of times throughout the novel Ammu expresses her fear that her son will grow up into a ' male chauvinistic pig ', a description that fits the majority of the male characters represented in the novel.
The God of Small Things is not written in a sequential narrative style in which events unfold chronologically. Instead, the novel is a patchwork of flashbacks and lengthy sidetracks that weave together to tell the story of the Ipe family. The main events of the novel are traced back through the complex history of their causes, and memories are revealed as they relate to one another thematically and as they might appear in Rahel 's mind. Although the narrative voice is omniscient, it is loosely grounded in Rahel 's perspective, and all of the episodes of the novel progress toward the key moments in Rahel 's life.
The book is narrated in the third person. However, during a great part of the narrative, the reader sees everything through Rahel 's eyes. This gives the reader special insight into the happenings and characters. Throughout the book, there are various moments that intersect. In one moment, everything is seen through a child 's eyes, with a child 's feelings and rationales. Later, the same facts, objects, and people are seen in a completely different light.
The story is set in the village of Ayemenem in the Kottayam district of Kerala, India. The main part of the plot takes place in 1969, a time of changes in ideology and influence.
India is a very complex society with various cultural and religious habits and beliefs. Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, Christians, and Muslims share the same space. Society is divided not only by the very strict caste system but also by class consciousness. Many languages are spoken in India, but the higher classes make a point of speaking English, sending their sons to study in England and adopting certain English habits. Kerala itself, where the story is set, has a complex social setup, with Hindus, Muslims, and Christians displaying different lifestyles and traditions. It also has the largest Christian population in India, predominantly Saint Thomas Christians or Syrian Christians. In the Kottayam district, Christians are a majority.
Roy has described the book as "an inextricable mix of experience and imagination. ''
Roy uses various techniques to represent the children 's viewpoints and their innocence. One technique she employs is the capitalization of certain words and phrases to give them significance. The children also restate things that adults say in a phonetic way, separating and recombining words. This echoes the children 's way of looking at the world, distinct from the perspective of the grown - ups who surround them. Roy often uses metaphors that feature elements that are more prominent in the lives of children, such as toothpaste, secrets, or portable pianos. They place significance on words and ideas differently from the adults, thereby creating a new way of viewing the world around them. They pick up on certain feelings and ideas that the adults around them either fail or refuse to recognize, and give new significance to things that the adults ignore for their own purposes. The children use and repeat these phrases throughout the story so that the phrases themselves gain independence and representational meanings. Another way she plays with language is to join words together without punctuation, which we see in the description of the ' orangedrink lemondrink man ' or ' bluegreyblue eyes '. This subversion of the usual rules of syntax and grammar not only places us in a child 's view of the world, but it also draws attention to the role of language in colonialism. By corrupting standard use of English (the colonial language of India) Roy is rebelling against colonial influence still present in India, represented by characters such as Margaret Kochamma and Chacko who always speak correctly.
Roy also employs a disjointed, non-sequential narrative style that echoes the process of memory, especially the resurfacing of a previously suppressed, painful memory.
The uncovering of the story of Sophie 's death, concurrently with the forward - moving story of Rahel 's return to Ayemenem and reunion with Estha, creates a complex narrative that emphasizes the difficulty of the subject of the story and the complexity of the culture from which the story originates. Time is rendered somewhat static as parts of one narrative line are intertwined through repetition and non-sequential discovery. This is also part of the way Roy uses real - life places and people that she has shifted and altered for use in the story. The story 's many elements come together to construct a diverse look at one instance of Indian culture and the effect of the caste system on life and love during a time of post-colonialism. As the children try to form their own identities, naming and renaming themselves in the process, Roy places in parallel the effect of the process by intertwining the past and the present.
This process also echoes the progression of the Indian people, like that of all cultures that try to find ways to maintain their traditions in a time of increasing globalization.
The God of Small Things received stellar reviews in major American newspapers such as The New York Times (a "dazzling first novel, '' "extraordinary '', "at once so morally strenuous and so imaginatively supple '') and the Los Angeles Times ("a novel of poignancy and considerable sweep ''), and in Canadian publications such as the Toronto Star ("a lush, magical novel ''). By the end of the year, it had become one of the five best books of 1997 by Time. Critical response in the United Kingdom was less positive, and the awarding of the Booker Prize caused controversy; Carmen Callil, a 1996 Booker Prize judge, called the novel "execrable '', and The Guardian described the contest as "profoundly depressing ''. In India, the book was criticised especially for its unrestrained description of sexuality by E. K. Nayanar, then Chief Minister of Roy 's home state Kerala, where she had to answer charges of obscenity.
The band Darlingside credits the novel as the inspiration for their song "The God of Loss. ''
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who put a bowling alley in the white house | White House basement - wikipedia
The basement of the White House, the Washington, D.C. residence and workplace of the President of the United States, is located under the North Portico and includes the White House carpenters ' shop, engineers ' shop, flower shop, and dentist office, among other areas.
The White House Situation Room is located in the basement beneath the West Wing.
During World War II, a bomb shelter was constructed under the East Wing, later converted into the Presidential Emergency Operations Center.
The sub-basement was added during the reconstruction of the White House under Harry S. Truman. It contains storage space, the laundry, elevator control machinery, the water softener, and incinerator, as well as dressing rooms for White House performers.
Dwight Eisenhower made the first White House television broadcast from a special room in the basement in 1953, though the "broadcast room '' was soon divided for other purposes.
A bowling alley was added by Richard Nixon in 1969. There had previously been a bowling alley in the West Wing, built for President Truman in 1947, which had been moved to the Old Executive Office Building in 1955.
After the Recording Industry Association of America suggested that the White House Library should be expanded to include sound recordings, that trade group donated over 2200 LPs during the Nixon and Carter administrations; when Ronald Reagan took office, the collection was moved to the White House basement, where it is still located.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 51 '' N 77 ° 02 ′ 11 '' W / 38.8976 ° N 77.0365 ° W / 38.8976; - 77.0365
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countries with the highest literacy rate in africa | List of countries by Literacy rate - wikipedia
This is a list of countries by literacy rate. The figures represented are almost entirely collected by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) on behalf of UNESCO with 2015 estimates based on people aged 15 or over who can read and write. Where data is taken from a different source, notes are provided. The data is collated by mostly using surveys within the last ten years which are self - declared by the persons in question. UIS provide estimates based on these for the year 2015 with a Global Age - specific Literacy Projections Model (GALP).
The global literacy rate for all people aged 15 and above is 86.3 %. The global literacy rate for all males is 90.0 % and the rate for all females is 82.7 %. The rate varies throughout the world with developed nations having a rate of 99.2 % (2013); Oceania having 71.3 %; South and West Asia having 70.2 % (2015) and sub-Saharan Africa at 64.0 % (2015). Over 75 % of the world 's 781 million illiterate adults are found in South Asia, West Asia and sub-Saharan Africa and women represent almost two - thirds of all illiterate adults globally.
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the largest motor carrier in the united states based on revenue is | Trucking industry in the United States - wikipedia
The trucking industry serves the American economy by transporting large quantities of raw materials, works in process, and finished goods over land -- typically from manufacturing plants to retail distribution centers. Trucks are also used in the construction industry, as dump trucks and portable concrete mixers move the large amounts of rocks, dirt, concrete, and other building materials used in construction. Trucks in America are responsible for the majority of freight movement over land and are tools in the manufacturing, transportation, and warehousing industries.
Large trucks and buses require a commercial driver 's license (CDL) to operate. Obtaining a CDL requires extra education and training dealing with the special knowledge requirements and handling characteristics of such a large vehicle. Drivers of commercial motor vehicles (CMVs) must adhere to the hours of service, which are regulations governing the driving hours of commercial drivers. These and all other rules regarding the safety of interstate commercial driving are issued by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA). The FMCSA is a division of the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT), which governs all transportation - related industries such as trucking, shipping, railroads, and airlines. Some other issues are handled by another branch of the USDOT, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA).
Developments in technology, such as computers, satellite communication, and the Internet, have contributed to many improvements within the industry. These developments have increased the productivity of company operations, saved the time and effort of drivers, and provided new, more accessible forms of entertainment to men and women who often spend long periods of time away from home. In 2006, the United States Environmental Protection Agency implemented revised emission standards for diesel trucks (reducing airborne pollutants emitted by diesel engines) which promises to improve air quality and public health.
The trucking industry has affected the political and economic history of the United States in the 20th century. Before the invention of automobiles, most freight was moved by train or horse - drawn vehicle.
Trucks were first used extensively by the military during World War I. With the increase in construction of paved roads, trucking began to achieve a significant foothold in the 1930s. Public safety concerns made it necessary to implement various government regulations (such as the 1965 hours of service rule; recently revised with a compliance date of July 1, 2012) of how long drivers were allowed to work and drive each day / week. In 1956, Taxpayers provided funds to build the Interstate Highway System, an extensive network of highways and freeways that linked major cities across the continent. The addition of Interstate Highway System also made it possible for the trucking industry to grow substantially in the late 1950s and early 1960s and trucking has come to dominate the freight industry in the latter portion of the 20th century.
Trucking achieved national attention during the 1960s and 70s, when songs and movies about truck driving were major hits. Truck drivers participated in widespread strikes against the rising cost of fuel, during the energy crises of 1973 and 1979. Congress deregulated the trucking industry with the passage of the Motor Carrier Act of 1980.
Advances in modern technology have enabled significant improvements within the trucking industry. Trucks are commonly equipped with satellite communication features, automatic transmissions are gaining in popularity, and truck stops featuring WiFi Internet access are now commonplace.
Components of diesel exhaust were confirmed as an animal carcinogen in 1988 by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, and by 2002, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) considered it "likely to be carcinogenic to humans ''. The particulate matter of diesel exhaust has been linked to (among other health effects) lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and aggravated asthma; it has also been identified as a greenhouse gas. "For these and other reasons, alternatives and improvements to standard diesel fuel have been developed.
Biodiesel (in its pure form) is a non-toxic, biodegradable form of diesel fuel made from vegetable oil, usually soybean oil or recycled restaurant grease. Biodiesel promises a reduction in some exhaust emissions, as well as reduced dependence on foreign petroleum supplies.
Starting in June 2006, petroleum refiners were required by the EPA to begin producing ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel, which has 97 % less sulfur than the previous low sulfur diesel fuel. When fuel containing sulfur is burned, sulfur dioxide is produced, a main component of acid rain. ULSD, together with new air pollution control technologies required in trucks (starting with model year 2007), will reduce harmful emissions by 90 %.
By the time the action is fully implemented, the EPA estimates that 2.6 million tons of smog - causing nitrogen oxide emissions will be eliminated each year. Soot or particulate matter will be reduced by an estimated 110,000 tons a year. The reduction in sulfur will also prevent an estimated 8,300 premature deaths, 5,500 cases of chronic bronchitis and 17,600 cases of acute bronchitis in children. In addition, an estimated 360,000 asthma attacks and 386,000 cases of respiratory symptoms in asthmatic children will also be avoided every year.
When not driving, truck drivers need to idle their engines to maintain climate control within the truck cab (interior), as well as provide electricity for appliances. Engine idling is inefficient and only adds to the problem of air pollution. This unnecessary idling can be remedied with shore power (which is a term and idea borrowed from the shipping industry), or Truck Stop Electrification. When ships are docked in a port, they connect to a land - based power supply to provide electricity and eliminate the need to idle their engines. The idea of shore power was transferred to the trucking industry, and now there are companies such as IdleAire and Shorepower which provide electricity to diesel trucks, which eliminates the need for the driver to idle the engine. IdleAire also provides access to the Internet, cable television, and land line phone services. IdleAire promises to eliminate one - eighth of nitrogen oxide pollution through "electrified parking '', however, particulate pollution may increase in those areas where the electricity is provided by coal burning power plants. Some drivers are also experimenting with hydrogen fuel cells, which provide clean and silent power for appliances when trucks are not running.
With the fuel price increases of the 2000s, the EPA and many companies have sought to increase diesel truck fuel economy. One such example is the hydraulic hybrid vehicle, which stores energy in hydraulic tanks and hydraulic motors (as opposed to the electric hybrid vehicle which uses batteries and regenerative brakes). Electric hybrid vehicles are another option, with savings of 35 to 60 percent over traditional vehicles. Drivers themselves may improve fuel efficiency by using a method called progressive shifting, in which the driver shifts through the gears (typical trucks may have between 10 and 18 gears) in such a manner as to optimize the power range of the engine.
According to research from a survey conducted by students from the University of Michigan, and in cooperation by ATRI (American Transportation Research Institute) as of 2015 "54 billion gallons of fuel were consumed by trucks for business purposes -- 39 billion gallons of diesel fuel and 16 billion gallons of gasoline. Combination vehicles, which are powered nearly exclusively by diesel fuel, accounted for 75 percent of this diesel fuel consumption ''
Like many other industries, the trucking industry has benefited from the use of computers and the Internet. The Internet helps firms explore new opportunities by aggressive sales and marketing. The incremental cost of conducting business transactions on the Internet is as little as one - fifteenth as expensive as paper transactions.
Given the limitations on truck weight and size, increased productivity in the industry comes from two sources: fewer empty miles and less time waiting between loads. U.S. Department of Transportation figures indicate that empty routes have continued to account for 29 % of single - unit truck traffic; this has been equated to an annualized 15 billion gallons of gasoline, $30 billion cost, or 149 million tons of excess carbon emissions. Traditional freight brokers acted as intermediaries to manage the coordination of freight, helping independent drivers or companies match loads with available empty trucks. Increasingly, computerized brokers are threatening the future of traditional human brokers by offering increased efficiency. In addition, shipper - driven brokerage over the Internet enables shippers to post loads and solicit bids directly from carriers. Instead of relying upon traditional freight brokers, shippers function as their own brokers, dealing directly with freight companies.
Developments in satellite technology have fostered increased communication and productivity within the trucking industry. Drivers may input the information from a bill of lading into a simple text - only dot matrix display screen (commonly called a "Qualcomm '', for their ubiquitous OmniTRACS system). This allows the driver to communicate with their dispatcher, who is normally responsible for determining and informing the driver of their pick - up and drop - off locations. Drivers are no longer required to find the nearest public phone in order to relay information regarding their load status, it can be done without leaving the truck cab.
The driver inputs the information, using a keyboard, into an automated system of pre-formatted messages known as macros. There are macros for each stage of the loading and unloading process, such as "loaded and leaving shipper '' and "arrived at final destination ''. This system also allows the company to track the driver 's fuel usage, speed, gear optimization, engine idle time, location, direction of travel, and amount of time spent driving.
Trucks equipped with GPS satellite navigation units have enabled drivers to forgo a traditional paper - based map, saving time and effort. Drivers willing to pay for satellite radio or who work for a company that pays for it can listen to commercial - free music, sports, news, and talk radio coast - to - coast without interruption of signals between cities (as terrestrial radio signals are limited to a certain radius from the broadcasting tower). Digital satellite television allows smaller dish sizes, which means truck drivers are not limited to free terrestrial broadcast television and have more options about what they watch during their off - duty periods.
Increasingly, companies have been equipping their trucks with automatic transmissions for a variety of reasons. Operating a manual transmission requires more skill and attention on the part of the driver, partly due to the unsynchronized transmission found in heavy - duty trucks. Companies have found that switching from manual to automatic transmissions has many benefits, including increased fuel efficiency, increased driver retention, reduced wear and tear on the internal gears of transmissions (inexperienced drivers may frequently grind the gears if proper shifting techniques are not followed), reduced driver fatigue, and reduced accidents (manuals require more attention from the driver, thus increasing the chances for an accident). All of these factors together add up to benefit the company by reducing costs incurred from transmission repairs, accidents, and driver turnover (a driver frustrated by a manual transmission may decide to quit his / her job).
As of May 2015, over 90.0 % of players in the United States long - distance freight trucking industry are owner - operators. Therefore, even the top corporate operators only hold a small share of the total market. According to the industry market research firm IBISWorld, J.B. Hunt Transport Services holds an estimated 2.5 % market share, YRC Worldwide holds 1.8 %, FedEx holds 1.6 %, United Parcel Service of America owns 1.5 %, and Con - way holds 1.4 %.
In 2005, the Logistics Management ranked the top 10 US trucking firms (by net revenue) as:
(Industry overview, ranking TL and LTL trucking firms together.)
Top 10 trucking companies by revenue in 2015.
The importance of trucking is communicated by the industry adage: "If you bought it, a truck brought it. '' Retail stores, hospitals, gas stations, garbage disposal, construction sites, banks, and even a clean water supply depends entirely upon trucks to distribute vital cargo. Even before a product reaches store shelves, the raw materials and other stages of production materials that go into manufacturing any given product are moved by trucks.
Today, railroads are primarily used to haul bulk quantities of cargo over long distances. Unless a manufacturing or distribution facility has a direct connection to the railroad, the remainder of the trip must be handled by truck. Recent implementation of "just in time '' strategies have resulted in the increased use of trucks to help satisfy businesses ' fluid inventory needs. Using this strategy, businesses gain the ability to reduce the costs associated with excess inventory and larger warehousing facilities by requiring more frequent deliveries. According to an industry group, many retail, commercial, and government services require daily or weekly deliveries to keep supplies or merchandise on hand. Many hospitals have also moved to "just in time '' inventory systems. The nation 's busiest gas stations require deliveries of fuel several times per day, while the average station receives fuel every two to three days. Grocery stores require deliveries of perishable food items every two to three days.
Trucks are vitally important to U.S. industry, however, measuring the impact of trucking on the economy is more difficult, because trucking services are so intertwined with all sectors of the economy. According to the measurable share of the economy that trucking represents, the industry directly contributes about 5 percent to the gross domestic product annually. In addition, the industry plays a critical support role for other transportation modes and for other sectors of the economy such as the resource, manufacturing, construction, and wholesale and retail trade industries.
Within the energy industry, approximately 4 percent of crude oil and petroleum products were shipped by truck in 2012. These shipments are handled by oil and gas logistics firms, which are midstream service providers that also handle transport by pipeline, rail, and barge. Dominant companies in this space include Aux Sable, Bridger Group, DCP Midstream, Enbridge Energy Partners, Enterprise Products Partners, Genesis Energy, Gibson Energy, Inergy Midstream, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, Oneok Partners, Sunoco Logistics, Targa Midstream Services, TransCanada, and Williams Companies.
Agricultural products totaling $118,832,000, or 82.7 percent, were shipped by truck in 2007 (excluding animal feed, cereal grains, and forage products). About half of that agricultural freight was shipped by for - hire trucks and half by private trucks. More than 92 percent of prepared foods, including dairy products and prepared fruit, vegetable, and nut products, were moved by truck in 2007.
Within the health care industry, trucking moved $501,445,000 worth, or 65 percent of the total value, of pharmaceutical products in 2007.
Lumber and other wood products totaling $168,913,000 were shipped by truck in 2007, accounting for 91.9 percent of this class of product.
Over 80 percent of all communities in the US rely exclusively on trucks to deliver all of their fuel, clothing, medicine, and other consumer goods. The trucking industry employs 10 million people (out of a total national population of 300 million) in jobs that relate directly to trucking. The trucking industry is the industry of small business, considering 93 percent of interstate motor carriers (over 500,000) operate 20 or fewer trucks.
A division of the U.S. Department of Transportation, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) regulates nearly all aspects of the trucking industry. Truck drivers are limited by the number of daily and weekly hours they may drive, the roads and highways they may drive upon, and a lower legal definition of drunkenness. The Federal Highway Administration has established 0.04 percent as the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) level at or above which a CMV driver is deemed to be driving under the influence of alcohol. States maintain a BAC level between 0.08 and 0.10 percent for non-CMV drivers. In some states, trucks also have special speed limits, in addition to restrictions on driving in certain lanes (normally the far right lanes of multi-lane highways).
Trucks come in many different sizes, creating the need for a truck classification system. Truck drivers are required to have a commercial driver 's license (CDL) to operate a CMV carrying more than 16 passengers, carrying a certain amount of hazardous materials, or weighing in excess of 26,000 pounds (12,000 kg). Acquiring a CDL requires a skills test (driving test), and knowledge test (written test) covering the unique handling qualities of driving a large, heavily loaded 18 - wheeler (e.g., backing maneuvers), and the mechanical systems required to operate such a vehicle (e.g., air brakes and vehicle inspection procedures).
The FMCSA defines a CMV as a single or combination (truck and trailer) vehicle with a gross weight of 10,001 pounds (4,536 kg) or more, or a vehicle used to transport hazardous materials in quantities requiring the vehicle to be marked or placarded under the hazardous materials regulations. The length of time a driver may spend operating a CMV is limited by a set of rules known as the hours of service (HOS). These laws are designed to protect the general motoring public by reducing accidents caused by driver fatigue.
The first version of the HOS was enacted in 1938, and four revisions have been made since. The more recent revisions have relied on research into the human circadian rhythm (the tendency for humans to follow a natural 24 - hour cycle with 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep). As of July 1, 2013, a driver is limited to 11 hours of actual driving within a 14 - hour period, and requires a 30 - minute break during the first 8 hours of on duty time. After which he / she must rest for 10 hours. The rules do not explicitly require that a driver must sleep, only that a driver must take a period of "rest '' within the sleeper berth or off duty (i.e., at home).
Keeping track of a driver 's HOS requires the use of a log book. A truck driver 's log book is a legally defined form containing a grid outlining the 24 - hour day into 15 - minute increments. The driver must specify where and when he / she stopped between driving shifts, what duties were performed (if any), along with the driver 's name, truck number, company info, and other information. The driver must also present his or her log book to authorities upon request, for inspection. In lieu of a log book, a motor carrier may substitute an electronic on - board recorder to record the driver 's hours.
The FMCSA regulates the length, width, and weight limits of CMVs for interstate commercial traffic. Interstate commercial traffic is generally limited to a network of interstate freeways, U.S. highways and state highways known as the National Network (NN). Provided the truck remains on the NN, they are not subject to the state limits. State limits (which can be lower or higher than federal limits) come into effect for intrastate commercial traffic, provided the vehicle is not on the NN.
There is no federal height limit, and states may set their own limits which range from 13 feet 6 inches (4.11 m) (mostly on the east coast) to 14 feet (4.3 m) (west coast)., As a result, the majority of trucks are somewhere between 13 feet 6 inches (4.11 m) and 14 feet (4.3 m) high. Truck drivers are responsible for checking bridge height clearances (usually indicated by a warning sign) before passing underneath an overpass or entering a tunnel. Not having enough vertical clearance can result in a "top out '' or "bridge hit, '' causing considerable traffic delays and costly repairs for the bridge or tunnel involved.
The federal gross weight limit for a Class 8 truck is 80,000 pounds (36,000 kg) (combined weight of truck, trailer, and cargo) with axle weights limited to 12,000 pounds (5,400 kg) (steering axle) and 34,000 pounds (15,000 kg) (tandem axles). Truck drivers are responsible for checking their own vehicle 's weight, usually by paying to be weighed at a truck stop scale. CMVs are subject to various state and federal laws regarding limitations on truck length (measured from bumper to bumper), and truck axle length (measured from axle to axle, or fifth wheel kingpin to axle for trailers). The relationship between axle weight and spacing, known as the Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula, is designed to protect bridges. Truck weights and sizes are checked by state authorities at a weigh station or port - of - entry.
The cab and drive axle portion of a large capacity truck and trailer. Since the primary purpose of the Cab is to pull the trailer, it is rightly referred to as a tractor. The various kinds of tractors are Yard, Day, and Sleepers.
The bobtail is essentially the front of a tractor - trailer combo. The Bobtail has all the equipment typically seen on the truck of a tractor / trailer set up.
The flatbed is essentially a trailer without the enclosed portion on the back. The back or bed is flat and open. These are often referred to as Stake Beds.
The panel van does come in various sizes. As small as a mini-van and up to having a fairly large box on the bed of a truck. These are seen as box trucks.
The Hotshot vehicle or truck is essentially a pick - up with a larger load capacity than a personal truck. Hotshots are typically single axle 1 - ton to 3 - ton trucks, which can be either a dual or single tire.
Truck drivers are persons employed as the operator of a CMV. CMVs can be of varying shapes and sizes, from 10,000 - pound (4,500 kg) pickup trucks assigned to haul specialized or small quantities of freight, all the way up to 80,000 - pound (36,000 kg) semi-trailer trucks. Trucks are assigned a class rating based upon the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). The facts in this section refer to drivers of "heavy duty '' trucks (with a GVWR of at least 26,000 pounds (12,000 kg), which require a commercial driver 's license to operate).
Truck drivers spend up to 11 hours a day driving, and up to 14 hours a day engaged in various duties (including driving time) such as fueling, filling out paperwork, obtaining vehicle repairs, and conducting mandatory vehicle inspections. Long - haul drivers often spend weeks away from home, spending their time off and sleeping at truck stops or rest areas. Driving is relatively dangerous work, as truck drivers account for 12 percent and the highest total number of all work - related deaths, and are five times more likely to die on the job than the average worker. Smoking, lack of exercise, unhealthy eating habits, and work - related injuries also contribute to the driver 's generally risk - prone lifestyle. A survey by the National Institutes of Health found 67 percent of long - haul drivers were smokers or had quit smoking.
In 2006, the U.S. trucking industry employed 1.8 million drivers of heavy trucks. A major problem for the long - haul trucking industry is that a large percentage of these drivers are aging, and are expected to retire. Very few new hires are expected in the near future, resulting in a driver shortage. As of 2005, within the long - haul sector, there is an estimated shortage of 20,000 drivers. That shortage was projected to increase to 111,000 by 2014, however the actual shortage of truck drivers in 2014 was around 38,000. The trucking industry (especially the long - haul sector) is also facing an image crisis due to the long working hours, long periods of time away from home, the dangerous nature of the work, and the average earnings compared to other forms of labor (such as construction, which was 1 percent higher than trucking in 2004).
Employee turnover within the long - haul trucking industry is notorious for being extremely high. In the 4th quarter of 2005, turnover within the largest carriers in the industry reached a record 136 percent, which means for every 100 new employees hired, 136 quit their jobs. This has resulted in a "revolving door '' within most long - haul trucking companies, as drivers are constantly switching jobs or quitting the industry altogether. Driver turnover within the short - haul and less - than - truckload (LTL) industries is considerably less (around 15 percent), mainly due to the better working conditions, higher pay, and unionized workers. One study suggests that larger companies with irregular routes, longer average lengths of hauls, and older equipment experience much higher rates of driver turnover.
In 2009, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released the results of a five - year - long study (the Highway Serial Killings Initiative) investigating the unsolved murders of prostitutes, hitchhikers, and stranded motorists. Over 500 female victims have been compiled in a database, most of whom were killed or discarded at truck stops, hotels, and roadsides. The FBI has speculated that many of these victims were murdered by long - haul truck drivers, some of whom may be serial killers. Investigators speculate that the easy access to potential victims, mobility, and lack of supervision enjoyed by long - haul truck drivers have contributed to this phenomenon. The head of the initiative, Michael Harrigan, says most of the victims lead high - risk lifestyles (e.g., prostitution) which left them particularly vulnerable. In 2004, the FBI began investigating a string of murders in which the victims were found along the Interstate 40 corridor in Oklahoma and several other states, which sparked the creation of the Highway Serial Killings Initiative.
In response to the investigation, the executive vice president of the Owner - Operator Independent Drivers Association, Todd Spencer, said "Truckers are just absolutely outraged that various media sources or the FBI would draw the conclusion that truckers are over-represented in the ranks of serial killers ''.
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is a fig roll a biscuit or a cake | Fig roll - wikipedia
The fig roll or fig bar is a sweet roll filled with fig paste in the middle, that dates back to ancient Egypt, where it is still eaten today.
The modern fig roll and its mass popularity can be traced to the development of industrial production by American Charles Roser in 1892, now marketed by Nabisco as the Fig Newton. 
Figs are a popular snack food in most of the world. Originating in northern Asia Minor, traded by the sailors and explorers of developing countries, they became popular in the Southern and hence hotter parts of the Mediterranean.
As baking developed, the ability to increase the duration and storage of foods stuffs allowed longer distances to be travelled. It was thus probably the Ancient Egyptians who invented the fig roll, it simply being preserved figs in a flour - based pastry covering, which is hand rolled.
Figs were highly traded and fought over during the development of the great trade routes during the 15th to 17th centuries. Christopher Columbus devoted a complete page to what a wonderful time it would be when he would be able to gorge himself on figs in the orient, while Marco Polo described women in association with the beauty of figs. It was also during this period that figs reached America, when the Spanish reached the island of Hispaniola in 1520.
Until the late 19th century, many physicians believed that most illnesses were related to digestion problems, and therefore recommended a daily intake of biscuits and fruit. Although an ideal solution for this problem, until this time fig rolls were still a locally made and hand - produced product.
The mass production of the fig roll was created in 1891 by Philadelphia baker and fig lover Charles Roser, who, in 1892, was awarded a patent for a machine which inserted fig creme into a cake - like dough: classical fig rolls are encased in a more pastry - like covering, creating a chewy experience. Naming his product "Newtons '' after the local town of Newton, Massachusetts, he approached the Cambridgeport, Massachusetts based Kennedy Biscuit Company, who agreed to take on production and sales.
Kennedy Biscuit Company had recently become associated with the New York Biscuit Company, and after merger to form Nabisco, trade marked the product as the Fig Newton.
Now a trademarked product of Nabisco, the unusual shape of Fig Newtons is a characteristic that has been adopted by many competitors, such as the generic fig bars sold by most supermarkets, and Newman 's Own Fig Newmans (an organic variety).
In the UK Fig Rolls are produced by at least two different companies: McVities owned by United Biscuits and Jacob 's owned by Valeo Foods. Supermarkets, including: Asda; Morrisons; Sainsbury 's and Tesco (collectively known as ' the big four '), sell their own label versions for less than half the price of the branded products.
The Britannia Industries in India produces Fig Rolls.
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what happens if you mess up a wikipedia page | Wikipedia: go ahead, vandalize - Wikipedia
Do you enjoy vandalism?!
Are you bored?
Is it tempting?
Is it funny?
Are you angry?
Or Do you want to do it just for the thrill of it?
Then go right ahead. Vandalize any page that you please. Maybe an Artist, a politician, or someone 's userpage, but definitely not this article.
The only rule of this game is you ca n't do it to any pages that display the silver padlock on the top right corner, just like this article.
Here 's what will happen:
If you 've done all of this stuff, congratulations, enjoy your permanent ban from the project, and unless you do have intentions of editing constructively, have a nice day.
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who dies at the end of famous in love | Sohni Mahiwal - wikipedia
Sohni Mahiwal or Suhni Mehar (Punjabi: سوہنی معینوال , ਸੋਹਣੀ ਮਹੀਂਵਾਲ; Sindhi: سهڻي ميهار ) is one of the four popular tragic romances of Punjab. The others are Sassi Punnun, Mirza Sahiba, and Heer Ranjha. Sohni Mahiwal is a tragic love story which inverts the classical motif of Hero and Leander. The heroine Sohni, unhappily married to a man she despises, swims every night across the river using an earthenware pot to keep afloat in the water, to where her beloved Mehar herds buffaloes. One night her sister - in - law replaces the earthenware pot with a vessel of unbaked clay, which dissolves in water and she dies in the whirling waves of the river.
The story also appears in Shah Jo Risalo and is one of seven popular tragic romances from Sindh. The other six tales are Umar Marui, Sassui Punhun, Lilan Chanesar, Noori Jam Tamachi, Sorath Rai Diyach and Momal Rano commonly known as Seven Heroines (Sindhi: ست سورميون ) of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai. Shah begins the story at the most dramatic moment, when a young woman cries out for help in the cold river, attacked by crocodiles. The whole chapter (Sur Sohni) is merely an extension of this dreadful and yet hoped - for moment when the vessel of her body breaks and she, faithful to her pre-eternal love - covenant with Mehar, will be forever united through death.
Sohni is one of the favourite folktales both in Sindh and Punjab.
In the 18th century (late Mughal period), the beautiful girl Sohni was born to a potter named Tulla (Toolha). They were from the Kumhar caste, and lived in Gujrat, Punjab. At the time, Gujarat, on the river Chenab, was a caravanserai on the trade route between Bukhara and Delhi.
As Sohni grew up, she helped her father decorate his pots. Their shop is said to have been near Rampyari Mahal by the river. As soon as the Surahis (water - pitchers) and mugs came off the wheel, she would draw artistic designs on them and set them up for sale.
Shahzada Izzat Baig, a rich trader from Bukhara (Uzbekistan), came to Punjab on business and halted in Gujrat. Here he saw Sohni at the shop and was completely smitten. Just to get a glimpse of Sohni, he would end up buying the water pitchers and mugs every day.
Sohni too lost her heart to Izzat Baig. Instead of returning to Bukhara with his caravan, the noble - born Izzat Baig took up the job of a servant in the house of Tulla. He would even take their buffaloes for grazing. Soon, he came to be known as Mehar or "Mahiwal '' (buffalo herder).
The love of Sohni and Mahiwal caused a commotion within the Kumhar community. It was not acceptable that a daughter from this community would marry an outsider, so her parents immediately arranged her marriage with another potter. On the day the "barat '' (marriage party) of that potter arrived at her house, Sohni felt helpless and lost. She was sent off to the husband 's house in a Doli (palanquin).
Izzat Baig renounced the world and started living as a faqir (hermit). He eventually moved to a small hut across the river Chenab from Sohni 's new home. In the dark of night, when the world was fast asleep, the lovers would meet by the river. Izzat would come to the riverside and Sohni would come to meet him swimming with the help of an inverted hard baked pitcher (inverted so that it would not sink). He would regularly catch a fish and bring it for her. It is said that once, when due to high tide he could not catch a fish, Mahiwal cut a piece of his thigh and roasted it. Sohni did n't realise this at first but then she told Izzat that this fish tastes different. When she kept her hand on his leg, she realised what Mahiwal had done and this only strengthened their love for each other.
Meanwhile, rumours of their romantic rendezvous spread. One day Sohni 's sister - in - law followed her and saw the hiding place where Sohni kept her earthenware pitcher. She informed her mother, Sohni 's mother - in - law, and instead of telling Sohni 's husband (who was away on a business trip), the women decided to take the decision in their own hands and finish the matter. The next day, the sister - in - law removed the hard baked pitcher and replaced it with an unbaked one. That night, when Sohni tried to cross the river with the help of the pitcher, it dissolved in the water and Sohni drowned. From the other side of the river, Mahiwal saw Sohni drowning and jumped into the river to save her and drowned as well. Thus, the lovers were reunited in death.
A somewhat different version of the story is told in Sindh, where Sohni is believed to be a girl of Jat tribe living on the western bank of the Indus River; and Dam, Sohni 's husband, was of the Samtia, living on the eastern bank. The love between Sohni and Mehar is attributed to a drink of milk that Mehar gave her during the marriage procession over the river.
Legend has 75 km (47 mi) from Hyderabad, Pakistan. Sohni 's tomb is located at Shahpur Chakar Road, Shahdadpur, and is visited by lovers.
The story of Sohni and Mahiwal was popularized in the Punjabi qissa (long poem) Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah Sayyad, who also wrote poems on Heer Ranjha, Laila Majnu and others.
The Sohni Mahiwal love story continues to inspire numerous modern songs, including Pathanay Khan 's famous song Sohni Gharay nu akhadi aj mainu yaar milaa ghadeya. Alam Lohar has also made many renditions of this kalaam and was one of the first singers to present the story in a song format. Pakistani pop band Noori 's song Dobara Phir Se is inspired by the lore of this story as well as the more recent, Paar channa de, from Coke Studio Pakistan (season 9). Paar channa de was earlier sung by Arif Lohar and Saleema Jawwad for 2013 movie Zinda Bhaag, based on a traditional folk song.
Many paintings of Sohni Mahiwal continue to be created by well - known artists such as Sobha Singh. Folk versions of these paintings, for example in the Kangra style, are commonly found across the whole Punjab region.
Four Hindi film versions, named Sohni Mahiwal have been made:
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which is not one of the difference between literary works and dramatic works | Author - wikipedia
An author is the creator or originator of any written work such as a book or play, and is thus also a writer. More broadly defined, an author is "the person who originated or gave existence to anything '' and whose authorship determines responsibility for what was created.
Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author. If more than one person created the work, then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met. In the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as "a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to authors of "original works of authorship ''. Holding the title of "author '' over any "literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, (or) certain other intellectual works '' gives rights to this person, the owner of the copyright, especially the exclusive right to engage in or authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, where it can be used without limit. Copyright laws in many jurisdictions -- mostly following the lead of the United States, in which the entertainment and publishing industries have very strong lobbying power -- have been amended repeatedly since their inception, to extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the copyright holder. However, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his / her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time it 's created. An interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another upon one 's death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, but enjoys the same legal benefits.
Questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the complex issue of fan fiction? If the media agency responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music, and other considerations, come into play? Additionally, how does copyright apply to fan - generated stories for books? What powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction? This particular sort of case also illustrates how complex intellectual property law can be, since such fiction may also involved trademark law (e.g. for names of characters in media franchises), likeness rights (such as for actors, or even entirely fictional entities), fair use rights held by the public (including the right to parody or satirize), and many other interacting complications. Authors may portion out different rights they hold to different parties, at different times, and for different purposes or uses, such as the right to adapt a plot into a film, but only with different character names, because the characters have already been optioned by another company for a television series or a video game. An author may also not have rights when working under contract that they would otherwise have, such as when creating a work for hire (e.g., hired to write a city tour guide by a municipal government that totally owns the copyright to the finished work), or when writing material using intellectual property owned by others (such as when writing a novel or screenplay that is a new installment in an already established media franchise).
In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting. In the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text.
Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author. He writes, in his essay "Death of the Author '' (1968), that "it is language which speaks, not the author ''. The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, and not someone possessing legal responsibility for the process of its production. Every line of written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions, or, as Barthes puts it, "the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture ''; it is never original. With this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The explanation and meaning of a work does not have to be sought in the one who produced it, "as if it were always in the end, through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author ' confiding ' in us ''. The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak, rather than author.
Michel Foucault argues in his essay "What is an author? '' (1969) that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that "a private letter may have a signatory -- it does not have an author ''. For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to attribute certain standards upon the text which, for Foucault, are working in conjunction with the idea of "the author function ''. Foucault 's author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a written work, a part of its structure, but not necessarily part of the interpretive process. The author 's name "indicates the status of the discourse within a society and culture '', and at one time was used as an anchor for interpreting a text, a practice which Barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavor.
Expanding upon Foucault 's position, Alexander Nehamas writes that Foucault suggests "an author (...) is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it '', not necessarily who penned the text. It is this distinction between producing a written work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both Barthes and Foucault are interested in. Foucault warns of the risks of keeping the author 's name in mind during interpretation, because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles an interpretation.
Literary critics Barthes and Foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work, because of the complications inherent with a writer 's title of "author ''. They warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice. Instead, readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as "author ''.
Self - publishing, self - publishing, independent publishing, or artisanal publishing is the "publication of any book, album or other media by its author without the involvement of a traditional publisher. It is the modern equivalent to traditional publishing ''.
Unless a book is to be sold directly from the author to the public, an ISBN is required to uniquely identify the title. ISBN is a global standard used for all titles worldwide. Most self - publishing companies either provide their own ISBN to a title or can provide direction; it may be in the best interest of the self - published author to retain ownership of ISBN and copyright instead of using a number owned by a vanity press. A separate ISBN is needed for each edition of the book.
There are a variety of e-book formats and tools that can be used to create them. Because it is possible to create e-books with no up - front or per - book costs, this is a popular option for self - publishers. E-book publishing platforms include Pronoun, Smashwords, Blurb, Amazon Kindle Direct Publishing, CinnamonTeal Publishing, Papyrus Editor, ebook leap, Bookbaby, Pubit, Lulu, Llumina Press, and CreateSpace. E-book formats include e-pub, mobi, and PDF, among others.
Print - on - demand (POD) publishing refers to the ability to print high - quality books as needed. For self - published books, this is often a more economical option than conducting a print run of hundreds or thousands of books. Many companies, such as Createspace (owned by Amazon.com), Outskirts Press, Blurb, Lulu, Llumina Press, Readers Magnet, and iUniverse, allow printing single books at per - book costs not much higher than those paid by publishing companies for large print runs.
With commissioned publishing, the publisher makes all the publication arrangements and the author covers all expenses.
The more specific phrase published author refers to an author (especially but not necessarily of books) whose work has been independently accepted for publication by a reputable publisher, versus a self - publishing author or an unpublished one.
The author of a work may receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price or a fixed amount on each book sold. Publishers, at times, reduced the risk of this type of arrangement, by agreeing only to pay this after a certain number of copies had sold. In Canada, this practice occurred during the 1890s, but was not commonplace until the 1920s. Established and successful authors may receive advance payments, set against future royalties, but this is no longer common practice. Most independent publishers pay royalties as a percentage of net receipts - how net receipts are calculated varies from publisher to publisher. Under this arrangement, the author does not pay anything towards the expense of publication. The costs and financial risk are all carried by the publisher, who will then take the greatest percentage of the receipts. See Compensation for more.
This type of publisher normally charges a flat fee for arranging publication, offers a platform for selling, and then takes a percentage of the sale of every copy of a book. The author receives the rest of the money made.
The relationship between the author and the editor, often the author 's only liaison to the publishing company, is often characterized as the site of tension. For the author to reach his or her audience, the work usually must attract the attention of the editor. The idea of the author as the sole meaning - maker of necessity changes to include the influences of the editor and the publisher in order to engage the audience in writing as a social act. There are three principal areas covered by editors - Proofing (checking the Grammar and spelling, looking for typing errors), Story (potentially an area of deep angst for both author and publisher), and Layout (the setting of the final proof ready for publishing often requires minor text changes so a layout editor is required to ensure that these do not alter the sense of the text).
Pierre Bourdieu 's essay "The Field of Cultural Production '' depicts the publishing industry as a "space of literary or artistic position - takings '', also called the "field of struggles '', which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field. Bourdieu claims that the "field of position - takings (...) is not the product of coherence - seeking intention or objective consensus '', meaning that an industry characterized by position - takings is not one of harmony and neutrality. In particular for the writer, their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity, and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity. However, it is the editor who has "the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and therefore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in the struggle to define the writer ''. As "cultural investors, '' publishers rely on the editor position to identify a good investment in "cultural capital '' which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions.
According to the studies of James Curran, the system of shared values among editors in Britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the editors ' expectations, removing the focus from the reader - audience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and editors and on writing as a social act. Even the book review by the editors has more significance than the readership 's reception.
A standard contract for an author will usually include provision for payment in the form of an advance and royalties. An advance is a lump sum paid in advance of publication. An advance must be earned out before royalties are payable. An advance may be paid in two lump sums: the first payment on contract signing, and the second on delivery of the completed manuscript or on publication.
An author 's contract may specify, for example, that they will earn 10 % of the retail price of each book sold. Some contracts specify a scale of royalties payable (for example, where royalties start at 10 % for the first 10,000 sales, but then increase to a higher percentage rate at higher sale thresholds).
An author 's book must earn the advance before any further royalties are paid. For example, if an author is paid a modest advance of $2000, and their royalty rate is 10 % of a book priced at $20 - that is, $2 per book - the book will need to sell 1000 copies before any further payment will be made. Publishers typically withhold payment of a percentage of royalties earned against returns.
In some countries, authors also earn income from a government scheme such as the ELR (educational lending right) and PLR (public lending right) schemes in Australia. Under these schemes, authors are paid a fee for the number of copies of their books in educational and / or public libraries.
These days, many authors supplement their income from book sales with public speaking engagements, school visits, residencies, grants, and teaching positions.
Ghostwriters, technical writers, and textbooks writers are typically paid in a different way: usually a set fee or a per word rate rather than on a percentage of sales.
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who is the yankees all-time leader in pitching wins | 300 win club - wikipedia
In Major League Baseball, the 300 win club is the group of pitchers who have won 300 or more games. Twenty - four pitchers have reached this milestone. The New York Gothams / Giants / San Francisco Giants are the only franchise to see three players reach the milestone while on their roster: those players are Mickey Welch, Christy Mathewson, and Randy Johnson. Early in the history of professional baseball, many of the rules favored the pitcher over the batter; the distance pitchers threw to home plate was shorter than today, and pitchers were able to use foreign substances to alter the direction of the ball. The first player to win 300 games was Pud Galvin in 1888. Seven pitchers recorded all or the majority of their career wins in the 19th century: Galvin, Cy Young, Kid Nichols, Tim Keefe, John Clarkson, Charley Radbourn, and Mickey Welch. Four more pitchers joined the club in the first quarter of the 20th century: Christy Mathewson, Walter Johnson, Eddie Plank, and Grover Cleveland Alexander. Young is the all - time leader in wins with 511, a mark that is considered unbreakable. If a modern - day pitcher won 20 games per season for 25 seasons, he would still be 11 games short of Young 's mark.
Only three pitchers, Lefty Grove, Warren Spahn, and Early Wynn, joined the 300 win club between 1924 and 1982, which may be explained by a number of factors: the abolition of the spitball, World War II military service, such as Bob Feller 's, and the growing importance of the home run in the game. As the home run became commonplace, the physical and mental demands on pitchers dramatically increased, which led to the use of a four - man starting rotation. Between 1982 and 1990, the 300 win club gained six members: Gaylord Perry, Phil Niekro, Steve Carlton, Nolan Ryan, Don Sutton and Tom Seaver. These pitchers benefited from the increased use of specialized relief pitchers, an expanded strike zone, and new stadiums, including Shea Stadium, Dodger Stadium and the Astrodome, that were pitcher 's parks, which suppressed offensive production. Also, the increasing sophistication of training methods and sports medicine, such as Tommy John surgery, allowed players to maintain a high competitive level for a longer time. Randy Johnson, for example, won more games in his 40s than he did in his 20s.
Since 1990, only four pitchers have joined the 300 win club: Roger Clemens, Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, and Johnson. Changes in the game in the last decade of the 20th century have made attaining 300 career wins difficult, perhaps more so than during the mid 20th century. The four - man starting rotation has given way to a five - man rotation, which gives starting pitchers fewer chances to pick up wins. No pitcher reached 20 wins in a non strike - shortened year for the first time in 2006; this was repeated in 2009 and 2017.
Recording 300 career wins has been seen as a guaranteed admission to the Baseball Hall of Fame. All pitchers with 300 wins have been elected to the Hall of Fame except for Clemens, who received only half of the vote total needed for induction in his first appearance on the Hall of Fame ballot in 2013 and lost votes from that total in 2014. Clemens ' future election is seen as uncertain because of his alleged links to use of performance - enhancing drugs. To be eligible for the Hall of Fame, a player must have "been retired five seasons '' or deceased for at least six months, Many observers expect the club to gain few, if any, members in the foreseeable future. Ten members of the 300 win club are also members of the 3,000 strikeout club.
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what is the first movie of harry potter | Harry Potter (film series) - wikipedia
Harry Potter is a British - American film series based on the Harry Potter novels by author J.K. Rowling. The series is distributed by Warner Bros. and consists of eight fantasy films, beginning with Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (2001) and culminating with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 (2011). A spin - off prequel series will consist of five films, starting with Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (2016). The Fantastic Beasts films mark the beginning of a shared media franchise known as J.K. Rowling 's Wizarding World.
The series was mainly produced by David Heyman, and stars Daniel Radcliffe, Rupert Grint, and Emma Watson as the three leading characters: Harry Potter, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger. Four directors worked on the series: Chris Columbus, Alfonso Cuarón, Mike Newell, and David Yates. The screenplays were written by Steve Kloves, with the exception of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2007), which was written by Michael Goldenberg. Production took over ten years to complete, with the main story arc following Harry Potter 's quest to overcome his arch - enemy Lord Voldemort.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the seventh and final novel in the series, was adapted into two feature - length parts. Part 1 was released in November 2010, and Part 2 was released in July 2011.
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004) is the only film in the series not among the 50 highest - grossing films of all time, with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, the highest - grossing film in the series and one of 30 films to gross over $1 billion, ranking at number 8. Without inflation adjustment, it is the fourth highest - grossing film series with $7.7 billion in worldwide receipts.
Late in 1997, film producer David Heyman 's London offices received a copy of the first book in what would become Rowling 's series of seven Harry Potter novels. The book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, was relegated to a low - priority bookshelf, where it was discovered by a secretary who read it and gave it to Heyman with a positive review. Consequently, Heyman, who had originally disliked "the rubbish title '', read the book himself. Highly impressed by Rowling 's work, he began the process that led to one of the most successful cinematic franchises of all time.
Heyman 's enthusiasm led to Rowling 's 1999 sale of the film rights for the first four Harry Potter books to Warner Bros. for a reported £ 1 million (US $2,000,000). A demand Rowling made was that the principal cast be kept strictly British, allowing nevertheless for the inclusion of many Irish actors, such as Richard Harris as Dumbledore, and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such. Rowling was hesitant to sell the rights because she "did n't want to give them control over the rest of the story '' by selling the rights to the characters, which would have enabled Warner Bros. to make non-author - written sequels.
Although Steven Spielberg initially negotiated to direct the first film, he declined the offer. Spielberg wanted the adaptation to be an animated film, with American actor Haley Joel Osment providing Harry Potter 's voice. Spielberg contended that, in his opinion, there was every expectation of profit in making the film. He claims that making money would have been like "shooting ducks in a barrel. It 's just a slam dunk. It 's just like withdrawing a billion dollars and putting it into your personal bank accounts. There 's no challenge ''. In the "Rubbish '' Bin section of her website, Rowling maintains that she had no role in choosing directors for the films, writing "Anyone who thinks I could (or would) have ' veto - ed ' him (Spielberg) needs their Quick - Quotes Quill serviced. ''
After Spielberg left, conversations began with other directors, including Chris Columbus, Jonathan Demme, Terry Gilliam, Mike Newell, Alan Parker, Wolfgang Petersen, Rob Reiner, Tim Robbins, Brad Silberling, and Peter Weir. Petersen and Reiner both pulled out of the running in March 2000. It was then narrowed down to Columbus, Gilliam, Parker, and Silberling. Rowling 's first choice was Terry Gilliam. However, on 28 March 2000 Columbus was appointed as director of the film, with Warner Bros. citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire as influences for their decision.
Harry Potter is the kind of timeless literary achievement that comes around once in a lifetime. Since the books have generated such a passionate following across the world, it was important to us to find a director that has an affinity for both children and magic. I ca n't think of anyone more ideally suited for this job than Chris (Columbus).
Steve Kloves was selected to write the screenplay for the first film. He described adapting the book as "tough '' since it did not "lend itself to adaptation as well as the next two books ''. Kloves was sent a "raft '' of synopses of books proposed as film adaptations, with Harry Potter being the only one that jumped out at him. He went out and bought the book, becoming an instant fan. When speaking to Warner Bros. he stated that the film had to be British and true to the characters. David Heyman was confirmed to produce the film. Rowling received a large amount of creative control for the film, an arrangement that Columbus did not mind.
Warner Bros. had initially planned to release the first film over the 4 July 2001 weekend, making for such a short production window that several of the originally proposed directors had withdrawn themselves from contention. Eventually, due to time constraints, the date was put back to 16 November 2001.
In 2000, after a seven - month search, lead actor Daniel Radcliffe was discovered by producer David Heyman and writer Steve Kloves seated just behind them in a theatre. In Heyman 's own words, "There sitting behind me was this boy with these big blue eyes. It was Dan Radcliffe. I remember my first impressions: He was curious and funny and so energetic. There was real generosity too, and sweetness. But at the same time he was really voracious and with hunger for knowledge of whatever kind. ''
Radcliffe had already established himself as an actor in the 1999 BBC television production of David Copperfield in which he played the title role 's childhood years. Heyman persuaded Radcliffe 's parents to allow him to audition for the part of Harry Potter, which involved Radcliffe being filmed. (This screen test footage was released via the first set of Ultimate Editions in 2009.) Rowling was enthusiastic after viewing Radcliffe 's filmed test, saying she did n't think there was a better choice for the part of Harry Potter.
Also in 2000, the then unknown British actors Emma Watson and Rupert Grint were selected from thousands of auditioning children to play the roles of Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, respectively. Their only previous acting experience was in school plays. Grint was eleven years old and Watson ten at the time they were cast.
Los Angeles Times writer Geoff Boucher, who conducted the above - mentioned interview with Heyman, added that the casting of the three major roles "is especially impressive in hindsight. The trio 's selection was arguably one of the best show - business decisions over the past decade... they have shown admirable grace and steadiness in the face of teen superstardom. ''
Filming of the series began at Leavesden Studios, Hertfordshire, England, in September 2000 and ended in December 2010, with post-production on the final film lasting until summer 2011. Leavesden Studios was the main base for filming Harry Potter, and it opened to the public as a studio tour in 2012 (renamed as Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden).
David Heyman produced all the films in the series with his production company Heyday Films, while David Barron joined the series as an executive producer on Chamber of Secrets and Goblet of Fire. Barron was later appointed producer on the last four films. Chris Columbus was an executive producer on the first two films alongside Mark Radcliffe and Michael Barnathan, but he became a producer on the third film alongside Heyman and Radcliffe. Other executive producers include Tanya Seghatchian and Lionel Wigram. J.K. Rowling, author of the series, was asked to become a producer on Goblet of Fire but declined. She subsequently accepted the role on the two - part Deathly Hallows.
Heyday Films and Columbus ' company 1492 Pictures collaborated with Duncan Henderson Productions in 2001, Miracle Productions in 2002, and P of A Productions in 2004. Even though Prisoner of Azkaban was the final film produced by 1492 Pictures, Heyday Films continued with the franchise and collaborated with Patalex IV Productions in 2005. The sixth film in the series, Half - Blood Prince, was the most expensive film to produce as of 2009.
Warner Bros. split the seventh and final novel in the series, Deathly Hallows, into two cinematic parts. The two parts were filmed back - to - back from early 2009 to summer 2010, with the completion of reshoots taking place on 21 December 2010; this marked the end of filming Harry Potter. Heyman stated that Deathly Hallows was "shot as one film '' but released in two feature - length parts.
Tim Burke, the visual effects supervisor of the series, said of the production on Harry Potter, "It was this huge family; I think there were over 700 people working at Leavesden, an industry in itself. '' David Heyman said, "When the first film opened, no way did I think we 'd make eight films. That did n't seem feasible until after we 'd done the fourth. '' Nisha Parti, the production consultant on the first film, said that Heyman "made the first film very much the way he felt the studio Warner Bros. wanted to make it. '' After the film 's success, Heyman was given "more freedom ''.
One of the aims of the filmmakers from the beginning of production was to develop the maturity of the films. Chris Columbus stated, "We realised that these movies would get progressively darker. Again, we did n't know how dark but we realised that as the kids get older, the movies get a little edgier and darker. '' This transpired with the succeeding three directors who would work on the series in the following years, with the films beginning to deal with issues such as death, betrayal, prejudice, and political corruption as the series developed narratively and thematically.
After Chris Columbus had finished working on Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, he was hired to direct the second film, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. The production started within a week after the release of the first film. Columbus was set to direct all entries in the series, but he did not want to return for the third film, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, claiming he was "burned out ''. He moved to the position of producer, while Alfonso Cuarón was approached for the role of director. He was initially nervous about directing the instalment since he had not read any of the books or seen the films. After reading the series, he changed his mind and signed on to direct since he had immediately connected to the story.
Because Cuarón decided not to direct the fourth instalment, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, a new director had to be selected. Mike Newell was chosen to direct the film, but he declined to direct the next film, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, which was given to David Yates, who also directed Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, becoming the only director to helm more than one film since Chris Columbus.
Chris Columbus said his vision of the first two films was of a "golden storybook, an old - fashioned look '', while Alfonso Cuarón changed the visual tone of the series, desaturated the colour palette, and expanded the landscape around Hogwarts. Mike Newell decided to direct the fourth film as a "paranoid thriller '', while David Yates wanted to "bring a sense of jeopardy and character to the world ''. Cuarón, Newell, and Yates have said that their challenge was striking a balance between making the films according to their individual vision, while working within a cinematic world already established by Columbus.
David Heyman commented on the "generosity of the directors '' by revealing that "Chris spent time with Alfonso, Alfonso spent time with Mike and Mike spent time with David, showing him an early cut of the film, talking through what it means to be a director and how they went about (making the films). ''
David Heyman also said, "I suppose Chris Columbus was the most conservative choice from the studio 's point of view. But he expressed real passion. '' Producer Tanya Seghatchian said they were "more adventurous '' in choosing a director for the third film and went straight to Alfonso Cuarón. Mike Newell became the first British director of the series when he was chosen for the fourth film; Newell was considered to direct the first film before he dropped out. David Yates directed the final films after David Heyman thought him capable of handling the edgy, emotional, and political material of the later novels.
All the directors have been supportive of each other. Chris Columbus praised the character development in the films, while Alfonso Cuarón admired the "quiet poetry '' of David Yates ' films. Mike Newell noted that each director had a different heroism, and David Yates views the first four films "respectfully and enjoy (s) them. '' Daniel Radcliffe said Yates "took the charm of the films that Chris made and the visual flair of everything that Alfonso did and the thoroughly British, bombastic nature of the film directed by Mike Newell '' and added "his own sense '' of realism.
Steve Kloves wrote the screenplays for all but the fifth film, which was penned by Michael Goldenberg. Kloves had direct assistance from J.K. Rowling, though she allowed him what he described as "tremendous elbow room ''. Rowling asked Kloves to remain faithful to the spirit of the books; thus, the plot and tone of each film and its corresponding book are virtually the same, albeit with some changes and omissions for purposes of cinematic style, time, and budget constraints. Michael Goldenberg also received input from Rowling during his adaptation of the fifth novel; Goldenberg was originally considered to adapt the first novel before the studio chose Kloves.
In a 2010 interview, David Heyman briefly explained the book - to - film transition. He commented on Rowling 's involvement in the series, stating that she understood that "books and films are different '' and was "the best support '' a producer could have. Rowling had overall approval on the scripts, which were viewed and discussed by the director and the producers. Heyman also said that Kloves was the "key voice '' in the process of adapting the novels and that certain aspects from the books needed to have been excluded from the scripts due to the filmmakers ' decision to keep the main focus on Harry 's journey as a character, which would ultimately give the films a defined structure. Heyman mentioned that some fans "do n't necessarily understand the adaptation process '' and that the filmmakers would have loved to "have everything '' from the books in the films but noted that it was not possible since they had "neither time nor cinematic structure '' to do so. He finished by saying that adapting a novel to the screen is "a really considered process. ''
Because the films were being made as the novels were being published, the filmmakers had no idea of the story 's outcome until the release of the final novel in 2007. Kloves spoke of his relationship with Rowling when adapting the novels by saying, "The thing is about Jo, which is remarkable for someone who had no experience with the filmmaking process, was her intuition. We had a conversation the very first day I met her where she said, ' I know the movies ca n't be the books... because I know what 's coming and it 's impossible to fully dramatise on screen what I 'm going to write. But I just ask you to be true to the characters; that 's all I care about. ' '' Kloves also said, "I do n't know what compelled me to say this (to Rowling), but I said, ' I 've just got to warn you my favourite character is not Harry. My favourite character is Hermione. ' And I think for some weird reason, from that moment on, she sort of trusted me. ''
Aside from the three lead actors, other notable cast members include Robbie Coltrane as Rubeus Hagrid, Tom Felton as Draco Malfoy, Alan Rickman as Severus Snape, and Dame Maggie Smith as Minerva McGonagall. Richard Harris, who played the role of Professor Albus Dumbledore, died on 25 October 2002 causing the role to be re-cast for the third instalment, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. David Heyman and director Alfonso Cuarón chose Michael Gambon to portray the character of Dumbledore, which he did for all succeeding films. Notable recurring cast members include Helena Bonham Carter as Bellatrix Lestrange, Warwick Davis as Filius Flitwick, Ralph Fiennes as Lord Voldemort, Brendan Gleeson as Alastor Moody, Richard Griffiths as Vernon Dursley, Jason Isaacs as Lucius Malfoy, Gary Oldman as Sirius Black, Fiona Shaw as Petunia Dursley, Timothy Spall as Peter Pettigrew, David Thewlis as Remus Lupin, Emma Thompson as Sybill Trelawney, Mark Williams as Arthur Weasley, and Julie Walters as Molly Weasley.
The series has seen many returning crew members from various departments, including Tim Burke, visual effects supervisor; Peter Doyle, digital film colourist; Nick Dudman, make - up and creature effects designer; David Holmes, stunt double; Amanda Knight, make - up artist; Stephenie McMillan, set designer; Greg Powell, stunt coordinator; Jany Temime, costume designer; and Fiona Weir, casting director.
The production designer for all eight films is Stuart Craig. Assisted by Stephenie McMillan, Craig has created iconic sets pieces including the Ministry of Magic, the Chamber of Secrets, Malfoy Manor, and the layout for the CGI Horcrux Cave. Because the novels were being published as the films were being made, Craig was required to rebuild some sets for future films and alter the design of Hogwarts.
He said, "In the early days, every time you saw the exterior of Hogwarts, it was a physical miniature, '' which was made by craftsmen and occupied a large sound stage. "We ended up with a profile of how Hogwarts looked, a skyline that actually I did n't design, and it was n't always satisfactory, and as all the novels got written and movies got made there were new requirements (for buildings). The (Astronomy Tower) definitely was n't there originally, and so we were able to add that substantial piece. And in the last film, we needed an arena for the battle for Hogwarts -- the big courtyard outside doubled in size, and if you look at the first movie it was n't there at all. There were quite some liberties taken with the continuity of Hogwarts. '' In the last film, Craig used a digital model instead of a miniature to "embrace the latest technology ''.
On the method of creating the sets, Craig said he often started by sketching ideas onto a blank sheet of paper. Stephanie McMillan also said that "each film always had plenty of new challenges, '' citing the changes in visual style between directors and cinematographers as an example, along with the developing story in the novels. Due to J.K. Rowling 's descriptions of various settings in the novels, Craig noted his "responsibility was to place it together ''.
Craig commented on his experience working in the studio environment: "I 'm the production designer, but on a big movie like Harry Potter I may be responsible for 30 to 35 people; from the supervising art director, and a team of art directors and assistants, to draughtsmen and junior draughtsmen, and then on to model makers, sculptors and scenic artists. '' He said, "Ten years ago, all the Harry Potter drawings were done in pencil. I would take my roughs and plans and sections and give them to a professional architectural illustrator, who would create concept art using pencil and colour wash on watercolour paper. '' He said the process changed slightly throughout the years due to, what he called, the "digital revolution '' of making films.
When filming of the series was completed, some of Craig 's sets had to be rebuilt or transported for them to be displayed at the Warner Bros. studio tour.
Six directors of photography worked on the series: John Seale on the first film, Roger Pratt on the second and fourth, Michael Seresin on the third, Sławomir Idziak on the fifth, Bruno Delbonnel on the sixth, and Eduardo Serra on the seventh and eighth. Delbonnel was considered to return for both parts of Deathly Hallows, but he declined, stating that he was "scared of repeating '' himself. Delbonnel 's cinematography in Half - Blood Prince gained the series its only Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography. As the series progressed, each cinematographer faced the challenge of shooting and lighting older sets (which had been around since the first few films) in unique and different ways. Chris Columbus said the series ' vivid colouring decreased as each film was made.
Michael Seresin commented on the change of visual style from the first two films to Prisoner of Azkaban: "The lighting is moodier, with more shadowing and cross-lighting. '' Seresin and Alfonso Cuarón moved away from the strongly coloured and brightly lit cinematography of the first two films, with dimmer lighting and a more muted colour palette being utilised for the succeeding five films. After comparing a range of digital cameras with 35 mm film, Bruno Delbonnel decided to shoot the sixth movie, Half - Blood Prince, on film rather than the increasingly popular digital format. This decision was kept for the two - part Deathly Hallows with Eduardo Serra, who said that he preferred to work with film because it was "more technically accurate and dependable ''.
Because the majority of Deathly Hallows takes place in various settings away from Hogwarts, David Yates wanted to "shake things up '' by using different photographic techniques such as using hand - held cameras and very wide camera lenses. Eduardo Serra said, "Sometimes we are combining elements shot by the main unit, a second unit, and the visual effects unit. You have to know what is being captured -- colours, contrast, et cetera -- with mathematical precision. '' He noted that with Stuart Craig 's "amazing sets and the story '', the filmmakers could not "stray too far from the look of the previous Harry Potter films. ''
Along with continuous changes in cinematographers, there have been five film editors to work in post-production on the series: Richard Francis - Bruce edited the first instalment, Peter Honess the second, Steven Weisberg the third, Mick Audsley the fourth, and Mark Day films five through eight.
The Harry Potter series has had four composers. John Williams scored the first three films: Philosopher 's Stone, Chamber of Secrets, and Prisoner of Azkaban. However, the second entry was adapted and conducted by William Ross due to Williams 's conflicting commitments. Williams also created Hedwig 's Theme, which is used in every film in the series.
After Williams left the series to pursue other projects, Patrick Doyle scored the fourth entry, Goblet of Fire, which was directed by Mike Newell, with whom Doyle had worked previously. In 2006, Nicholas Hooper started work on the score to Order of the Phoenix by reuniting with director David Yates. Hooper also composed the soundtrack to Half - Blood Prince but decided not to return for the final films.
In January 2010, Alexandre Desplat was confirmed to compose the score for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1. The film 's orchestration started in the summer with Conrad Pope, the orchestrator on the first three Harry Potter films, collaborating with Desplat. Pope commented that the music "reminds one of the old days. '' Desplat returned to score Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 in 2011.
Director David Yates stated that he wanted John Williams to return to the series for the final installment, but their schedules did not align due to the urgent demand for a rough cut of the film. The final recording sessions of Harry Potter took place on 27 May 2011 at Abbey Road Studios with the London Symphony Orchestra, orchestrator Conrad Pope, and composer Alexandre Desplat.
Doyle, Hooper, and Desplat introduced their own personal themes to their respective soundtracks, while keeping a few of John Williams 's themes.
There have been many visual effects companies to work on the Harry Potter series. Some of these include Rising Sun Pictures, Double Negative, Cinesite, Framestore, and Industrial Light & Magic. The latter three have worked on all the films in the series, while Double Negative and Rising Sun Pictures began their commitments with Prisoner of Azkaban and Goblet of Fire, respectively. Framestore contributed by developing many memorable creatures and sequences to the series. Cinesite was involved in producing both miniature and digital effects for the films. Producer David Barron said that "Harry Potter created the UK effects industry as we know it. On the first film, all the complicated visual effects were done on the (US) west coast. But on the second, we took a leap of faith and gave much of what would normally be given to Californian vendors to UK ones. They came up trumps. '' Tim Burke, the visual effects supervisor, said many studios "are bringing their work to UK effects companies. Every facility is fully booked, and that was n't the case before Harry Potter. That 's really significant. ''
On 12 June 2010, filming of the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 and Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 was completed with actor Warwick Davis stating on his Twitter account, "The end of an Era -- today is officially the last day of principal photography on ' Harry Potter ' -- ever. I feel honoured to be here as the director shouts cut for the very last time. Farewell Harry & Hogwarts, it 's been magic! ''. However, reshoots of the epilogue scene were confirmed to begin in the winter of 2010. The filming was completed on 21 December 2010, marking the official closure of filming the Harry Potter franchise. Exactly four years earlier on that day, author J.K. Rowling 's official website revealed the title of the final novel in the series -- Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
Harry Potter is an orphaned boy brought up by his unkind Muggle (non-magical) aunt and uncle. At the age of eleven, half - giant Rubeus Hagrid informs him that he is actually a wizard and that his parents were murdered by an evil wizard named Lord Voldemort. Voldemort also attempted to kill one - year - old Harry on the same night, but his killing curse mysteriously rebounded and reduced him to a weak and helpless form. Harry became extremely famous in the Wizarding World as a result. Harry begins his first year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and learns about magic. During the year, Harry and his friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger become entangled in the mystery of the Philosopher 's Stone which is being kept within the school.
Harry, Ron, and Hermione return to Hogwarts for their second year, which proves to be more challenging than the last. The Chamber of Secrets has been opened, leaving students and ghosts petrified by an unleashed monster. Harry must face up to claims that he is the heir of Salazar Slytherin (founder of the Chamber), learn that he can speak Parseltongue, and also discover the properties of a mysterious diary, only to find himself trapped within the Chamber of Secrets itself.
Harry Potter 's third year sees the boy wizard, along with his friends, attending Hogwarts School once again. Professor R.J. Lupin joins the staff as Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, while convicted murderer Sirius Black escapes from Azkaban Prison. The Ministry of Magic entrusts the Dementors of Azkaban to guard Hogwarts from Black. Harry learns more about his past and his connection with the escaped prisoner.
During Harry 's fourth year, Hogwarts plays host to a legendary event: the Triwizard Tournament. Three European schools participate in the tournament, with three ' champions ' representing each school in the deadly tasks. The Goblet of Fire chooses Fleur Delacour, Viktor Krum, and Cedric Diggory to compete against each other. However, curiously, Harry 's name is also produced from the Goblet thus making him a fourth champion, which results in a terrifying encounter with a reborn Lord Voldemort.
Harry 's fifth year begins with him being attacked by Dementors in Little Whinging. Later, he finds out that the Ministry of Magic is in denial of Lord Voldemort 's return. Harry is also beset by disturbing and realistic nightmares, while Professor Umbridge, a representative of Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, is the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. Harry becomes aware that Voldemort is after a prophecy which reveals: "neither can live while the other survives ''. The rebellion involving the students of Hogwarts, secret organisation Order of the Phoenix, the Ministry of Magic, and the Death Eaters begins.
In Harry 's sixth year at Hogwarts, Lord Voldemort and his Death Eaters are increasing their terror upon the Wizarding and Muggle worlds. Headmaster Albus Dumbledore persuades his old friend Horace Slughorn to return to Hogwarts as a professor as there is a vacancy to fill. There is a more important reason, however, for Slughorn 's return. While in a Potions lesson, Harry takes possession of a strangely annotated school textbook, inscribed ' This is the property of the Half - Blood Prince '. Draco Malfoy struggles to carry out a deed presented to him by Voldemort. Meanwhile, Dumbledore and Harry secretly work together to discover the method on how to destroy the Dark Lord once and for all.
After unexpected events at the end of the previous year, Harry, Ron, and Hermione are entrusted with a quest to find and destroy Lord Voldemort 's secret to immortality -- the Horcruxes. It is supposed to be their final year at Hogwarts, but the collapse of the Ministry of Magic and Voldemort 's rise to power prevents them from attending. The trio undergo a long journey with many obstacles in their path including Death Eaters, Snatchers, the mysterious Deathly Hallows, and Harry 's connection with the Dark Lord 's mind becoming ever stronger.
After destroying one Horcrux and discovering the significance of the three Deathly Hallows, Harry, Ron and Hermione continue to seek the other Horcruxes in an attempt to destroy Voldemort, who has now obtained the powerful Elder Wand. The Dark Lord discovers Harry 's hunt for Horcruxes and launches an attack on Hogwarts School, where the trio return for one last stand against the dark forces that threaten the Wizarding and Muggle worlds.
The rights for the first four novels in the series were sold to Warner Bros. for £ 1,000,000 by J.K. Rowling. After the release of the fourth book in July 2000, the first film, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, was released on 16 November 2001. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $90 million in the United States alone, which set a record opening worldwide. The succeeding three motion picture adaptations followed suit in financial success, while garnering positive reviews from fans and critics. The fifth film, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, was released by Warner Bros. on 11 July 2007 in English - speaking countries, except for the UK and Ireland, which released the movie on 12 July. The sixth, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, was released on 15 July 2009 to critical acclaim and finished its theatrical run ranked as the number two grossing film of 2009 on the worldwide charts.
The final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was split into two cinematic parts: Part 1 was released on 19 November 2010, and Part 2, the conclusion to both the final film and the series, was released on 15 July 2011. Part 1 was originally scheduled to be released in 3D and 2D, but due to a delay in the 3D conversion process, Warner Bros. released the film only in 2D and IMAX cinemas. However, Part 2 was released in 2D and 3D cinemas as originally planned.
The television broadcast rights for the series in the United States are currently held by Disney -- ABC Domestic Television, which typically airs the films on the Freeform network. Disney 's contract is expected to end in June 2018, after which, NBCUniversal will take control of the rights, after their deal with Warner Bros. was made in August 2016. The film series has accrued nearly 1.3 billion viewings since their television debut -- the highest - watched franchise in television broadcast history.
All the films have been a success financially and critically, making the franchise one of the major Hollywood "tent - poles '' akin to James Bond, Star Wars, Indiana Jones and Pirates of the Caribbean. The series is noted by audiences for growing visually darker and more mature as each film was released. However, opinions of the films generally divide book fans, with some preferring the more faithful approach of the first two films and others preferring the more stylised character - driven approach of the later films.
Some also feel the series has a "disjointed '' feel due to the changes in directors, as well as Michael Gambon 's interpretation of Albus Dumbledore differing from that of Richard Harris. Author J.K. Rowling has been constantly supportive of the films, and evaluated Deathly Hallows as her favourite one in the series. She wrote on her website of the changes in the book - to - film transition, "It is simply impossible to incorporate every one of my storylines into a film that has to be kept under four hours long. Obviously films have restrictions -- novels do not have constraints of time and budget; I can create dazzling effects relying on nothing but the interaction of my own and my readers ' imaginations ''.
At the 64th British Academy Film Awards in February 2011, J.K. Rowling, David Heyman, David Barron, David Yates, Alfonso Cuarón, Mike Newell, Rupert Grint and Emma Watson collected the Michael Balcon Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema for the series.
In addition, the American Film Institute recognised the entire series with a Special Award at the American Film Institute Awards in 2011. Special awards "are given to outstanding achievements in the moving image that do not fit into AFI 's criteria for the other honorees. '' In its press release, the Institute referred to the films as "a landmark series; eight films that earned the trust of a generation who wished for the beloved books of J.K. Rowling to come to life on the silver screen. The collective wizardry of an epic ensemble gave us the gift of growing older with Harry, Ron and Hermione as the magic of Hogwarts sprung from the films and into the hearts and minds of Muggles around the world. ''
Harry Potter was also recognised by the BAFTA Los Angeles Britannia Awards, with David Yates winning the Britannia Award for Artistic Excellence in Directing for his four Harry Potter films.
Six of the eight films were nominated for a total of 12 Academy Awards.
Some critics, fans, and general audiences have expressed disappointment that the Harry Potter series did not win any Oscars for its achievements. However, others have pointed out that certain films in the series had uneven reviews, in contrast to the three films of The Lord of the Rings, for example, which were all critically acclaimed. This has been partially attributed to the Harry Potter franchise going through several directors with their own styles in contrast to the Lord of the Rings trilogy, which was filmed in one massive undertaking by the same director, writer, and producer.
Although not successful at the Oscars, the Harry Potter series has gained success in many other award ceremonies, including the annual Saturn Awards and Art Directors Guild Awards. The series has also gained a total of 24 nominations at the British Academy Film Awards presented at the annual BAFTAs, winning several, and 5 nominations at the Grammy Awards.
Philosopher 's Stone achieved seven BAFTA Award nominations, including Best British Film and Best Supporting Actor for Robbie Coltrane. The film was also nominated for eight Saturn Awards and won for its costumes design. It was also nominated at the Art Directors Guild Awards for its production design and received the Broadcast Film Critics Award for Best Live Action Family Film along with gaining two other nominations.
Chamber of Secrets won the award for Best Live Action Family Film in the Phoenix Film Critics Society. It was nominated for seven Saturn Awards, including Best Director and Best Fantasy Film. The film was nominated for four BAFTA Awards and a Grammy Award for John Williams 's score. Prisoner of Azkaban won an Audience Award, as well as Best Feature Film, at the BAFTA Awards. The film also won a BMI Film Music award along with being nominated at the Grammy Awards, Visual Effect Society Awards, and the Amanda Awards. Goblet of Fire won a BAFTA award for Best Production Design as well as being nominated at the Saturn Awards, Critic 's Choice Awards, and the Visual Effects Society Awards.
Order of the Phoenix picked up three awards at the inaugural ITV National Movie Awards. At the Empire Awards, David Yates won Best Director. Composer Nicholas Hooper received a nomination for a World Soundtrack Discovery Award. The film was nominated at the BAFTA Awards, but did not win for Best Production Design or Best Special Visual Effects. Half - Blood Prince was nominated for BAFTA Awards in Production Design and Visual Effects, and it was in the longlists for several other categories, including Best Supporting Actor for Alan Rickman. Amongst other nominations and wins, the film also achieved Best Family Movie at the National Movie Awards as well as Best Live Action Family Film at the Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards, along with being nominated for Best Motion Picture at the Satellite Awards.
Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 gained two nominations at the BAFTA Awards for Best Make - Up and Hair and Best Visual Effects, along with receiving nominations for the same categories at the Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards. Eduardo Serra 's cinematography and Stuart Craig 's production design were also nominated in various award ceremonies, and David Yates attained his second win at the Empire Awards, this time for Best Fantasy Film. He also obtained another Best Director nomination at the annual Saturn Awards, which also saw the film gain a Best Fantasy Film nomination. Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 was released to critical acclaim, gaining a mix of audience awards. Part 2 of Deathly Hallows was also recognised at the Saturn Awards as well as the BAFTA Awards, where the film achieved a win for Best Special Visual Effects.
As of 2015, the Harry Potter film series is the 4th highest - grossing film franchise of all time, with the eight films released grossing over $7.7 billion worldwide. Without adjusting for inflation, this is higher than the first 22 James Bond films and the six films in the Star Wars franchise. Chris Columbus 's Philosopher 's Stone became the highest - grossing Harry Potter film worldwide upon completing its theatrical run in 2002, but it was eventually topped by David Yates 's Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, while Alfonso Cuarón 's Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the least.
Six films in the Harry Potter franchise -- Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Parts 1 & 2 -- have to date grossed around $216 million in IMAX theaters worldwide.
The Harry Potter films and their success have been retrospectively considered to have had a significant impact on the film industry. They are cited as having helped redefine the Hollywood blockbuster in the 21st century by initiating a shift toward established media franchises forming the basis of successful films. In the wake of the final film 's release, Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote that the films "inspired every major studio to try to capture (its) alchemic formula, spawning a range of copycats and wannabes '' and "also have shown Hollywood how to make a glossy blockbuster with an eye toward keeping costs down. '' A 2009 article from The Economist argued that the films were "in the vanguard '' of adaptations of established properties being the modern film franchise model, citing The Lord of the Rings, Spider - Man and The Dark Knight Trilogy as examples of successful film series that followed Harry Potter 's suit. Furthermore, the practice of splitting the finale of a film series into two back - to - back films began with the success of Deathly Hallows, and it would soon be replicated by The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug and The Battle of the Five Armies, The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Parts 1 and 2, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Parts 1 and 2, and Avengers: Infinity War and its untitled sequel.
The films are also widely credited with singlehandedly signalling the popularity of films based on children 's and young adult literature in the 2000s and 2010s, correlating with the book series ' own literary influence. Costance Grady and Aja Romano, commenting on the whole Harry Potter franchise 's legacy for Vox in light of its 20th anniversary, wrote that youth - targeted literature has since become "a go - to well of ideas for Hollywood, '' pointing to the successes of The Twilight Saga, The Hunger Games and The Divergent Series.
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when did first harry potter book come out | Harry Potter - wikipedia
Harry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British author J.K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the life of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry 's struggle against Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who intends to become immortal, overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic, and subjugate all wizards and muggles, a reference term that means non-magical people.
Since the release of the first novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, on 26 June 1997, the books have found immense popularity, critical acclaim and commercial success worldwide. They have attracted a wide adult audience as well as younger readers, and are often considered cornerstones of modern young adult literature. The series has also had its share of criticism, including concern about the increasingly dark tone as the series progressed, as well as the often gruesome and graphic violence it depicts. As of May 2013, the books have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide, making them the best - selling book series in history, and have been translated into seventy - three languages. The last four books consecutively set records as the fastest - selling books in history, with the final instalment selling roughly eleven million copies in the United States within twenty - four hours of its release.
The series was originally published in English by two major publishers, Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom and Scholastic Press in the United States. A play, Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, based on a story co-written by Rowling, premiered in London on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre, and its script was published by Little, Brown. The original seven books were adapted into an eight - part film series by Warner Bros. Pictures, which has become the second highest - grossing film series of all time as of August 2015. In 2016, the total value of the Harry Potter franchise was estimated at $25 billion, making Harry Potter one of the highest - grossing media franchises of all time.
A series of many genres, including fantasy, drama, coming of age, and the British school story (which includes elements of mystery, thriller, adventure, horror and romance), the world of Harry Potter explores numerous themes and includes many cultural meanings and references. According to Rowling, the main theme is death. Other major themes in the series include prejudice, corruption, and madness.
The success of the books and films has ensured that the Harry Potter franchise continues to expand, with numerous derivative works, a travelling exhibition that premiered in Chicago in 2009, a studio tour in London that opened in 2012, a digital platform on which J.K. Rowling updates the series with new information and insight, and a pentalogy of spin - off films premiering in November 2016 with Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, among many other developments. Most recently, themed attractions, collectively known as The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, have been built at several Universal Parks & Resorts amusement parks around the world.
The central character in the series is Harry Potter, an English boy who lives with his aunt, uncle, and cousin - the Dursleys - who discovers, at the age of eleven, that he is a wizard, though he lives in the ordinary world of non-magical people known as Muggles. The wizarding world exists parallel to the Muggle world, albeit hidden and in secrecy. His magical ability is inborn and children with such abilities are invited to attend exclusive magic schools that teach the necessary skills to succeed in the wizarding world. Harry becomes a student at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a wizarding academy in Scotland and it is here where most of the events in the series take place. As Harry develops through his adolescence, he learns to overcome the problems that face him: magical, social and emotional, including ordinary teenage challenges such as friendships, infatuation, romantic relationships, schoolwork and exams, anxiety, depression, stress, and the greater test of preparing himself for the confrontation that lies ahead in wizarding Britain 's increasingly - violent second wizarding war.
Each novel chronicles one year in Harry 's life during the period from 1991 to 1998. The books also contain many flashbacks, which are frequently experienced by Harry viewing the memories of other characters in a device called a Pensieve.
The environment Rowling created is intimately connected to reality. The British magical community of the Harry Potter books is inspired by 1990s British culture, European folklore, classical mythology and alchemy, incorporating objects and wildlife such as magic wands, magic plants, potions, spells, flying broomsticks, centaurs, and other magical creatures, the Deathly Hallows, and the Philosopher 's Stone, beside others invented by Rowling. While the fantasy land of Narnia is an alternate universe and the Lord of the Rings ' Middle - earth a mythic past, the wizarding world of Harry Potter exists in parallel within the real world and contains magical versions of the ordinary elements of everyday life, with the action mostly set in Scotland (Hogwarts), the West Country, Devon, London and Surrey in southeast England. The world only accessible to wizards and magical beings comprises a fragmented collection of overlooked hidden streets, ancient pubs, lonely country manors and secluded castles invisible to the Muggle population.
When the first novel of the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (published in America and other countries as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone) opens, it is apparent that some significant event has taken place in the Wizarding World -- an event so very remarkable, even Muggles (non-magical people) notice signs of it. The full background to this event and Harry Potter 's past is revealed gradually through the series. After the introductory chapter, the book leaps forward to a time shortly before Harry Potter 's eleventh birthday, and it is at this point that his magical background begins to be revealed.
Despite Harry 's aunt and uncle 's desperate prevention of Harry gleaning about his powers, their efforts are in vain. Harry meets a half - giant, Rubeus Hagrid, who is also his first contact with the Wizarding World. Hagrid reveals himself to be the Keeper of Keys and Grounds at Hogwarts as well as some of Harry 's history. Harry learns that, as a baby, he witnessed his parents ' murder by the power - obsessed dark wizard Lord Voldemort, who subsequently attempted to kill him as well. Instead, the unexpected happened: Harry survived with only a lightning - shaped scar on his forehead as a memento of the attack and Voldemort disappeared soon afterwards, gravely weakened by his own rebounding curse. As its inadvertent saviour from Voldemort 's reign of terror, Harry has become a living legend in the Wizarding World. However, at the orders of the venerable and well - known wizard Albus Dumbledore, the orphaned Harry had been placed in the home of his unpleasant Muggle relatives, the Dursleys, who have kept him safe but treated him poorly, including confining him to a cupboard without meals and torturing him like he is their servant. Hagrid then officially invites Harry to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a famous magic school in Scotland that educates young teenagers on their magical development for seven years, from age eleven to seventeen.
With Hagrid 's help, Harry prepares for and undertakes his first year of study at Hogwarts. As Harry begins to explore the magical world, the reader is introduced to many of the primary locations used throughout the series. Harry meets most of the main characters and gains his two closest friends: Ron Weasley, a fun - loving member of an ancient, large, happy, but poor wizarding family, and Hermione Granger, a gifted, bright, and hardworking witch of non-magical parentage. Harry also encounters the school 's potions master, Severus Snape, who displays a conspicuously deep and abiding dislike for him, the rich brat Draco Malfoy whom he quickly makes enemies with, and the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Quirinus Quirrell, who later turns out to be allied with Lord Voldemort. He also discovers a talent of flying on broomsticks and is recruited for his house 's Quidditch team, a sport in the wizarding world where players fly on broomsticks. The first book concludes with Harry 's second confrontation with Lord Voldemort, who, in his quest to regain a body, yearns to gain the power of the Philosopher 's Stone, a substance that bestows everlasting life and turns any metal into pure gold.
The series continues with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, describing Harry 's second year at Hogwarts. He and his friends investigate a 50 - year - old mystery that appears uncannily related to recent sinister events at the school. Ron 's younger sister, Ginny Weasley, enrolls in her first year at Hogwarts, and finds an old notebook in her belongings which turns out to be an alumnus 's diary, Tom Marvolo Riddle, later revealed to be Voldemort 's younger self, who is bent on ridding the school of "mudbloods '', a derogatory term describing wizards and witches of non-magical parentage. The memory of Tom Riddle resides inside of the diary and when Ginny begins to confide in the diary, Voldemort is able to possess her. Through the diary, Ginny acts on Voldemort 's orders and unconsciously opens the "Chamber of Secrets '', unleashing an ancient monster, later revealed to be a basilisk, which begins attacking students at Hogwarts. It kills those who make direct eye contact with it and petrifies those who look at it indirectly. The book also introduces a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Gilderoy Lockhart, a highly cheerful, self - conceited wizard with a pretentious facade, later turning out to be a fraud. Harry discovers that prejudice exists in the Wizarding World through delving into the school 's history, and learns that Voldemort 's reign of terror was often directed at wizards and witches who were descended from Muggles. Harry also learns about the innate ability of his to speak the snake language Parseltongue is rare and often associated with the Dark Arts. When Hermione is attacked and petrified, Harry and Ron finally piece together the puzzles and unlock the Chamber of Secrets, with Harry destroying the diary for good and saving Ginny, and also destroying a part of Voldemort 's soul. The end of the book reveals Lucius Malfoy, Draco 's father and rival of Ron and Ginny 's father, to be the culprit who slipped the book into Ginny 's belongings and introduced the diary into Hogwarts.
The third novel, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, follows Harry in his third year of magical education. It is the only book in the series which does not feature Lord Voldemort in any form. Instead, Harry must deal with the knowledge that he has been targeted by Sirius Black, his father 's best friend, and, according to the Wizarding World, an escaped mass murderer who assisted in the murder of Harry 's parents. As Harry struggles with his reaction to the dementors -- dark creatures with the power to devour a human soul and feed on despair -- which are ostensibly protecting the school, he reaches out to Remus Lupin, a Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher who is eventually revealed to be a werewolf. Lupin teaches Harry defensive measures which are well above the level of magic generally executed by people his age. Harry comes to know that both Lupin and Black were best friends of his father and that Black was framed by their fourth friend, Peter Pettigrew, who had been hiding as Ron 's pet rat, Scabbers. In this book, a recurring theme throughout the series is emphasised -- in every book there is a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, none of whom lasts more than one school year.
During Harry 's fourth year of school (detailed in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire), Harry is unwillingly entered as a participant in the Triwizard Tournament, a dangerous yet exciting contest where three "champions '', one from each participating school, must compete with each other in three tasks in order to win the Triwizard Cup. This year, Harry must compete against a witch and a wizard "champion '' from overseas visiting schools Beauxbatons and Durmstrang, as well as another Hogwarts student, causing Harry 's friends to distance themselves from him. Harry is guided through the tournament by their new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Alastor "Mad - Eye '' Moody, who turns out to be an impostor -- one of Voldemort 's supporters named Barty Crouch, Jr. in disguise. The point at which the mystery is unravelled marks the series ' shift from foreboding and uncertainty into open conflict. Voldemort 's plan to have Crouch use the tournament to bring Harry to Voldemort succeeds. Although Harry manages to escape, Cedric Diggory, the other Hogwarts champion in the tournament, is killed by Peter Pettigrew and Voldemort re-enters the Wizarding World with a physical body.
In the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry must confront the newly resurfaced Voldemort. In response to Voldemort 's reappearance, Dumbledore re-activates the Order of the Phoenix, a secret society which works from Sirius Black 's dark family home to defeat Voldemort 's minions and protect Voldemort 's targets, especially Harry. Despite Harry 's description of Voldemort 's recent activities, the Ministry of Magic and many others in the magical world refuse to believe that Voldemort has returned. In an attempt to counter and eventually discredit Dumbledore, who along with Harry is the most prominent voice in the Wizarding World attempting to warn of Voldemort 's return, the Ministry appoints Dolores Umbridge as the High Inquisitor of Hogwarts and the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. She transforms the school into a dictatorial regime and refuses to allow the students to learn ways to defend themselves against dark magic.
With Ron and Hermione 's suggestion, Harry forms "Dumbledore 's Army '', a secret study group aimed to teach his classmates the higher - level skills of Defence Against the Dark Arts that he has learned from his previous encounters with Dark wizards. Through those lessons, Harry begins to develop a crush on the popular and attractive Cho Chang. Juggling schoolwork, Umbridge 's incessant and persistent efforts to land him in trouble and the defensive lessons, Harry begins to lose sleep as he constantly receives disturbing dreams about a dark corridor in the Ministry of Magic, followed by a burning desire. An important prophecy concerning Harry and Lord Voldemort is then revealed, and Harry discovers that he and Voldemort have a painful connection, allowing Harry to view some of Voldemort 's actions telepathically. In the novel 's climax, Harry is tricked into seeing Sirius tortured and races to the Ministry of Magic. He and his friends face off against Voldemort 's followers nicknamed Death Eaters at the Ministry of Magic. Although the timely arrival of members of the Order of the Phoenix saves the teenagers ' lives, Sirius Black is killed in the conflict.
In the sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Voldemort begins waging open warfare. Harry and his friends are relatively protected from that danger at Hogwarts. They are subject to all the difficulties of adolescence -- Harry eventually begins dating Ginny, Ron establishes a strong infatuation with fellow Hogwarts student Lavender Brown, and Hermione starts to develop romantic feelings towards Ron. Near the beginning of the novel, lacking his own book, Harry is given an old potions textbook filled with many annotations and recommendations signed by a mysterious writer titled; "the Half - Blood Prince. '' This book is a source of scholastic success and great recognition from their new potions master, Horace Slughorn, but because of the potency of the spells that are written in it, becomes a source of concern. With war drawing near, Harry takes private lessons with Dumbledore, who shows him various memories concerning the early life of Voldemort in a device called a Pensieve. These reveal that in order to preserve his life, Voldemort has split his soul into pieces, creating a series of Horcruxes -- evil enchanted items hidden in various locations, one of which was the diary destroyed in the second book. On their way to collect a Horcrux, Draco, who has joined with the Death Eaters, attempts to attack Dumbledore, and the book culminates in the killing of Dumbledore by Professor Snape, the titular Half - Blood Prince.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the last original novel in the series, begins directly after the events of the sixth book. Lord Voldemort has completed his ascension to power and gained control of the Ministry of Magic. Harry, Ron and Hermione drop out of school so that they can find and destroy Voldemort 's remaining Horcruxes. To ensure their own safety as well as that of their family and friends, they are forced to isolate themselves. A ghoul pretends to be Ron ill with a contagious disease, Harry and the Dursleys separate, and Hermione wipes her parents ' memories. As they search for the Horcruxes, the trio learns details about an ancient prophecy about the Deathly Hallows, three legendary items that when united under one Keeper, would supposedly grant that person to be the Master of Death. Harry discovers his handy Invisibility Cloak to be one of those items, and Voldemort to be searching for another: the Elder Wand, the most powerful wand in history. At the end of the book, Harry and his friends learn about Dumbledore 's past, as well as Snape 's true motives -- he had worked on Dumbledore 's behalf since the murder of Harry 's mother. Eventually, Snape is killed by Voldemort out of paranoia.
The book culminates in the Battle of Hogwarts. Harry, Ron and Hermione, in conjunction with members of the Order of the Phoenix and many of the teachers and students, defend Hogwarts from Voldemort, his Death Eaters, and various dangerous magical creatures. Several major characters are killed in the first wave of the battle, including Remus Lupin and Fred Weasley, Ron 's older brother. After learning that he himself is a Horcrux, Harry surrenders himself to Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest, who casts a killing curse (Avada Kedavra) at him. The defenders of Hogwarts do not surrender after learning of Harry 's presumed death and continue to fight on. Harry awakens and faces Voldemort, whose Horcruxes have all been destroyed. In the final battle, Voldemort 's killing curse rebounds off Harry 's defensive spell (Expelliarmus) killing Voldemort.
An epilogue "Nineteen Years Later '' (set on 1 September 2017) describes the lives of the surviving characters and the effects of Voldemort 's death on the Wizarding World. In the epilogue, Harry and Ginny are married with three children, and Ron and Hermione are married with two children.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a two - part West End stage play. It was written by Jack Thorne and based on a story by author J.K. Rowling, Thorne and director John Tiffany. The play opened on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre, London, England. The script was released on 31 July 2016. The story is set nineteen years after the ending of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter, now a Ministry of Magic employee, and his youngest son Albus Severus Potter. The play 's official synopsis was released on 23 October 2015:
It was always difficult being Harry Potter and it is n't much easier now that he is an overworked employee of the Ministry of Magic, a husband, and father of three school - age children.
While Harry grapples with a past that refuses to stay where it belongs, his youngest son Albus must struggle with the weight of a family legacy he never wanted. As past and present fuse ominously, both father and son learn the uncomfortable truth: sometimes, darkness comes from unexpected places.
Rowling has expanded the Harry Potter universe with several short books produced for various charities. In 2001, she released Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (a purported Hogwarts textbook) and Quidditch Through the Ages (a book Harry reads for fun). Proceeds from the sale of these two books benefited the charity Comic Relief. In 2007, Rowling composed seven handwritten copies of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, a collection of fairy tales that is featured in the final novel, one of which was auctioned to raise money for the Children 's High Level Group, a fund for mentally disabled children in poor countries. The book was published internationally on 4 December 2008. Rowling also wrote an 800 - word prequel in 2008 as part of a fundraiser organised by the bookseller Waterstones. All three of these books contain extra information about the wizarding world not included in the original novels.
In 2016, she released three new e-books: Hogwarts: An Incomplete and Unreliable Guide, Short Stories from Hogwarts of Power, Politics and Pesky Poltergeists and Short Stories from Hogwarts of Heroism, Hardship and Dangerous Hobbies.
In 2011, Rowling launched a new website announcing an upcoming project called Pottermore. Pottermore opened to the general public on 14 April 2012. Pottermore allows users to be sorted, be chosen by their wand and play various minigames. The main purpose of the website was to allow the user to journey though the story with access to content not revealed by JK Rowling previously, with over 18,000 words of additional content.
In September 2015, the website was completely overhauled and most of the features were removed. The site has been redesigned and it mainly focuses on the information already available, rather than exploration.
The Harry Potter novels are mainly directed at a young adult audience as opposed to an audience of middle grade readers, children, or adults. The novels fall within the genre of fantasy literature, and qualify as a type of fantasy called "urban fantasy '', "contemporary fantasy '', or "low fantasy ''. They are mainly dramas, and maintain a fairly serious and dark tone throughout, though they do contain some notable instances of tragicomedy and black humour. In many respects, they are also examples of the bildungsroman, or coming of age novel, and contain elements of mystery, adventure, horror, thriller, and romance. The books are also, in the words of Stephen King, "shrewd mystery tales '', and each book is constructed in the manner of a Sherlock Holmes - style mystery adventure. The stories are told from a third person limited point of view with very few exceptions (such as the opening chapters of Philosopher 's Stone, Goblet of Fire and Deathly Hallows and the first two chapters of Half - Blood Prince).
The series can be considered part of the British children 's boarding school genre, which includes Rudyard Kipling 's Stalky & Co., Enid Blyton 's Malory Towers, St. Clare 's and the Naughtiest Girl series, and Frank Richards 's Billy Bunter novels: the Harry Potter books are predominantly set in Hogwarts, a fictional British boarding school for wizards, where the curriculum includes the use of magic. In this sense they are "in a direct line of descent from Thomas Hughes 's Tom Brown 's School Days and other Victorian and Edwardian novels of British public school life '', though they are, as many note, more contemporary, grittier, darker, and more mature than the typical boarding school novel, addressing serious themes of death, love, loss, prejudice, coming - of - age, and the loss of innocence in a 1990s British setting.
Each of the seven books is set over the course of one school year. Harry struggles with the problems he encounters, and dealing with them often involves the need to violate some school rules. If students are caught breaking rules, they are often disciplined by Hogwarts professors. The stories reach their climax in the summer term, near or just after final exams, when events escalate far beyond in - school squabbles and struggles, and Harry must confront either Voldemort or one of his followers, the Death Eaters, with the stakes a matter of life and death -- a point underlined, as the series progresses, by characters being killed in each of the final four books. In the aftermath, he learns important lessons through exposition and discussions with head teacher and mentor Albus Dumbledore. The only exception to this school - centred setting is the final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, in which Harry and his friends spend most of their time away from Hogwarts, and only return there to face Voldemort at the dénouement.
According to Rowling, a major theme in the series is death: "My books are largely about death. They open with the death of Harry 's parents. There is Voldemort 's obsession with conquering death and his quest for immortality at any price, the goal of anyone with magic. I so understand why Voldemort wants to conquer death. We 're all frightened of it. ''
Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books, some more complex than others, and some including political subtexts. Themes such as normality, oppression, survival, and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series. Similarly, the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and "going over one 's most harrowing ordeals -- and thus coming to terms with them '' has also been considered. Rowling has stated that the books comprise "a prolonged argument for tolerance, a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry '' and that they also pass on a message to "question authority and... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth ''.
While the books could be said to comprise many other themes, such as power / abuse of power, violence and hatred, love, loss, prejudice, and free choice, they are, as Rowling states, "deeply entrenched in the whole plot ''; the writer prefers to let themes "grow organically '', rather than sitting down and consciously attempting to impart such ideas to her readers. Along the same lines is the ever - present theme of adolescence, in whose depiction Rowling has been purposeful in acknowledging her characters ' sexualities and not leaving Harry, as she put it, "stuck in a state of permanent pre-pubescence ''. Rowling has also been praised for her nuanced depiction of the ways in which death and violence affects youth, and humanity as a whole.
Rowling said that, to her, the moral significance of the tales seems "blindingly obvious ''. The key for her was the choice between what is right and what is easy, "because that... is how tyranny is started, with people being apathetic and taking the easy route and suddenly finding themselves in deep trouble. ''
In 1990, Rowling was on a crowded train from Manchester to London when the idea for Harry suddenly "fell into her head ''. Rowling gives an account of the experience on her website saying:
"I had been writing almost continuously since the age of six but I had never been so excited about an idea before. I simply sat and thought, for four (delayed train) hours, and all the details bubbled up in my brain, and this scrawny, black - haired, bespectacled boy who did not know he was a wizard became more and more real to me. ''
Rowling completed Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone in 1995 and the manuscript was sent off to several prospective agents. The second agent she tried, Christopher Little, offered to represent her and sent the manuscript to Bloomsbury.
After eight other publishers had rejected Philosopher 's Stone, Bloomsbury offered Rowling a £ 2,500 advance for its publication. Despite Rowling 's statement that she did not have any particular age group in mind when beginning to write the Harry Potter books, the publishers initially targeted children aged nine to eleven. On the eve of publishing, Rowling was asked by her publishers to adopt a more gender - neutral pen name in order to appeal to the male members of this age group, fearing that they would not be interested in reading a novel they knew to be written by a woman. She elected to use J.K. Rowling (Joanne Kathleen Rowling), using her grandmother 's name as her second name because she has no middle name.
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury, the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom, on 26 June 1997. It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic -- the American publisher of the books -- as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone, after Rowling had received US $105,000 for the American rights -- a record amount for a children 's book by an unknown author. Fearing that American readers would not associate the word "philosopher '' with magic (although the Philosopher 's Stone is alchemy - related), Scholastic insisted that the book be given the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone for the American market.
The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005, and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release. The seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was published on 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of release, breaking down to 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.
The series has been translated into 67 languages, placing Rowling among the most translated authors in history. The books have seen translations to diverse languages such as Korean, Armenian, Ukrainian, Arabic, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Bulgarian, Welsh, Afrikaans, Albanian, Latvian and Vietnamese. The first volume has been translated into Latin and even Ancient Greek, making it the longest published work in Ancient Greek since the novels of Heliodorus of Emesa in the 3rd century AD. The second volume has also been translated into Latin.
Some of the translators hired to work on the books were well - known authors before their work on Harry Potter, such as Viktor Golyshev, who oversaw the Russian translation of the series ' fifth book. The Turkish translation of books two to seven was undertaken by Sevin Okyay, a popular literary critic and cultural commentator. For reasons of secrecy, translation on a given book could only start after it had been released in English, leading to a lag of several months before the translations were available. This led to more and more copies of the English editions being sold to impatient fans in non-English speaking countries; for example, such was the clamour to read the fifth book that its English language edition became the first English - language book ever to top the best - seller list in France.
The United States editions were adapted into American English to make them more understandable to a young American audience.
In December 2005, Rowling stated on her web site, "2006 will be the year when I write the final book in the Harry Potter series. '' Updates then followed in her online diary chronicling the progress of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, with the release date of 21 July 2007. The book itself was finished on 11 January 2007 in the Balmoral Hotel, Edinburgh, where she scrawled a message on the back of a bust of Hermes. It read: "J.K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room (552) on 11 January 2007. ''
Rowling herself has stated that the last chapter of the final book (in fact, the epilogue) was completed "in something like 1990 ''. In June 2006, Rowling, on an appearance on the British talk show Richard & Judy, announced that the chapter had been modified as one character "got a reprieve '' and two others who previously survived the story had in fact been killed. On 28 March 2007, the cover art for the Bloomsbury Adult and Child versions and the Scholastic version were released.
In September 2012, Rowling mentioned in an interview that she might go back to make a "director 's cut '' of two of the existing Harry Potter books.
For cover art, Bloomsbury chose painted art in a classic style of design, with the first cover a watercolour and pencil drawing by illustrator Thomas Taylor showing Harry boarding the Hogwarts Express, and a title in the font Cochin Bold. The first releases of the successive books in the series followed in the same style but somewhat more realistic, illustrating scenes from the books. These covers were created by first Cliff Wright and then Jason Cockroft.
Due to the appeal of the books among an adult audience, Bloomsbury commissioned a second line of editions in an ' adult ' style. These initially used black - and - white photographic art for the covers showing objects from the books (including a very American Hogwarts Express) without depicting people, but later shifted to partial colourisation with a picture of Slytherin 's locket on the cover of the final book.
International and later editions have been created by a range of designers, including Mary GrandPré for U.S. audiences and Mika Launis in Finland. For a later American release, Kazu Kibuishi created covers in a somewhat anime - influenced style.
Fans of the series were so eager for the latest instalment that bookstores around the world began holding events to coincide with the midnight release of the books, beginning with the 2000 publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The events, commonly featuring mock sorting, games, face painting, and other live entertainment have achieved popularity with Potter fans and have been highly successful in attracting fans and selling books with nearly nine million of the 10.8 million initial print copies of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince sold in the first 24 hours.
The final book in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows became the fastest selling book in history, moving 11 million units in the first twenty - four hours of release. The series has also gathered adult fans, leading to the release of two editions of each Harry Potter book, identical in text but with one edition 's cover artwork aimed at children and the other aimed at adults. Besides meeting online through blogs, podcasts, and fansites, Harry Potter super-fans can also meet at Harry Potter symposia.
The word Muggle has spread beyond its Harry Potter origins, becoming one of few pop culture words to land in the Oxford English Dictionary. The Harry Potter fandom has embraced podcasts as a regular, often weekly, insight to the latest discussion in the fandom. Both MuggleCast and PotterCast have reached the top spot of iTunes podcast rankings and have been polled one of the top 50 favourite podcasts.
Some lessons identified in the series include diversity, acceptance, political tolerance, and equality. Surveys of over 1,000 college students in the United States show that those who read the books were significantly different than those who had not. Readers of the series were found to be more tolerant, more opposed to violence and torture, less authoritarian, and less cynical. Although it is not known if this is a cause - and - effect relationship, there is a clear correlation, and it seems that Harry Potter 's cultural impact may be stronger than just a fandom bond.
At the University of Michigan in 2009, StarKid Productions performed an original musical parodying the Harry Potter series called A Very Potter Musical. The musical was awarded Entertainment Weekly 's 10 Best Viral Videos of 2009.
Characters and elements from the series have inspired scientific names of several organisms, including the dinosaur Dracorex hogwartsia, the spider Eriovixia gryffindori, the wasp Ampulex dementor, and the crab Harryplax severus.
The popularity of the Harry Potter series has translated into substantial financial success for Rowling, her publishers, and other Harry Potter related license holders. This success has made Rowling the first and thus far only billionaire author. The books have sold more than 400 million copies worldwide and have also given rise to the popular film adaptations produced by Warner Bros., all of which have been highly successful in their own right. The films have in turn spawned eight video games and have led to the licensing of more than 400 additional Harry Potter products. The Harry Potter brand has been estimated to be worth as much as $25 billion.
The great demand for Harry Potter books motivated the New York Times to create a separate best - seller list for children 's literature in 2000, just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. By 24 June 2000, Rowling 's novels had been on the list for 79 straight weeks; the first three novels were each on the hardcover best - seller list. On 12 April 2007, Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre-order record, with more than 500,000 copies pre-ordered through its site. For the release of Goblet of Fire, 9,000 FedEx trucks were used with no other purpose than to deliver the book. Together, Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble pre-sold more than 700,000 copies of the book. In the United States, the book 's initial printing run was 3.8 million copies. This record statistic was broken by Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, with 8.5 million, which was then shattered by Half - Blood Prince with 10.8 million copies. 6.9 million copies of Prince were sold in the U.S. within the first 24 hours of its release; in the United Kingdom more than two million copies were sold on the first day. The initial U.S. print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies, and more than a million were pre-ordered through Amazon and Barnes & Noble.
The Harry Potter series has been recognised by a host of awards since the initial publication of Philosopher 's Stone including four Whitaker Platinum Book Awards (all of which were awarded in 2001), three Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes (1997 -- 1999), two Scottish Arts Council Book Awards (1999 and 2001), the inaugural Whitbread children 's book of the year award (1999), the WHSmith book of the year (2006), among others. In 2000, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel, and in 2001, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire won said award. Honours include a commendation for the Carnegie Medal (1997), a short listing for the Guardian Children 's Award (1998), and numerous listings on the notable books, editors ' Choices, and best books lists of the American Library Association, The New York Times, Chicago Public Library, and Publishers Weekly.
In 2002, British sociologist Andrew Blake named Harry Potter among the icons of British popular culture along with the likes of James Bond and Sherlock Holmes. In 2003, four of the books were named in the top 24 of the BBC 's The Big Read survey of the best loved novels in the UK. A 2004 study found that books in the series were commonly read aloud in elementary schools in San Diego County, California. Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association listed the series in its "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children ''. Three of the books placed among the "Top 100 Chapter Books '' of all time, or children 's novels, in a 2012 survey published by School Library Journal: Sorcerer 's Stone ranked number three, Prisoner of Azkaban 12th, and Goblet of Fire 98th. In 2012, the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London featured a 100 - foot tall rendition of Lord Voldemort in a segment designed to show off the UK 's cultural icons.
Early in its history, Harry Potter received positive reviews. On publication, the first book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, attracted attention from the Scottish newspapers, such as The Scotsman, which said it had "all the makings of a classic '', and The Glasgow Herald, which called it "Magic stuff ''. Soon the English newspapers joined in, with more than one comparing it to Roald Dahl 's work: The Mail on Sunday rated it as "the most imaginative debut since Roald Dahl '', a view echoed by The Sunday Times ("comparisons to Dahl are, this time, justified ''), while The Guardian called it "a richly textured novel given lift - off by an inventive wit ''.
By the time of the release of the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the books began to receive strong criticism from a number of literary scholars. Yale professor, literary scholar, and critic Harold Bloom raised criticisms of the books ' literary merits, saying, "Rowling 's mind is so governed by clichés and dead metaphors that she has no other style of writing. '' A.S. Byatt authored a New York Times op - ed article calling Rowling 's universe a "secondary secondary world, made up of intelligently patchworked derivative motifs from all sorts of children 's literature... written for people whose imaginative lives are confined to TV cartoons, and the exaggerated (more exciting, not threatening) mirror - worlds of soaps, reality TV and celebrity gossip ''.
Michael Rosen, a novelist and poet, advocated the books were not suited for children, who would be unable to grasp the complex themes. Rosen also stated that "J.K. Rowling is more of an adult writer. '' The critic Anthony Holden wrote in The Observer on his experience of judging Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban for the 1999 Whitbread Awards. His overall view of the series was negative -- "the Potter saga was essentially patronising, conservative, highly derivative, dispiritingly nostalgic for a bygone Britain '', and he speaks of "a pedestrian, ungrammatical prose style ''. Ursula K. Le Guin said, "I have no great opinion of it. When so many adult critics were carrying on about the ' incredible originality ' of the first Harry Potter book, I read it to find out what the fuss was about, and remained somewhat puzzled; it seemed a lively kid 's fantasy crossed with a "school novel '', good fare for its age group, but stylistically ordinary, imaginatively derivative, and ethically rather mean - spirited. ''
By contrast, author Fay Weldon, while admitting that the series is "not what the poets hoped for '', nevertheless goes on to say, "but this is not poetry, it is readable, saleable, everyday, useful prose ''. The literary critic A.N. Wilson praised the Harry Potter series in The Times, stating: "There are not many writers who have JK 's Dickensian ability to make us turn the pages, to weep -- openly, with tears splashing -- and a few pages later to laugh, at invariably good jokes... We have lived through a decade in which we have followed the publication of the liveliest, funniest, scariest and most moving children 's stories ever written ''. Charles Taylor of Salon.com, who is primarily a movie critic, took issue with Byatt 's criticisms in particular. While he conceded that she may have "a valid cultural point -- a teeny one -- about the impulses that drive us to reassuring pop trash and away from the troubling complexities of art '', he rejected her claims that the series is lacking in serious literary merit and that it owes its success merely to the childhood reassurances it offers. Taylor stressed the progressively darker tone of the books, shown by the murder of a classmate and close friend and the psychological wounds and social isolation each causes. Taylor also argued that Philosopher 's Stone, said to be the most light - hearted of the seven published books, disrupts the childhood reassurances that Byatt claims spur the series ' success: the book opens with news of a double murder, for example.
Stephen King called the series "a feat of which only a superior imagination is capable '', and declared "Rowling 's punning, one - eyebrow - cocked sense of humor '' to be "remarkable ''. However, he wrote that despite the story being "a good one '', he is "a little tired of discovering Harry at home with his horrible aunt and uncle '', the formulaic beginning of all seven books. King has also joked that "Rowling 's never met an adverb she did not like! '' He does however predict that Harry Potter "will indeed stand time 's test and wind up on a shelf where only the best are kept; I think Harry will take his place with Alice, Huck, Frodo, and Dorothy and this is one series not just for the decade, but for the ages ''. Sameer Rahim of The Daily Telegraph disagreed, saying "It depresses me to see 16 and 17 year - olds reading the series when they could be reading the great novels of childhood such as Oliver Twist or A House for Mr Biswas. What that says about the adults who are fanatical fans I 'm not sure -- but I suspect in years to come people will make a link between our plump, comfortable, infantilising society and the popularity of Potter. ''
There is ongoing discussion regarding the extent to which the series was inspired by Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings books.
Although Time magazine named Rowling as a runner - up for its 2007 Person of the Year award, noting the social, moral, and political inspiration she has given her fandom, cultural comments on the series have been mixed. Washington Post book critic Ron Charles opined in July 2007 that the large numbers of adults reading the Potter series but few other books may represent a "bad case of cultural infantilism '', and that the straightforward "good vs. evil '' theme of the series is "childish ''. He also argued "through no fault of Rowling 's '', the cultural and marketing "hysteria '' marked by the publication of the later books "trains children and adults to expect the roar of the coliseum, a mass - media experience that no other novel can possibly provide ''.
Librarian Nancy Knapp pointed out the books ' potential to improve literacy by motivating children to read much more than they otherwise would. The seven - book series has a word count of 1,083,594 (US edition). Agreeing about the motivating effects, Diane Penrod also praised the books ' blending of simple entertainment with "the qualities of highbrow literary fiction '', but expressed concern about the distracting effect of the prolific merchandising that accompanies the book launches. However, the assumption that Harry Potter books have increased literacy among young people is "largely a folk legend. '' Research by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) has found no increase in reading among children coinciding with the Harry Potter publishing phenomenon, nor has the broader downward trend in reading among Americans been arrested during the rise in the popularity of the Harry Potter books. The research also found that children who read Harry Potter books were not more likely to go on to read outside the fantasy and mystery genres. NEA chairman Dana Gioia said the series, "got millions of kids to read a long and reasonably complex series of books. The trouble is that one Harry Potter novel every few years is not enough to reverse the decline in reading. ''
Jennifer Conn used Snape 's and Quidditch coach Madam Hooch 's teaching methods as examples of what to avoid and what to emulate in clinical teaching, and Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first - year sociology class: "sociological concepts including culture, society, and socialisation; stratification and social inequality; social institutions; and social theory ''.
Jenny Sawyer wrote in Christian Science Monitor on 25 July 2007 that the books represent a "disturbing trend in commercial storytelling and Western society '' in that stories "moral center (sic) have all but vanished from much of today 's pop culture... after 10 years, 4,195 pages, and over 375 million copies, J.K. Rowling 's towering achievement lacks the cornerstone of almost all great children 's literature: the hero 's moral journey ''. Harry Potter, Sawyer argues, neither faces a "moral struggle '' nor undergoes any ethical growth, and is thus "no guide in circumstances in which right and wrong are anything less than black and white ''. In contrast Emily Griesinger described Harry 's first passage through to Platform 93⁄4 as an application of faith and hope, and his encounter with the Sorting Hat as the first of many in which Harry is shaped by the choices he makes. She also noted the "deeper magic '' by which the self - sacrifice of Harry 's mother protects the boy throughout the series, and which the power - hungry Voldemort fails to understand.
In an 8 November 2002 Slate article, Chris Suellentrop likened Potter to a "trust - fund kid whose success at school is largely attributable to the gifts his friends and relatives lavish upon him ''. Noting that in Rowling 's fiction, magical ability potential is "something you are born to, not something you can achieve '', Suellentrop wrote that Dumbledore 's maxim that "It is our choices that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities '' is hypocritical, as "the school that Dumbledore runs values native gifts above all else ''. In a 12 August 2007 New York Times review of Deathly Hallows, however, Christopher Hitchens praised Rowling for "unmooring '' her "English school story '' from literary precedents "bound up with dreams of wealth and class and snobbery '', arguing that she had instead created "a world of youthful democracy and diversity ''.
In 2010, coinciding with the release of the film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1, a series of articles were written about Private Harry Potter of the British army. This real - life Harry Potter was killed in the Arab Revolt near Hebron in 1939. His grave, located in the British cemetery in Ramla, Israel, began to receive curious visitors leading the Ramla Municipality to list it on their website. The Daily Mail interviewed siblings of Harry Potter who stated, "We could n't believe people visit his grave, but apparently they come from miles around to have their photo taken next to it. ''
In 2016, an article written by Diana C. Mutz compares the politics of Harry Potter to the 2016 Donald Trump presidential campaign. She states that 3 themes throughout the books are widely predominant ' 1) the value of tolerance and respect for difference; 2) opposition to violence and punitiveness; and 3) the dangers of authoritarianism. ' She suggests that these themes are also present in the presidential election and it may play a significant role in how Americans have responded to the campaign.
The books have been the subject of a number of legal proceedings, stemming from various conflicts over copyright and trademark infringements. The popularity and high market value of the series has led Rowling, her publishers, and film distributor Warner Bros. to take legal measures to protect their copyright, which have included banning the sale of Harry Potter imitations, targeting the owners of websites over the "Harry Potter '' domain name, and suing author Nancy Stouffer to counter her accusations that Rowling had plagiarised her work. Various religious conservatives have claimed that the books promote witchcraft and religions such as Wicca and are therefore unsuitable for children, while a number of critics have criticised the books for promoting various political agendas.
The books also aroused controversies in the literary and publishing worlds. From 1997 to 1998, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone won almost all the UK awards judged by children, but none of the children 's book awards judged by adults, and Sandra Beckett suggested the reason was intellectual snobbery towards books that were popular among children. In 1999, the winner of the Whitbread Book of the Year award children 's division was entered for the first time on the shortlist for the main award, and one judge threatened to resign if Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was declared the overall winner; it finished second, very close behind the winner of the poetry prize, Seamus Heaney 's translation of the Anglo - Saxon epic Beowulf.
In 2000, shortly before the publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the previous three Harry Potter books topped the New York Times fiction best - seller list and a third of the entries were children 's books. The newspaper created a new children 's section covering children 's books, including both fiction and non-fiction, and initially counting only hardback sales. The move was supported by publishers and booksellers. In 2004, The New York Times further split the children 's list, which was still dominated by Harry Potter books into sections for series and individual books, and removed the Harry Potter books from the section for individual books. The split in 2000 attracted condemnation, praise and some comments that presented both benefits and disadvantages of the move. Time suggested that, on the same principle, Billboard should have created a separate "mop - tops '' list in 1964 when the Beatles held the top five places in its list, and Nielsen should have created a separate game - show list when Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? dominated the ratings.
In 1998, Rowling sold the film rights of the first four Harry Potter books to Warner Bros. for a reported £ 1 million ($1,982,900). Rowling demanded the principal cast be kept strictly British, nonetheless allowing for the inclusion of Irish actors such as the late Richard Harris as Dumbledore, and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such. After many directors including Steven Spielberg, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, and Alan Parker were considered, Chris Columbus was appointed on 28 March 2000 as the director for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (titled "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone '' in the United States), with Warner Bros. citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire and proven experience with directing children as influences for their decision.
After extensive casting, filming began in October 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and in London itself, with production ending in July 2001. Philosopher 's Stone was released on 14 November 2001. Just three days after the film 's release, production for Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, also directed by Columbus, began. Filming was completed in summer 2002, with the film being released on 15 November 2002. Daniel Radcliffe portrayed Harry Potter, doing so for all succeeding films in the franchise.
Columbus declined to direct Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, only acting as producer. Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón took over the job, and after shooting in 2003, the film was released on 4 June 2004. Due to the fourth film beginning its production before the third 's release, Mike Newell was chosen as the director for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, released on 18 November 2005. Newell became the first British director of the series, with television director David Yates following suit after he was chosen to helm Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Production began in January 2006 and the film was released the following year in July 2007. After executives were "really delighted '' with his work on the film, Yates was selected to direct Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, which was released on 15 July 2009.
In March 2008, Warner Bros. President and COO Alan F. Horn announced that the final instalment in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, would be released in two cinematic parts: Part 1 on 19 November 2010 and Part 2 on 15 July 2011. Production of both parts started in February 2009, with the final day of principal photography taking place on 12 June 2010.
Rowling had creative control on the film series, observing the filmmaking process of Philosopher 's Stone and serving as producer on the two - part Deathly Hallows, alongside David Heyman and David Barron. The Harry Potter films have been top - rank box office hits, with all eight releases on the list of highest - grossing films worldwide. Philosopher 's Stone was the highest - grossing Harry Potter film up until the release of the final instalment of the series, Deathly Hallows, while Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the least. As well as being a financial success, the film series has also been a success among film critics.
Opinions of the films are generally divided among fans, with one group preferring the more faithful approach of the first two films, and another group preferring the more stylised character - driven approach of the later films. Rowling has been constantly supportive of all the films and evaluated Deathly Hallows as her "favourite one '' in the series. She wrote on her website of the changes in the book - to - film transition, "It is simply impossible to incorporate every one of my storylines into a film that has to be kept under four hours long. Obviously films have restrictions novels do not have, constraints of time and budget; I can create dazzling effects relying on nothing but the interaction of my own and my readers ' imaginations ''.
At the 64th British Academy Film Awards in February 2011, Rowling was joined by producers David Heyman and David Barron along with directors David Yates, Alfonso Cuarón and Mike Newell in collecting the Michael Balcon Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema on behalf of all the films in the series. Actors Rupert Grint and Emma Watson, who play main characters Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, were also in attendance.
A new series consisting of five films, beginning with Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, will take place before the main series. The first film was released on 18 November 2016 and the next two are due to be released in 2018 and 2020. Rowling wrote the screenplay for the first instalment, marking her first foray into screenwriting.
A number of other non-interactive media games and board games have been released such as Cluedo Harry Potter Edition, Scene It? Harry Potter and Lego Harry Potter models, which are influenced by the themes of both the novels and films.
There are thirteen Harry Potter video games, eight corresponding with the films and books and five spin - offs. The film / book - based games are produced by Electronic Arts, as was Harry Potter: Quidditch World Cup, with the game version of the first entry in the series, Philosopher 's Stone, being released in November 2001. Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone went on to become one of the best - selling PlayStation games ever. The video games were released to coincide with the films, containing scenery and details from the films as well as the tone and spirit of the books. Objectives usually occur in and around Hogwarts, along with various other magical areas. The story and design of the games follow the selected film 's characterisation and plot; EA worked closely with Warner Bros. to include scenes from the films. The last game in the series, Deathly Hallows, was split, with Part 1 released in November 2010 and Part 2 debuting on consoles in July 2011. The two - part game forms the first entry to convey an intense theme of action and violence, with the gameplay revolving around a third - person shooter style format.
The spin - off games Lego Harry Potter: Years 1 -- 4 and Lego Harry Potter: Years 5 -- 7 were developed by Traveller 's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. The spin - off games Book of Spells and Book of Potions were developed by SCE London Studio and use the Wonderbook, an augmented reality book designed to be used in conjunction with the PlayStation Move and PlayStation Eye. The Harry Potter universe is also featured in Lego Dimensions, with the settings and side characters featured in the Harry Potter Adventure World, and Harry, Voldemort, and Hermione as playable characters.
All seven Harry Potter books have been released in unabridged audiobook versions, with Stephen Fry reading the UK editions and Jim Dale voicing the series for the American editions.
On 20 December 2013, J.K. Rowling announced that she was working on a Harry Potter -- based play for which she would be one of the producers. British theatre producers Sonia Friedman and Colin Callender will be the co-producers.
On 26 June 2015, on the anniversary of the debut of the first book, Rowling revealed via Twitter that the Harry Potter stage play would be called Harry Potter and The Cursed Child. The Production is expected to open in the summer of 2016 at London 's Palace Theatre, London. The first four months of tickets for the June -- September performances were sold out within several hours upon release. On 10 February 2016, it was announced via the Pottermore website, that the script would be released in book form, the day after the play 's world premiere, making this the 8th book in the series, with events set nineteen years after the closing chapter of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
After the success of the films and books, Universal and Warner Brothers announced they would create The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, a new Harry Potter - themed expansion to the Islands of Adventure theme park at Universal Orlando Resort in Florida. The land officially opened to the public on 18 June 2010. It includes a re-creation of Hogsmeade and several rides. The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey, which exists within a re-creation of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Other rides include Dragon Challenge, a pair of inverted roller coasters, and Flight of the Hippogriff, a family roller coaster.
Four years later, on 8 July 2014, Universal opened a Harry Potter - themed area at the Universal Studios Florida theme park. It includes a re-creation of Diagon Alley and connecting alleys and a small section of Muggle London. The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts roller coaster ride. Universal also added a completely functioning recreation of the Hogwarts Express connecting Kings Cross Station at Universal Studios Florida to the Hogsmeade station at Islands of Adventure. Both Hogsmeade and Diagon Alley contain many shops and restaurants from the book series, including Weasley 's Wizard Wheezes and The Leaky Cauldron.
On 15 July 2014, The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Japan theme park in Osaka, Japan. It includes the village of Hogsmeade, Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey ride, and Flight of the Hippogriff roller coaster.
On 7 April 2016, The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Hollywood theme park near Los Angeles, California.
In March 2011, Warner Bros. announced plans to build a tourist attraction in the United Kingdom to showcase the Harry Potter film series. Warner Bros. Studio Tour London is a behind - the - scenes walking tour featuring authentic sets, costumes and props from the film series. The attraction, Warner Bros. Studio Tour London - The Making of Harry Potter, is located at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, where all eight of the Harry Potter films were made. Warner Bros. constructed two new sound stages to house and showcase the famous sets from each of the British - made productions, following a £ 100 million investment. It opened to the public in March 2012.
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a report on the recent census conducted in india | 2011 Census of India - Wikipedia
The 15th Indian Census was conducted in two phases, house listing and population enumeration. House listing phase began on 1 April 2010 and involved collection of information about all the state buildings. bomb Information for National Population Register was also collected in the first phase, which will be used to issue a 12 - digit unique identification number to all registered Indian residents by Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI). The second population enumeration phase was conducted between 9 and 28 February 2011. Census has been conducted in India since 1872 and 2011 marks the first time biometric information was collected. According to the provisional reports released on 31 March 2011, the Indian population increased to 121 crore with a decadal growth of 17.64 %. Adult literacy rate increased to 74.04 % with a decadal growth of 9.21 %. The motto of census 2011 was ' Our Census, Our future '.
Spread across 28 states Template: Efnbr and 7 union territories, the census covered 640 districts, 5,924 sub-districts, 7,935 towns and more than 6 lakh villages. A total of 27 lakh officials visited households in 7,935 towns and 6 lakh villages, classifying the population according to gender, religion, education and occupation. The cost of the exercise was approximately ₹ 2,200 crore (US $340 million) -- this comes to less than $0.50 per person, well below the estimated world average of $4.60 per person. Conducted every 10 years, this census faced big challenges considering India 's vast area and diversity of cultures and opposition from the manpower involved.
Information on castes was included in the census following demands from several ruling coalition leaders including Lalu Prasad Yadav, Sharad Yadav and SP suprimo Mulayam Singh Yadav supported by opposition parties Bharatiya Janata Party, Akali Dal, Shiv Sena and Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. Information on caste was last collected during the British Raj in 1931. During the early census, people often exaggerated their caste status to garner social status and it is expected that people downgrade it now in the expectation of gaining government benefits. There was speculation that there would be a caste - based census conducted in 2011, the first time for 80 years (last was in 1931), to find the exact population of the "Other Backward Classes '' (OBCs) in India. This was later accepted and the Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011 was conducted whose first findings were revealed on 3 July 2015 by Union Finance Minister Arun Jaitley. Mandal Commission report of 1980 quoted OBC population at 52 %, though National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) survey of 2006 quoted OBC population at 41 %
There is only one instance of a caste - count in post-independence India. It was conducted in Kerala in 1968 by the Communist government under EMS Namboodiripad to assess the social and economic backwardness of various lower castes. The census was termed Socio - Economic Survey of 1968 and the results were published in the Gazetteer of Kerala, 1971.
C Chandramauli was the Register General and Census Commissioner of India for the 2011 Indian Census. Census data was collected in 16 languages and the training manual was prepared in 18 languages. In 2011, India and Bangladesh also conducted their first - ever joint census of areas along their border. The census was conducted in two phases. The first, the house - listing phase, began on 1 April 2010 and involved collection of data about all the buildings and census houses. Information for the National Population Register was also collected in the first phase. The second, the population enumeration phase, was conducted from 9 -- 28 February 2011 all over the country. The eradication of epidemics, the availability of more effective medicines for the treatment of various types of diseases and the improvement in the standard of living were the main reasons for the high decadal growth of population in India.
The House - listing schedule contained 35 questions.
The Population enumeration schedule contained 30 questions.
The National Population Register household schedule contained 9 questions.
Once the information was collected and digitised, fingerprints were taken and photos collected. Unique Identification Authority of India was to issue a 12 - digit identification number to all individuals and the first ID was to have been issued in 2011.
Provisional data from the census was released on 31 March 2011 (and was updated on 20 May 2013). Transgender population was counted in population census in India for first time in 2011. The official count of the third gender in India is 4.9 lakh
The population of India as per 2011 census was 1,210,193,422. India added 181.5 million to its population since 2001, slightly lower than the population of Brazil. India, with 2.4 % of the world 's surface area, accounts for 17.5 % of its population. Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state with roughly 200 million people. Over half the population resided in the six most populous states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Of the 121 crore Indians, 83.3 crore (68.84 %) live in rural areas while 37.7 crore stay in urban areas. 45.36 crore people in India are migrants, which is 37.8 % of total population.
India is the homeland of major belief systems such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism, while also being home to several indigenous faiths and tribal religions which have survived the influence of major religions for centuries.
Ever since its inception, the Census of India has been collecting and publishing information about the religious affiliations as expressed by the people of India. In fact, population census has the rare distinction of being the only instrument that collects this diverse and important characteristic of the Indian population.
The religious data on India Census 2011 was released by the Government of India on 25 August 2015. Hindus are 79.8 % (966.3 million), while Muslims are 14.23 % (172.2 million) in India. and Christians are 2.30 % (28.7 million). According to the 2011 Census of India, there are 57,264 Parsis in India. For the first time, a "No religion '' category was added in the 2011 census. 2.87 million were classified as people belonging to "No Religion '' in India in the 2011 census. - 0.24 % of India 's population of 1.21 billion. Given below is the decade - by - decade religious composition of India till the 2011 census. There are six religions in India that have been awarded "National Minority '' status - Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists and Parsis. Sunnis, Shias, Bohras, Agakhanis and Ahmadiyyas were identified as sects of Islam in India. As per 2011 census, six major faiths - Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains make up over 99.4 % of India 's 121 crore population, while "other religions, persuasions '' (ORP) count is 82. Among the ORP faiths, six faiths - 49.57 lakh - strong Sarna, 10.26 lakh - strong Gond, 5.06 lakh - strong Sari, Doni Polo (3.02 lakh) in Arunachal Pradesh, Sanamahi (2.22 lakh) in Manipur, Khasi (1.38 lakh) in Meghalaya dominate. Maharashtra is having the highest number of atheists in the country with 9,652 such people, followed by Meghalaya (9,089) and Kerala.
Any one above age 7 who can read and write in any language with an ability to understand was considered a literate. In censuses before 1991, children below the age 5 were treated as illiterates. The literacy rate taking the entire population into account is termed as "crude literacy rate '', and taking the population from age 7 and above into account is termed as "effective literacy rate ''. Effective literacy rate increased to a total of 74.04 % with 82.14 % of the males and 65.46 % of the females being literate.
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who was the chief minister of mp during bhopal gas tragedy | Arjun Singh - wikipedia
Arjun Singh (5 November 1930 -- 4 March 2011) was an Indian politician from the Indian National Congress party. He was the Union Minister of Human Resource Development in the Manmohan Singh cabinet from 2004 to 2009. He died on 4 March 2011 due to a heart attack.
Arjun Singh was born in a Rajput family.
Singh died on 4 March 2011, at the age of 80. He had been admitted in Delhi 's All India Institute of Medical Sciences a few days previously with chest neurological problems and died of a heart attack. He was cremated at his home town of Churhat, Madhya Pradesh.
He was a minister in the P.V. Narasimha Rao cabinet but he resigned after the Babri Masjid demolition. At the time, he formed the All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) along with Narayan Dutt Tiwari, former Union minister and ex-CM of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand (formerly Uttaranchal) as President, but he lost in the 1996 Loksabha elections from Satna in Madhya Pradesh and the Congress too lost power at the center.
Later he returned to Congress and lost again from Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh. He served as Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh three times, Union minister and Governor of Punjab once for a short period. As Governor of Punjab, he worked for the Rajiv - Longowal Accord for peace in Punjab. He was awarded the Outstanding Parliamentarian Award in 2000.
Arjun Singh was the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh when the deadly gas leak from the Union Carbide factory occurred. It is widely alleged that on the fateful night between 2 and 3 December 1984, when the gas leak occurred, Arjun Singh fled to his Kerwa Dam Palace (outside Bhopal) to save himself from deadly effects of leaked gas and was not available to manage the crisis or lead the administration.
Subsequently, the Arjun Singh government 's mishandling was criticized by the court in the verdict on Bhopal incident pronounced by the Chief Judicial Magistrate, Bhopal on 7 June 2010. The media raised serious questions about his role in the release of Warren Anderson.
In particular, the pilot of the aircraft in which Warren Anderson flew out of India after the gas leak, has recorded that the final sanction to permit the flight came from Arjun Singh 's office.
While Arjun Singh was the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, he was involved in the scandal which was called by some the Churhat Lottery case. The Churhat Children Welfare Society was floated in 1982 by relatives of Singh, and permitted to raise funds via lottery, and also given tax relief as a charity. However, there were widespread allegations that a substantial sums were siphoned off and used to construct the lavish Kerwa Dam palace near Bhopal. The donations to the society included a Rs 150,000 donation from Union Carbide, whose chief Warren Anderson was permitted to leave the country after the gas leak, allegedly by Arjun Singh 's office.
At a public litigation hearing the high court observed that "Arjun Singh owed an explanation to the nation about the costs and sources of construction of the palatial mansion in Bhopal ''. While Singh had claimed the value of the palace was Rs 1.8 million, the IT Department estimated the cost at above Rs one crore. However, a one - judge commission investigating the scandal gave a clean chit to Arjun Singh. The case was re-opened however, after the Jain Hawala case, and Singh was asked to submit fresh re-estimates of the palace cost. In court, the case was argued by Kapil Sibal and the order for re-examination was squashed on the grounds that it had been issued in a haste and "had not applied his mind ''.
After the Mumbai train bombings of 2006, he reportedly quoted at a Cabinet meeting the statements of a former judge of the Maharashtra High Court that an earlier attempt on the headquarters of the Hindu revivalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in Nagpur had been a plot set into motion by the Sangh itself. This followed his denouncement of the Ekal Vidyalayas, one - teacher schools run for the benefit of the tribals of India by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad., as communal.
A case under the Anti-Dowry Act has been registered against Arjun Singh. Mayawati government has decided to seek CBI inquiry into dowry harassment case.
Arjun Singh was accused of irregularities and corruption in the grant of Deemed University status to private for - profit educational institutions which did not meet requisite educational standards, during his tenure as Minister for Human Resources Development. The Government of India initiated proceedings to repeal the "Deemed University '' status of 44 such institutions in Jan 2010.
He was re-elected to the Rajya Sabha from Madhya Pradesh without opposition on 20 March 2006.
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advantages of parliamentary form of government in india | Parliamentary system - wikipedia
A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the confidence of the legislative branch, typically a parliament, and is also held accountable to that parliament. In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. This is in contrast to a presidential system, where the head of state often is also the head of government and, most importantly, the executive branch does not derive its democratic legitimacy from the legislature.
Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament (such as the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden and Japan), or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is regularly from the legislature (such as Ireland, Germany, India and Italy). In a few parliamentary republics, such as Botswana, South Africa, and Suriname, among some others, the head of government is also head of state, but is elected by and is answerable to parliament. In bicameral parliaments, the head of government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house.
Parliamentarism is the dominant form of government in Europe, with 32 of its 50 sovereign states being parliamentarian. It is also common in the Caribbean, being the form of government of 10 of its 13 island states, and in Oceania. Elsewhere in the world, parliamentary countries are less common, but they are distributed through all continents, most often in former British Empire colonies.
Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. Eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system.
The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, King of Leon convened the three states in the Cortes of León. An early example of parliamentary government developed in today 's Netherlands and Belgium during the Dutch revolt (1581), when the sovereign, legislative and executive powers were taken over by the States General of the Netherlands from the then - monarch, King Philip II of Spain. The modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain between 1707 -- 1800 and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden between 1721 -- 1772.
In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments. The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.
In the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George I 's inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the leading minister, literally the prime or first minister, Robert Walpole. The gradual democratisation of parliament with the broadening of the voting franchise increased parliament 's role in controlling government, and in deciding who the king could ask to form a government. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister and the complexion of the government.
Other countries gradually adopted what came to be called the Westminster Model of government, with an executive answerable to parliament, but exercising powers nominally vested in the head of state, in the name of the head of state. Hence the use of phrases like Her Majesty 's government or His Excellency 's government. Such a system became particularly prevalent in older British dominions, many of whom had their constitutions enacted by the British parliament; examples include Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the Irish Free State and the Union of South Africa. Some of these parliaments evolved, were reformed from, or were initially developed as distinct from their original British model: the Australian Senate, for instance, has since its inception more closely reflected the US Senate than the British House of Lords; whereas since 1950 there is no upper house in New Zealand.
Democracy and parliamentarism became increasingly prevalent in Europe in the years after World War I, partially imposed by the democratic victors, Great Britain and France, on the defeated countries and their successors, notably Germany 's Weimar Republic and the new Austrian Republic. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political left 's struggle for democracy and parliamentarism for a long time. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, democratic reforms were often seen as a means to counter popular revolutionary currents.
A parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament (or houses) or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. In the case of a bicameral parliament, this is usually characterised by an elected lower house that has the power to determine the executive government and an upper house which may be appointed or elected through a different mechanism from the lower house.
Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies: the Westminster and Consensus systems.
Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ on the manner of how the prime minister and government are appointed and as to whether the government needs the explicit approval of the parliament, rather than just the absence of its disapproval. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, though in other countries this only exists as a convention.
Furthermore, there are variations as to what conditions exist (if any) for the government to have the right to dissolve the parliament:
The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a presidential system which operates under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, parliaments or congresses do not select or dismiss heads of governments, and governments can not request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments. There also exists the semi-presidential system that draws on both presidential systems and parliamentary systems by combining a powerful president with an executive responsible to parliament, as for example the French Fifth Republic.
Parliamentarism may also apply to regional and local governments. An example is the city of Oslo, which has an executive council (Byråd) as a part of the parliamentary system.
A few parliamentary democratic nations such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, have enacted an anti-defection law, which prohibits a member of the legislature from switching to another party after being elected. With this law, elected representatives lose their seats in parliament if they vote contrary to the directions of their party.
One of the commonly attributed advantages to parliamentary systems is that it is faster and easier to pass legislation, as the executive branch is formed by the direct or indirect support of the legislative branch and often includes members of the legislature. Thus the executive (as the majority party or coalition of parties in the legislature) has a majority of the votes, and can pass legislation at will. In a presidential system, the executive is often chosen independently from the legislature. If the executive and the majority of the legislature are from different political parties, then stalemate can occur. Thus the executive might not be able to implement its legislative proposals. An executive in any system (be it parliamentary, presidential or semi-presidential) is chiefly voted into office on the basis of his or her party 's platform / manifesto, and the same is also true of the legislature.
In addition to quicker legislative action, parliamentary government has attractive features for nations that are ethnically, racially, or ideologically divided. In a presidential system, all executive power is vested in one person: the president. In a parliamentary system, with a collegial executive, power is more divided. In the 1989 Lebanese Taif Agreement, in order to give Muslims greater political power, Lebanon moved from a semi-presidential system with a strong president to a system more structurally similar to classical parliamentary government. Iraq similarly disdained a presidential system out of fears that such a system would be tantamount to Shiite domination; Afghanistan 's minorities refused to go along with a presidency as strong as the Pashtuns desired.
It can also be argued that power is more evenly spread out in parliamentary government. The prime minister is seldom as important as a ruling president, and there tends to be a higher focus on voting for a party and its political ideas than voting for an actual person.
In his 1867 book The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot praised parliamentary government for producing serious debates, for allowing change in power without an election, and for allowing elections at any time. Bagehot considered the four - year election rule of the United States to be unnatural.
Some scholars like Juan Linz, Fred Riggs, Bruce Ackerman, and Robert Dahl claim that parliamentary government is less prone to authoritarian collapse. These scholars point out that since World War II, two - thirds of Third World countries establishing parliamentary governments successfully made the transition to democracy. By contrast, no Third World presidential system successfully made the transition to democracy without experiencing coups and other constitutional breakdowns.
A recent World Bank study found that parliamentary systems are associated with less corruption.
Some constituencies may have a popular local candidate under an unpopular leader (or the reverse), forcing a difficult choice on the electorate. Mixed - member proportional representation (where voters cast two ballots) can make this choice easier by allowing voters to cast one vote for the local candidate but also cast a second vote for another party.
Although Bagehot praised parliamentary government for allowing an election to take place at any time, the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused. Previously under some systems, such as the British, a ruling party could schedule elections when it felt that it was likely to retain power, and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity. (Election timing in the UK, however, is now partly fixed under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011.) Thus, by wise timing of elections, in a parliamentary system a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a functioning presidential system. This problem can be alleviated somewhat by setting fixed dates for parliamentary elections, as is the case in several of Australia 's state parliaments. In other systems, such as the Dutch and the Belgian, the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date. Conversely, flexibility in the timing of parliamentary elections can avoid periods of legislative gridlock that can occur in a fixed period presidential system.
Critics of the Westminster parliamentary system point out that people with significant popular support in the community are prevented from becoming prime minister if they can not get elected to parliament since there is no option to "run for prime minister '' as one can run for president under a presidential system. Additionally, prime ministers may lose their positions if they lose their seats in parliament, even though they may still be popular nationally. Supporters of parliamentary government respond by saying that as members of parliament, prime ministers are elected first to represent their electoral constituents and if they lose their support then consequently they are no longer entitled to be prime minister.
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who was overthrown in the thermidorean reaction of 1794 | Thermidorian reaction - wikipedia
Opposition victory:
Thermidorians Supported by:
Jacobins Supported by:
Various people were executed:
On 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794), the French politician Maximilien Robespierre was denounced by members of the National Convention as "a tyrant '', leading to Robespierre and twenty - one associates including Louis Antoine de Saint - Just being arrested that night and beheaded on the following day.
The name Thermidorian refers to 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794), the date according to the French Republican Calendar when Robespierre and other radical revolutionaries came under concerted attack in the National Convention. Thermidorian Reaction also refers to the remaining period until the National Convention was superseded by the Directory; this is also sometimes called the era of the Thermidorian Convention. Prominent figures of Thermidor include Paul Barras, Jean - Lambert Tallien, and Joseph Fouché.
Thermidor represents the final throes of the Reign of Terror. With Robespierre the sole remaining strong - man of the Revolution following the assassination of Jean - Paul Marat (13 July 1793), and the executions of Jacques Hébert (24 March 1794), Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins (5 April 1794), his apparently total grasp on power became in fact increasingly illusory, especially insofar as he seemed to have support from factions to his right.
His only real political power at this time lay in the Jacobin Club, which had extended itself beyond the borders of Paris and into the country as a network of "Popular Societies ''. In addition to widespread reaction to the Reign of Terror, Robespierre 's tight personal control of the military, his distrust of military might and of banks, and his opposition to supposedly corrupt individuals in government, made him the subject of a number of conspiracies.
The prime mover for the events of 9 Thermidor (27 July) was a Montagnard conspiracy, led by Jean - Lambert Tallien and Bourdon de l'Oise, which was gradually coalescing, and was to come to pass at the time when the Montagnards had finally swayed the deputies of the Right over to their side. (Robespierre and Saint - Just were themselves Montagnards.)
Many others who conspired against Robespierre did so for strong practical and personal reasons, most notably self - preservation. The surviving Dantonists, such as Merlin de Thionville, wanted revenge for the death of Georges Danton and, more importantly, to protect their own heads. Among the latter were Joseph Fouché and Pierre - Louis Bentabole, who engineered Robespierre 's downfall.
In the end, it was Robespierre himself who united all his enemies. On 8 Thermidor (26 July) he gave a speech to the Convention in which he railed against enemies and conspiracies, some within the powerful committees. As he did not give the names of "these traitors '', all in the Convention had reason to fear that they were the targets. Later, he enlisted the support of the Jacobin Club, where he denounced Collot and Billaud. These men then spent the night planning the following day 's coup, with other members of the convention.
Conspiracies against Maximilien Robespierre, who had dominated the Committee of Public Safety, came together on 9 Thermidor (27 July) 1794. On that day, in the Hall of Liberty in Paris, Saint - Just was in the midst of reading a report to the Committee of Public Safety when he was interrupted by Jean - Lambert Tallien, member and previously President of the National Convention, who impugned Saint - Just and then went on to denounce the tyranny of Robespierre. The attack was taken up by Jacques Nicolas Billaud - Varenne, also member and previously President of the National Convention, and Saint - Just 's typical eloquence fled him, leaving him subject to a withering verbal assault until Robespierre leapt to the defense of Saint - Just and himself. Cries went up of "Down with the tyrant! Arrest him! '' Robespierre then made his appeal to the deputies of the Right, "Deputies of the Right, men of honour, men of virtue, give me the floor, since the assassins will not. '' However, the Right was unmoved, and an order was made to arrest Robespierre and his followers.
Troops from the Paris Commune arrived to liberate the prisoners. The Commune troops, under General Jean - Baptiste Coffinhal, then marched against the Convention. The Convention responded by ordering troops of its own under Paul Barras to be called out. When the Commune 's troops heard the news of this, order began to break down, and Hanriot ordered his remaining troops to withdraw to the Hôtel de Ville. Robespierre and his supporters also gathered at the Hôtel de Ville. The Convention declared them to be outlaws, meaning that upon verification the fugitives could be executed within 24 hours without a trial. As the night went on the Commune forces at the Hôtel de Ville deserted until none of them remained. The Convention troops under Barras approached the Hôtel around 2 a.m. on 28 July. As they came, Robespierre 's brother Augustin leapt out of a window in an escape attempt, broke his legs, and was arrested. Le Bas committed suicide. Couthon, who due to progressive disease was paralysed from the waist down, was found lying at the bottom of a staircase.
Robespierre was shot in the face, and his jaw was shattered. There are two accounts of how he received the wound. One states that, anticipating his own downfall and wanting to have the death of a hero, Robespierre attempted to kill himself and shattered his own jaw with a shot. The contrary view is that he was shot by one of the Convention 's troops. At the time, a gendarme named Charles - André Merda claimed to have pulled the trigger.
Saint - Just made no attempt at suicide or concealment. Hanriot tried to hide in the Hôtel de Ville 's yard, by some sources after being thrown out a window into a stack of "latrine product '' and hay, but the Convention troops quickly discovered him and assaulted him badly, gouging one of his eyes out so that it hung from its socket.
Robespierre was declared an outlaw, and condemned without judicial process. The following day, 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794), he was executed with twenty - one of his closest associates, including:
The events of 9 Thermidor proved a watershed in the revolutionary process. The Thermidorian regime that followed proved to be an unpopular one, facing many rebellions after its execution of Robespierre and his allies, along with seventy members of the Paris Commune, the largest mass execution to have ever taken place in Paris. This led to a very fragile situation in France.
The hostility towards Robespierre did not just vanish with his execution. Instead, the people decided to blame the people who were involved with Robespierre in any way. Namely, the many members of the Jacobin club, their supporters, individuals suspected of being past revolutionaries and the violent suppression of the sans - culottes by the Muscadin, a group of dandyish street fighters organized by the new government. The massacre of these groups became known as the White Terror.
Often, members of these targeted groups were the victims of prison massacres or put on trial without due process, which were overall similar conditions to those provided to the counter-revolutionaries during the Reign of Terror. At the same time, its economic policies paved the way for rampant inflation. Ultimately, power devolved to the hands of the Directory, an executive of five men who assumed power in France in November 1795 (in year III of the French Revolutionary calendar).
The Thermidorian regime excluded the remaining Montagnards from power, even those who had joined in conspiring against Robespierre and Saint - Just. The White Terror of 1795 resulted in numerous imprisonments and several hundred executions, almost exclusively of people on the political left. These numbers, while significant, were considerably smaller than those associated with the previous Reign of Terror, which killed over 40,000. Many executions took place without a trial.
On July 29 the victor of the 9th Thermidor condemned seventy members of the Paris Commune to death; thereafter the Commune was subject to the Convention.
As part of the reorganization of French politics, practitioners of the terror were called to defend their records; some such as Tallien, Barras, Fouché and Fréron rejoined the leadership. Others such as Billaud - Varenne, Collot d'Herbois, Barère and Vadier were sentenced to exile in South America, though the latter two managed to evade arrest. Many Jacobin clubs were closed. Freedom of worship was extended first to the Vendée and later to all France. On 24 December 1794 the Maximum (controls on prices and wages) was abolished. The government exacerbated this inflationary move by issuing more assignats.
In April and May 1795 protests and riots in support of the radicals broke out culminating in an invasion of the Convention by an insurrectionist mob on 20 May. On 22 May the Convention struck back, having troops under Pichegru surround the Faubourg St - Antoine and force the capitulation of the armed rebels. In May and June 1795, a "White Terror '' raged in which Jacobins were victims and the judges were bourgeois "Moderates ''. Throughout France the events of the September Massacres were repeated, however this time the victims were imprisoned officials of the Terror. In Paris, Royalist sentiments were openly tolerated.
Meanwhile, French armies overran the Netherlands and established the Batavian Republic, occupied the left bank of the Rhine and forced Spain, Prussia and several German States to sue for peace, enhancing the prestige of the Convention. A new constitution called the Constitution of the Year III was drawn up on 22 August 1795, which eased back some of the democratic elements of the constitution of 1793, establishing an electoral college for the election of officials, a bicameral legislature and other provisions designed to protect the current holders of power. On 5 October (13 Vendémiaire), a revolt led by Royalists challenged the Convention. It was put down by Napoleon with a whiff of grapeshot. On 25 October the Convention declared itself dissolved and was replaced by the French Directory on 2 November 1795.
For historians of revolutionary movements, the term Thermidor has come to mean the phase in some revolutions when power slips from the hands of the original revolutionary leadership and a radical regime is replaced by a more conservative regime, sometimes to the point where the political pendulum may swing back towards something resembling a pre-revolutionary state. Leon Trotsky, in his book The Revolution Betrayed, alleges the rise of Joseph Stalin to power was a Soviet Thermidor.
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when did they start putting fluoride in toothpaste | Toothpaste - wikipedia
Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush as an accessory to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it serves as an abrasive that aids in removing the dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients (most commonly fluoride) to help prevent tooth decay (dental caries) and gum disease (gingivitis). Salt and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) are among materials that can be substituted for commercial toothpaste. Toothpaste is not intended to be swallowed due to the fluoride content, but is generally not very harmful if accidentally swallowed in small amounts; however, one should seek medical attention after swallowing abnormally large amounts.
In addition to 20 % -- 42 % water, toothpastes are derived from a variety of components, the three main ones being abrasives, fluoride, and detergents.
Abrasives constitute at least 50 % of a typical toothpaste. These insoluble particles help remove plaque from the teeth. The removal of plaque and calculus helps minimize cavities and periodontal disease. Representative abrasives include particles of aluminum hydroxide (Al (OH)), calcium carbonate (CaCO), various calcium hydrogen phosphates, various silicas and zeolites, and hydroxyapatite (Ca (PO) OH).
Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists ' offices, also cause a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed "polishing '' action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.
The abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Too high RDA values should be considered critical, and some dentists recommend toothpaste of an RDA value no higher than 50 for daily use.
Fluoride in various forms is the most popular active ingredient in toothpaste to prevent cavities. Fluoride occurs in small amounts in plants, animals, and some natural water sources. The additional fluoride in toothpaste has beneficial effects on the formation of dental enamel and bones. Sodium fluoride (NaF) is the most common source of fluoride, but stannous fluoride (SnF), olaflur (an organic salt of fluoride), and sodium monofluorophosphate (Na PO F) are also used. Stannous fluoride has been shown to be more effective than sodium fluoride in reducing the incidence of dental caries and controlling gingivitis, but causes somewhat more surface stains.
Much of the toothpaste sold in the United States has 1,000 to 1,100 parts per million fluoride. In European countries, such as the UK or Greece, the fluoride content is often higher; a NaF content of 0.312 % w / w (1,450 ppm fluoride) is common.
Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or related surfactants (detergents). SLS is found in many other personal care products, as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power.
Despite the different ingredients included in the toothpaste, recent study (meta analysis) indicates that brushing with or without toothpaste has no impact on the level of plaque removal.
Triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis and, according to the American Dental Association, helps reduce tartar and bad breath. A 2006 review of clinical research concluded there was evidence for the effectiveness of 0.30 % triclosan in reducing plaque and gingivitis.
Toothpaste comes in a variety of colors, and flavors intended to encourage use of the product. Three most common flavorants are peppermint, spearmint, and wintergreen. Toothpaste flavored with peppermint - anise oil is popular in the Mediterranean region. These flavors are provided by the respective oils, e.g. peppermint oil. More exotic flavors include Anethole anise, apricot, bubblegum, cinnamon, fennel, lavender, neem, ginger, vanilla, lemon, orange, and pine. Alternatively, unflavored toothpastes exist.
Hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and a variety of calcium phosphates are included in formulations for remineralization, i.e. the reformation of enamel.
Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1, 2 - propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity. Sodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar.
Although water fluoridation has been praised as one of the top medical achievements of the 20th century, fluoride - containing toothpaste can be acutely toxic if swallowed in large amounts. Approximately 15 mg / kg body weight is the acute lethal dose, even though as small amount as 5 mg / kg may be fatal to some children.
Risk of using fluoride is low enough that the use of full - strength toothpaste (1350 -- 1500 ppm fluoride) is advised for all ages (although smaller volumes are used for young children; a smear of toothpaste until three years old). A major concern of dental fluorosis is for children under 12 months ingesting excessive fluoride through toothpaste. Nausea and vomiting are also problems which might arise with topical fluoride ingestion.
The inclusion of sweet - tasting but toxic diethylene glycol in Chinese - made toothpaste led to a recall in 2007 involving multiple toothpaste brands in several nations. The world outcry made Chinese officials ban the practice of using diethylene glycol in toothpaste.
Reports have suggested triclosan, an active ingredient in many kinds of toothpastes, can combine with chlorine in tap water to form chloroform, which the United States Environmental Protection Agency classifies as a probable human carcinogen. An animal study revealed the chemical might modify hormone regulation, and many other lab researches proved bacteria might be able to develop resistance to triclosan in a way which can help them to resist antibiotics also.
With the exception of toothpaste intended to be used on pets such as dogs and cats, and toothpaste used by astronauts, most toothpaste is not intended to be swallowed, and doing so may cause nausea or diarrhea. Tartar fighting toothpastes have been debated. Case reports of plasma cell gingivitis have been reported with the use of herbal toothpaste containing cinnamon. SLS has been proposed to increase the frequency of mouth ulcers in some people, as it can dry out the protective layer of oral tissues, causing the underlying tissues to become damaged.
After using toothpaste, orange juice and other juices have an unpleasant taste. Sodium lauryl sulfate alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.
Many toothpastes make whitening claims. Some of these toothpastes contain peroxide, the same ingredient found in tooth bleaching gels. The abrasive in these toothpastes, not the peroxide, removes the stains. Whitening toothpaste can not alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains. When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear whiter. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. However, the whitening process can permanently reduce the strength of the teeth, as the process scrapes away a protective outer layer of enamel.
Companies such as Tom 's of Maine, among others, manufacture natural and herbal toothpastes and market them to consumers who wish to avoid the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils.
According to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.
Striped toothpaste was invented by a New Yorker named Leonard Lawrence Marraffino in 1955. The patent (US patent 2,789,731, issued 1957) was subsequently sold to Unilever, who marketed the novelty under the Stripe brand - name in the early 1960s. This was followed by the introduction of the Signal brand in Europe in 1965 (UK patent 813,514). Although Stripe was initially very successful, it never again achieved the 8 % market share that it cornered during its second year.
Marraffino 's design, which remains in use for single - color stripes, is simple. The main material, usually white, sits at the crimp end of the toothpaste tube and makes up most of its bulk. A thin pipe, through which that carrier material will flow, descends from the nozzle to it. The stripe - material (this was red in Stripe) fills the gap between the carrier material and the top of the tube. The two materials are not in separate compartments, however they are sufficiently viscous that they will not mix. When pressure is applied to the toothpaste tube, the main material squeezes down the thin pipe to the nozzle. Simultaneously, the pressure applied to the main material causes pressure to be forwarded to the stripe material, which thereby issues out through small holes (in the side of the pipe) onto the main carrier material as it is passing those holes.
In 1990 Colgate - Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO 4,969,767) for two differently colored stripes. In this scheme, the inner pipe has a cone - shaped plastic guard around it, and about halfway up its length. Between the guard and the nozzle - end of the tube is a space for the material for one color, which issues out of holes in the pipe. On the other side of the guard is space for second stripe - material, which has its own set of holes.
Striped toothpaste should not be confused with layered toothpaste. Layered toothpaste requires a multi-chamber design (e.g. USPTO 5,020,694), in which two or three layers extrude out of the nozzle. This scheme, like that of pump dispensers (USPTO 4,461,403), is more complicated (and thus, more expensive to manufacture) than either the Marraffino design or the Colgate design.
Since 5000 BC, the Egyptians made a tooth powder, which consisted of powdered ashes of ox hooves, myrrh, powdered and burnt eggshells, and pumice. The Greeks, and then the Romans, improved the recipes by adding abrasives such as crushed bones and oyster shells. In the 9th century, Iraqi musician and fashion designer Ziryab invented a type of toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain. The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are unknown, but it was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste ''. It is not known whether these early toothpastes were used alone, were to be rubbed onto the teeth with rags, or were to be used with early toothbrushes, such as neem - tree twigs and miswak. Toothpastes or powders came into general use in the 19th century.
Tooth powders for use with toothbrushes came into general use in the 19th century in Britain. Most were homemade, with chalk, pulverized brick, or salt as ingredients. An 1866 Home Encyclopedia recommended pulverized charcoal, and cautioned that many patented tooth powders that were commercially marketed did more harm than good.
Arm & Hammer marketed a baking soda - based toothpowder in the United States until approximately 2000, and Colgate currently markets toothpowder in India and other countries.
An 18th - century American and British toothpaste recipe called for burned bread. Another formula around this time called for dragon 's blood (a resin), cinnamon, and burned alum.
By 1900, a paste made of hydrogen peroxide and baking soda was recommended for use with toothbrushes. Pre-mixed toothpastes were first marketed in the 19th century, but did not surpass the popularity of tooth - powder until World War I. In 1880, Doctor Washington Sheffield of New London, CT manufactured toothpaste into a collapsible tube, Dr. Sheffield 's Creme Dentifrice. He had the idea after his son traveled to Paris and saw painters using paint from tubes. In York in 1896, Colgate & Company Dental Cream was packaged in collapsible tubes imitating Sheffield. The original collapsible toothpaste tubes were made of lead.
Together with Willoughby D. Miller, Newell Sill Jenkins developed a toothpaste and named it Kolynos, the first toothpaste containing disinfectants. The name 's origin is from Greek Kolyo nosos (κωλύω νόσος), meaning "disease prevention ''. Numerous attempts to produce the toothpaste by pharmacists in Europe have been uneconomic. After returning to the US, he continued experimenting with Harry Ward Foote (1875 - 1942), professor of chemistry at Sheffield Chemical Laboratory of Yale University. After 17 years of development of Kolynos and clinical trials Jenkins retired and transferred the production and distribution to his son Leonard A. Jenkins, who brought the first toothpaste tubes on the market on April 13, 1908. Within a few years the company expanded in North America, Latin America, Europe and the Far East. A branch operation opened in London in 1909. In 1937 Kolynos was produced in 22 countries and sold in 88 countries. Until modern times Kolynos is widespread mainly in South America and in Hungary. Colgate - Palmolive took over the production of American Home Products in 1995 at a cost of one billion US dollars.
Fluoride was first added to toothpastes in the 1890s. Tanagra, containing calcium fluoride as the active ingredient, was sold by Karl F. Toellner Company, of Bremen, Germany, based upon the early work of chemist Albert Deninger. An analogous invention by Roy Cross, of Kansas City, Missouri, was initially criticized by the American Dental Association (ADA) in 1937. Fluoride toothpastes developed in the 1950s received the ADA 's approval. To develop the first ADA - approved fluoride toothpaste, Procter & Gamble started a research program in the early 1940s. In 1950, Procter & Gamble developed a joint research project team headed by Dr. Joseph Muhler at Indiana University to study new toothpaste with fluoride. In 1955, Procter & Gamble 's Crest launched its first clinically proven fluoride - containing toothpaste. On August 1, 1960, the ADA reported that "Crest has been shown to be an effective anticavity (decay preventative) dentifrice that can be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and regular professional care. ''
In 2006 BioRepair appeared in Europe with the first toothpaste containing synthetic hydroxylapatite as an alternative to fluoride for the remineralization and reparation of tooth enamel. The "biomimetic hydroxylapatite '' is intended to protect the teeth by creating a new layer of synthetic enamel around the tooth instead of hardening the existing layer with fluoride that chemically changes it into fluorapatite.
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what does excessive bail mean in the eighth amendment | Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Eighth Amendment (Amendment VIII) of the United States Constitution prohibits the federal government from imposing excessive bail, excessive fines, or cruel and unusual punishments. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that this amendment 's Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause also applies to the states. The phrases in this amendment originated in the English Bill of Rights of 1689. This amendment was adopted on December 15, 1791, along with the rest of the United States Bill of Rights.
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment was adopted, as part of the Bill of Rights, in 1791. It is almost identical to a provision in the English Bill of Rights of 1689, in which Parliament declared, "as their ancestors in like cases have usually done... that excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ''
The provision was largely inspired by the case in England of Titus Oates who, after the ascension of King James II in 1685, was tried for multiple acts of perjury which had caused many executions of people whom Oates had wrongly accused. Oates was sentenced to imprisonment including an annual ordeal of being taken out for two days pillory plus one day of whipping while tied to a moving cart. The Oates case eventually became a topic of the U.S. Supreme Court 's Eighth Amendment jurisprudence. The punishment of Oates involved ordinary penalties collectively imposed in a barbaric, excessive and bizarre manner. The reason why the judges in Oates ' perjury case were not allowed to impose the death penalty (unlike in the cases of those whom Oates had falsely accused) may be because such a punishment would have deterred even honest witnesses from testifying in later cases.
England 's declaration against "cruel and unusual punishments '' was approved by Parliament in February 1689, and was read to King William III and his wife Queen Mary II on the following day. Members of Parliament then explained in August 1689 that "the Commons had a particular regard... when that Declaration was first made '' to punishments like the one that had been inflicted by the King 's Bench against Titus Oates. Parliament then enacted the English Bill of Rights into law in December 1689. Members of parliament characterized the punishment in the Oates case as not just "barbarous '' and "inhuman '' but also "extravagant '' and "exorbitant ''.
In England, the "cruel and unusual punishments '' clause was a limitation on the discretion of judges, and required judges to adhere to precedent. According to the great treatise of the 1760s by William Blackstone entitled Commentaries on the Laws of England:
(H) owever unlimited the power of the court may seem, it is far from being wholly arbitrary; but its discretion is regulated by law. For the bill of rights has particularly declared, that excessive fines ought not to be imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted: (which had a retrospect to some unprecedented proceedings in the court of king 's bench, in the reign of king James the second)...
Virginia adopted this provision of the English Bill of Rights in the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and the Virginia convention that ratified the U.S. Constitution recommended in 1788 that this language also be included in the Constitution.
Virginians such as George Mason and Patrick Henry wanted to ensure that this restriction would also be applied as a limitation on Congress. Mason warned that, otherwise, Congress may "inflict unusual and severe punishments. '' Henry emphasized that Congress should not be allowed to depart from precedent:
What has distinguished our ancestors? -- That they would not admit of tortures, or cruel and barbarous punishment. But Congress may introduce the practice of the civil law, in preference to that of the common law. They may introduce the practice of France, Spain, and Germany...
Ultimately, Henry and Mason prevailed, and the Eighth Amendment was adopted. James Madison changed "ought '' to "shall '', when he proposed the amendment to Congress in 1789.
In England, sheriffs originally determined whether to grant bail to criminal suspects. Since they tended to abuse their power, Parliament passed a statute in 1275 whereby bailable and non-bailable offenses were defined. The King 's judges often subverted the provisions of the law. It was held that an individual may be held without bail upon the Sovereign 's command. Eventually, the Petition of Right of 1628 argued that the King did not have such authority. Later, technicalities in the law were exploited to keep the accused imprisoned without bail even where the offenses were bailable; such loopholes were for the most part closed by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679. Thereafter, judges were compelled to set bail, but they often required impracticable amounts. Finally, the English Bill of Rights (1689) held that "excessive bail ought not to be required. '' Nevertheless, the Bill did not determine the distinction between bailable and non-bailable offenses. Thus, the Eighth Amendment has been interpreted to mean that bail may be denied if the charges are sufficiently serious. The Supreme Court has also permitted "preventive '' detention without bail. In United States v. Salerno, 481 U.S. 739 (1987), the Supreme Court held that the only limitation imposed by the bail clause is that "the government 's proposed conditions of release or detention not be ' excessive ' in light of the perceived evil. '' In Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S. 1 (1951), the Supreme Court declared that a bail amount is "excessive '' under the Eighth Amendment if it were "a figure higher than is reasonably calculated '' to ensure the defendant 's appearance at trial.
In Waters - Pierce Oil Co. v. Texas, 212 U.S. 86 (1909), the Supreme Court held that excessive fines are those which are "so grossly excessive as to amount to a deprivation of property without due process of law. '' The Court wrote in its syllabus:
The fixing of punishment for crime and penalties for unlawful acts is within the police power of the state, and this Court can not interfere with state legislation in fixing fines, or judicial action in imposing them, unless so grossly excessive as to amount to deprivation of property without due process of law. Where a state antitrust law fixed penalties at $5,000 a day, and, after verdict of guilty for over 300 days, a defendant corporation was fined over $1,600,000, this Court will not hold that the fine is so excessive as to amount to deprivation of property without due process of law where it appears that the business was extensive and profitable during the period of violation, and that the corporation has over $40,000,000 of assets and has declared dividends amounting to several hundred percent
The Court further stated in its opinion:
(I) t is contended that the fines imposed are so excessive as to constitute a taking of the defendant 's property without due process of law. It is not contended in this connection that the prohibition of the Eighth Amendment to the federal Constitution against excessive fines operates to control the legislation of the states. The fixing of punishment for crime or penalties for unlawful acts against its laws is within the police power of the state. We can only interfere with such legislation and judicial action of the states enforcing it if the fines imposed are so grossly excessive as to amount to a deprivation of property without due process of law.
In Waters - Pierce Oil Co. v. Texas the Supreme Court set up a standard for judging whether or not a fine is "excessive. '' The standard set up is that a fine must not be "so grossly excessive as to amount to deprivation of property without due process of law. '' In other words, the government must not be able to confiscate such a large amount of property without following an established set of rules created by the legislature.
In Browning - Ferris Industries v. Kelco Disposal, 492 U.S. 257 (1989), the Supreme Court ruled that the Excessive Fines Clause does not apply "when the government neither has prosecuted the action nor has any right to receive a share of the damages awarded. '' While punitive damages in civil cases are not covered by the Excessive Fines Clause, such damages were held to be covered by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, notably in State Farm v. Campbell, 538 U.S. 408 (2003).
In United States v. Bajakajian, 524 U.S. 321 (1998), the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional to confiscate $357,144 from Hosep Bajakajian who failed to report possession of over $10,000 while leaving the United States. In what was the first case in which the Supreme Court ruled a fine to violate the Excessive Fines Clause, the Court held that it was "grossly disproportional '' to take all of the money which Mr. Bajakajian attempted to take out of the United States, in violation of a federal law that required him to report an amount in excess of $10,000. In describing what constituted "gross disproportionality, '' the Court could not find any guidance from the history of the Excessive Fines Clause and so relied on Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause case law:
We must therefore rely on other considerations in deriving a constitutional excessiveness standard, and there are two that we find particularly relevant. The first, which we have emphasized in our cases interpreting the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause, is that judgments about the appropriate punishment for an offense belong in the first instance to the legislature. See, e.g., Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277, 290 (1983) ("Reviewing courts... should grant substantial deference to the broad authority that legislatures necessarily possess in determining the types and limits of punishments for crimes ''); see also Gore v. United States, 357 U.S. 386, 393 (1958) ("Whatever views may be entertained regarding severity of punishment,... these are peculiarly questions of legislative policy ''). The second is that any judicial determination regarding the gravity of a particular criminal offense will be inherently imprecise. Both of these principles counsel against requiring strict proportionality between the amount of a punitive forfeiture and the gravity of a criminal offense, and we therefore adopt the standard of gross disproportionality articulated in our Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause precedents. See, e.g., Solem v. Helm, supra, at 288; Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U.S. 263, 271 (1980).
Thus the Court declared that, within the context of judicial deference to the legislature 's power to set punishments, a fine would not offend the Eighth Amendment unless it were "grossly disproportional to the gravity of a defendant 's offense. ''
According to the Supreme Court, the Eighth Amendment forbids some punishments entirely, and forbids some other punishments that are excessive when compared to the crime, or compared to the competence of the perpetrator.
In Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber, 329 U.S. 459 (1947), the Supreme Court assumed arguendo that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause applied to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962), the Court ruled that it did apply to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Robinson was the first case in which the Supreme Court applied the Eighth Amendment against the state governments through the Fourteenth Amendment. Before Robinson, the Eighth Amendment had only been applied previously in cases against the federal government.
Justice Potter Stewart 's opinion for the Robinson Court held that "infliction of cruel and unusual punishment is in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments. '' The framers of the Fourteenth Amendment, such as John Bingham, had discussed this subject:
Many instances of State injustice and oppression have already occurred in the State legislation of this Union, of flagrant violations of the guarantied privileges of citizens of the United States, for which the national Government furnished and could furnish by law no remedy whatever. Contrary to the express letter of your Constitution, "cruel and unusual punishments '' have been inflicted under State laws within this Union upon citizens, not only for crimes committed, but for sacred duty done, for which and against which the Government of the United States had provided no remedy and could provide none.
In Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), Justice Brennan wrote, "There are, then, four principles by which we may determine whether a particular punishment is ' cruel and unusual '. ''
Justice Brennan also wrote that he expected no state would pass a law obviously violating any one of these principles, so court decisions regarding the Eighth Amendment would involve a "cumulative '' analysis of the implication of each of the four principles. In this way, the United States Supreme Court "set the standard that a punishment would be cruel and unusual (if) it was too severe for the crime, (if) it was arbitrary, if it offended society 's sense of justice, or if it was not more effective than a less severe penalty. ''
In Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. 130 (1878), the Supreme Court commented that drawing and quartering, public dissection, burning alive, or disembowelment constituted cruel and unusual punishment. In Thompson v. Oklahoma, 487 U.S. 815 (1988), the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment if the defendant is under age 16 when the crime was committed. Furthermore, in Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005), the Court barred the executing of people who were under age 18 when the crime was committed. In Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304 (2002), the Court declared that executing people who are mentally handicapped constituted cruel and unusual punishment.
The case of Weems v. United States, 217 U.S. 349 (1910), marked the first time that the Supreme Court exercised judicial review to overturn a criminal sentence as cruel and unusual. The Court overturned a punishment called cadena temporal, which mandated "hard and painful labor, '' shackling for the duration of incarceration, and permanent civil disabilities. This case is often viewed as establishing a principle of proportionality under the Eighth Amendment. However, others have written that "it is hard to view Weems as announcing a constitutional requirement of proportionality. ''
In Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86 (1958), the Supreme Court held that punishing a natural - born citizen for a crime by revoking his citizenship is unconstitutional, being "more primitive than torture '' because it involved the "total destruction of the individual 's status in organized society. ''
In Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962), the Court decided that a California law authorizing a 90 - day jail sentence for "be (ing) addicted to the use of narcotics '' violated the Eighth Amendment, as narcotics addiction "is apparently an illness, '' and California was attempting to punish people based on the state of this illness, rather than for any specific act. The Court wrote:
To be sure, imprisonment for ninety days is not, in the abstract, a punishment which is either cruel or unusual. But the question can not be considered in the abstract. Even one day in prison would be a cruel and unusual punishment for the ' crime ' of having a common cold.
However, in Powell v. Texas, 392 U.S. 514 (1968), the Court upheld a statute barring public intoxication by distinguishing Robinson on the basis that Powell dealt with a person who was drunk in public, not merely for being addicted to alcohol.
Traditionally, the length of a prison sentence was not subject to scrutiny under the Eighth Amendment, regardless of the crime for which the sentence was imposed. It was not until the case of Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277 (1983), that the Supreme Court held that incarceration, standing alone, could constitute cruel and unusual punishment if it were "disproportionate '' in duration to the offense. The Court outlined three factors that were to be considered in determining if the sentence is excessive: "(i) the gravity of the offense and the harshness of the penalty; (ii) the sentences imposed on other criminals in the same jurisdiction; and (iii) the sentences imposed for commission of the same crime in other jurisdictions. '' The Court held that in the circumstances of the case before it and the factors to be considered, a sentence of life imprisonment without parole for cashing a $100 check on a closed account was cruel and unusual.
However, in Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957 (1991), a fractured Court retreated from the Solem test and held that for non-capital sentences, the Eighth Amendment only constrains the length of prison terms by a "gross disproportionality principle. '' Under this principle, the Court sustained a mandatory sentence of life without parole imposed for possession of 672 grams (1.5 pounds) or more of cocaine. The Court acknowledged that a punishment could be cruel but not unusual, and therefore not prohibited by the Constitution. Additionally, in Harmelin, Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, said "the Eighth Amendment contains no proportionality guarantee, '' and that "what was ' cruel and unusual ' under the Eighth Amendment was to be determined without reference to the particular offense. '' Scalia wrote "If ' cruel and unusual punishments ' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous. '' Moreover, "There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions (outlawing disproportional punishments), yet chose not to replicate them. ''
In Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S. 48 (2010), the Supreme Court declared that a life sentence without any chance of parole, for a crime other than murder, is cruel and unusual punishment for a minor. Two years later, in Miller v. Alabama, 567 U.S. ___ (2012), the Court went further, holding that mandatory life sentences without parole can not be imposed on minors, even for homicide.
In Coker v. Georgia, 433 U.S. 584 (1977), the Court declared that the death penalty was unconstitutionally excessive for rape of a woman and, by implication, for any crime where a death does not occur. The majority in Coker stated that "death is indeed a disproportionate penalty for the crime of raping an adult woman. '' The dissent countered that the majority "takes too little account of the profound suffering the crime imposes upon the victims and their loved ones. '' The dissent also characterized the majority as "myopic '' for only considering legal history of "the past five years ''.
In Kennedy v. Louisiana, 554 U.S. 407 (2008), the Court extended the reasoning of Coker by ruling that the death penalty was excessive for child rape "where the victim 's life was not taken. '' The Supreme Court failed to note a federal law, which applies to military court - martial proceedings, providing for the death penalty in cases of child rape. On October 1, 2008, the Court declined to reconsider its opinion in this case, but did amend the majority and dissenting opinions in order to acknowledge that federal law. Justice Scalia (joined by Chief Justice Roberts) wrote in dissent that "the proposed Eighth Amendment would have been laughed to scorn if it had read ' no criminal penalty shall be imposed which the Supreme Court deems unacceptable. ' ''
The first significant general challenge to capital punishment that reached the Supreme Court was the case of Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972). In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Supreme Court overturned the death sentences of Furman for murder, as well as two other defendants for rape. Of the five justices voting to overturn the death penalty, two found capital punishment to be unconstitutionally cruel and unusual, while three found that the statutes at issue were implemented in a random and capricious fashion, discriminating against blacks and the poor. Furman v. Georgia did not hold -- even though it is sometimes claimed that it did -- that capital punishment is per se unconstitutional.
States with capital punishment rewrote their laws to address the Supreme Court 's decision, and the Court then revisited the issue in a murder case: Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976). In Gregg, the Court found, in a 7 -- 2 ruling, that Georgia 's new death penalty laws passed Eighth Amendment scrutiny: the statutes provided a bifurcated trial in which guilt and sentence were determined separately; and, the statutes provided for "specific jury findings '' followed by state supreme court review comparing each death sentence "with the sentences imposed on similarly situated defendants to ensure that the sentence of death in a particular case is not disproportionate. '' Because of the Gregg decision, executions resumed in 1977.
Some states have passed laws imposing mandatory death penalties in certain cases. The Supreme Court found these laws to be unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment, in the murder case of Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 U.S. 280 (1976), because these laws remove discretion from the trial judge to make an individualized determination in each case. Other statutes specifying factors for courts to use in making their decisions have been upheld. Some have not: in Godfrey v. Georgia, 446 U.S. 420 (1980), the Supreme Court overturned a sentence based upon a finding that a murder was "outrageously or wantonly vile, horrible, and inhuman, '' as it deemed that any murder may be reasonably characterized in this manner. Similarly, in Maynard v. Cartwright, 486 U.S. 356 (1988), the Court found that an "especially heinous, atrocious or cruel '' standard in a homicide case was too vague. However, the meaning of this language depends on how lower courts interpret it. In Walton v. Arizona, 497 U.S. 639 (1990), the Court found that the phrase "especially heinous, cruel, or depraved '' was not vague in a murder case, because the state supreme court had expounded on its meaning.
The Court has generally held that death penalty cases require extra procedural protections. As the Court said in Herrera v. Collins, 506 U.S. 390 (1993), which involved the murder of a police officer, "the Eighth Amendment requires increased reliability of the process... ''
In Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. 130 (1878), the Court stated that death by firing squad was not cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment.
In Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U.S. 263 (1980), the Court upheld a life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed per Texas 's three strikes law for fraud crimes totaling $230. A few months after pleading guilty Rummel was released.
In Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957 (1991), the Court upheld a life sentence without the possibility of parole for possession of 672 grams (1.5 pounds) of cocaine.
In Lockyer v. Andrade, 538 U.S. 63 (2003), the Court upheld a 50 years to life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed under California 's three strikes law when the defendant was convicted of shoplifting videotapes worth a total of about $150.
In Baze v. Rees, 553 U.S. 35 (2008), the Court upheld Kentucky 's execution protocol using a three drugs cocktail.
In Glossip v. Gross, No. 14 - 7955, 576 U.S. ___ (2015) the Court upheld the use of lethal injections using the drug midazolam.
In Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86 (1958), Chief Justice Earl Warren said: "The (Eighth) Amendment must draw its meaning from the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society. '' Subsequently, the Court has looked to societal developments, as well as looking to its own independent judgment, in determining what are those "evolving standards of decency ''.
Originalists like Justice Antonin Scalia argue that societies may rot instead of maturing, and may decrease in virtue or wisdom instead of increasing. Thus, they say, the framers wanted the amendment to be understood as it was written and ratified, instead of morphing as times change, and in any event legislators are more competent than judges to take the pulse of the public as to changing standards of decency.
The "evolving standards '' test is not without its scholarly critics as well. For example, Professor John Stinneford asserts that the "evolving standards '' test misinterprets the Eighth Amendment:
The Framers of the Bill of Rights understood the word "unusual '' to mean "contrary to long usage. '' Recognition of the word 's original meaning will precisely invert the "evolving standards of decency '' test, and ask the Court to compare challenged punishments with the longstanding principles and precedents of the common law, rather than shifting and nebulous notions of "societal consensus '' and contemporary "standards of decency.
On the other hand, Professor Dennis Baker defends the evolving standards of decency test as advancing the moral purpose of the Eighth Amendment to ban all forms of unjust punishment.
The Court has applied evolving standards not only to say what punishments are inherently cruel, but also to say what punishments that are not inherently cruel are nevertheless "grossly disproportionate '' to the offense in question. An example can be seen in Jackson v. Bishop (8th Cir., 1968), an Eighth Circuit decision outlawing corporal punishment in the Arkansas prison system: "The scope of the Amendment is not static... (D) isproportion, both among punishments and between punishment and crime, is a factor to be considered... ''
Professor Stinneford asserts that the Eighth Amendment forbids punishments that are very disproportionate to the offense, even if the punishment by itself is not intrinsically barbaric, but Stinneford argues that "proportionality is to be measured primarily in terms of prior practice '' according to the word "unusual '' in the amendment, instead of being measured according to shifting and nebulous evolving standards. Similarly, Professor John Bessler points to "An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, '' written by Cesare Beccaria in the 1760s, which advocated proportionate punishments; many of the Founding Fathers, including Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, read Beccaria 's treatise and were influenced by it.
Thus, Stinneford and Bessler disagree with the view of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in Harmelin v. Michigan where they denied that the Punishments Clause contains any proportionality principle. With Scalia and Rehnquist, Richard Epstein argues that the amendment does not refer broadly to the imposition of penalties, but rather refers more narrowly to the penalties themselves; Epstein says that judges who favor the broad view tend to omit the letter "s '' at the end of the word "punishments ''.
(E) ven if one stacked up all of Oates 's punishments together -- the fine, the whippings, the imprisonment, the pillorying, and the defrockment -- their cumulative effect was less harsh as an absolute matter than some punishments considered acceptable at the time, such as drawing and quartering or burning at the stake. If the punishments inflicted on Oates were unacceptably cruel, this could only be because they were disproportionate to the crime of perjury.
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willy wonka and the chocolate factory book characters | List of Charlie and the Chocolate factory characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters in the Roald Dahl book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the former 's film adaptations, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.
Gene Wilder (1971) Johnny Depp (2005) Douglas Hodge, Alex Jennings and Jonathan Slinger (2013)
In the novels and films, Willy Wonka is the odd owner of an extremely prosperous chocolates factory. The inciting action of the story occurs when Wonka holds a contest, hiding five Golden Tickets within the wrappers of confectionery bars, promising their discoverers a tour of his factory and a lifelong supply of his creations. Implications stand in all three versions that he allows four of his five finalists to disgrace themselves, in hope that one does not.
In the book, Wonka is described by Roald Dahl as having a goatee and "marvelously '' bright eyes, a high and "flutey '' voice, a face "alight of fun and laughter '', and quick little jerky movements "like a squirrel ''. He is enthusiastic, eccentric, charming, talkative, and friendly, but at times insensitive, and has been given to glossing criticisms of himself.
In the 1971 film Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Gene Wilder. While his personality remains generally the same as in the original, he is more melancholy here, and frequently quotes books and poems, including William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet ("Is it my soul that calls upon my name? '') or John Masefield 's "Sea Fever '' ("All I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by ''), and the famous "Candy is dandy, but liquor is quicker '' from "Reflections on Ice Breaking '' by Ogden Nash, among many others. Toward the end of the film, he tests protagonist Charlie 's conscience by pretending to deny him any reward, but assumes an almost paternal role when Charlie proves honest.
In the 2005 film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Johnny Depp. In this version, a back - story was added that Willy Wonka 's father (being a dentist) would not let him eat sweets because of the potential risk to his teeth, and that the young Wonka left home to become a chocolatier. The conflict was so bad on young Wonka (portrayed by Blair Dunlop), that he took no interest in the kids when they arrived and could n't even say the word "parent ''. He later gains a soft spot for Charlie and offers him a spoon from the chocolate river. Toward the end of the film, Charlie reconciles the two.
Peter Ostrum (1971) Freddie Highmore (2005) Jack Costello, Tom Klenerman, Isaac Rouse, Louis Suc, Keir Edkins - O'Brien, Oliver Finnegan, Troy Tipple, Rhys Lambert, Jake Poolman, Ewan Rutherford, Zachary Loonie, Noah Crump, Johnny Evans - Hutchison, Joe Butler - Smith, Guillermo Bedward, Archie Durrant, Ptolemy Gidney (2013)
Charlie Bucket is a title character and the protagonist of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, its sequel Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the film adaptations of these books. He is depicted as a kind - hearted, nice, selfless, sweet, brave, but poor boy that lives with his mother, father and four bedridden grandparents. Charlie was to have been a little black boy at the outset, but the detail was changed at the insistence of Dahl 's literary agent to better appeal to audiences. In 1971, he has a newspaper route after school. He and his family follow the progress of the hunt for the Golden Tickets in newspapers, in films, and on television. Unlike the first four finalists, Charlie is honest and generous. In the 1971 film, Charlie was portrayed by Peter Ostrum, in his only film appearance. His nationality is never explicitly stated, but in the 1971 film, he speaks with an American accent, and in the 2005 film, he speaks with an English accent. The filmmakers have stated that it was their intention that Charlie 's hometown be kept ambiguous.
In the novel, at the end of the tour, Wonka declares Charlie heir to the factory for his refusal of vice, and Charlie 's family are permitted to move into the factory. In the 1971 film, Charlie wins the factory when he returns an Everlasting Gobstopper given to him by Wonka, thereby passing Wonka 's moral test. In the 2005 film, Wonka initially refuses to allow Charlie 's family to join them in the factory, and Charlie rejects Wonka 's offer. When Charlie helps Wonka reconcile with his father, the family move into the factory and Charlie becomes Wonka 's partner.
Jack Albertson (1971) David Kelly (2005) Nigel Planer, Barry James (2013)
Grandpa Joe is one of Charlie 's four bed - ridden grandparents. He is usually stubborn, senile, and paranoid, but still kind, caring, grandfatherly, excitable, and supportive. He tells Charlie (and the reader) the story of Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory and the mystery of the secret workers. When Charlie finds the Golden Ticket, Grandpa Joe leaps out of bed in joy, and later accompanies Charlie on the factory tour. In the sequel book, Grandpa Joe accompanies Charlie, Willy Wonka, and all members of Charlie 's family in the Great Glass Elevator and assists the rescue of the Commuter Capsule from the Vermicious Knids. Grandpa Joe 's age is given as "ninety - six and a half '' in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory '', making him the eldest of Charlie 's grandparents, but in the musical it is stated he is almost ninety and a half.
The character was played by Jack Albertson in the 1971 film adaptation Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. In this film, he is often excitable, paranoid, stubborn and appears anxious that Charlie win the contest, and becomes angry when Charlie is dismissed without reward, despite the fact that they both violated the rules by stealing Fizzy Lifting Drinks and not following the tour, which indicated that Charlie violated the contract, unaware that Wonka had found out what they had done. He tells Charlie that he expects him to find all five Golden Tickets and most certainly expects Charlie to find one when he receives a Wonka Bar for his birthday.
The character was played by David Kelly in the 2005 film adaptation, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Veteran actor Gregory Peck was originally selected to play the role, but he died in 2003 before filming began. This version of the character is written as more calm than the 1971 version. An original backstory to Grandpa Joe 's past was added to Tim Burton 's film, wherein it is said that Joe worked for Wonka until the latter fired all his workers from his factory due to constant corporate espionage by rival confectionery manufacturers. When he returns to the factory with Charlie for the tour, Wonka asks if he was a spy working for a competing factory before he humbly welcomes him back.
Michael Bollner (1971) Philip Wiegratz (2005) Regan Stokes, Alexzander Griffiths, Dane Juler, Vincent Finch, Logan Cripps, Benjamin Lewis, Connor Davies, Archie Lewis, Callum McDonald (2013)
Introduced in the opening pages of the book as "a greedy boy '', Augustus Gloop is an obese, greedy, gluttonous boy, the first person to find a Golden Ticket and one of the four main antagonists of the series. He hails from fictitious Dusselheim, Germany in the 1971 film, and Düsseldorf, Germany in the 2005 film. His mother takes great pride in his gluttonous eating and seems to enjoy the attention of the media. In the novel and both films, he is portrayed as "enormously fat ''. Augustus is the first child to be removed from the tour: while drinking from the Chocolate Room 's Chocolate River, he accidentally falls into the river and is drawn through a pipe to the factory 's Fudge Room. His parents are summoned to retrieve him from the mixing - machine. In the book, he is depicted leaving the factory, having lost most of his weight, and covered in melted chocolate.
In the 1971 film, despite eating constantly, he has decent table manners, is not as obese as he is in the book, and is polite to Charlie and the other finalists. He is portrayed by Michael Bollner in this film. Since Bollner could not speak fluent English at the time of the film 's production, the 1971 Augustus has fewer lines and less screen time.
In the 2005 film, Augustus is always shown consuming chocolate. He has a binge eating disorder and often has food smeared on his face. He is aloof and cruel towards Charlie in the one instance when they interact, as he offers him a Wonka Bar and then retracts it, saying Charlie should have brought some himself. As in the book, he is shown leaving the factory toward the end of the story; but in this version, he is his normal size, licking his fingers to remove the adherent chocolate he is still coated in. The actor, Philip Wiegratz, wore a fat suit for the production.
In the 2013 London musical, Augustus Gloop is known as "the Bavarian Beefcake '' in his Alpine community. His mother and father indulge his eating habits with sweets and pieces of sausage of which they (and sometimes Augustus) butcher themselves. In his number, "More of Him to Love '', Frau Gloop reveals that she had vital organs removed to retrieve Augustus from the womb. They arrive at the factory wearing traditional Eastern European clothing, with Augustus in a red, argyle sweater and green shorts. When Augustus falls into the chocolate river Wonka summons the diversionary pumping system to divert the flow, while Oompa Loompas dressed in red boiler suits sing, "Auf Wiedersehen Augustus Gloop '', as they prepare the chocolate, while Augustus travels through the main industrial pipe, occasionally getting stuck.
Denise Nickerson (1971) AnnaSophia Robb (2005) India Ria Amarteifio, Adrianna Bertola, Jade Johnson, Mya Olaye, Lauren Halil, Rhianna Dorris, Sophie Naglik, Psalms - Nissi Myers - Reid, Armani Hall, Miriam Nyarko, Shaniquah Notice - Morris, Asha Banks, Liani Samuel (2013)
Violet Beauregarde is the third child to find a Golden Ticket, the second to be ejected from the tour and one of the four main antagonists of the series. She is the vain, self - centered, snobby, and gum - obsessed child. Violet chews gum obsessively and boasts that she has been chewing the same piece "for three months solid '', a world record which Violet proclaims was previously held by her best friend Cornelia Prinzmetel. She is also aggressively competitive, prideful and has won trophies for gum chewing. In the 1971 film, she is shown to be from Miles City, Montana, while in the 2005 film, she is from Atlanta, Georgia.
When Wonka shows the group around the Inventing Room, he stops to display a new type of gum he is working on. The gum doubles as a three - course meal which is composed of tomato soup, roast beef and baked potato, and blueberry pie and ice cream. Violet is intrigued and, despite Wonka 's protests, snatches and chews the gum. She is delighted by its effects but, when she reaches the dessert, blueberry pie, her skin starts turning a somewhat indigo color and her navel shows & her body begins to swell up, filling with juice. Eventually, Violet 's head, legs, and arms get sucked into her gigantic body, but is still mobile and is able to waddle. When her swelling stops, she resembles a round blueberry, causing Wonka to have the Oompa - Loompas roll her to the Juicing Room to have the juice squeezed out of her in fear she may explode. She is last seen leaving the factory with the other children, restored to her normal size but with indigo skin like the skin of a blueberry. Wonka says there is nothing that can be done to change Violet 's skin back to its original pigment.
In the 1971 film, Violet is impatient, arrogant, self - centered, vain, and impulsive. She is accompanied by her father, Sam Beauregarde, a fast - talking car salesman who tries to advertise his business during Violet 's television interview. She demeans Cornelia Prinzmetel more than she did in the book. She has a notable rivalry with Veruca Salt, with whom she persistently argues. Her blueberry form is relatively small, and her hair color remains unchanged. Violet is informed that she must be juiced immediately before she explodes and is last seen en route to the Juicing Room, with her father following her.
In the 2005 film, Violet has a rude, impatient and competitive personality. Aside from gum - chewing, she also has many other interests that reflect her obsession with always winning, such as karate. She is accompanied by her single mother, Scarlett Beauregarde (a former baton champion herself) whose own competitive personality appears to have had an influence on her daughter, as Scarlett expresses pride over Violet 's 263 trophies and medals. Cornelia Prinzmetel was not mentioned in this film. She is also shown to be anti-social and bullying when she briefly insults Charlie, snatching a piece of confectionery from his hand and calling him a loser when he tries to interact with her. She turns blue, although her lips remain red, and swells up into a 10 - foot blueberry before beiong rolled off to the Juicing Room by the Oompa Loompas to prevent her from bursting. Violet is shown leaving the factory gymnastically cartwheeling as a consequence of her increased flexibility, which she is actually happy about, although her mother is less than pleased with her daughter 's permanently indigo color.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Violet Beauregarde is portrayed as an African - American, Californian fame - hungry wan na - be, with her agent / father Eugene Beauregarde parlaying her mundane talent of gum chewing into celebrity status, with multitude of endorsements including her own TV show, line of perfume, and a clothing boutique franchise. Her theme is called "The Double - Bubble Duchess ''. It is revealed that Violet 's chewing "skill '' was picked up when she was a baby and her mom tried to get her to stop talking all the time. Violet and her father are escorted by an entourage to the factory entrance. Violet comes dressed in a sparkly purple and pink disco jumper and a pink backpack. Upon swelling in the influence of the experimental gum (which consisted of tomato soup, roast chicken, potatoes and gravy, Fizzy Orange, cheese and crackers and blueberry pie), she panics and runs away as the Oompa Loompas break into an disco number, "Juicy '', and roller skate along the stage as Violet lifts into the air, resembling a giant purple disco - ball. Mr. Beauregarde phones his lawyer excitedly, with intent to profit from Violet 's new size, until Violet explodes. Wonka 's only reassurance of her survival is the prospect of rescuing the pieces and de-juicing them. In the Broadway version, the song "Juicy '' is cut out (the only child - exit song to be cut from the London version), and Violet instead becomes a blueberry and explodes in the background while Wonka explains how he met the Ooompa - Loompas to the group.
Julie Dawn Cole (1971) Julia Winter (2005) Polly Allen, Tia Noakes, Ellie Simons, Scarlet Roche, Matilda Belton, Amy Carter, Hannah Howland, Ellie Benge, Ella Tweed, Stella Haden, Lauren Henson, Daisy Sequerra (2013)
Veruca Salt is a greedy, demanding, manipulative and stingy brat. She demands every single thing she wants (and more), the second person to find a Golden Ticket, the third eliminated from the tour and one of the four main antagonists of the series. A selfish, rotten brat who shows her wealthy family no mercy and has absolutely no regard for other people 's property, Veruca frequently pesters her parents to purchase a variety of different objects for her. In the 2005 film, it is revealed that she owns 1 pony, 2 dogs, 4 cats, 6 rabbits, 2 parakeets, 3 canaries, a parrot, a turtle and a hamster. But when she interferes with the trained squirrels used by Willy Wonka to select the best nuts to bake into chocolate bars, she is judged as a "bad nut '' by the squirrels and discarded into the adjacent ' garbage chute ' and her parents follow. All three are later seen leaving the factory "covered in garbage ''. Her nationality was never specified in Dahl 's novel, but she hails from upper - class England in both films.
In the 1971 film adaptation, Veruca has a fiery temper, rudely demands various desires nonstop, brags about her wealth, and chastises anyone who questions her. In this film it is not squirrels but geese that lay special golden chocolate - filled eggs for Easter, one of which she demands as a new pet. She and Violet, in this film, bicker on two occasions. Veruca is eliminated at the end of her musical number in the film ("I Want it Now '') after climbing a machine designed to tell whether or not the geese 's eggs are "good '' or "bad '' eggs, and it judges her as a bad one. Her father then follows and is also deemed bad. In the Tom and Jerry version of the film, Veruca and her father manage to escape the furnace right before it ignites while trapping Tom inside. Veruca demands to be taken home and have her father make her a different chocolate factory, but Mr. Salt finally decides to discipline her as the near - death experience seems to have finally gotten to him.
In the 2005 film adaptation, Veruca 's elimination remains virtually the same as in the book, with only a few changes made. Her demeanor is less vehement and more passive - aggressive compared to the 1971 version. When she leaves the factory (covered in trash), she demands a facsimile of the Great Glass Elevator. However, her father, having learned a good parenting lesson from the Oompa - Loompas and finally realizing how much he has spoiled her, sternly tells her that she will only be getting a bath that day instead, and shoots her a fierce glare for trying to argue any further.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Veruca Salt is a British billionaire 's daughter, dressed in a pink ballerina tutu and baby seal fur coat - "clubbed and tickled pink ''. Her father, Sir Robert Salt, is portrayed as a spineless dolt for giving his daughter her wishes. In the Nut Sorting Room, Veruca runs foul of the nut - testing squirrels who deem her a ' bad nut ' when she tries to steal one. This summons oversized squirrels with Oompa Loompas riding on their backs. They sing a nightmarish ballet "Veruca 's Nutcracker Sweet '' that concludes with Veruca and her father sent down the garbage chute. In the Broadway version, Veruca 's nationality is changed to Russian, and the squirrels tear her apart limb by limb, but Wonka assures the group that the Ooompa - Loompas will be able to put her back together.
Paris Themmen (1971) Jordan Fry (2005) Jay Heyman, Adam Mitchell, Luca Toomey, Daniel Rhodes, Innis Robertson - Pinnell, Dylan Standen, Archie Durrant, Freddie Haggerty, Harry Vallance, Frankie - Leon Rossell, Jude Ponting (2013)
Mike Teavee, a boy that does nothing but watch television, is the fourth Golden Ticket finder, the last removed on - tour and one of the four main antagonists of the series. He was described as adorned with eighteen toy pistols that he ' fires ' while watching gangsters on TV. He is bad - tempered, slothful but also intelligent. How he found his Golden Ticket is never explained in the book or 1971 film as he is too absorbed in his television viewing to talk to the press about it. In the 2005 film, he does have an explanation on how he found the Golden Ticket: he used an algorithm to find it as an intellectual exercise. In the book, both of Mike 's parents tour the factory with him. During a display of miniaturization technology, used to transport chocolate, Mike shrinks himself to a tiny size, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take the Teavee family to the Gum - Stretcher Room to get Mike stretched back to normal. Mike is last seen exiting the factory, now 10 ft (3 m) tall because the Oompa - Loompas overstretched him. After he got shrunk when his parents lament that he wo n't be able to attend school, Mike happily says he can continue watching TV. His angry father then blames the TV for Mike 's poor behavior and decides to unplug it and throw it out the window when they get home, much to Mike 's displeasure.
In the 1971 film, Mike is played by Paris Themmen and his surname is spelled "Teevee '' in the credits. Mike is nine years old and accompanied to the factory by his high - strung mother. He 's from Arizona, enjoys Western films and wears cowboy attire. He makes constant references to television shows throughout the factory tour and comes across as somewhat of a know - it - all. Although easily annoyed, he does not have any major anger issues and gets along relatively well with the other kids.
In the 2005 film, 13 - year - old Mike 's (portrayed by Jordan Fry) interests are updated to the Internet and video games (especially gory first - person shooters), in addition to television viewing. In this version, he is from Denver, Colorado, and is portrayed as more disrespectful. Whenever he says something critical of Wonka 's company, or his ideas, Wonka reacts as if Mike is mumbling, even though he does not. He is able to find the Golden Ticket by using math and logic, though he admits he does not even like chocolate. After the incident in the Television Chocolate room, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take Mr. Teavee and Mike to the Taffy - Puller Room to have Mike stretched back to normal. When Mike and his father are later seen leaving the factory, Mike is 10 ft (3 m) tall and incredibly thin and flat.
In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Mike Teavee (now age 10) lives in a suburban neighborhood with his disinterested father Norman Teavee and neurotic, alcoholic mother, Doris Teavee. Their opening number, "It 's Teavee Time! '' has Mrs. Teavee presenting her family as a normal, functioning household, downplaying Mike 's violent tendencies like setting a cat on fire, chloroforming a nurse, and stealing a German tank. In the Department of the Future, where Wonka transmits chocolate by television, Mike anxiously jumps into the machine and transmits himself, much to his mother 's horror. Wonka summons the monitors to see on which channel Mike has ended, as the Oompa Loompas rave around the room, singing, ' Vidiots '. Near the end, Mrs. Teavee joins the rave, as they conclude that Mike still has a future on ' Mike.com '. When Mike is shrunk as a result of the transporter, Mrs. Teavee happily takes him home as he can no longer cause trouble and she can take care of him like when he was a baby. In the Broadway version of the musical, lyrics in Mike 's song and some of Mike 's mannerisms reference president Donald Trump.
In the book, Arthur Slugworth is one of Willy Wonka 's rival chocolatiers. Slugworth, along with Wonka 's other rivals Mr. Fickelgruber and Mr. Prodnose, sent in spies to steal the secret recipes to Wonka 's treats, which he plagiarized, nearly ruining Wonka 's factory. After Wonka re-opens his factory (operated exclusively by Oompa - Loompas), Slugworth is never heard from again, but it is stated that Fickelgruber would give each of his front teeth to enter Wonka 's inventing room (laboratory / chocolate room in the book) for three minutes.
Slugworth has a much larger role as an enigmatic villain in the 1971 film. Inside Bill 's Candy Shop, Wonka 's products and signs are the most visible; but Slugworth 's Sizzlers are also prominent, and one is even sold to a child. Also seen are signs for Fickelgruber 's candy. Grandpa Joe describes Slugworth as the worst of Wonka 's rivals. As each Golden Ticket is found, a sinister man approaches the finder and whispers something into his or her ear. After Charlie finds the last ticket, the same man approaches Charlie as well, introduces himself as Arthur Slugworth, and bribes the child to bring him one piece of the newly invented ' Everlasting Gobstopper ', allowing him to plagiarize the formula and prevent the future invention from ruining his business. Two of the children (Veruca and Mike) respond to Slugworth 's bribe; but Charlie, when tempted, returns the Everlasting Gobstopper to Wonka. Wonka eventually reveals that the tempter is not Slugworth, but his own employee Mr. Wilkinson, and that his offer was a moral test of character. Slugworth / Wilkinson was played by Günter Meisner, a West German actor.
Slugworth only makes a split - second appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory where he alongside Mr. Ficklegruber and Mr. Prodnose are sending spies to steal ingredients from Wonka 's factory. He is here played by Philip Philmar.
In the Tom and Jerry version of the 1971 film, Slugworth 's role as a villain is expanded. When he first meets Charlie, he sings a cover of Veruca 's song, "I Want it Now! '' and also sings it as a duet with Veruca during her downfall. He teams up with Spike to steal a Gobstopper from the factory, but the two are thwarted by Charlie, Tom, and Jerry. Despite being more emphasized as a villain, he is still revealed to be Wonka 's employee Mr. Wilkinson.
Mr. Turkentine is Charlie Bucket 's school teacher and appears in the first film in 1971, but not in the book or the 2005 film. He has an odd sense of humor which he uses to express knowledge. He asks Charlie to assist him in making a medicine using several scientific elements for the class but the project is interrupted due to the frantic golden ticket search for Willy Wonka. Mr. Turkentine when hearing the news about the golden tickets during the project dismisses the class and runs out. Later when it is revealed that all the tickets have supposedly been found ending with a Paraguayan millionaire he decides to use Wonka bars as an example to teach his class about percentages. He uses a few students as examples for the class, including Charlie. Charlie however reveals that he only opened two Wonka bars during the search and so to help make it easier for his class, he decides to pretend Charlie opened 200. Mr. Turkentine is played by British actor David Battley.
Prince Pondicherry is a prince who lives in India. He appears in the third chapter of the novel when Grandpa Joe is telling Charlie a story. In the story, Willy Wonka makes him a chocolate palace in India, that melts in the hot weather, as he had rejected Willy Wonka 's advice to eat it before it melted in the heat. His name derives from the city of Pondicherry (officially spelled Puducherry since 2006) in southeastern India.
He is absent from the 1971 film version, but makes a brief appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, where he is played by Nitin Ganatra. His story here matches that in the book, except in depicting his wife (Shelley Conn) and stating that the Prince demanded a second palace, but was refused.
Oompa - Loompas are small humans who would end up being preyed upon or attacked by the various predators that also reside in Loompaland before Wonka invited them to work at his factory and are paid in their favorite food, cocoa beans, which were extremely rare on their island. The Oompa - Loompas are also mischievous, loving practical jokes and singing songs which, according to Wonka, they are very good at improvising. They sing at the end of each child 's demise.
In early editions of the novel, the Oompa - Loompas (originally called "Whipple - Scrumpets '' before publication) are shown as African pygmies before Dahl rewrote them to be white - skinned and golden haired. In both editions, despite working in the factory, Oompa - Loompas insist on maintaining their native clothing: men wear skins, women wear leaves, and children wear nothing.
In the 1971 film, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, they were written to be played by actors with dwarfism and are portrayed as orange - skinned, green - haired men in striped shirts and baggy lederhosen - like pants. Prominent portrayers: Angelo Muscat, Rusty Goffe, George Claydon, Rudy Borgstaller, Jo Kilkenny, Andy Wilday, Malcolm Dixon, Ismed Hassan, Norman Mcglen, Pepe Poupee, Marcus Powell, and Albert Wilkinson.
In the 2005 film, the Oompa - Loompas are all played by Deep Roy and are virtually identical. They wear their tribal clothing during their time in Loompaland, and typical factory worker uniforms in Wonka 's Factory. Some of the female Oompa - Loompas like Doris work in the administration offices.
Vermicious Knids are a fictional species of amorphous aliens that invade the Space Hotel "U.S.A. '' in Roald Dahl 's Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator.
They are also mentioned in the 1971 feature film adaptation, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, but here are mentioned only as predators of the Oompa - Loompas.
In the book, Vermicious Knids are huge, dark, egg - shaped predators who swallow their victims whole, and are capable of surviving, operating, and traveling faster than light, in the vacuum of space. Although normally oviform, they can assume any shape at will, while retaining their native texture and features. They originate (according to Mr. Wonka) on the planet Vermes, a fictional planet located (in dialogue) 184,270,000,000 miles (2.9655 × 10 kilometres) from Earth (52 times Pluto 's distance). In the presence of victims, they can not resist shaping themselves to spell the word "SCRAM '' (the only word they know) before they attack.
In Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, a swarm of Knids take possession of the new Space Hotel "U.S.A. ''. When the transport capsule brings the staff to the Space Hotel, the Knids consume some of the staff, and the survivors retreat to the capsule. There, the Knids bludgeon the capsule with their own bodies, until its retro - rockets are useless; whereupon Wonka, Charlie, and Grandpa Joe connect the capsule to the Elevator, in hope of towing it to Earth, and one Knid wraps itself around the Elevator while the others form a chain, intending to draw the Elevator and capsule to their home planet. The Elevator then returns to Earth, and the Knids are incinerated in Earth 's atmosphere.
When Nestle created their interpretation of Wonka 's world to sell chocolate bars under the name "Wonka '', they released a number of downloadable flash games, wherein Knids seem to have entered the factory and have the appearance of flying green blobs with single red eyes.
The etymology of the name was not provided by Dahl. Pronunciation of Knid is said in the book to approximate adding a schwa between the "K '' and "nid '', or in Dahl 's words, "K'nid ''. Cnidaria is the name of the taxonomic phylum containing stinging aquatic invertebrates such as jellyfish and coral, itself derived from the classical Greek word for nettle, κνίδη. Vermicious is a real word, meaning "worm like ''.
The Vermicious Knids are also mentioned in other Dahl stories, including James and the Giant Peach (where the New York Police Department misidentify Miss Spider as one) and The Minpins.
As detailed in unpublished drafts of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, far more than five children got the golden ticket to tour Willy Wonka 's secret chocolate factory, far more than four were eliminated, and the children faced more rooms and more temptations to test their self - control.
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where does garbage go on a cruise ship | Cruise ship pollution in the United States - wikipedia
The cruise ship industry is a significant and growing contributor to the United States economy, providing more than $32 billion in benefits annually and generating more than 330,000 U.S. jobs, but also making the environmental impacts of its activities an issue to many. Although cruise ships represent a small fraction of the entire shipping industry worldwide, public attention to their environmental impacts comes in part from the fact that cruise ships are highly visible and in part because of the industry 's desire to promote a positive image.
Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared to "floating cities, '' and the volume of wastes that they produce is comparably large, consisting of sewage; wastewater from sinks, showers, and galleys (graywater); hazardous wastes; solid waste; oily bilge water; ballast water; and air pollution. The waste streams generated by cruise ships are governed by a number of international protocols (especially MARPOL) and U.S. domestic laws (including the Clean Water Act and the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships), regulations, and standards, but there is no single law or rule. Some cruise ship waste streams appear to be well regulated, such as solid wastes (garbage and plastics) and bilge water. But there is overlap of some areas, and there are gaps in others.
In 2000, the U.S. Congress enacted legislation restricting cruise ship discharges in U.S. navigable waters within the state of Alaska. California, and Maine have enacted state - specific laws concerning cruise ship pollution, and a few other states have entered into voluntary agreements with industry to address management of cruise ship discharges. Meanwhile, the cruise industry has voluntarily undertaken initiatives to improve pollution prevention, by adopting waste management guidelines and procedures and researching new technologies. Concerns about cruise ship pollution raise issues for Congress in three broad areas: adequacy of laws and regulations, research needs, and oversight and enforcement of existing requirements. Legislation to regulate cruise ship discharges of sewage, graywater, and bilge water nationally was introduced in the 109th Congress, but there was no further congressional action.
This article describes the several types of waste streams that cruise ships may discharge and emit. It identifies the complex body of international and domestic laws that address pollution from cruise ships. It then describes federal and state legislative activity concerning cruise ships in Alaskan waters and activities in a few other states, as well as current industry initiatives to manage cruise ship pollution.
More than 46,000 commercial vessels -- tankers, bulk carriers, container ships, barges, and passenger ships -- travel the oceans and other waters of the world, carrying cargo and passengers for commerce, transport, and recreation. Their activities are regulated and scrutinized in a number of respects by international protocols and U.S. domestic laws, including those designed to protect against discharges of pollutants that could harm marine resources, other parts of the ambient environment, and human health. However, there are overlaps of some requirements, gaps in other areas, geographic differences in jurisdiction based on differing definitions, and questions about the adequacy of enforcement.
Public attention to the environmental impacts of the maritime industry has been especially focused on the cruise industry, in part because its ships are highly visible and in part because of the industry 's desire to promote a positive image. It represents a relatively small fraction of the entire shipping industry worldwide. As of January 2008, passenger ships (which include cruise ships and ferries) composed about 12 % of the world shipping fleet. The cruise industry is a significant and growing contributor to the U.S. economy, providing more than $32 billion in total benefits annually and generating more than 330,000 U.S. jobs, but also making the environmental impacts of its activities an issue to many. Since 1980, the average annual growth rate in the number of cruise passengers worldwide has been 8.4 %, and in 2005, cruises hosted an estimated 11.5 million passengers. Cruises are especially popular in the United States. In 2005, U.S. ports handled 8.6 million cruise embarcations (75 % of global passengers), 6.3 % more than in 2004. The worldwide cruise ship fleet consists of more than 230 ships, and the majority are foreign - flagged, with Liberia and Panama being the most popular flag countries. Foreign - flag cruise vessels owned by six companies account for nearly 95 % of passenger ships operating in U.S. waters. Each year, the industry adds new ships to the total fleet, vessels that are bigger, more elaborate and luxurious, and that carry larger numbers of passengers and crew. Over the past two decades, the average ship size has been increasing at the rate of roughly 90 feet (27 m) every five years. The average ship entering the market from 2008 to 2011 will be more than 1,050 feet (320 m) long and will weigh more than 130,000 tons.
To the cruise ship industry, a key issue is demonstrating to the public that cruising is safe and healthy for passengers and the tourist communities that are visited by their ships. Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared to "floating cities, '' in part because the volume of wastes produced and requiring disposal is greater than that of many small cities on land. During a typical one - week voyage, a large cruise ship (with 3,000 passengers and crew) is estimated to generate 210,000 US gallons (790,000 L) of sewage; 1 million US gallons (3,800 m) of graywater (wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundries); more than 130 US gallons (490 L) of hazardous wastes; 8 tons of solid waste; and 25,000 US gallons (95 m) of oily bilge water. Those wastes, if not properly treated and disposed of, can pose risks to human health, welfare, and the environment. Environmental advocates have raised concerns about the adequacy of existing laws for managing these wastes, and suggest that enforcement of existing laws is weak.
A 2000 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report focused attention on problems of cruise vessel compliance with environmental requirements. GAO found that between 1993 and 1998, foreign - flag cruise ships were involved in 87 confirmed illegal discharge cases in U.S. waters. A few of the cases included multiple illegal discharge incidents occurring over the six - year period. GAO reviewed three major waste streams (solids, hazardous chemicals, and oily bilge water) and concluded that 83 % of the cases involved discharges of oil or oil - based products, the volumes of which ranged from a few drops to hundreds of gallons. The balance of the cases involved discharges of plastic or garbage. GAO judged that 72 % of the illegal discharges were accidental, 15 % were intentional, and 13 % could not be determined. The 87 cruise ship cases represented 4 % of the 2,400 illegal discharge cases by foreign - flag ships (including tankers, cargo ships and other commercial vessels, as well as cruise ships) confirmed during the six years studied by GAO. Although cruise ships operating in U.S. waters have been involved in a relatively small number of pollution cases, GAO said, several have been widely publicized and have led to criminal prosecutions and multimillion - dollar fines.
In 2000, a coalition of 53 environmental advocacy groups petitioned the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to take regulatory action to address pollution by cruise ships. The petition called for an investigation of wastewater, oil, and solid waste discharges from cruise ships. In response, EPA agreed to study cruise ship discharges and waste management approaches. As part of that effort, EPA issued a background document in 2000 with preliminary information and recommendations for further assessment through data collection and public information hearings. The agency released its final Cruise Ship Discharge Assessment Report in 2009. The report summarized findings of recent data collection activities, especially from cruise ships operating in Alaskan waters.
Concurrently, litigation regarding the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program led to a 2008 decision by the Ninth Circuit Court, ruling that EPA could not exclude vessel discharges from NPDES requirements. Subsequently EPA issued an initial Vessel General Permit (VGP) with an effective date of February 6, 2009.
Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that can result in discharges to the marine environment, including sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water, ballast water, and solid waste. They also emit air pollutants to the air and water. These wastes, if not properly treated and disposed of, can be a significant source of pathogens, nutrients, and toxic substances with the potential to threaten human health and damage aquatic life. Cruise ships represent a small -- although highly visible -- portion of the entire international shipping industry, and the waste streams described here are not unique to cruise ships. However, particular types of wastes, such as sewage, graywater, and solid waste, may be of greater concern for cruise ships relative to other seagoing vessels, because of the large numbers of passengers and crew that cruise ships carry and the large volumes of wastes that they produce. Further, because cruise ships tend to concentrate their activities in specific coastal areas and visit the same ports repeatedly (especially Florida, California, New York City, Galveston, Seattle, and the waters of Alaska), their cumulative impact on a local scale could be significant, as can impacts of individual large - volume releases (either accidental or intentional).
MARPOL 73 / 78 is one of the most important treaties regulating pollution from ships. Six Annexes of the Convention cover the various sources of pollution from ships and provide an overarching framework for international objectives. In the U.S., the Convention is implemented through the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships. Under the provisions of the Convention, the United States can take direct enforcement action under U.S. laws against foreign - flagged ships when pollution discharge incidents occur within U.S. jurisdiction. When incidents occur outside U.S. jurisdiction or jurisdiction can not be determined, the United States refers cases to flag states, in accordance with MARPOL. These procedures require substantial coordination between the Coast Guard, the State Department, and other flag states, and the response rate from flag states has been poor.
In the United States, several federal agencies have some jurisdiction over cruise ships in U.S. waters, but no one agency is responsible for or coordinates all of the relevant government functions. The U.S. Coast Guard and EPA have principal regulatory and standard - setting responsibilities.
Cruise ships that are 79 feet (24 m) in length or greater, are subject to the requirements of the EPA Vessel General Permit (VGP). The most recent VGP was published in 2013. EPA issued a separate permit for smaller cruise ships, however this permit currently only applies to ballast water. A Congressionally - imposed moratorium applies to other wastestreams for these vessels until December 18, 2017.
The Department of Justice prosecutes violations of federal laws. In addition, the Department of State represents the United States at meetings of the IMO and in international treaty negotiations and is responsible for pursuing foreign - flag violations. Other federal agencies have limited roles and responsibilities. For example, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, Department of Commerce) works with the Coast Guard and EPA to report on the effects of marine debris. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for ensuring quarantine inspection and disposal of food - contaminated garbage (these APHIS responsibilities are part of the Department of Homeland Security). In some cases, states and localities have responsibilities as well.
Commercial vessels are required to obtain NPDES permits pursuant to Section 402 of the Clean Water Act. Section 312 of the Act prohibits the dumping of untreated or inadequately treated sewage from vessels into the navigable waters of the United States (defined in the act as within 3 miles (4.8 km) of shore). Cruise ships are subject to this prohibition. Commercial and recreational vessels with installed toilets are required to have marine sanitation devices, which are designed to prevent the discharge of untreated sewage. Beyond 3 miles (4.8 km), raw sewage can be discharged. On some cruise ships, especially many of those that travel in Alaskan waters, sewage is treated using Advanced Wastewater Treatment systems that generally provide improved screening, treatment, disinfection, and sludge processing as compared with traditional MSDs. AWTs are believed to be very effective in removing pathogens, oxygen - demanding substances, suspended solids, oil and grease, and particulate metals from sewage, but only moderately effective in removing dissolved metals and nutrients (ammonia, nitrogen and phosphorus).
Section 312 has another means of addressing sewage discharges, through establishment of no - discharge zones (NDZs) for vessel sewage. A state may completely prohibit the discharge of both treated and untreated sewage from all vessels with installed toilets into some or all waters over which it has jurisdiction (up to 3 miles (4.8 km) from land).
Graywater discharges from large cruise ships are regulated by the 2013 VGP. Graywater discharges from small cruise ships are currently exempt from the EPA Small Vessel General Permit ("sVGP ''), due to the Congressional moratorium.
Pursuant to a state law in Alaska, greywater must be treated prior to discharge into that state 's waters.
Cruise ship discharges of solid waste are governed by two laws. Title I of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act makes it illegal to transport garbage from the United States for the purpose of dumping it into ocean waters without a permit or to dump material from outside the U.S. into U.S. waters. Beyond U.S. waters, no MPRSA permit is required for a cruise ship to discharge solid waste. The routine discharge of effluent incidental to the propulsion of vessels is explicitly exempted from the definition of dumping in the MPRSA. 28
The Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships prohibits the discharge of all garbage within 3 nautical miles (5.6 km) of shore, certain types of garbage within 12 nautical miles (22 km) offshore, and plastic anywhere. It applies to all vessels operating in U.S. navigable waters and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) is the primary federal law that governs hazardous waste management. The owner or operator of a cruise ship may be a generator and / or a transporter of hazardous waste, and thus subject to RCRA rules. Issues that the cruise ship industry may face relating to RCRA include ensuring that hazardous waste is identified at the point at which it is considered generated; ensuring that parties are properly identified as generators, storers, treaters, or disposers; and determining the applicability of RCRA requirements to each. Hazardous waste generated onboard cruise ships are stored onboard until the wastes can be offloaded for recycling or disposal in accordance with RCRA.
A range of activities on board cruise ships generate hazardous wastes and toxic substances that would ordinarily be presumed to be subject to RCRA. Cruise ships are potentially subject to RCRA requirements to the extent that chemicals used for operations such as ship maintenance and passenger services result in the generation of hazardous wastes. However, it is not entirely clear what regulations apply to the management and disposal of these wastes. RCRA rules that cover small - quantity generators (those that generate more than 100 kilograms but less than 1,000 kilograms of hazardous waste per month) are less stringent than those for large - quantity generators (generating more than 1,000 kilograms per month), and it is unclear whether cruise ships are classified as large or small generators of hazardous waste. Moreover, some cruise companies argue that they generate less than 100 kilograms per month and therefore should be classified in a third category, as "conditionally exempt small - quantity generators, '' a categorization that allows for less rigorous requirements for notification, recordkeeping, and the like.
In addition to RCRA, hazardous waste discharges from cruise ships are subject to Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, which prohibits the discharge of hazardous substances in harmful quantities into or upon the navigable waters of the United States, adjoining shorelines, or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone.
Section 311 of the Clean Water Act, as amended by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, applies to cruise ships and prohibits discharge of oil or hazardous substances in harmful quantities into or upon U.S. navigable waters, or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone, or which may affect natural resources in the U.S. EEZ (extending 200 miles (320 km) offshore). Coast Guard regulations prohibit discharge of oil within 12 miles (19 km) from shore, unless passed through a 15 - ppm oil water separator, and unless the discharge does not cause a visible sheen. Beyond 12 miles (19 km), oil or oily mixtures can be discharged while a vessel is proceeding en route and if the oil content without dilution is less than 100 ppm. Vessels are required to maintain an Oil Record Book to record disposal of oily residues and discharges overboard or disposal of bilge water.
In addition to Section 311 requirements, the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS) implements MARPOL Annex I concerning oil pollution. APPS applies to all U.S. flagged ships anywhere in the world and to all foreign flagged vessels operating in the navigable waters of the United States, or while at a port under U.S. jurisdiction. To implement APPS, the Coast Guard has promulgated regulations prohibiting the discharge of oil or oily mixtures into the sea within 12 nautical miles (22 km) of the nearest land, except under limited conditions. However, because most cruise lines are foreign registered and because APPS only applies to foreign ships within U.S. navigable waters, the APPS regulations have limited applicability to cruise ship operations. In addition, most cruise lines have adopted policies that restrict discharges of machinery space waste within three miles (5 km) from shore.
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when does book club come out in redbox | Redbox - wikipedia
Redbox Automated Retail LLC is an American company specializing in DVD, Blu - ray, 4K UHD and video game rentals via automated retail kiosks. Redbox kiosks feature the company 's signature red color and are located at convenience stores, fast food restaurants, grocery stores, mass retailers, and pharmacies.
As of the end of November 2012, Redbox had over 42,000 kiosks at more than 34,000 locations. As of September 2016, Redbox had 51.8 % market share of the physical rental market.
Redbox Automated Retail LLC was initially funded by McDonald 's Corporation. Originally the kiosks sold a variety of products under the name Ticktok Easy Shop, however in 2003 McDonald 's ended its use of the kiosks for these products. Instead, Gregg Kaplan decided to use the kiosks for DVD rentals. The prices of the first rentals varied, until the company landed on the one dollar per day pricing. The price later went up to $1.75. The company also employed a ' return anywhere ' policy, different from competitors, which allowed consumers to return their rental to any Redbox kiosk, not just the one from which they originally rented the unit. Kiosks rented both films and video games.
In 2002, the company placed four automated convenience store kiosks that sold grocery items such as milk, eggs, and sandwiches as well as 11 DVD - rental kiosks in Washington Metropolitan Area locations. Redbox withdrew the grocery kiosks within a year, but the DVD - rental kiosks succeeded, and the company changed its focus to that market. In 2005, Coinstar bought 47 percent of the company for $32 million, after unsuccessful attempts to sell half the company to Blockbuster and Netflix. In early 2008, Coinstar exercised an option to increase its share from 47 % to 51 %. In February 2009, Coinstar paid McDonald 's and other shareholders between $169 and $176 million for the remainder of the company. While traditional brick and mortar rental stores were closing at a high rate, Redbox moved into existing retail locations such as supermarkets, and placed kiosks within them or outside of them in order to gain that consumer base.
The company surpassed Blockbuster in 2007 in number of U.S. locations, passed 100 million rentals in February 2008, and passed 1 billion rentals in September 2010. Current and former competitors include Netflix, Blockbuster, Movie Gallery and its subsidiary Hollywood Video, West Coast Video and Family Video along with other DVD by mail rental services. In Q2 2011, kiosks accounted for 36 percent of the disc rental market, with 38 percent of that attributable to rent - by - mail services and 25 percent to traditional stores, according to the NPD Group. As of Q2 2011, 68 percent of the U.S. population lived within a five - minute drive of a Redbox kiosk. The numbers for Q2 2013 shows that the Redbox rentals had surpassed 50 percent of the total disc rentals in the country.
Mitch Lowe joined Redbox in 2003 after spending five years as an executive at Netflix. At Redbox, he started first as a consultant and then as VP of Purchasing & Operations. In 2005, he became the Chief Operating Officer of Redbox. Lowe had experimented in 1982 with a short - lived VHS movie vending company named Video Droid. Lowe was named President of Redbox in April 2009.
In July 2010, Redbox announced that they were beginning to rent Blu - ray movies at 13,000 kiosks nationwide, and Blu - ray Discs were available across the Redbox network by the fall of 2010. In October 2010, the company began testing video game rentals in Reno, Nevada; Orlando, Florida; Stevens Point, Wisconsin; Austin, Texas; Wilmington, North Carolina; and Corvallis, Oregon. In June 2011, Redbox launched video game rentals nationwide. Games for all major platforms are offered, including PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch at select locations.
In February 2012, Redbox announced the purchase of former competitor Blockbuster Express (NCR) for $100 million. The acquisition included over 10,000 DVD kiosks, certain retailer contracts, and DVD inventory. As part of the agreement, Redbox entered a supplier arrangement of purchasing product and services from NCR. On June 27, 2012, Redbox sent an email to its customers announcing that it had completed the purchase of Blockbuster Express on June 23.
The company announced in February 2012 the deployment of kiosks in Canada to test the market in that country, but in early 2015 shut down their Canadian operation, citing low demand.
In 2012, Redbox 's founder, Gregg Kaplan, exited Coinstar as president and COO of Redbox. Anne Saunders became the new president of Redbox.
In July 2013, Redbox announced its 3 billionth rental of a disc, counting both movies and games.
The number of items rented from kiosks annually peaked in 2013, with 772.87 million rentals. There were then 717.13 million units rented, and in 2015 the number was 587.55 million, a decline due to the increasing consumer shift from physical media to streaming and other online services. That year the company also moved its 1,400 kiosks in Canada to other locations in the United States. Still, as of 2014, Redbox represented half of the physical media rental market. As of July 2016, Redbox offered Xbox One and PlayStation 4 games.
Throughout most of 2016, former parent company Outerwall was seeking a buyer based on shareholder input. In early September, Outerwall was sold to Apollo Global Management and its three units (Coinstar, ecoATM and Redbox) were split into individual companies. In late September 2016, Outerwall CFO Galen Smith was announced as the new CEO of Redbox. The company had approximately 40,000 kiosks in the United States as of January 2017. The kiosks are shifting around the country to different geographic locations in order to track consumer trends and in reaction to underperforming neighbourhoods. Most locations only have one kiosk, however in some cases there will be more than one to deal with high traffic locales.
The percentage of consumers renting or purchasing movies from Redbox rose in the fourth quarter of 2017 from the third quarter, according to a TiVo survey. In a survey of 3,000 respondents, TiVo found that 12.5 % of respondents used Redbox in Q4 compared to about 10 % in Q3. The percentage trailed only Amazon (17.9 %), which was up 3.3 % from Q3. Redbox usage topped iTunes (7.9 %), Google Play (7.2 %), YouTube Movies (4.8 %), Vudu (3.7 %), CinemaNow (2.2 %), Flixster (1.5 %) and other (1.4 %).
Redbox began internally testing a video streaming service, dubbed Redbox Instant, in July 2012. The service is a joint effort between Redbox and Verizon. On March 14, 2013 Redbox Instant by Verizon officially went public, offering customers a free 1 - month trial of an $8 / month unlimited streaming service that includes 4 disc rentals from kiosks ($1 more for Blu - ray). The service launched with 4,600 titles from movie companies such as EPIX, Lionsgate, NBCUniversal, Paramount Pictures, Relativity, and Sony Pictures. According to early reports, Redbox Instant also planned to allow users to download content to mobile devices for offline viewing; titles could be either rented or purchased, in SD or HD quality, with rental customers having 30 days to begin viewing their title and 48 hours of unlimited views thereafter.
In June 2013, Sony made the official announcement at E3 that Redbox Instant would be available on the PlayStation 4 console, and it was released in late 2013. Android and iOS apps also enabled streaming content on mobile devices.
Redbox Instant disabled sign - ups for new users in mid 2014 owing to a growing number of criminals using the website to verify stolen credit cards. In Q2 2014 earning call, Outerwall, Redbox 's parent company, stated that they were "not pleased '' with Redbox Instant subscription numbers. Finally on October 4, 2014, it was announced that Redbox Instant would be shutting down on October 7, only 19 months after its initial launch.
On December 13, 2017, Redbox offered a new service called Redbox On Demand. Like Redbox Instant, it is a streaming service, but based on a different model. It does not require any membership, and the list will contain new releases as well as several titles that it is claimed will never be available on services like Netflix.
Redbox began in 2004, using re-branded kiosks manufactured and operated by Silicon Valley - based DVDPlay, at 140 McDonald 's restaurants in Denver and other test markets. In April 2005, Redbox phased out the DVDPlay - manufactured machines and contracted the Solectron facility in Creedmoor, NC -- later purchased by Flextronics International, in October 2007 (Flextronics is also known as the manufacturer of the Zune, Xbox and Xbox 360) -- to create and manufacture a custom kiosk design. The new kiosk was designed by Flextronics ' Creedmoor design team, which included engineers Steven Hancock and John Rupert as key contributors under the direction of Franz Kuehnrich at GetAMovie Inc. (which was bought by RedBox). Other key contributors from Flextronics included Flextronics Global Account Manager Dave Stadelmaier and Global Supply Chain Manager Ben Wheeler (The KioskGuy). Redbox was innovative in that its carousel design not only decreased the number of robotic movements necessary to dispense and restock inventory, it also dramatically increased the number of discs (from 100 to 700 +) that could be stored within a kiosk. In addition, the software, designed and developed by Enterprise Logic Systems, was also innovative in that it allowed RedBox to remotely monitor and manage inventory at all kiosks throughout the country.
The company 's typical self - service vending kiosk combines an interactive touch screen and sign. It uses a robotic disc array system containing a stacked carousel of DVDs and web - linked electronic communications. Kiosks can be located indoors or out and can hold more than 600 DVDs with 70 -- 200 titles, updated weekly. The kiosks are built as modules, and in areas with higher sales figures, a second machine can be connected to the first one in order to offer a wider selection. The customer pays with a credit card or debit card. DVDs can be returned the next day to any of the company 's kiosks; charges accrue up to 25 days, after which the customer then owns the DVD (without the original case) and rental charges cease. Customers can also reserve DVDs online, made possible by real - time inventory updates on the company 's website. While customers can buy used DVDs from the kiosks (with unsold used DVDs returned to suppliers), Redbox estimates only 3 % of the company 's revenue comes from used - disc sales.
A Redbox kiosk rents its average DVD 15 times at an average of $2 per transaction plus any applicable taxes.
With growing concern in 2009 that DVD kiosks might jeopardize movie studio income from DVD sales and rentals, three major movie studios, 20th Century Fox, Warner Bros., and Universal Studios, separately refused to sell DVDs to Redbox until at least 28 days after their arrival in stores. Fox and Warner Bros. represented 62 percent of home video rental revenue in 2008 -- 09.
Redbox responded by filing lawsuits, first, against Universal in October 2008, then against 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. in August 2009. In August 2009, the federal judge hearing the Universal case allowed an antitrust claim to continue. In October 2009, 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. filed motions to dismiss Redbox 's lawsuits against them. During this time, Redbox continued to rent films from these companies, purchasing them retail from places like Walmart instead of receiving them from the movie studios, which in some cases saved Redbox in costs due to the discounted prices offered by retailers.
Other major studios -- Sony Pictures, Paramount Pictures, and Lionsgate -- signed distribution deals with Redbox. The Walt Disney Company permits third - party distributors to sell to Redbox, but has not entered into a direct relationship with the company. Both sides of the studio lawsuits pointed to these revenue - sharing deals to shore up their argument, with Redbox president Mitch Lowe saying, "our growth can lead to theirs (the studios ' growth). For example, Redbox currently estimates we will pay more than a combined $1 billion over the next five years to Sony, Lionsgate and Paramount to purchase and then rent new - release DVDs to consumers, '' while Warner Bros. says the deals are proof that far from being shut out by Hollywood, "Redbox 's business has thrived since its suit against Universal, underscored by lucrative distribution deals with Paramount Home Entertainment, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, and Lionsgate. ''
Redbox entered into an agreement with Warner on February 16, 2010, followed by Universal and Fox on April 22, 2010. In the agreements, which settle Redbox 's lawsuits, Redbox agreed to not make available for rental films from these studios until 28 days after their initial home - video releases. Redbox continued to sign additional and new distribution deals with these and other movie studios; by 2017, titles from Fox and Warner became available on Redbox seven days after their initial home - video release.
In 2013, there was an incident where a kids movie (The Smurfs 2) was swapped with porn. After several calls to Redbox, they said that this was an accident.
In 2017 Disney sued Redbox, accusing them for violating copyrights by allowing customers to download Disney movies such as Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Beauty and the Beast.
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what was the song magic carpet ride about | Magic Carpet Ride (Steppenwolf song) - wikipedia
"Magic Carpet Ride '' is a rock song written by John Kay and Rushton Moreve from the Canadian - U.S. hard rock band Steppenwolf. The song was initially released in 1968 on the album The Second. It was the lead single from that album, peaking at number three in the US, and staying in the charts for 16 weeks, longer than any other Steppenwolf song.
The single version differs noticeably from the album version with a different vocal take by Kay used for the first verse of the song and differing instrumental balances, most notably the introduction feedback. The single version is also much shorter than the album version, with a running time of 2 minutes and 55 seconds. (The album version is 4 minutes and 25 seconds long.)
The lyrics "I like to dream, right between my sound machine '' were inspired by a hi - fi home stereo system John Kay bought with royalties from his first album.
In 1988, the band rerecorded the song with the hip hop group Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. The track appeared on their reunion album On the Strength.
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was there a six flags in new orleans | Six Flags New Orleans - wikipedia
May 20, 2000 (as Jazzland)
Six Flags New Orleans (SFNO) is a 140 - acre, abandoned theme park in New Orleans that has been closed since Hurricane Katrina struck the state in August 2005. It is owned by the Industrial Development Board (IDB) of New Orleans. Six Flags had leased the park from 2002 until 2009, when the lease was terminated during its bankruptcy proceedings. The former park is located in New Orleans East, off Interstate 10.
Despite various announced plans to redevelop the site, as of August 2018 it is still an abandoned amusement park in extremely poor condition. Trespassing is prohibited, and the park is patrolled for 24 hours a day by the New Orleans Police Department. Despite these deterrents, videos and photos of the site have surfaced over the years from thrill - seekers and YouTubers. Due to this, city officials became more diligent in securing the park and banning tours.
The park opened under the name Jazzland in 2000. It was operated by Alfa Smartparks (later Odgen Entertainment and now known as Palace Entertainment), but owned by a Spanish company called Parques Reunidos. Rides included Mega Zeph, a wooden roller coaster track built on a steel frame to prevent termite infestation and withstand hurricane - force winds. Mega Zeph was inspired by the old Zephyr roller coaster at the closed Pontchartrain Beach Amusement Park that was located next to Lake Pontchartrain by the University of New Orleans. The intent was to rebuild the Zephyr, but it was a smaller roller coaster, so that idea was scrapped in favor of the current larger Mega Zeph. Other rides included a junior steel coaster called Rex 's Rail Runner, a wild mouse steel coaster and a common steel shuttle looping Vekoma boomerang rollercoaster called a Zydeco Scream (there are well over a dozen of these identical coasters in parks in the US). The park had a log flume called Cypress Plunge and a splashwater falls ride called Spillway Splashout. In addition, the park had common amusement park spinning rides and a carousel merry - go - round. The park was not profitable, as Alpha Smart Parks specialized in running water parks and smaller amusement arcade centers. In 2001, the lease was put up for sale, and in March 2002 Six Flags purchased the lease, although the park 's name did not change that year.
In early 2003, Six Flags upgraded the park and renamed it "Six Flags New Orleans. '' Six Flags added more shaded areas and many new flat spinning rides. The park was renamed Six Flags, and the "it 's playtime! '' theme was adopted that included a dancing old man, Mr. Six. They added a Bolliger & Mabillard inverted coaster named Batman: The Ride (a mirrored version of the B&M Batman: The Ride coaster model) relocated from the defunct Thrill Valley in Japan, and a Vekoma multiple looping coaster called The Jester relocated from Six Flags Fiesta Texas. A water park that would be included in the admission (like Six Flags Parks such as Six Flags St. Louis and Six Flags America, for example) was in the planning stages in early 2005 and was going to be announced at the end of August. However, Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans, which put those plans and the continued operations of the park in question. The last day the park operated was August 21, 2005. Weekday operations had ended a couple weeks earlier, as schools start early in August in the New Orleans area and end in mid-May. The park was scheduled to reopen on August 27 and August 28, but once Katrina was forecast late on Friday, August 26 to directly hit New Orleans, the weekend opening was canceled in order to prepare for the storm and begin evacuations.
The park grounds are located on a low - lying section of Eastern New Orleans, with a 6 - foot (1.8 m) earthen flood berm running along the perimeter, creating an artificial basin. As such, this area was heavily flooded in 2005 in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. After the park 's drainage pumps failed during the storm, the berm retained the combination of rainwater and sea water overflow from Lake Pontchartrain caused by Katrina 's massive storm surge, submerging the entire park grounds in corrosive, brackish floodwater to a depth of 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m) for over a month. Due to the extensive water and wind damage received, the park was closed indefinitely without plans to reopen.
Initial damage reports by Six Flags inspectors stated that the park buildings were 80 % demolished, all of the flat rides (except for one which was being serviced off - site at the time of the storm) were effectively destroyed by long term salt - water immersion and both the wooden track and steel superstructure of the Mega Zeph were likely damaged beyond repair. The only large ride to escape relatively unscathed was the Batman: The Ride roller - coaster, due to its elevated station platform and corrosion - resistant support structure.
On July 1, 2006, having announced that the park would be closed "at least '' through 2007, Six Flags announced that it had concluded its damage assessments and declared the park to be an "effective total loss '' -- with no desire or intent by the company to undertake the prohibitive cost of rebuilding -- and was in negotiations with the City of New Orleans to make an early exit from the 75 - year lease which Six Flags entered into on the property in 2002. However, then - Mayor Ray Nagin said he planned to hold Six Flags to the lease agreement and force them to rebuild. If held to the terms of the lease agreement, Six Flags would have been legally obligated to rebuild the park on the same site, but only to the extent of the insurance money Six Flags received. Six Flags determined the value of assets destroyed by the storm at $32.5 million. As of September 2006, Six Flags had collected $11.5 million of insurance proceeds, bringing the insurance receivable balance to $24.4 million. In January 2007, Six Flags officials revealed to the New Orleans Times - Picayune that the company was suing its insurers for the remaining $17.5 million in coverage.
The park had been one of the least profitable parks in the Six Flags portfolio, being well away from the French Quarter and other tourist attractions. It has been stated that the park would most likely have been more profitable had it been built somewhere on the West Bank or in Metairie, as these places are a shorter distance from tourist districts. These potential locations would have placed the park much closer to affluent population centers where a strong local base of repeat customers could be cultivated, as opposed to poverty - and crime - afflicted New Orleans East where few residents could afford or were interested in expensive season passes to the theme park.
On December 15, 2006, Six Flags confirmed that it was removing Batman: The Ride for refurbishment and relocation to a new park, as it was considered to be the only salvageable ride. Batman: The Ride was reassembled at Six Flags Fiesta Texas in San Antonio and opened under the new name Goliath on April 18, 2008. In addition to Batman: The Ride, Six Flags removed shade coverings, ride parts, lights, security cameras, planting structures and various other salvageable items.
Besides Batman: The Ride, other rides were later removed from the park. Bayou Blaster and Sonic Slam were removed in 2008 and taken to Great Escape in Queensbury, New York, where the ride was refurbished and reopened under the name Sasquatch on May 10, 2009. The Road Runner Express was removed in 2009 and taken to Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia, California, where it was refurbished and reopened on May 28, 2011 under the same name.
As late as the fall of 2009, the Six Flags website said the company was "still in the process of settling claims with its insurers due to substantial damage caused by Hurricane Katrina, '' adding that the park would remain closed. The statement ended with "We know that it is still a difficult time for the residents of New Orleans and we remain committed to working with the city in support of the recovery efforts. ''
In April 2008, Southern Star Amusement Inc. proposed to take over the site lease from the then - owner Six Flags, promising to expand the park to over 60 rides (more than double its pre-Katrina size), complete a water park that Six Flags had been planning, and add an RV park. Southern Star Amusement Inc. pledged to open the park as Legend City Adventure Park, with 60 rides in place, including a new water park by the summer of 2009 if the city approved the lease takeover, with the campground to follow. One issue concerning rebuilding was Six Flags ' continued removal of infrastructure from the park. In a quarterly conference call Six Flags discussed plans to remove the S&S Towers by 2009 with more ride removals to follow. Items from existing Jazzland rides, such as Mega Zeph 's trains and Spillway Splashout 's boats, were sent to other parks. On September 27, 2008, Southern Star stated on its website that it would no longer be trying to revive Six Flags New Orleans.
In February 2009, Southern Star was taking another look at the park and considering a takeover bid with the City of New Orleans. Southern Star planned a scaled down effort, with intentions only to reopen the park with a water park added within the existing midway area. The idea was to reopen and build incrementally, saving about $50 million in improvements for the next few years. Given the poor economic situation at the time, this plan seemed to be the only way that the park could be saved. The basic idea was to use investors and Go Zone Bonds to raise the $35 to $40 million needed to just reopen the park with basic improvements that are needed to make a real recovery and profit. Southern Star 's CEO Danny R. Rogers asked that Six Flags stop all removal action of equipment from the park, as the equipment in question belongs to the City of New Orleans and not Six Flags. The return of other equipment taken from the park by Six Flags was also requested.
On August 18, 2009, it was announced that the land would be redeveloped into a Nickelodeon - branded theme / water park.
On September 18, 2009, the city of New Orleans fined Six Flags $3 million and ordered the park to vacate its lease. (On June 13, 2009, the Six Flags had filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.)
As of early 2010, the site was overgrown with debris and weeds. Removal of the debris and underbrush had begun.
As of April 11, 2010, the site was still shut down with no clear future, since the city of New Orleans owned the property by this time and the plans for the Nickelodeon - branded theme park fell through three months after bonds failed to come through.
On January 21, 2011, Southern Star went public with its third redevelopment plans for the park, posting a link on their company website. On January 26, 2011, Southern Star posted a Letter of Intent for the park on its website. The redevelopment plans gave a brief history of the property, pre and post-Katrina condition photos, development concept photos, written descriptions of each phase of the redevelopment procedure and business projections for when it opens. During "Phase I '', Southern Star planned to restore what is left of the park, and expand it by adding more rides and reverting the park back to its original Louisiana theme. The park would be revamped to reflect Louisiana 's history and heritage, with one of the proposed sections paying tribute to the now defunct Pontchartrain Beach, which closed in 1983. "Phase II '' entailed adding a water park and future expansion phases included adding a youth sports complex, an on - site hotel / resort and a movie studio / backlot that would cater to the needs of various production companies filming in the New Orleans area. Plans also included developing an entertainment and shopping district within the park. These plans entailed utilizing all 224 acres (91 ha) of the site of which only 100 acres (40 ha) were to be developed and occupied by the remains of the Six Flags New Orleans park. The Letter of Intent from Southern Star set out a lease agreement between the city and the company stating Southern Star 's proposed terms of the lease and its intent for utilizing and restoring the area. The company would enter a 75 - year lease and take on the property in its current condition. Southern Star planned to take possession of the property prior to the establishment of the lease in order to provide preliminary security and repair / cleanup services. The lease would not have taken effect until Southern Star had taken possession of the property, started the cleanup process and provided proof of funding to the city. After that, the city had 15 days to execute its end of the agreement. Any and all improvements made would belong to the company and the lease would end in the year 2018. The plans never came to fruition, however.
In August 2011, the city of New Orleans called for proposals for redevelopment ideas for the site. Eight entrepreneurs stepped forward to suggest turning the property into a power plant, a theme park, or even an outlet mall. On November 29, 2011, the city of New Orleans chose two of the proposed projects: an outlet mall and a green theme park. On February 6, 2012, it was reported that the selection committee rejected the plan for the site of Six Flags New Orleans to become a theme park, leaving the upscale outlet mall as the only proposal being considered by the committee. Despite the committee 's actions, one of the original eight entrepreneurs continued to try to get public support for their Jazzland Park proposal, which includes the addition of a water park and movie studio back lot.
On March 6, 2012, the city of New Orleans gave the green light to build Jazzland Outlet Mall to Provident Reality Advisors and DAG Development. The proposal was for a 400,000 square feet (37,000 m) upscale outlet mall and entertainment boardwalk on the former theme park site, costing $40 million for part of Phase One and using some of the existing rides from the theme park. Construction would have taken between three and four years to build. During the planned period of due diligence and pre-construction, in March 2013 the development plans were abruptly called off. The developer cited competition from the planned expansion of Riverwalk Marketplace to include an outlet mall, making the Jazzland Outlet Mall concept unviable. However, as of the summer of 2013, Provident Reality Advisors and DAG Development has been back at the negotiating table with the city to come up with a new idea for the park; they will have to present a development plan to the Industrial Development Board (IDB) in October 2013, according to a contract. Once presented IDB will then accept or reject the proposal. The contract also states that construction of an outlet mall is to proceed, but it does not explicitly prohibit giving the developers an opportunity to put something else there.
In 2011, Killer Joe was filmed in the park featuring the wooden coaster Mega Zeph. Stolen was also filmed at the park that year. Stolen used the Main Street Square section to double as the Quarter. Additionally, a burning car was driven into the lagoon and the Orpheum Theatre was used as the home of the film 's villain.
The Industrial Development Board (IDB) agreed to let 20th Century Fox film the 2013 film Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters in the theme park during the summer of 2012 through August. Mega Zeph, Ozarka Splash and The Big Easy are three rides that have been shot for the film along with five other rides that the production crew had brought into the park, since all the original rides were rendered inoperable to shoot for the film. Before shooting at the park for five weeks, the production crew took two weeks to restore the derelict park into the needed condition by installing lighting and covering up graffiti on the buildings. The park portrays the fictional Circeland on the island of Polyphemus that was built by the goddess Circe, only to be destroyed by the cyclops Polyphemus.
During the summer of 2013, portions of the park were being filmed for the movie Dawn of the Planet of the Apes until mid-August. The park was also used to film portions of the movie Jurassic World in June 2014.
Jurassic World used the parking lot as the location for the Jurassic World park. Deepwater Horizon built its oil rig set in the parking lot.
Deepwater Horizon was the last film to use the parking lot. No movie studio has signed up to use the park for filming since August 2015.
In 2016, the video game Mafia III, is set in a fictional version of New Orleans. The abandoned amusement park in that game features a partially flooded site, a similar entrance way, and a roller - coaster which strongly resembles the Mega Zeph.
In 2016, a group that included the former head of Southern Star, came together to form "Dreamlanding Festival Park '' in order to buy and rebuild this park, pending city council / Mayoral approval. According to their website, they are ready to spend over 100 million dollars to re-open the park and have plans to open in 2019. The website also states they have more coasters ready for 2020. Included in this plan is a waterpark, which is set to open in spring of 2019, and that construction of the entire park will begin as early as the summer of 2018. A festival park and an R.V. site is also in their plans. They are currently waiting on the city 's approval to purchase the park.
In 2018, on the Dreamlanding Festival Park website, the following statement was released. "It is very hard to walk away from all the time and efforts we have put into New Orleans but in truth the old Jazzland / Six Flags park has now reached a point of no return. On our last inspection and after further review we find that the Rides that were savable as well as the majority of building are no longer economically viable to salvage. '' As of July 2018, no further news has emerged.
In 2011, eight groups, including the Paidia Company, responded to an RFP issued by the Mayor 's office. Paidia proposed to re-open the park as Jazzland, the park 's name until 2002. The company was not selected during the first RFP. A second RFP was issued in January 2014. Jazzland submitted the only proposal. The plans include newly designed themes for the park, a new Baritone Beach water park, Sportsman 's Paradise Resort Hotel and a mixed - use retail / dining / entertainment area. A few rides would be rebuilt, but most would be new. A "Sportsman 's Paradise '' section would include the existing Jester coaster, the "Beach '' would include Megazeph. Ozarka Splash would be rebuilt as a "sugar flume '', using the state 's sugar cane industry for its theme. In February 2017, the company submitted a purchase offer for the property. In May 2017, the IDB voted to turn over decision making power to the Mayor 's office. In June 2018 the IDB renewed the cooperative agreement with the new Mayor, keeping the decision power with the mayor 's office. Jazzland maintains its interest in purchasing the property.
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what is the climate in the blue mountains | Blue Mountains (New South Wales) - Wikipedia
The Blue Mountains are a mountainous region and a mountain range located in New South Wales, Australia. The region borders on Sydney 's metropolitan area, its foothills starting about 50 kilometres (31 mi) west of the state capital. The public 's understanding of the extent of the Blue Mountains is varied, as it forms only part of an extensive mountainous area associated with the Great Dividing Range. Officially the Blue Mountains region is bounded by the Nepean and Hawkesbury rivers in the east, the Coxs River and Lake Burragorang to the west and south, and the Wolgan and Colo rivers to the north. Geologically, it is situated in the central parts of the Sydney Basin.
The Blue Mountains Range comprises a range of mountains, plateau escarpments extending off the Great Dividing Range about 4.8 kilometres (3.0 mi) northwest of Wolgan Gap in a generally southeasterly direction for about 96 kilometres (60 mi), terminating at Emu Plains. For about two - thirds of its length it is traversed by the Great Western Highway and the Main Western railway line. Several established towns are situated on its heights, including Katoomba, Blackheath, Mount Victoria, and Springwood. The range forms the watershed between Coxs River to the south and the Grose and Wolgan rivers to the north. The range contains the Explorer Range and the Bell Range.
The Blue Mountains area includes the local government areas of the City of Blue Mountains, the City of Hawkesbury, the City of Lithgow, Wollondilly Shire and Oberon Shire.
Following European settlement of the Sydney area, the area was named the Carmarthen and Lansdowne Hills by Arthur Phillip in 1788. The Carmarthen Hills were in the north of the region and the Lansdowne Hills were in the south. The name Blue Mountains, however, was preferred and is derived from the blue tinge the range takes on when viewed from a distance. The tinge is believed to be caused by Mie scattering which occurs when incoming light with shorter wavelengths is preferentially scattered by particles within the atmosphere imparting a blue - greyish colour to any distant objects, including mountains and clouds. Volatile terpenoids emitted in large quantities by the abundant eucalyptus trees in the Blue Mountains may cause Mie scattering and thus the blue haze for which the mountains were named.
When Europeans arrived in Australia, the Blue Mountains had already been inhabited for several millennia by the Gundungurra people, now represented by the Gundungurra Tribal Council Aboriginal Corporation based in Katoomba, and, in the lower Blue Mountains, by the Darug people, now represented by the Darug Tribal Aboriginal Corporation.
The Gundungurra creation story of the Blue Mountains tells that Dreamtime creatures Mirigan and Garangatch, half fish and half reptile, fought an epic battle which scarred the landscape into the Jamison Valley.
The Gundungurra Tribal Council is a nonprofit organisation representing the Gundungurra traditional owners, promoting heritage and culture and providing a support for Gundungurra people connecting back to Country.
Gundungurra Tribal Council Aboriginal Corporation has a registered Native Title Claim since 1995 over their traditional lands, which include the Blue Mountains and surrounding areas.
Examples of Aboriginal habitation can be found in many places. In the Red Hands Cave, a rock shelter near Glenbrook, the walls contain hand stencils from adults and children. On the southern side of Queen Elizabeth Drive, at Wentworth Falls, a rocky knoll has a large number of grinding grooves created by rubbing stone implements on the rock to shape and sharpen them. There are also carved images of animal tracks and an occupation cave. The site is known as Kings Tableland Aboriginal Site and dates back 22,000 years.
Arthur Phillip, the first governor of New South Wales, first glimpsed the extent of the Blue Mountains from a ridge at the site of today 's Oakhill College, Castle Hill. He named them the Carmarthen Hills, "some forty to sixty miles distant... '' and he reckoned that the ground was "most suitable for government stock ''. This is the location where Gidley King in 1799 established a prison town for political prisoners from Ireland and Scotland.
The first documented use of the name Blue Mountains appears in Captain John Hunter 's account of Phillip 's 1789 expedition up the Hawkesbury River. Describing the events of about 5 July, Hunter wrote: "We frequently, in some of the reaches which we passed through this day, saw very near us the hills, which we suppose as seen from Port Jackson, and called by the governor the Blue Mountains. '' During the nineteenth century the name was commonly applied to the portion of the Great Dividing Range from about Goulburn in the south to the Hunter Valley in the north, but in time it came to be associated with a more limited area.
The native Aborigines knew two routes across the mountains: Bilpin Ridge, which is now the location of Bells Line of Road between Richmond and Bell, and the Coxs River, a tributary of the Nepean River. It could be followed upstream to the open plains of the Kanimbla Valley, the type of country that farmers prize.
European settlers initially considered that fertile lands lay beyond the mountains, as was China in the belief of many convicts, but that this did n't matter much, since the mountains were impassable. This idea was, to some extent, convenient for local authorities. An "insurmountable '' barrier would deter convicts from trying to escape in that direction.
A former convict, John Wilson, may have been the first European to cross the Blue Mountains. It is also believed that Mathew Everingham, 1795, may have also been partly successful based on letters he wrote at the time which came to light in the late 1980s. Wilson arrived with the First Fleet in 1788 and was freed in 1792. He settled in the bush, living with the Aborigines and even functioning as an intermediary between them and the settlers. In 1797 he returned to Sydney, claiming to have explored up to a hundred miles in all directions around Sydney, including across the mountains. His descriptions and observations were generally accurate, and it is possible that he had crossed the mountains via the southern aspect at the Coxs River corridor, guided by the Aborigines.
Governor Hunter was impressed by Wilson 's skills and sent him on an expedition with John Price and others in January 1798. The party crossed the Nepean River and moved southwest towards the present site of Mittagong. There they turned west and found a route along the ridge where today the Wombeyan Caves Road is located. In the process they found a way to go west of the mountains, by going around them instead of across them. In March of the same year, Wilson and Price ventured to the Camden area, and then continued further south until they discovered Thirlmere Lakes, finally almost reaching the present site of Goulburn.
It is possible that the accomplishments of this expedition were suppressed by Hunter, who may not have wanted convicts to know that there was a relatively easy way out of Sydney. Wilson was killed by Aborigines after abducting one of their women for his personal use, but he had accomplished much as an explorer. He was never recognised as the first person to cross the mountains, possibly because his Coxs River journey could not be verified, while his route west of Mittagong may have been the "long way around '' for a colony that had its eyes fixed on the sandstone fortress west of the Nepean.
Between 1798 and 1813, many people explored various parts of the mountains, from the Bilpin Ridge to the southern regions, today the site of the Kanangra - Boyd National Park. Still, they did not find a definite route across the mountains. The 1813 crossing of the Blue Mountains by Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Charles Wentworth is officially credited as the first successful European crossing. Blaxland set out with Lawson and Wentworth on 11 May 1813 and succeeded in crossing the mountains by 31 May. They ventured as far as to what is now Mount Blaxland, just west of Coxs River.
In November 1813, Macquarie sent the surveyor George Evans on an expedition to confirm the discoveries made by Blaxland and his party. He was also told to see if there existed enough arable land to justify settlement. The issue had become more urgent because the colony was in the grips of a drought.
Evans and his party reached the Fish and Macquarie rivers, and the site of Bathurst. On 7 July 1814, construction of a road across the mountains was begun by William Cox. The work was at the behest of Governor Macquarie. 30 convict labourers and 8 guards completed the road on 14 January 1815 after 27 weeks of hard work.
Since the Blue Mountains are rich in coal and shale, mining for these resources began in Hartley Vale in 1865. J.B. North ran a shale mine in the Jamison Valley in the 19th century, and other operations were set up in several places. Locations for mining activities included the Jamison Valley, the upper Grose Valley, Newnes, Glen Davis and the Asgard Swamp area outside Mount Victoria. Shale mining failed in the long run because it was not financially viable.
The climate varies with elevation. At Katoomba, (1,010 m or 3,314 ft) the summer average maximum temperature is around 22 ° C with a few days extending into the 30s (80s -- 90s ° F) although it is quite common to see maximum temperatures stay in the teens when east coast troughs persist. Night - time temperatures are usually in the teens but can drop to single figures at times. During winter, the temperature is typically around 10 to 11 ° C in the daytime with − 1 ° C or so on clear nights and 3 to 4 ° C on cloudy nights. Very occasionally it will get down to − 3 ° C or slightly lower but usually the coldest air drains into the valleys during calm, clear nights. The Blue Mountains is not known for particularly cold mornings compared to other areas on the Central Tablelands, such as Oberon, Bathurst and Orange. There are two to three snowfalls per year, although settled snow has become less common in recent decades. In the lower mountains, however, the climate is significantly warmer.
Annual rainfall is about 1,050 millimetres (41 in) in the Upper Blue Mountains with many misty days.
The predominant natural vegetation of the higher ridges is eucalyptus forest. Heath - like vegetation is present on plateau edges above cliffs. The sheltered gorges often contain temperate rainforests. There are also many hanging swamps with button grass reeds and thick, deep black soil. Wollemia nobilis, the "Wollemi pine '', a relict of earlier vegetation of Gondwana, is found in remote and isolated valleys of the Wollemi National Park.
The main natural disasters to afflict the area are bush fires and severe storms. In recent years the lower mountains have been subjected to a series of bush fires which have caused great loss of property but relatively little loss of life. The upper mountains had not had a major fire for some decades until December 2002 (the Blackheath Glen Fire) and November 2006 when an extensive blaze in the Grose Valley threatened several communities including Bell and Blackheath (the Lawsons Long Alley Fire). This latest fire burned for almost a month but was extinguished, mainly due to a change in the weather, without loss of human life or property. A program of winter burning seems to have been successful in reducing fires in the upper mountains.
The Blue Mountains Range contains smaller mountain ranges: the Bell Range near The Bells Line of Road and north of the Grose River; the Explorer Range, south of the Grose River extending west towards Mount Victoria; the Caley Range, Erskine Range, Mount Hay Range, Paterson Range, and the Woodford Range. The major recorded peaks are:
The Blue Mountains are a dissected plateau carved in sandstone bedrock. They are now a series of ridge lines separated by gorges up to 760 metres (2,490 ft) deep. The highest point in the Blue Mountains, as it is now defined, is an unnamed point with an elevation of 1,189 m (3,901 ft) AHD, located 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) north - east of Lithgow. However, the highest point in the broader region that was once considered to be the Blue Mountains is Mount Bindo, with an elevation 1,362 m (4,469 ft) AHD. A large part of the Blue Mountains is incorporated into the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage Site, consisting of seven national park areas and a conservation reserve.
The Blue Mountains area is a distinct physiographic section of the larger Hunter - Hawkesbury Sunkland province. This is in turn a part of the larger East Australian Cordillera physiographic division.
The Greater Blue Mountains Area was unanimously listed as a World Heritage Area by UNESCO on 29 November 2000, becoming the fourth area in New South Wales to be listed. The area totals roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi), including the Blue Mountains, Kanangra - Boyd, Wollemi, Gardens of Stone, Yengo, Nattai and Thirlmere Lakes National Parks, plus the Jenolan Caves Karst Conservation Reserve.
This site was chosen to be included on the World Heritage list because:
The Greater Blue Mountains Area is inhabited by over 400 different forms of animals. Among them are rare mammal species like spotted - tailed quoll, the koala, the yellow - bellied glider, and long - nosed potoroo. There are also some rare reptiles, like the Blue Mountain water skink. There are also some dingos in the area, which form the top predators and hunt for grey kangaroos.
The Blue Mountains are a popular destination for rock climbers, mountain bikers and hikers as well as canyoning and other adventure sports. These sports are well catered for by guiding companies and equipment stores located mainly in Katoomba.
Popular climbing destinations include the Centennial Glen cliffs near Blackheath, Mount Victoria, Mount Piddington and Mount Boyce. Climbing is currently banned on The Three Sisters.
Mountain biking takes place mainly on the many fire trails that branch away from the main spine of the Great Western Highway, such as Narrow Neck, Anderson 's Fire Trail and others.
Likewise many of the fire trails are popular with day hikers, though many dedicated walking trails exist away from the fire roads.
Canyoning in the Blue Mountains is a popular sport and caters for various skill levels. It carries inherent dangers, yet for those with the appropriate skills or those looking to take a guided trip there are many great opportunities to experience a different view of the Blue Mountains.
There are numerous abseiling options available in the Blue Mountains including single and multipitch routes. There are some restrictions though with certain areas being closed for abseiling.
Cricket is a popular sport in the Blue Mountains, with the Blue Mountains Cattle Dogs representing the district in the Western Zone Premier League, Country Plate and Presidents Cup competitions.
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who has played robin in the batman movies | Robin in other media - wikipedia
In addition to comic books, the superhero Robin also appears in other media, such as films, television and radio. Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, Tim Drake and Damian Wayne are generally the versions of Robin chosen to be portrayed.
For decades, Robin rarely appeared without Batman. The only exceptions have been animated stories featuring Robin as a member of the Teen Titans. Furthermore, from the 1940s to 1980s, Dick Grayson was generally portrayed as being a teenager or adult.
In the 1960s Batman television series and its 1966 movie offshoot, Robin (Dick Grayson) was played by Burt Ward.
In 2018, actor Brenton Thwaites will portray Dick Grayson in the DC Comics ' Titans television series, depicted as the former protege of Batman who left to form his own group of heroes such as Beast Boy, Starfire, and Raven. Also, the seventh episode of season one is titled "Jason Todd '', it 's unknown if this version will be introduced as the Red Hood already or maybe as Batman 's sidekick aspirant since Grayson left.
In DC Comics related cartoon series, produced by Filmation and Hanna - Barbera throughout the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Super Friends, Robin (Dick Grayson) was voiced by Casey Kasem or Burt Ward. Both the live - action and animated versions wore the standard Robin costume, much like the film serial versions of the 1940s. He is not paired with Batman in the Cartoon Network programs Justice League and Justice League Unlimited due to the Bat - Embargo which limited the use of Batman - related characters from any media source outside of the new Batman Begins movie franchise and The Batman animated series.
The Dick Grayson version of Robin made his first appearance during the first season of Batman: The Animated Series (1992 -- 1995), voiced by Loren Lester. He only made occasional appearances due to Bruce Timm 's insistence that Batman worked best as a solo hero as already proven in the first two Burton films. The second season was known as The Adventures of Batman and Robin, as per orders of the Warner Bros. executives who wished for more frequent appearances of Robin to be made throughout the season.
The Tim Drake version of Robin appears as the second incarnation in The New Batman Adventures (1997 -- 1998). This continuity does not include Jason Todd by name, but the cartoons describe Drake as a combination of all three Robins. Versions of the Carrie Kelley (Anndi McAfee) and 1950s (Brianne Siddall) Robins, both in the original costume, also make short appearances on the show in a dream sequence from the episode "Legends of the Dark Knight ''.
Tim Drake was voiced by Mathew Valencia in The New Batman Adventures, and by Eli Marienthal and Shane Sweet on Static Shock.
The Cartoon Network series Teen Titans (an adaptation of the New Teen Titans comic book series) with one similarity is that the character Robin is the Teen Titan 's leader. Robin joins Beast Boy, Cyborg, Raven and Starfire when Jump City is threatened by aliens in "Go! ''. Robin is generally respected by the others as the team 's best leader, but on the inside he is driven by an unhealthy obsession to win, which sometimes alienates him from his teammates ("Divide And Conquer '', "Masks '', "Winner Take All '', "The Quest '').
The identity of the series iteration of Robin (voiced by Scott Menville) is n't directly obvious, as the style of this version 's costume is still closely modeled on Tim Drake 's first costume, however, the colors are those of Dick Grayson and Jason Todd. Also, Robin has never been directly referred to by full name which was intentional, according to both Sam Register and Glen Murakami. The time - travel themed episode "How Long Is Forever? '' showed a future where Robin has taken on the role of Nightwing (a role taken up by Dick Grayson). The episode "Fractured '' shows an alternate universe version of Robin with exactly the same DNA shows up named Nosyarg Kcid (Dick Grayson spelled backwards).
In many instances, Robin 's relationship to Batman is heavily referenced. In "Go '', just before Robin attacks a thief, bats fly at him. After a while the thief says, "Are n't you supposed to be with... '' only to be interrupted by Robin who says, "Just moved here. I work alone now '', and throughout the episode, he says he does n't want to be in a team again so soon. In "Haunted '', Raven uses her powers to enter Robin 's mind; one of the images she sees is Robin 's shadow in a cave area swearing an oath to someone, and part of a circus ring with two figures falling (taken from Dick Grayson 's origin). When Robin rejects Slade in "Apprentice: Part 2 '' as a father figure he mentions "I already have a father '', and then the screen shows a shot of a dark sky with bats flying through it, also referring to Batman. In that same episode, a battle ensues on top of a building that says "WAYNE ENTERPRISES ''. In "The Quest '', Robin says that he was trained by the best and this is believed to be a reference to the Batman.
Robin also has shown to have romantic feelings for Starfire since they first met (just like Dick Grayson). There have been romantic moments shared between the two in the series, but neither Robin nor Starfire admit their feelings for each other until the movie Teen Titans: Trouble in Tokyo. During the film, Robin and Starfire come very close to admitting their feelings and having their first romantic kiss, but sadly Robin proves to be too focused on the mission (and also being interrupted by Beast Boy and the others) before insisting that, as heroes, they can never be anything more. However, after the film 's climax battle, Robin and Starfire finally admit their feelings for each other and share their first true romantic kiss with Cyborg commenting, "Well, it 's about time! ''. In the end, they are both seen holding hands and finally become a romantic couple.
The tie - in comic, Teen Titans Go! appears to confirm that this version of Robin is indeed Dick Grayson, as issue # 47 focuses on Robin struggling through the anniversary of the death of his parents (which are shown to be the Flying Graysons, as in the episode "Haunted '') with the other Titans trying to help him cope. Batman makes a cameo overseeing Titans Tower from the city, and after seeing Robin and Starfire kiss, claims that Robin is "in better hands ''.
Jason Todd is also mentioned by Beast Boy to be a potential candidate for Red X in the episode "X ''.
The Dick Grayson version of Robin appeared in The Batman, voiced by Evan Sabara. In this version, Dick Grayson is an energetic, gifted acrobat and one of the main attractions of Hayley 's Circus, along with his parents, as part of the amazing Flying Grayson 's act. His life was changed forever when Tony Zucco and his brothers tried to threaten Grayson 's father into taking a "protection '' policy. When the Graysons refused, an altercation resulted in the police and Batman being called. The Zuccos were easily defeated for the moment one of Tony 's brothers was even captured.
An angered Zucco altered the rigs on the Flying Graysons trapeze act, causing Dick 's parents to fall to their deaths right in front of their son during a performance. With no surviving family members, Dick was taken in by Bruce Wayne as Bruce saw shades of himself in Dick after his own parents ' murder. After Dick discovered that Wayne was Batman, the two worked together to capture Zucco. Dick chose the codename "Robin '' because that is what his mother had called him.
Grayson sports a costume elements of Tim Drake 's two Robin costumes, although an early promotional photo showed a suit with a bit more originality. His costume and equipment are also influenced heavily by his Teen Titans counterpart, however, their personalities differ massively; whereas the Teen Titans incarnation is a serious, focused and occasionally obsessive leader, this version is far less serious and genuinely enjoys his work as a vigilante, constantly spouting one - liners and generally acting in the mould of a typical teenager and his Golden Age comic counterpart. Some tension arose when Robin and Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) met. Batgirl, having been active as a vigilante and wan na - be partner of the Batman some time before Robin appeared, was quite jealous of Batman 's new ' official partner '. This was changed when Batman took the liberty of revealing their identities to Batgirl and fully accepted into the fold. Afterward, Robin and Batgirl developed a more friendly, almost sibling - like working relationship. Robin even likes calling Batgirl "Babs '' when they are n't in costumes, though she is not fond of the nickname.
As depicted in a possible future during the episode "Artifacts '', Dick Grayson gives up the "Robin '' name and costume to become Nightwing. Barbara and Batman still persist in calling him by his original codename. Batman did this more out of habit, and Barbara did it as a flirting sort of way to annoy Dick. Interestingly, the Police department who discover the Batcave in the beginning of the episode call Robin as ' Red Robin ', a reference to Kingdom Come, and they theorize that Bruce Wayne was Red Robin (with his father as Batman and his mother as Batwoman).
In the Krypto the Superdog episode, "Bathound and the Robin '', a literal robin called "Robbie '' is saved by Ace the Bathound and wants to be Ace 's sidekick, much to the dismay of Ace. Robbie 's costume resembled the classic outfit of Dick Grayson.
Dick Grayson was featured in Batman: The Brave and the Bold in the episode "The Color of Revenge! '' He is depicted as the protector of Blüdhaven - the city where he fights crime in the comics as Nightwing - but he is seen in the episode still as Robin. The rift between him and Batman has already taken place, and he is seen to still be angry at Batman for still treating him as a sidekick rather than a superhero in his own right. It is only after cooperating with Batman to defeat Crazy Quilt that Robin earns Batman 's respect. After Crazy Quilt is defeated, Robin joins Batman when Killer Moth hijacks the Gotham Bank Money Train, but he rides in the side cart of Batman 's motorcycle (something he stated he never wanted to do again). Robin was voiced by Crawford Wilson, and the teaser episode has several references to the 1960s Batman television series. Subsequently, he is seen in "Sidekicks Assemble! '' where he leads fellow sidekicks Speedy and Aqualad in a battle against Ra 's al Ghul. At the end of the episode, he decides to step out of the shadow of his mentor and take the costume and identity of Nightwing. He is seen as Robin once again in the teaser for "Emperor Joker! '', which shows a flashback to an earlier battle between the Dynamic Duo and Firefly. In "The Criss Cross Conspiracy! '', Nightwing returns and a flashback shows him as Robin. Dick eventually becomes the new Batman in the alternate future story, "The Knights of Tomorrow! '', with Damian Wayne acting as the new Robin. The episode ends with Damian succeeding Dick as the new Batman after the former retires, and Damian 's unnamed son (voiced by Sebastian Bader) becomes the new Robin. Damian Wayne is voiced by both Patrick Cavanaugh (as a child) and by Diedrich Bader (as an adult). Later, in the opening for "Triumvirate of Terror '' Robin was seen in the team of the Justice League International playing baseball against the Legion of Doom.
Robin (Dick Grayson) is one of the main cast members in the animated adaptation of Young Justice. The character is voiced by actor Jesse McCartney. Along with Aqualad, Kid Flash and Superboy, Robin is one of the founding members of Young Justice. However, when not on team missions, he still lives and performs his duties in Gotham City. As the most experienced member of the team, he assumed that he would automatically be the leader, but this would prove to not be the case. When in combat with Batman, their relationship is so defined that they do not need to communicate and Robin therefore assumed he could disappear and that others would immediately know what to do. Robin nominates Aqualad who accepts, saying that Robin will one day take over as he was born to lead the team. Throughout missions, Robin is shown to be the hacker of the group, making use of the computer interface on his wrist. As the youngest member of the team, he is still a bit immature and can often be heard laughing in combat as to either toy with or intimidate his opponents. He also questions the meaning of words, such as wondering why something is overwhelming, and not just "whelming ''.
In season 2, set 5 years later, Dick Grayson as Nightwing leads the team and has been replaced as Robin by Tim Drake. In Episode 8 of season 2 in the Justice League pantheon for fallen heroes we see a hologrammed computerized image of what appears to portray a second Robin with features similar to Jason Todd.
The Teen Titans iteration of Robin returns in Teen Titans Go! with Scott Menville reprising his role. In the show, Robin is portrayed as the self - appointed, hard - as - nails, hubristic, slightly power mad leader of the Teen Titans but fairly more light - hearted, and has a huge crush on Starfire but is too nervous to admit this, though he is also seen as being very arrogant, often depicting himself as the so - called "best superhero '', believing that he is better than his friends and heroes should always put themselves in the spotlight and take all the glory. He is also a "sleep - Fighter '', and is insecure about his lack of superpowers, which has, on multiple occasions, led to one of the other Titans committing mutiny and replacing Robin as leader. In some episodes, he is shown to fall into fits of madness easily, completely ignoring his team to follow through on his own view of how to carry something out. Such examples included continuing to dig an escape tunnel despite being rescued, forcing his teammates to rely on seven numbered options and scant resources during an educational 1800 's - style road trip without even the slightest bit of concern for their well - being (which ultimately leads to their deaths, which he reacts to with a lot of callousness), and thinking that nature is so dangerous he needs to be on edge and eat whatever he can find. An episode also showed that he had a backup Robin squad which features Carrie Kelly, a darker Tim Drake, and the upbeat 60s version all voiced by Scott.
In director Lambert Hillyer 's 1943 film serial Batman, Robin was played by Douglas Croft. Croft was the only actor to portray Robin at the actual age of sixteen; subsequent live - action actors have either been in their early to late 20 's.
Robin was played by 26 - year - old Johnny Duncan in Columbia Pictures ' Batman and Robin (1949), directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet.
Robin did not appear in the Tim Burton movies Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992). This was an unusual move as the two 1940s serials as well as the 1966 movie and attendant TV show had presented the ' Dynamic Duo ' as an inseparable pair, with the general public unaware that the comic - book incarnation of Batman often worked alone. The special edition version of the Batman (1989) DVD features an animated storyboard sequence of when Robin 's parents are killed by the Joker. Jason Hillhouse provides the voice of Dick Grayson, while Kevin Conroy and Mark Hamill reprise their respective roles (from the DC animated universe) as Batman and the Joker in the storyboard sequence. Burton planned to cast Northern Irish actor Ricky Addison Reed as Robin, but later felt it was unimportant to the story and cut Robin out altogether. In an earlier script of Batman Returns, he was portrayed as a technologically savvy street kid who would help Batman following his narrow escape when The Penguin tried to kill him. He would later play a crucial role in Batman 's final confrontation with The Penguin. In that script, he was simply called Robin, has no known real name, and was to be played by Marlon Wayans.
Wayans was considered for the role of Robin in Batman Forever, but the change in directors from Burton to Joel Schumacher would also mean a change in the choice of actor for the role of Robin. Chris O'Donnell played the character of Dick Grayson in the film, alongside Val Kilmer in the role of Batman. Dick Grayson 's parents and older brother were murdered by Two - Face during a hostage situation at the annual Gotham Circus after the family helps get rid of a bomb rigged to explode. Bruce Wayne takes him in as his ward out of guilt for being unable to save Dick 's family. Dick soon finds out that Bruce is Batman and becomes a costumed hero in his late teens. His costume closely resembles the Robin uniform worn by Tim Drake. However, Robin 's classic costume appears as Grayson 's circus uniform, sans the "R '' symbol and face mask.
O'Donnell reprised the role in the 1997 film Batman & Robin, this time opposite George Clooney as Batman. Tension between Batman and Robin is present in the film due to Robin growing tired of playing second fiddle to Batman and desiring to break free from Batman 's shadow, particularly after Robin 's recklessness leads to him getting frozen by Mr. Freeze. These feelings are later amplified when Poison Ivy exposes Robin to her pheromone dust and causes him to fall in love with her, sowing seeds of doubt regarding Batman 's faith in his ward. In the film 's climax, Robin eventually sees through Ivy 's schemes and makes amends with Batman, and throughout the film, it is hinted that he harbours romantic feelings towards Alfred 's niece, Barbara Wilson, who later becomes Batgirl.
Chris O'Donnell revealed to Access Hollywood that a Robin spin - off was planned but got scrapped after Batman & Robin.
In a June 2005 interview, Christopher Nolan, the director of Batman Begins and The Dark Knight, said that as long as he was directing the franchise, Robin would not be appearing. Since Christian Bale was portraying Batman as a young man at the time of "Year One '', Dick Grayson was still a child at that point. Bale has also given the same opinion regarding Robin, even though his favorite Batman story, Batman: Dark Victory, focuses on Robin 's origin.
In the film The Dark Knight Rises, Batman finds an ally in a young policeman who goes by the name of John Blake (portrayed by Joseph Gordon - Levitt), an original character created exclusively for the film. The character is Christopher Nolan 's interpretation / re-imagining of the first three Robin characters in the comics. Like both Dick Grayson and Jason Todd, Blake is an orphan who suffered the loss of both his parents at a young age. Also like Grayson, Blake joined the GCPD, eventually being promoted to detective. Much like Todd, he is an angry young man who first met Bruce Wayne near the latter 's car. And like Tim Drake, he discovers that Bruce Wayne is Batman on his own.
Blake is an orphan whose mother was killed in a car crash and whose father was murdered in a gambling related dispute when Blake was still a child. He was raised in St. Swithin 's, an orphanage sponsored by the Wayne Foundation. He also develops a great admiration towards Batman. During his time there, he learned to hide his anger over his parents ' death. When Bruce Wayne visited the orphanage, Blake noticed similar qualities between himself and Bruce, and single - handedly deduced that Bruce is Batman. When he was old enough, he became a police officer, and eventually befriends Batman 's ally Commissioner James Gordon.
After the discovery of Bane, Blake confronts Bruce and attempts to convince him to return as Batman. When Bane publicly declares himself, Blake takes Gordon into hiding and arrests Selina Kyle to question her about Bruce 's disappearance. He also shows his repulsion towards Gordon and Batman covering up the crimes of Harvey Dent. Blake joins Gordon and the other cops in a revolt against Bane 's rule, but is caught and nearly executed. He 's rescued by Batman, who tells him to evacuate the city. This attempt fails when external officers blow up the only bridge leading away from Gotham out of fear, since Bane had threatened earlier to have the bomb detonated (by a random citizen, later revealed to be Talia al Ghul, masquerading as Miranda Tate) if anyone tried to leave Gotham.
After Batman apparently sacrifices himself to save the city, Blake quits the GCPD, disgusted that the mainland police were willing to let Gotham perish. He attends Bruce 's funeral with Gordon, Alfred Pennyworth and Lucius Fox. He later attends the reading of Bruce 's will, and is pleasantly surprised to discover that Wayne Manor will become a home for the city 's at - risk orphans, named in honor of Thomas and Martha Wayne. When he gives the name "Blake, John '' to a clerk holding a package that Bruce had left him, he is told there is nothing there for him. He hands over an ID and suggests they try his legal name, which is revealed to be Robin. The clerk gives him GPS coordinates and spelunking gear, before she tells him that he should use the name "Robin '' more often. At the end of the film, Blake follows the coordinates, and finds the Batcave.
Gordon - Levitt has stated that the ending of The Dark Knight Rises is not a set up for a spin - off film and is the true conclusion of Christopher Nolan 's Batman series.
Jason Todd / Robin is confirmed to exist and currently deceased in the DC Extended Universe, with his suit covered in Joker graffiti making its first appearance in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Director Zack Snyder later confirmed Robin was killed ten years before the movie by a younger Joker, and the scene illustrated the sacrifices Bruce Wayne endured to be the vigilante and his willingness to face his past mistakes.
In Suicide Squad, it is revealed Harley Quinn was an accomplice to Robin 's murder, something that was n't present in the "A Death in the Family '' (1988) storyline as Quinn was not yet created. Director David Ayer later clarified that the Joker was indeed the person who killed Robin.
In 2017, a Nightwing film was confirmed to be in development. Dick Grayson / Nightwing is confirmed to exist in the DCEU.
Robin (apparently Dick Grayson) was featured in the DC DTV movie Justice League: New Frontier, where he was adopted, as a teenager (not a child, as in most interpretations), during the events of the movie. Batman did so because he realized that he was frightening those he was trying to protect. The circumstances of his adoption are not explained. He was voiced by Shane Haboucha.
In the DC Universe Animated Original Movie Batman: Under the Red Hood, an adaptation of the bestselling Batman storyline "Under the Hood '' from Batman # 635 - 650 and Batman Annual # 25, Neil Patrick Harris voices Dick Grayson / Nightwing while Jensen Ackles portrays Jason Todd / Red Hood. Vincent Martella and his younger brother Alexander Martella each provide the voice of the young Jason Todd in different ages as Robin in a flashback in the beginning of the film.
Carrie Kelly appears as Robin in the two - part animated film Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, voiced by Ariel Winter. Being a fan of Batman, Carrie took the mantle of Robin herself when the Mutant crime organization had been wreaking havoc on Gotham. Batman comes to see her as a suitable Robin, training her and using her to gather intel. She helps him with leading the former Mutant 's group Sons of Batman into learning his less violent ways, when Gotham needed martial law enforced. When Batman is called out to a duel with Superman after refusing to go back into retirement, Carrie helps Bruce fake his death. She, along with Oliver Queen (Green Arrow) and Bruce train the Sons of Batman group to begin taking on his job.
Jack DeSena voices Robin in the Target Corporation 's exclusive 2014 direct - to - video animated feature JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time.
In 2013, Justice League: War was released, the first of a series of films that shared the same continuity, known as the DC Animated Movie Universe. Damian Wayne and Dick Grayson appear in several of these films, Damian / Robin being voiced by Stuart Allan while Sean Maher voices Dick / Nightwing.
Son of Batman, an adaptation of Grant Morrison ' Batman storyline "Batman and Son '', was the first time Damian Wayne had appeared in a DC - related film.
In Batman vs. Robin, Damian comes into contact with the Court of Owls, being tempted to leave Batman and join him. Throughout the film, Batman and Robin fight over Damian 's rawness and his lack of discipline, leading to Damian almost joining the court before Talon (voiced by Jeremy Sisto), an assassin for the Court, is ordered to kill him when the leader discovers his secret identity. After Talon massacres the entire court, he and Robin clash in the Batcave before Talon commits suicide. Afterwards, Damian leaves for a monastery in the Himalayas.
Damian returns in Batman: Bad Blood, teaming up with Dick Grayson to investigate his father 's disappearance. The Heretic (voiced by Travis Willingham), makes his first film appearance, as an artificially - aged clone of Damian like in the comics. Heretic attempts to absorb Damian 's mind into his so he will know what it feels like to be loved, but Talia al Ghul executes him for his treachery and punishment, much to Damian 's horror.
In Justice League vs. Teen Titans, Batman decides to have Robin join the Teen Titans to teach him about teamwork and has Nightwing drop him off at Titans Tower. Damian ends up warming up to the team after being initially hostile towards them, forming a particular friendship with Raven.
Ward reprised his role as Dick Grayson / Robin in the animated movie Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders and its sequel Batman vs. Two - Face.
Michael Cera voices Dick Grayson in The Lego Movie spin - off The Lego Batman Movie. This version was adopted by Batman as a teenager and his Robin outfit is actually a modified Reggae outfit for Batman with the pants taken off. He has large, green glasses similar to the Carrie Kelley version. During the climax, he briefly dons a Batman armor labeled "Nightwing '' when attempting to save Barbara and Alfred.
Feudal Japan versions of both Robin and Red Robin will appear in the anime film Batman Ninja.
Robin (Tim Drake) is a playable character in Lego Batman: The Videogame, Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, and Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham. Charlie Schlatter voices Robin in the second and third titles. The Robin from the Lego Batman series appears in Lego Dimensions, voiced by Scott Menville. He is kidnapped early in the game 's narrative, forcing Batman to find and rescue him. The game also features the Lego Batman Movie version of Robin as a playable character, with bonus story chapters adapting his role in the events of the film; using this Robin in the Teen Titans Go! world transforms him into the version of the character from that series, reprised by Scott Menville.
In Batman: Arkham City, the Tim Drake version of Robin, voiced by Troy Baker, appears briefly during the story and is fully playable during the Harley Quinn 's Revenge DLC. Both Robin and Dick Grayson as Nightwing are playable in the game 's challenge maps. Dick Grayson appears as Robin in Batman: Arkham Origins ' multiplayer mode, voiced by Josh Keaton, with the ability to unlock Tim Drake 's costume from Arkham City. In Batman: Arkham Knight, Tim Drake returns as Robin (voiced by Matthew Mercer) and Dick Grayson returns as Nightwing (voiced by Scott Porter), while Jason Todd (voiced by Troy Baker) makes his debut as a new persona called the Arkham Knight, eventually transitioning into Red Hood.
Dick Grayson as Nightwing appears in Injustice: Gods Among Us, voiced by Troy Baker. Damian Wayne, voiced by Neal McDonough, appears as a villainous version of Nightwing in the same game. Damian in his Robin and Nightwing personas later appeared as a playable character in the game 's sequel, Injustice 2, voiced by Scott Porter. Jason Todd as the Red Hood, voiced by Cameron Bowen, appears as a playable character in the game via downloadable content.
The Teen Titans animated series version of Robin is a playable character in both the Game Boy Advance game and the console game adaptations; Scott Menville reprises his role from the TV series. Robin also appears as a playable character in video game adaptations of The Adventures of Batman and Robin and the films Batman Forever and Batman & Robin.
Lego produced a Lego Batman line of licensed sets in 2006, and a second Lego Super Heroes line in 2012. The 7783 - The Batcave: The Penguin and Mr. Freeze 's Invasion set features Robin in the classic costume with a mini speedboat, as well as the 2012 version 6860 - The Batcave which features Robin in a red and black costume. 7785 - Arkham Asylum includes Nightwing and his motorcycle as well. Set 6857 - The Dynamic Duo Funhouse Escape also features the newer red and black Robin figure. It is unclear whether this Robin is reflective of the Dick Grayson Robin, because of the costume 's color scheme, or the Tim Drake Robin, since Nightwing is also featured in the Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes videogame, although it has been stated on Lego.com that it is the Tim Drake incarnation. Lego has also announced a new Robin minifigure (also Tim Drake), released in the 2013 Superhero sets which has the appearance of Robin from Batman: Arkham City. In 2014, the Damian Wayne incarnation was released in a new set.
Batman 's radio series with Robin, The Batman Mystery Club, in which Batman told ghost stories, never aired. One episode was made: "The Monster of Dumphrey 's Hall ''.
During radio broadcasts of The Adventures of Superman radio drama Batman and Robin were paired with Superman over the years from September 15, 1945 to 1949. The pairing was pure novelty. The Batman and Robin appearances provided time off for Bud Collyer, the voice of Superman on radio. These episodes called for Superman to be occupied elsewhere and the crime fighting would be handled by Batman and Robin. On that series the voice of Robin was played by Ronald Liss.
The British poet Simon Armitage wrote the poem Kid about Robin. The poem portrays Robin having been dismissed by Batman and found a new lifestyle.
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office of program policy analysis & government accountability | Office of program policy Analysis and government Accountability - wikipedia
The Office of Program Policy Analysis and Government Accountability (OPPAGA) is the research arm of the Florida Legislature. OPPAGA supports the Florida Legislature by providing data, evaluative research, and objective analyses that assist legislative budget and policy deliberations. State law, legislative leadership, and the Joint Legislative Auditing Committee determine OPPAGA 's research issues. OPPAGA 's research focuses on improving program performance, saving money, and ensuring that program activities are appropriate. Since 1998, the state has saved $857 million by adopting policy options and recommendations presented in OPPAGA reports. OPPAGA operates under the guidance of a coordinator appointed by the Joint Legislative Auditing Committee and confirmed by the House and Senate.
In 1994, the Florida Legislature removed the program evaluation unit from the Florida Auditor General and created OPPAGA to help improve the performance and accountability of state government. Since this time, OPPAGA has provided over 1,000 reports to the Legislature. During this period, the office has received several awards for improving state government.
While Governing magazine reported that OPPAGA is "one of the most impressive legislative oversight offices in the country '', the office 's findings and recommendations may at times be considered controversial. For example, a 2004 OPPAGA report found that a Medicaid "disease management '' program the state launched in 1997 had failed to achieve its goals. Under this program, drug manufacturers received an exemption from state - mandated prescription drug discounts in exchange for providing disease management services to state Medicaid recipients with chronic conditions. OPPAGA found that the program saved the state $13.4 million, far less than the projected $108.4 million. The Florida Agency for Health Care Administration, which oversaw the program, and Pfizer, one of the pharmaceutical manufacturers that provided disease management, argued with the review 's methodology. However, lawmakers ultimately followed OPPAGA 's recommendation to separate the disease management program from the state - mandated drug discount exemptions. Now drug manufacturers can no longer provide disease management services in order to receive an exemption from state - mandated prescription drug discounts.
In 2011 it reported that a $108 million program to add seats to the states schools in anticipation of urgent need from 1998 to 2011, overbuilt by 25 %, due to economic stagnation and subsequent lack of growth.
OPPAGA provides a variety of research services.
OPPAGA researches all aspects of state government and conducts work through four policy areas -- Criminal Justice; Education; Government Operations; and Health and Human Services. A staff director heads each policy area. The following list provides examples of recent work completed by each policy area.
The federal Government Accountability Office (GAO) is the audit, evaluation, and investigative arm of the United States Congress.
Other states have offices similar to OPPAGA, but the organizational placement of these offices differs among the states. Nearly half of the offices performing government program evaluation operate as part of a legislative auditor general office. In another third of the states, including Florida, evaluation offices function as independent legislative units. The remaining states house their evaluation offices within a legislative oversight or another committee (such as the legal drafting and research office). Similar evaluation and audit organizations are listed below:
State legislative evaluation offices network through the National Legislative Program Evaluation Society to share ideas for improving government operations and identify options for cost savings.
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who decides when a general election takes place | General election - wikipedia
A general election is an election in which all or most members of a given political body are chosen. These are usually held for a nation 's primary legislative body, as distinguished from by - elections and local elections.
In presidential systems, a general election is a regularly scheduled election where both the president, and either "a class '' of or all members of the national legislature are elected at the same time but can also involve special elections held to fill prematurely vacated positions. A general election day may also include elections for local officials.
The term originates in the elections in the United Kingdom for the House of Commons.
The elections held to elect the members of the Lok Sabha after expiry of the normal term of five years are called the General Elections. Elections to some State Legislative Assemblies may be held along with the Parliamentary Elections. Earlier up to 1957 simultaneous elections were held for both the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies. However, on account of early dismissal and mid-term elections the two got separated. The Indian National Congress won the most elections.
The term general election in the United Kingdom often refers to the elections held on the same day in all constituencies of their Members of Parliament (MPs) to the House of Commons. Under the terms of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, the period between one general election and the next is fixed at 5 years, unless the Commons passes a motion of no confidence in the Government sooner than that, or if the House of Commons, with the support of at least two thirds of its members, resolves that a general election should take place sooner.
The term may also be used to refer to elections to any democratically elected body in which all of the members are up for election. Section 2 of the Scotland Act 1998, for example, specifically refers to ordinary elections to the Scottish Parliament as general elections.
Originally, British elections took place over a period of several weeks, with individual constituencies holding polling on separate days. The Parliament Act 1911 introduced the requirement that elections in all parliamentary constituencies be held on the same day. There has been a convention since the 1930s that general elections in Britain should take place on a Thursday; the last general election to take place on any other weekday was that of 1931.
The five - year limit on the time of a Parliament can be varied by an Act of Parliament implemented by several bodies. This was done during both World Wars; the Parliament elected in December 1910 was prolonged to November 1918, and that elected in November 1935 lasted until June 1945. The House of Lords has an absolute veto on any Bill to extend the life of Parliament.
In U.S. politics, general elections are elections held at any level (e.g. city, county, congressional district, state) that involve competition between at least two parties. General elections occur every two to six years (depending on the positions being filled with most positions good for four years) and include the presidential election, but unlike parliamentary systems the term can also refer to special elections that fill out positions prematurely vacated by the previous office holder (e.g. through death, resignation, etc.). Some parallels can be drawn between the general election in parliamentary systems and the biennial elections determining all House seats, although there is no analogue to "calling early elections '' in the U.S., and the members of the elected U.S. Senate face elections of only one - third at a time at two - year intervals including during a general election.
Unlike parliamentary systems where the term is distinguished from by - elections, a general election in the US is used in reference to and distinguished from primaries or caucuses, which are intra-party elections meant to select a party 's official candidate for a particular race.
In the State of Louisiana the expression general election means the runoff election which occurs between the two highest candidates as determined by the jungle primary.
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who was dana from real housewives married to | Camille Grammer - wikipedia
Camille Grammer (née Donatacci) is an American television personality, most known for starring in The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills. She started her career as a dancer, model, and actress, and worked as a producer and writer for Grammnet Productions. She was married to Kelsey Grammer from 1997 to 2011.
Born in Newport Beach, California, Grammer grew up in an upper - middle - class family in New Jersey. Her father is a financial adviser, who still worked in New York City as of 2011. Grammer studied English literature at Montclair State College in New Jersey, attending New York University and the UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television in Los Angeles as well.
Grammer started her career as a dancer in the 1980s, working on Club MTV for many years, starring in a dance group performing at the Tavern on the Green in New York City, and appearing in several music videos, including "Give It All You Got '' by Rights of The Accused, "The Party Starts Now! '' by Manitoba 's Wild Kingdom, and "Back to the Grill Again '' by MC Serch. In the 1990s, she started working as a model and actress as well, modeling in Playboy publications like Playboy 's Book of Lingerie, and appearing in R - rated erotic films such as Marilyn Chambers ' Bedtime Stories, New York Nights, and The Naked Detective. Grammer also had small roles in mainstream films Private Parts and Deconstructing Harry, in addition to her guest appearance in one episode of Frasier.
Grammer owns half of Grammnet Productions, which has produced a number of television shows from the late 1990s through 2010s, including Girlfriends, Medium, and The Game. Within the production company, Grammer has worked as a creator, writer, and executive producer.
In 2010 Grammer became one of The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills. While no longer a main cast member of the show, she still often makes semi-regular Housewives appearances. The January 13, 2011 episode of the show, in which Grammer revealed that her husband wanted out of their marriage, was the No. 1 telecast among adults 18 -- 49 versus all cable competition in its timeslot, as well as the highest rated episode of the season among all viewers. In addition, the Watch What Happens Live episode featuring Grammer as a guest right after the show outperformed all late night cable talk shows that night.
In 2011, Grammer returned to acting, guest - starring on the season finale of the CBS sitcom $ # *! My Dad Says, playing a recently divorced reality star named Camille. Describing her role, Grammer said: "My character Camille is basically a parody on myself, obviously, from ' Housewives of Beverly Hills. ' Just making fun of it, you know, making fun of all the quirky things I do and say. '' On whether she is pursuing a full - time acting career, Grammer told: "I studied acting years ago; it was kind of a dream I had years ago, but I gave that up when I got married and had children. I 'm not pursuing this. I definitely have to go back and take some acting classes if I was! But I have to say, my experience was very enjoyable and of course it would be something I would love to do. It 's so much fun to work with such talented people and be involved in the creative process. ''
Grammer has also made other appearances in various events like co-hosting the Showbiz Tonight special on CNN live from the Academy Awards in Los Angeles and presenting at the 2011 NHL Awards in Las Vegas.
In March 2012, it was announced that Grammer would not return for the 3rd season of The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills for personal reasons. In May 2012, while on the red carpet attending the Race to Erase MS gala, Grammer then stated that she will be returning to the show after all.
Grammer met actor Kelsey Grammer in 1996, and they married in Malibu, California, in 1997. They have a daughter, Mason Olivia (born October 24, 2001), and a son, Jude Gordon (born August 28, 2004), both born via a surrogate mother. In July 2010, she filed for divorce, seeking primary physical custody of the couple 's daughter and son, in addition to child and spousal support. The divorce was finalized on February 10, 2011. Camille has accused Kelsey of physical and verbal abuse during their marriage, while Kelsey stated Camille thought she married Frasier Crane and that she was seeking fame.
After her divorce, she began dating fitness trainer and lawyer Dimitri Charalambopoulos. On October 29, 2013, Grammer filed a domestic violence protective order against Charalambopoulos, saying that he assaulted her two days after her radical hysterectomy for endometrial cancer, when she was staying at Hotel Zaza in Houston, Texas, recovering. The Houston Police Department said that Grammer and Charalambopoulos "broke each other 's cell phones '' and that Grammer 's injuries were minor, so no charges have been filed against Charalambopoulos. He was then charged with assault of a family member and a felony by the Harris County, Texas, district attorney.
In October 2017, Grammer became engaged to attorney David C. Meyer.
Grammer was diagnosed with Irritable Bowel Syndrome in 1996, and has been featured in a Public Service Announcement to raise awareness of the disorder.
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what is the parent company for all toyota divisions worldwide | Toyota - wikipedia
Toyota Motor Corporation (Japanese: トヨタ 自動車 株式 会社, Hepburn: Toyota Jidōsha KK, IPA: (toꜜjota), English: / tɔɪˈoʊtə /) is a Japanese multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. In 2017, Toyota 's corporate structure consisted of 364,445 employees worldwide and, as of October 2016, was the fifth - largest company in the world by revenue. As of 2016, Toyota is the world 's largest automotive manufacturer. Toyota was the world 's first automobile manufacturer to produce more than 10 million vehicles per year which it has done since 2012, when it also reported the production of its 200 - millionth vehicle. As of July 2014, Toyota was the largest listed company in Japan by market capitalization (worth more than twice as much as # 2 - ranked SoftBank) and by revenue.
Toyota is the world 's market leader in sales of hybrid electric vehicles, and one of the largest companies to encourage the mass - market adoption of hybrid vehicles across the globe. Cumulative global sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrid passenger car models achieved the 10 million milestone in January 2017. Its Prius family is the world 's top selling hybrid nameplate with over 6 million units sold worldwide as of January 2017.
The company was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda in 1937, as a spinoff from his father 's company Toyota Industries to create automobiles. Three years earlier, in 1934, while still a department of Toyota Industries, it created its first product, the Type A engine, and its first passenger car in 1936, the Toyota AA. Toyota Motor Corporation produces vehicles under five brands, including the Toyota brand, Hino, Lexus, Ranz, and Daihatsu. It also holds a 16.66 % stake in Subaru Corporation, a 5.9 % stake in Isuzu, as well as joint - ventures with two in China (GAC Toyota and Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor), one in India (Toyota Kirloskar), one in the Czech Republic (TPCA), along with several "nonautomotive '' companies. TMC is part of the Toyota Group, one of the largest conglomerates in the world.
Toyota is headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi. The main headquarters of Toyota is located in a 4 - storey building in Toyota. As of 2006, the head office has the "Toyopet '' Toyota logo and the words "Toyota Motor ''. The Toyota Technical Center, a 14 - story building, and the Honsha plant, Toyota 's second plant engaging in mass production and formerly named the Koromo plant, are adjacent to one another in a location near the headquarters. Vinod Jacob from The Hindu described the main headquarters building as "modest ''. In 2013, company head Akio Toyoda reported that it had difficulties retaining foreign employees at the headquarters due to the lack of amenities in the city.
Its Tokyo office is located in Bunkyo, Tokyo. Its Nagoya office is located in Nakamura - ku, Nagoya. In addition to manufacturing automobiles, Toyota provides financial services through its Toyota Financial Services division, and also builds robots.
Presidents of Toyota Motor Company:
In 1981, Toyota Motor Co., Ltd. announced plans to merge with its sales entity Toyota Motor Sales Co., Ltd. Since 1950, the two entities had existed as separate companies as a prerequisite for reconstruction in postwar Japan. Shoichiro Toyoda presided over Toyota Motor Sales in preparation for the consummation of the merger that occurred in 1982. Shoichiro then succeeded his uncle Eiji as the President of the combined organization that then became known as Toyota Motor Corporation.
Presidents of Toyota Motor Corporation:
Chairmen of Toyota Motor Corporation:
On June 14, 2013, Toyota Motor Corp. announced the appointment of external board members; this was a first for the corporation and occurred following approval from general shareholders at a meeting on the same day. Additionally, Vice Chairman Takeshi Uchiyamada replaced Fujio Cho as chairman, as the latter became an honorary chairman while Toyoda remains in the post of President.
Toyota is publicly traded on the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, and Sapporo exchanges under company code TYO: 7203. In addition, Toyota is foreign - listed on the New York Stock Exchange under NYSE: TM and on the London Stock Exchange under LSE: TYT. Toyota has been publicly traded in Japan since 1949 and internationally since 1999.
As reported on its consolidated financial statements, Toyota has 540 consolidated subsidiaries and 226 affiliates.
Toyota, which earlier was the world 's third largest automotive manufacturer behind American General Motors and Ford, produced for first time in history more vehicles than Ford in 2005, and in 2006 even more than General Motors and has been the world 's largest automotive manufacturer since then, except in 2011 when it, triggered by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, fell to the # 3 position behind General Motors and German Volkswagen Group.
In 1924, Sakichi Toyoda invented the Toyoda Model G Automatic Loom. The principle of jidoka, which means the machine stops itself when a problem occurs, became later a part of the Toyota Production System. Looms were built on a small production line. In 1929, the patent for the automatic loom was sold to the British company Platt Brothers, generating the starting capital for the automobile development.
The production of Toyota automobiles was started in 1933 as a division of Toyoda Automatic Loom Works devoted to the production of automobiles under the direction of the founder 's son, Kiichiro Toyoda. Its first vehicles were the A1 passenger car and the G1 in 1935. The Toyota Motor Co. was established as an independent company in 1937
Vehicles were originally sold under the name "Toyoda '' (トヨダ), from the family name of the company 's founder, Kiichirō Toyoda. In April 1936, Toyoda 's first passenger car, the Model AA, was completed. The sales price was 3,350 yen, 400 yen cheaper than Ford or GM cars.
In September 1936, the company ran a public competition to design a new logo. Of 27,000 entries, the winning entry was the three Japanese katakana letters for "Toyoda '' in a circle. But Rizaburo Toyoda, who had married into the family and was not born with that name, preferred "Toyota '' (トヨタ) because it took eight brush strokes (a lucky number) to write in Japanese, was visually simpler (leaving off the diacritic at the end), and with a voiceless consonant instead of a voiced one (voiced consonants are considered to have a "murky '' or "muddy '' sound compared to voiceless consonants, which are "clear '').
Since toyoda literally means "fertile rice paddies '', changing the name also prevented the company from being associated with old - fashioned farming. The newly formed word was trademarked and the company was registered in August 1937 as the Toyota Motor Company.
From September 1947, Toyota 's small - sized vehicles were sold under the name "Toyopet '' (トヨペット). The first vehicle sold under this name was the Toyopet SA, but it also included vehicles such as the Toyopet SB light truck, Toyopet Stout light truck, Toyopet Crown, Toyopet Master, and the Toyopet Corona. The word "Toyopet (Japanese article) '' was a nickname given to the Toyota SA due to its small size, as the result of a naming contest the Toyota Company organized in 1947. However, when Toyota eventually entered the American market in 1957 with the Crown, the name was not well received due to connotations of toys and pets. The name was soon dropped for the American market, but continued in other markets until the mid-1960s.
By the early 1960s, the US had begun placing stiff import tariffs on certain vehicles. The so - called "chicken tax '' of 1964 placed a 25 % tax on imported light trucks. In response to the tariff, Toyota, Nissan Motor Co. and Honda Motor Co. began building plants in the US by the early 1980s.
Toyota received its first Japanese Quality Control Award at the start of the 1980s and began participating in a wide variety of motorsports. Due to the 1973 oil crisis, consumers in the lucrative US market began turning to small cars with better fuel economy. American car manufacturers had considered small economy cars to be an entry - level product, and their small vehicles employed a low level of quality to keep the price low. Conservative Toyota held on to rear - wheel - drive designs for longer than most; while a clear first in overall production they were only third in production of front - wheel - drive cars in 1983, behind Nissan and Honda. In part due to this, Nissan 's Sunny managed to squeeze by the Corolla in numbers built that year.
In 1982, the Toyota Motor Company and Toyota Motor Sales merged into one company, the Toyota Motor Corporation. Two years later, Toyota entered into a joint venture with General Motors called the New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc, NUMMI, operating an automobile - manufacturing plant in Fremont, California. The factory was an old General Motors plant that had been closed for two years. Toyota then started to establish new brands at the end of the 1980s, with the launch of their luxury division Lexus in 1989.
In the 1990s, Toyota began to branch out from producing mostly compact cars by adding many larger and more luxurious vehicles to its lineup, including a full - sized pickup, the T100 (and later the Tundra), several lines of SUVs, a sport version of the Camry, known as the Camry Solara, and the Scion brand. They would also launch newer and arguably more iconic iterations of their sports cars, namely the MR2, Celica, and Supra during this era, all of which have already become icons of the 1990s.
With a major presence in Europe, due to the success of Toyota Team Europe, the corporation decided to set up Toyota Motor Europe Marketing and Engineering, TMME, to help market vehicles in the continent. Two years later, Toyota set up a base in the United Kingdom, TMUK, as the company 's cars had become very popular among British drivers. Bases in Indiana, Virginia, and Tianjin were also set up. In 1999, the company decided to list itself on the New York and London Stock Exchanges.
In 2001, Toyota 's Toyo Trust and Banking merged with two other banks to form UFJ Bank, which was accused of corruption by Japan 's government for making bad loans to alleged Yakuza crime syndicates with executives accused of blocking Financial Service Agency inspections. The UFJ was listed among Fortune Magazine 's largest money - losing corporations in the world, with Toyota 's chairman serving as a director. At the time, the UFJ was one of the largest shareholders of Toyota. As a result of Japan 's banking crisis, UFJ merged with the Bank of Tokyo - Mitsubishi to become the Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group.
In 2002, Toyota managed to enter a Formula One works team and establish joint ventures with French motoring companies Citroën and Peugeot a year after Toyota started producing cars in France.
Toyota ranked eighth on Forbes 2000 list of the world 's leading companies for the year 2005 but slid to 55 for 2011. The company was number one in global automobile sales for the first quarter of 2008.
In 2007, Toyota released an update of its full - sized truck, the Tundra, produced in two American factories, one in Texas and one in Indiana. Motor Trend named the Tundra "Truck of the Year '', and the 2007 Toyota Camry "Car of the Year '' for 2007. It also began the construction of two new factories, one to build the RAV4 in Woodstock, Ontario, Canada, and the other to build the Toyota Prius in Blue Springs, Mississippi, USA. This plant was originally intended to build the Toyota Highlander, but Toyota decided to use the plant in Princeton, Indiana, USA, instead. The company has also found recent success with its smaller models -- the Corolla and Yaris.
In 2011, Toyota, along with large parts of the Japanese automotive industry, suffered from a series of natural disasters. The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami led to a severe disruption of the supplier base and a drop in production and exports. Severe flooding during the 2011 monsoon season in Thailand affected Japanese automakers that had chosen Thailand as a production base. Toyota is estimated to have lost production of 150,000 units to the tsunami and production of 240,000 units to the floods.
On February 10, 2014, it was announced that Toyota would cease manufacturing vehicles and engines in Australia by the end of 2017. The decision was based on the unfavourable Australian dollar making exports not viable, the high cost of local manufacture and the high amount of competition in a relatively small local market. The company plans to consolidate its corporate functions in Melbourne by the end of 2017. The head office will remain in Port Melbourne and the Altona plant will be retained for other functions. The workforce is expected to be reduced from 3,900 to 1,300.
The automaker narrowly topped global sales for the first half of 2014, selling 5.1 million vehicles in the six months ending June 30, 2014, an increase of 3.8 % on the same period the previous year. Volkswagen AG, which recorded sales of 5.07 million vehicles, was close behind.
In August 2014, Toyota announced it would be cutting its spare - parts prices in China by up to 35 %. The company admitted the move was in response to a probe foreshadowed earlier in the month by China 's National Development and Reform Commission of Toyota 's Lexus spare - parts policies, as part of an industry - wide investigation into what the Chinese regulator considers exorbitantly high prices being charged by automakers for spare parts and after - sales servicing.
In November 2015, the company announced that it would invest US $1 billion over the next 5 years into artificial intelligence and robotics research. In 2016, Toyota invested in Uber.
In March 2016, Toyota partnered with Yanmar to create a fibreglass pleasure boat using Yanmar outboard marine diesel engines or Toyota inboard engines.
From November 2009 through 2010, Toyota recalled more than 9 million cars and trucks worldwide in several recall campaigns, and briefly halted production and sales. Toyota initiated the recalls, the first two with the assistance of the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), after reports that several vehicles experienced unintended acceleration.
In October 2012, Toyota announced a recall of 7.43 million vehicles worldwide to fix malfunctioning power window switches, the largest recall since that of Ford Motor Company in 1996. The move came after a series of recalls between 2009 and 2011 in which it pulled back around 10 million cars amidst claims of faulty mechanics. In March 2014, Toyota agreed to pay a fine of US $1.2 billion for concealing information and misleading the public about the safety issues behind the recalls on Toyota and Lexus vehicles affected by unintended acceleration.
In early November 2014, Toyota USA enlisted a recall involving defective inflaters and propellant devices that may deploy improperly in the event of a crash, shooting metal fragments into vehicle occupants. More than 7 million vehicles are potentially affected in the United States. This recall only affects vehicles equipped with Takata airbags released after the year 2000 in North America. The airbags were manufactured by Takata automotive manufacturing. Toyota is offering a free repair to all affected vehicles worldwide. The fault in the Takata air bags also affected other North American automobile manufacturers.
In 1936, Toyota entered the passenger car market with its Model AA and held a competition to establish a new logo emphasizing speed for its new product line. After receiving 27,000 entries, one was selected that additionally resulted in a change of its moniker to "Toyota '' from the family name "Toyoda ''. The new name was believed to sound better, and its eight - stroke count in the Japanese language was associated with wealth and good fortune. The original logo is no longer found on its vehicles but remains the corporate emblem used in Japan.
Still, no guidelines existed for the use of the brand name, so "TOYOTA '', which was used throughout most of the world, led to inconsistencies in its worldwide marketing campaigns.
To remedy this, Toyota introduced a new worldwide logo in October 1989 to commemorate the 50th year of the company, and to differentiate it from the newly released luxury Lexus brand. The logo made its debut on the 1989 Toyota Celsior and quickly gained worldwide recognition. The three ovals in the new logo combine to form the letter "T '', which stands for Toyota. The overlapping of the two perpendicular ovals inside the larger oval represents the mutually beneficial relationship and trust between the customer and the company while the larger oval surrounding both of these inner ovals represents the "global expansion of Toyota 's technology and unlimited potential for the future ''.
The new logo started appearing on all printed material, advertisements, dealer signage, and the vehicles themselves in 1990.
In predominantly Chinese - speaking countries or regions using traditional Chinese characters, e.g. Hong Kong and Taiwan, Toyota is known as "豐田 ''. In Chinese - speaking countries using simplified Chinese characters (e.g. China), Toyota is known as "丰田 '' (pronounced as Fēngtián in Mandarin Chinese and Hɔng Tshan in Minnanese). These are the same characters as the founding family 's name "Toyoda '' in Japanese.
In Japan, Toyota currently maintains separate dealership sales channels. The first sales channel established in 1946 called "Toyota Store '' (トヨタ 店 Toyota Mise) sells large luxury sedans such as the Toyota Century, and the Toyota Crown. In 1955, the "Toyopet Store '' (トヨペット 店 Toyopetto - ten) arrived, originally established to sell the Toyota Corona and the Toyopet ToyoAce truck. (Toyota 's five channel dealerships in Japan chronology in Japanese.) Toyota sought out to use a hierarchical marketing approach, similar to methods used in North America, but implemented it at all of its dealership chains, with some models being exclusive to particular locations.
Toyota operated a commercial dealership called Toyota Diesel Shop (トヨタ ディーゼル 店 Toyota Dīzeru - ten) from 1957 until 1988 that sold various commercial platform trucks, buses, and forklifts, such as the Toyota Dyna and the Toyota Coaster. Hino products were sold at specific Hino locations and shared at Toyota Diesel Store locations after Toyota acquired the company in 1967. Starting in 1980, the Diesel Shop also sold the Starlet, Corolla, Corona, Vista, and Crown installed with diesel engines. When the Toyota Diesel Store was disbanded, commercial products were divided between Toyota Store and Toyopet Store locations.
Currently, the "Toyota Corolla Store '' (トヨタ カローラ 店 Toyota Karōra - ten) was renamed from the "Toyota Publica Store '' (トヨタ パブリカ 店 Toyota Paburika - ten), which was established to sell the Toyota Publica in 1961, then renamed to sell the Toyota Corolla in 1966.
In 1980, the "Toyota Vista Store '' replaced the "Toyota Auto Store '' (トヨタ オート 店 Toyota Ōto - ten) sales network that sold the Corolla companion, called the Toyota Sprinter established in 1967. The "Vista '' name was used on a new Camry - clone, called the Toyota Vista. The Toyota Vista network was replaced with two networks; "Toyota NETZ '' (ネッツ 店 Nettsu - ten) in August 1998, and Lexus in 2004. Some former Vista models were rebranded as Lexus (レクサス Rekusasu), such as the Altezza and the Aristo, while other products have been taken over by the "Toyota NETZ '', which was already selling the Toyota ist and the Toyota RAV4. "NETZ '' is an acronym for "Network of Energetic Teams for Zenith ''.
In 2012, selected Japanese dealership locations were given a special designation called "Area 86 '' that resembled the North American Toyota network, called Scion, to sell the Toyota 86, building on the marketing approach started with WiLL branded products. As of 2017, the "Area 86 '' network was rebranded as "GR '' for Gazoo Racing, sharing a similar approach to the performance division Toyota Racing Development or "TRD '', providing various upgrades for the 86, Vitz, Prius, Mark X, Harrier, Noah and Voxy.
The following is a list of all past and present models and where they were available at retail channels nationally. Most models were exclusive to particular retail chains while some models, like the Prius, are available at all sales channels. Retail chains in Tokyo, Osaka and Okinawa are different.
Century, Crown Majesta, Crown, Master, SAI, Mirai, Prius, Aqua, Allion, Succeed, Blade, Avensis, Sienta, Corolla RunX, C - HR, Porte, Estima, Isis, Roomy, FJ Cruiser, Comfort, Land Cruiser, Hilux Surf, Land Cruiser Prado, Dyna, Stout, Esquire, Coaster, QuickDelivery, 2000GT, Carina, Carina ED, GT - 86, Brevis, Gaia, Cavalier, Classic, MasterAce, Hilux, Mega Cruiser, Soarer, Origin, Caldina.
Mark X, SAI, Mirai, Premio, Prius, Aqua, Belta, Mark X ZiO, Succeed, Ractis, Auris, Blade, GT - 86, Porte, Harrier, Vanguard, Esquire, Rush, C - HR, Avensis, Alphard, Comfort, HiAce, ToyoAce, Tank, Sienta, Pixis Space, Mark II - Mark II Qualis - Mark II Blit, Corona, Corona EXiV, Corona Coupe, Corsa, Opa, Avalon, Progrès, Cami, ist, Platz, Soarer, Hilux, Cynos, Regius, Celsior, Origin, Caldina, Ipsum.
SAI, Camry, Prius, Aqua, Corolla Axio, GT - 86, Belta, Spade, Probox, Corolla Rumion, C - HR, Ractis, Passo, Corolla Verso, Sera, Vanguard, Roomy, Estima, Noah, Avensis, Sienta, TownAce, Pixis, Publica, Tercel, Windom, Scepter, Corolla Ceres, Origin, Nadia, WiLL, RAV4, Sports 800, Celica, Supra, Corolla Levin, Celica XX, Celica Camry.
Vitz, SAI, Prius, Aqua, ist, Auris, bB, Avensis, Raum, Spade, Wish, Voxy, RAV4, C - HR, Kluger, Vellfire, iQ, Allex, Tank, Pixis, Fun Cargo, Pronard, Altezza, Verossa, Curren, Aristo, MR - S, MR2, Starlet, Vista, Cresta, Sprinter, Voltz, Blizzard, Chaser, Sprinter Marino, Carib, Granvia, Sprinter Trueno, LiteAce, Ipsum, GT - 86, WiLL (1999 -- 2004).
Toyota sponsors several teams and has purchased naming rights for several venues, including:
As of 2017, Toyota is an official sponsor of Cricket Australia, the England and Wales Cricket Board and the AFL. In March 2015, Toyota became a sponsor partner for the Olympic Games, in the form of supplying vehicles and communications between vehicles until 2024.
Toyota 's management philosophy has evolved from the company 's origins and has been reflected in the terms "Lean Manufacturing '' and Just In Time Production, which it was instrumental in developing. Toyota 's managerial values and business methods are known collectively as the Toyota Way.
In April 2001, Toyota adopted the "Toyota Way 2001 '', an expression of values and conduct guidelines that all Toyota employees should embrace. Under the two headings of Respect for People and Continuous Improvement, Toyota summarizes its values and conduct guidelines with these five principles:
According to external observers, the Toyota Way has four components:
The Toyota Way incorporates the Toyota Production System.
Toyota has long been recognized as an industry leader in manufacturing and production. Three stories of its origin have been found, one that they studied Piggly - Wiggly 's just - in - time distribution system, one that they followed the writings of W. Edwards Deming, and one that they were given the principles from a WWII US government training program (Training Within Industry).
As described by external observers of Toyota, the principles of the Toyota Way are:
Toyota has grown from its origins in Japan during the 1930s to become a large multinational corporation. It displaced GM and became the world 's largest automobile maker for the year 2008. It held the title of the most profitable automobile maker (US $11 billion in 2006) along with increasing sales in, among other countries, the United States. The world headquarters of Toyota are located in its home country in Toyota City, Japan. Its subsidiary, Toyota Financial Services sells financing and participates in other lines of business. Toyota brands include Scion and Lexus and the corporation is part of the Toyota Group. Toyota also owns 51 % of Daihatsu, and 16.7 % of Fuji Heavy Industries, which manufactures Subaru vehicles. They also acquired 5.9 % of Isuzu Motors Ltd. on November 7, 2006, and will be introducing Isuzu diesel technology into their products.
Toyota has introduced new technologies, including one of the first mass - produced hybrid gasoline - electric vehicles, of which it says it has sold 2 million globally as of 2010, Advanced Parking Guidance System (automatic parking), a four - speed electronically controlled automatic with buttons for power and economy shifting, and an eight - speed automatic transmission. Toyota, and Toyota - produced Lexus and Scion automobiles, consistently rank near the top in certain quality and reliability surveys, primarily J.D. Power and Consumer Reports although they led in automobile recalls for the first time in 2009.
In 2005, Toyota, combined with its half - owned subsidiary Daihatsu Motor Company, produced 8.54 million vehicles, about 500,000 fewer than the number produced by GM that year. Toyota has a large market share in the United States, but a small market share in Europe. It also sells vehicles in Africa and is a market leader in Australia. Due to its Daihatsu subsidiary, it has significant market shares in several fast - growing Southeast Asian countries.
According to the 2008 Fortune Global 500, Toyota is the fifth largest company in the world. Since the recession of 2001, it has gained market share in the United States. Toyota 's market share struggles in Europe where its Lexus brand has 0.3 % market share, compared to nearly 2 % market share as the US luxury segment leader.
In the first three months of 2007, Toyota together with its half - owned subsidiary Daihatsu reported number one sales of 2.348 million units. Toyota 's brand sales had risen 9.2 % largely on demand for Corolla and Camry sedans. The difference in performance was largely attributed to surging demand for fuel - efficient vehicles. In November 2006, Toyota Motor Manufacturing Texas added a facility in San Antonio. Toyota has experienced quality problems and was reprimanded by the government in Japan for its recall practices. In 2007, Toyota maintained over 16 % of the US market share and was listed second only to GM in terms of volume. Toyota Century Royal is the official state car of the Japanese imperial family, namely for the current Emperor of Japan.
Toyota was hit by the global financial crisis of 2008 as it was forced in December 2008 to forecast its first annual loss in 70 years. In January 2009, it announced the closure of all of its Japanese plants for 11 days to reduce output and stocks of unsold vehicles.
Akio Toyoda became the new president and CEO of the company on June 23, 2009, by replacing Katsuaki Watanabe, who became the new vice chairman by replacing Katsuhiro Nakagawa.
Toyota has factories in most parts of the world, manufacturing or assembling vehicles for local markets in Japan, Australia, India, Sri Lanka, Canada, Indonesia, Poland, South Africa, Turkey, Colombia, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Brazil, Portugal, and more recently, Argentina, Czech Republic, Mexico, Malaysia, Thailand, Pakistan, Egypt, China, Vietnam, Venezuela, the Philippines, and Russia.
Toyota 's net revenue by geographical regions for the year ended March 31, 2007:
In 2002, Toyota initiated the Innovative International Multi-purpose Vehicle project (IIMV) to optimize global manufacturing and supply systems for pickup trucks and multipurpose vehicles, and to satisfy market demand in more than 140 countries worldwide. IIMV called for diesel engines to be made in Thailand, gasoline engines in Indonesia, and manual transmissions in India and the Philippines, for supply to the countries charged with vehicle production. For vehicle assembly, Toyota would use plants in Thailand, Indonesia, Argentina, and South Africa. These four main IIMV production and export bases supply Asia, Europe, Africa, Oceania, Latin America, and the Middle East with three vehicles: The Toyota Hilux (Vigo), the Fortuner, and the Toyota Innova.
Toyota Motor North America headquarters is located in Plano, Texas, and operates as a holding company in North America. Its manufacturing headquarters is located in Erlanger, Kentucky, and is known as Toyota Motor Engineering & Manufacturing North America.
Toyota Canada Inc. has been in production in Canada since 1983 with an aluminium wheel plant in Delta, British Columbia, which currently employs a workforce of roughly 260. Its first vehicle assembly plant, in Cambridge, Ontario, since 1988, now produces Corolla compact cars, Matrix crossover vehicles, and Lexus RX 350 luxury SUVs, with a workforce of 4,300 workers. Its second assembly operation in Woodstock, Ontario, began manufacturing the RAV4 late in 2008. In 2006, Toyota 's subsidiary Hino Motors opened a heavy duty truck plant, also in Woodstock, employing 45 people and producing 2000 trucks annually.
Toyota has a large presence in the United States with six major assembly plants in Huntsville, Alabama, Georgetown, Kentucky, Princeton, Indiana, San Antonio, Texas, Buffalo, West Virginia, and Blue Springs, Mississippi. Toyota had a joint - venture operation with General Motors at New United Motor Manufacturing Inc. in Fremont, California, which began in 1984 and ended in 2009. It still has a joint venture with Subaru at Subaru of Indiana Automotive, Inc. in Lafayette, Indiana, which started in 2006. In these assembly plants, the Camry and the Tundra are manufactured, among others.
Toyota marketing, sales, and distribution in the US are conducted through a separate subsidiary, Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc. It has started producing larger trucks, such as the new Tundra, to go after the large truck market in the United States. Toyota is also pushing hybrid vehicles in the US such as the Prius, Camry Hybrid, Highlander Hybrid, and various Lexus products. Currently, Toyota has no plans to offer diesel motor options in its North American products, including the light - duty pickup trucks.
In 1963, Australia was one of the first countries to assemble Toyotas outside Japan. However, in February 2014, Toyota was the last of Australia 's major automakers to announce the end of production in Australia. The closure of Toyota 's Australian plant will be completed by 2017. Before Toyota, Ford and GM 's Holden had announced similar moves, all citing an unfavorable currency and attendant high manufacturing costs.
Toyota is the world 's market leader in sales of hybrid electric vehicles, one of the largest companies to encourage the mass - market adoption of hybrid vehicles across the globe, and the first to commercially mass - produce and sell such vehicles, with the introduction of the Toyota Prius in 1997. The company eventually began providing this option on its main passenger cars such as Camry and later with the Lexus divisions, producing some hybrid luxury vehicles. It labeled such technology in Toyota cars as "Hybrid Synergy Drive '' and in Lexus versions as "Lexus Hybrid Drive ''. Cumulative global sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrid passenger car models passed the 10 million milestone in January 2017. Its Prius family is the world 's top - selling hybrid nameplate with more than 6 million units sold worldwide as of January 2017.
As of January 2017, Toyota Motor Corporation sells 33 Toyota and Lexus hybrid passenger car models and one plug - in hybrid in over 90 countries and regions around the world, and the carmaker expects to achieve annual sales of 1.5 million units, and cumulative sales of 15 million units by 2020. The Prius liftback is the world 's top selling hybrid gasoline - electric car, its sales achieved the 3 million unit milestone in June 2013, and cumulative sales since 1997 totaled 3,984,600 units at the end of January 2017. The Prius liftback ranks as the top selling hybrid car in the U.S. market, and passed the 1 million milestone in April 2011. Cumulative sales of the Prius in Japan reached the 1 million mark in August 2011. As of January 2017, sales of the Prius liftback totaled over 1.8 million units in Japan and 1.75 million in the United States. Cumulative TMC hybrid sales since the Prius introduction in Europe in 2000 passed the 1 million unit milestone in November 2015.
Worldwide sales of hybrid vehicles produced by Toyota reached 1 million vehicles by May 31, 2007, and the 2 million mark was reached by August 2009, with hybrids sold in 50 countries. The 5 million hybrid sales milestone was reached in March 2013. During 2012, Toyota and Lexus hybrid models sold more than 1 million units a year for the first time, with 1.219 million units sold. During 2013, TMC sold 1.279 million units, and the 6 million sales milestone was achieved in December 2013, just nine months after its latest million unit milestone. The 7 million sales mark was reached in September 2014, again, selling one million hybrids in nine months, and the 8 million sales milestone was achieved in July 2015, just 10 months after the previous million - unit milestone. The 9 million sales mark was reached in April 2016, again, selling one million hybrids in just nine months, and the 10 million milestone in January 2017, one more time nine months later. Toyota estimates that up to January 31, 2017, its hybrids have saved about 7.66 billion U.S. gallons of gasoline (29 billion liters) compared to the amount used by gasoline - powered vehicles of similar size, and have emitted approximately 77 million fewer tons of carbon dioxide (CO) emissions than would have been emitted by gasoline - powered vehicles of similar size and driving performance.
As of April 2016, besides the four Prius liftback generations, Toyota 's hybrid lineup includes the Prius α / Prius v / Prius +, Aqua / Prius c, Camry Hybrid (1st and 2nd generation), Toyota Highlander Hybrid (Kluger Hybrid in Japan), Toyota Avalon Hybrid, Toyota Auris Hybrid, Toyota Yaris Hybrid (Europe only), and the following models sold only in Japan: Alphard Hybrid / Vellfire Hybrid, Estima Hybrid, Toyota Sai, Toyota Harrier, Toyota Crown Hybrid, Toyota Crown Mild Hybrid, Toyota Crown Majesta, Corolla Axio, Corolla Fielder, Toyota Voxy / Noah / Esquire, Toyota Sienta, Toyota Corolla Hybrid, Toyota Levin Hybrid, and Toyota RAV4 Hybrid.
Beginning in 2011, TMC introduced three new members to the Prius family, the Prius v (Prius α in Japan and Prius + in Europe), the Prius c (Toyota Aqua in Japan), and the Toyota Prius Plug - in Hybrid, released in 2012 in Japan, the U.S., and Europe. With a total of 247,230 vehicles sold during the first quarter of 2012, the Toyota Prius family became the third top selling nameplate in the world in terms of total global sales after the Toyota Corolla (300,800 units) and the Ford Focus (277,000 units). Until September 2012, the Prius liftback was the top selling new car in Japan for 16 months in a row, until it was surpassed by the Toyota Aqua (Prius c) in October 2012. With 266,567 units sold in Japan in 2012, the Aqua is considered the most successful nameplate launch in the Japanese market in the last 20 years.
The Prius c / Aqua model, with global sales of 1,380,100 units through January 2017, is TMC 's second best - selling hybrid after the Prius liftback, followed the Prius α / v / + with 671,200 units, and the two generations of the Camry Hybrid, with 614,700 units sold worldwide, all through January 2017. For both Prius family variants, Japan is the top selling market while the U.S. is the top - selling Camry market. Ranking next is the Auris with 378,000 units sold, with Europe as the top market with 354,600 units sold.
Lexus also has their own hybrid lineup, and as of August 2015, consist of the LS 600h / LS 600h L, GS 450h, RX 400h / RX 450h, Lexus HS 250h, Lexus CT 200h, Lexus ES 300h, Lexus IS 300h, Lexus NX 300h, and Lexus RC 300h. Global cumulative sales of Lexus brand hybrids reached the 500 thousand mark in November 2012. The 1 million sales milestone was achieved in March 2016. The Lexus RX 400h / RX 450h ranks as the top selling Lexus hybrid with 363,000 units delivered worldwide as of January 2017, followed by the Lexus CT 200h with 290,800 units, and the Lexus ES 300h with 143,200 units.
Toyota 's plug - in hybrid electric vehicle project began in 2007, with road trials of the prototype vehicle in France and the UK in 2008. Toyota made 600 Prius plug - in demonstration vehicles for lease to fleet and government customers. 230 were delivered in Japan beginning in late December 2009, 125 models released in the U.S. by early 2010, and 200 units in 18 European countries in 2010. France, the UK, and Germany had the largest fleets with 150 PHEVs. Canada, China, Australia, and New Zealand also participated in the global demonstration program.
The production version of the Toyota Prius Plug - in Hybrid was released in Japan in January 2012, followed by the United States in late February, and deliveries in Europe began in late June 2012. As of April 2016, global sales totaled 75,400 Prius PHVs since 2012, with North America as the leading regional market with 42,700 units, followed by Japan with about 22,100 units, Europe with 10,500 units, and only about 100 units in the rest of the world. The United States is the country market leader with 42,320 units delivered through April 2016. The leading European market is the Netherlands with 4,134 units registered as of 30 November 2015.
During its first year in the market, a total of 27,279 Prius PHVs were sold worldwide, allowing the plug - in version to rank as the second most sold plug - in electric car for 2012. Accounting for cumulative sales since its inception, the Prius PHV was the world 's all - time third best selling plug - in electric car by December 2014. Production of the first generation Prius Plug - in ended in June 2015. As of May 2015, the Prius Plug - in Hybrid ranked as the world 's second top selling plug - in hybrid ever after the Volt / Ampera family. As of April 2016, the Prius plug - in ranking among the top selling plug - in cars fell to fifth place after the Tesla Model S and the Mitsubishi Outlander P - HEV.
The second generation Prius plug - in hybrid, the Toyota Prius Prime, unveiled at the 2016 New York International Auto Show, is expected to be released in the U.S. by the end of 2016, and, unlike the first generation model, it will be available in all 50 states.
The first generation Toyota RAV4 EV was leased in the United States from 1997 to 2003, and at the lessees ' request, many units were sold after the vehicle was discontinued. A total of 1,484 were leased and / or sold in California to meet the state 's CARB mandate for zero - emissions vehicles. As of mid-2012, there were almost 500 units still in use.
In May 2010, Toyota launched a collaboration with Tesla Motors to create electric vehicles. Toyota agreed to purchase US $50 million of Tesla common stock subsequent to the closing of Tesla 's planned initial public offering. Toyota, with the assistance of Tesla, built 35 converted RAV4s (Phase Zero vehicles) for a demonstration and evaluation program that ran through 2011. The lithium metal - oxide battery and other power train components were supplied by Tesla Motors. Four years later, Toyota, along with Daimler, began to unwind its position in Tesla. Toyota and Daimler made more than $1 bln from the investment.
The Toyota RAV4 EV Concept was released in September 2012. The RAV4 EV was assembled at Toyota 's facility in Woodstock, Ontario along with the regular gasoline version. Tesla built the electric powertrain at its plant at Tesla Factory in Fremont, California, and then shipped them to Canada. The RAV4 EV was sold only in California, beginning with the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles / Orange County, and San Diego. Production was limited to 2,600 units during a three - year period. As of 31 December 2015, a total of 2,340 RAV4 EVs were sold in the U.S. to retail customers. Production ended in September 2014.
A prototype of the Toyota iQ EV (Scion iQ EV in the US) was exhibited at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show. The Scion iQ EV is the successor to the FT - EV II as an electric vehicle based on the Toyota iQ chassis. Toyota produced three generations of FT - EV concept cars, and the iQ EV is a production version of those concepts, incorporating the technological and design strengths of all three models. The exterior of the production version is based on the FT - EV III concept shown at the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show.
The U.S. launch of the Scion iQ EV was announced for 2012, and according to Toyota, for the initial roll - out the iQ EV would not be available to individual consumers, instead, the carmaker decided to focus on fleet customers and car sharing programs. The iQ EV was scheduled to be produced at Toyota 's Takaoka Plant in Toyota City beginning in August 2012 and the initial production was planned to be limited to 600 units, with 400 staying in Japan, 100 units destined to the U.S., and the other 100 for Europe. In September 2012, Toyota announced that due to customers ' concerns about range and charging time, the production of the Scion iQ (Toyota eQ in Japan) will be limited to about 100 units for special fleet use in Japan and the U.S. only. The iQ EV / eQ was scheduled to be released in both countries in December 2012.
The first 30 iQ EVs were delivered in the U.S. to the University of California, Irvine in March 2013 for use in its Zero Emission Vehicle - Network Enabled Transport (ZEV - NET) carsharing fleet. Since 2002, the ZEV - NET program has been serving the transport needs of the Irvine community with all - electric vehicles for the critical last mile of commutes from the Irvine train station to the UC campus and local business offices.
In addition, Toyota announced that is backing away from fully electric vehicles. The company 's vice chairman, Takeshi Uchiyamada, said: "The current capabilities of electric vehicles do not meet society 's needs, whether it may be the distance the cars can run, or the costs, or how it takes a long time to charge. '' Toyota 's emphasis would be re-focused on the hybrid concept, and 21 new hybrid gas - electric models scheduled to be on the market by 2015.
Toyota 's project called Ha: mo (Harmonious Mobility Network), is using the Toyota i - Road, an all - electric vehicle which combines the potential of both cars and motorbikes. The project is being run in Grenoble, France; Toyota City, Japan; and also Tokyo, Japan.
In 2002, Toyota began a development and demonstration program to test the Toyota FCHV, a hybrid hydrogen fuel cell vehicle based on the Toyota Highlander production SUV. Toyota also built a FCHV bus based on the Hino Blue Ribbon City low - floor bus. Toyota has built several prototypes / concepts of the FCHV since 1997, including the Toyota FCHV - 1, FCHV - 2, FCHV - 3, FCHV - 4, and Toyota FCHV - adv. The Toyota FCV - R fuel cell concept car was unveiled at the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show. The FCV - R sedan seats four and has a fuel cell stack including a 70 MPa high - pressure hydrogen tank, which can deliver a range of 435 mi (700 km) under the Japanese JC08 test cycle. Toyota said the car was planned for launch in about 2015.
In August 2012, Toyota announced its plans to start retail sales of a hydrogen fuel - cell sedan in California in 2015. Toyota expects to become a leader in this technology. The prototype of its first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle will be exhibited at the November 2013 Tokyo Motor Show, and in the United States at the January 2014 Consumer Electronics Show.
Toyota 's first hydrogen fuel - cell vehicles to be sold commercially, the Toyota Mirai (Japanese for "future ''), was unveiled at the November 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show. In January 2015, it was announced that production of the Mirai fuel cell vehicle would increase from 700 units in 2015 to approximately 2,000 in 2016 and 3,000 in 2017. Sales in Japan began on December 15, 2014, at a price of ¥ 6,700,000 (~ US $57,400). The Japanese government plans to support the commercialization of fuel - cell vehicles with a subsidy of ¥ 2,000,000 (~ US $19,600). Retail sales in the U.S. began in August 2015 at a price of US $57,500 before any government incentives. Initially, the Mirai will only be available in California. The market release in Europe is slated for September 2015, and initially will be available only in the UK, Germany, and Denmark, followed by other countries in 2017. Pricing in Germany starts at € 60,000 (~ US $75,140) plus VAT (€ 78,540).
In 2015, Toyota released 5,600 patents for free use until 2020, hoping to promote global development of hydrogen fuel - cell technology.
As of 2009, Toyota officially lists approximately 70 different models sold under its namesake brand, including sedans, coupes, vans, trucks, hybrids, and crossovers. Many of these models are produced as passenger sedans, which range from the subcompact Toyota Yaris and compact Corolla, to mid-size Camry and full - size Avalon. Vans include the Previa / Estima, Sienna, and others. Several small cars, such as the xB and tC, are sold under the Scion brand.
Toyota crossovers range from the compact Matrix and RAV4, to midsize Venza and Kluger / Highlander. Toyota SUVs range from the midsize 4Runner to full - size Land Cruiser. Other SUVs include the Prado, FJ Cruiser, Fortuner, and Sequoia.
Toyota first entered the pickup truck market in 1947 with the SB that was only sold in Japan and limited Asian markets. It was followed in 1954 by the RK (renamed in 1959 as the Stout) and in 1968 by the compact Hilux. With continued refinement, the Hilux (simply known as the Pickup in some markets) became famous for being extremely durable and reliable, and many of these trucks from as early as the late 1970s are still on the road today, some with over 300,000 miles. Extended - and crew - cab versions of these small haulers were eventually added, and Toyota continues to produce them today under various names depending on the market.
Riding on the success of the compact pickups in the US, Toyota decided to attempt to enter the traditionally domestic - dominated full - size pickup market, introducing the T100 for the 1993 US model year, with production ending in 1998. While having a bed at the traditional full - size length of 8 feet, the suspension and engine characteristics were still similar to that of a compact pickup. It proved to be as economical and reliable as any typical Toyota pickup, but sales never became what Toyota brass had hoped for. It was criticized as being too small to appeal to the traditional American full - size pickup buyer. Another popular full - size truck essential, a V8 engine, was never available. Additionally, the truck was at first only available as a regular cab, though Toyota addressed this shortcoming and added the Xtracab version in mid-1995.
In 1999 for the 2000 model year, Toyota replaced the T100 with the larger Tundra. The Tundra addressed criticisms that the T100 did not have the look and feel of a legitimate American - style full - size pickup. It also added the V8 engine that the T100 was criticized for not having. However, the Tundra still came up short in towing capacity as well as still feeling slightly carlike. These concerns were addressed with an even larger 2007 redesign. A stronger V6 and a second V8 engine among other things were added to the option list. As of early 2010, the Tundra has captured 16 % of the full - size half - ton market in the US. The all - new Tundra was assembled in San Antonio, Texas, US. Toyota assembled around 150,000 Standard and Double Cabs, and only 70,000 Crew Max 's in 2007. The smaller Tacoma (which traces its roots back to the original Hilux) was also produced at the company 's San Antonio facility.
Outside the United States, Toyota produced the Hilux in Standard and Double Cab, gasoline and diesel engine, and 2WD and 4WD versions. The BBC 's Top Gear TV show featured two episodes of a Hilux that was deemed "virtually indestructible ''.
As of 2009, the company sold nine luxury - branded models under its Lexus division, ranging from the LS sedan to RX crossover and LX SUV. Luxury - type sedans produced under the Toyota brand included the Century, Crown, and Crown Majesta. A limited - edition model produced for the Emperor of Japan was the Century Royal.
In 1997, building on a previous partnership with Yamaha Marine, Toyota created "Toyota Marine '', building private ownership motorboats, currently sold only in Japan. A small network in Japan sells the luxury craft at 54 locations, called the "Toyota Ponam '' series, and in 2017, a boat was labeled under the Lexus brand name starting May 26, 2017.
Toyota has been involved in many global motorsports series. They also represent their Lexus brand in other sports car racing categories. Toyota also makes engines and other auto parts for other Japanese motorsports including formula Nippon, Super GT, formula 3, and formula Toyota series. Toyota also runs a driver development programme known as the Toyota Young Drivers Program, which they made for funding and educating future Japanese motorsports talent. Toyota Motorsport GmbH, with headquarters in Cologne, Germany, has been responsible for Toyota 's major motorsports development including Formula One, the World Rally Championship, the Le Mans Series, and most recently the FIA World Endurance Championship. Toyota enjoyed success in all these motorsports categories. In 2002, Toyota entered Formula One as a constructor and engine supplier; however, despite having experienced drivers and a larger budget than many other teams, they failed to match their success in other categories, with five second - place finishes as their best results. On November 4, 2009, Toyota announced they were pulling out of the sport due to the global economic situation.
Toyota 's nationwide driver hunt of drivers for Etios Motor Racing Series ended up with selection of 25 drivers, who will participate in the race in 2013.
Toyota Racing Development (TRD) was brought about to help develop true high - performance racing parts for many Toyota vehicles. TRD has often had much success with their aftermarket tuning parts, as well as designing technology for vehicles used in all forms of racing. TRD is also responsible for Toyota 's involvement in NASCAR motorsports. TRD also made Lexus 's performance division "F - Sport ''.
Toyota is a minority shareholder in Mitsubishi Aircraft Corporation, having invested US $67.2 million in the new venture which will produce the Mitsubishi Regional Jet, slated for first deliveries in 2017. Toyota has also studied participation in the general aviation market and contracted with Scaled Composites to produce a proof of concept aircraft, the TAA - 1, in 2002.
Toyota supports a variety of philanthropic work in areas such as education, conservation, safety, and disaster relief.
Some of the organizations that Toyota has worked with in the US include the American Red Cross, the Boys and Girls Club, Leaders in Environmental Action for the Future (LEAF), and the National Center for Family Literacy.
The Toyota USA Foundation exists to support education in the areas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
In addition, Toyota works with nonprofits to improve their processes and operations such as the Food Bank For New York City.
Toyota also supports a variety of work in Japan.
The Toyota Foundation takes a global perspective providing grants in the three areas of human and natural environments, social welfare, and education and culture.
Toyota established the Toyota Technological Institute in 1981, as Sakichi Toyoda had planned to establish a university as soon as he and Toyota became successful. Toyota Technological Institute founded the Toyota Technological Institute at Chicago in 2003. Toyota is supporter of the Toyota Driving Expectations Program, Toyota Youth for Understanding Summer Exchange Scholarship Program, Toyota International Teacher Program, Toyota TAPESTRY, Toyota Community Scholars (scholarship for high school students), United States Hispanic Chamber of Commerce Internship Program, and Toyota Funded Scholarship. It has contributed to a number of local education and scholarship programs for the University of Kentucky, Indiana, and others.
In 2004, Toyota showcased its trumpet - playing robot. Toyota has been developing multitask robots destined for elderly care, manufacturing, and entertainment. A specific example of Toyota 's involvement in robotics for the elderly is the Brain Machine Interface. Designed for use with wheelchairs, it "allows a person to control an electric wheelchair accurately, almost in real - time '', with his or her mind. The thought controls allow the wheelchair to go left, right, and forward with a delay between thought and movement of just 125 milliseconds. Toyota also played a part in the development of Kirobo, a ' robotic astronaut '.
Toyota invests in several small start - up businesses and partnerships in biotechnology, including:
Toyota developed an oekaki - style sewing machine called the Oekaki Renaissance, which, like others of its type, is designed to allow the user to be able to draw ideas directly onto fabric using the art of free - motion embroidery.
Toyota has been a leader in environmentally friendly vehicle technologies, most notably the RAV4 EV (produced from 1997 to 2003, then 2012 to present) and the Toyota Prius (1997 to present).
Toyota implemented its fifth Environmental Action Plan in 2005. The plan contains four major themes involving the environment and the corporation 's development, design, production, and sales. The five - year plan is directed at the, "arrival of a revitalized recycling and reduction based society ''. Toyota had previously released its Eco-Vehicle Assessment System (Eco-VAS) which is a systematic life cycle assessment of the effect a vehicle will have on the environment including production, usage, and disposal. The assessment includes, "... fuel efficiency, emissions and noise during vehicle use, the disposal recovery rate, the reduction of substances of environmental concern, and CO emissions throughout the life cycle of the vehicle from production to disposal. '' 2008 marks the ninth year for Toyota 's Environmental Activities Grant Program which has been implemented every year since 2001. Themes of the 2008 program consist of "Global Warming Countermeasures '' and "Biodiversity Conservation. ''
Since October 2006, Toyota 's new Japanese - market vehicle models with automatic transmissions are equipped with an Eco Drive Indicator. The system takes into consideration rate of acceleration, engine and transmission efficiency, and speed. When the vehicle is operated in a fuel - efficient manner, the Eco Drive Indicator on the instrument panel lights up. Individual results vary depending on traffic issues, starting and stopping the vehicle, and total distance traveled, but the Eco Drive Indicator may improve fuel efficiency by as much as 4 %. Along with Toyota 's eco-friendly objectives on production and use, the company plans to donate US $1 million and five vehicles to the Everglades National Park. The money will be used to fund environmental programs at the park. This donation is part of a program which provides US $5 million and 23 vehicles for five national parks and the National Parks Foundation. However, new figures from the United States National Research Council show that the continuing hidden health costs of the auto industry to the US economy in 2005 amounted to US $56 million.
The United States EPA has awarded Toyota Motor Engineering & Manufacturing North America, Inc. (TEMA) with an ENERGY STAR Sustained Excellence Award in 2007, 2008, and 2009. In 2016, Toyota was recognized as the top company on the Carbon Clean 200 list of the world 's largest clean energy companies.
In 2007, Toyota 's Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) fleet average of 26.69 mpg (8.81 L / 100 km; 32.05 mpg) exceeded all other major manufacturers selling cars within the United States. Only Lotus Cars, which sold the Elise and Exige (powered by Toyota 's 2ZZ - GE engine), did better with an average of 30.2 mpg (7.8 L / 100 km; 36.3 mpg).
Note: Japan production numbers 1937 to 1987. Global production since 1998, global and Japanese production, Japanese sales since 2001 consolidated include Daihatsu and Hino. Citations for years 2014 - 2016 are for total production and sales and Japan production and sales -- - U.S. sales figures are not included in these citations.
On January 2, 2006, an unnamed chief engineer of the Camry Hybrid, aged 45 years, died from heart failure in his bed.
February 9, 2002, Kenichi Uchino, aged 30 years, a quality control manager, collapsed then died at work
21 June 2010 Chinese labor strike happened in Tianjin Toyoda Gosei Co, Tianjin Toyoda Gosei Co supplies parts to Tianjin FAW Toyota Motor Co.
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harry potter and the deathly hallows book last chapter | Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is a dark fantasy book written by British author J.K. Rowling and the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series. The book was released on 21 July 2007, ending the series that began in 1997 with the publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone. It was published by Bloomsbury Publishing in the United Kingdom, in the United States by Scholastic, and in Canada by Raincoast Books. The novel chronicles the events directly following Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince (2005), and the final confrontation between the wizards Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort.
Deathly Hallows shattered sales records upon release, surpassing marks set by previous titles of the Potter series. It holds the Guinness World Record for most novels sold within 24 hours of release, with 8.3 million sold in the US alone and 2.65 million in the UK. Generally well received by critics, the book won the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award, and the American Library Association named it a "Best Book for Young Adults ''. A film adaptation of the novel was released in two parts: Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 in November 2010, and Part 2 in July 2011.
Throughout the six previous novels in the series, the main character Harry Potter has struggled with the difficulties of adolescence along with being famous as the only wizard to survive the Killing Curse. The curse was cast by the evil Tom Riddle, better known as Lord Voldemort, a powerful evil wizard, who had murdered Harry 's parents and attempted to kill Harry as a baby, in the belief this would frustrate a prophecy that Harry would become his equal. As an orphan, Harry was placed in the care of his Muggle (non-magical) relatives Petunia Dursley and Vernon Dursley.
In Philosopher 's Stone, Harry re-enters the wizarding world at age 11 and enrolls in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. He makes friends with fellow students Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, and is mentored by the school 's headmaster, Albus Dumbledore. He also meets Professor Severus Snape, who intensely dislikes and bullies him. Harry fights Voldemort several times while at school, as the wizard tries to regain a physical form. In Goblet of Fire, Harry is mysteriously entered in a dangerous magical competition called the Triwizard Tournament, which he discovers is a trap designed to allow the return of Lord Voldemort to full strength. During Order of the Phoenix, Harry and several of his friends face off against Voldemort 's Death Eaters, a group of Dark witches and wizards, and narrowly defeat them. In Half - Blood Prince, Harry learns that Voldemort has divided his soul into several parts, creating "horcruxes '' from various unknown objects to contain them; in this way he has ensured his immortality as long as at least one of the horcruxes still exists. Two of these had already been destroyed, one a diary destroyed by Harry in the events of Chamber of Secrets and one a ring destroyed by Dumbledore shortly before the events of Half - Blood Prince. Dumbledore takes Harry along in the attempt to destroy a third horcrux contained in a locket. However, the horcrux had been taken by an unknown wizard, and upon their return Dumbledore is ambushed and disarmed by Draco Malfoy, who can not bring himself to kill him. Dumbledore is subsequently killed by Snape, who finishes what Malfoy started.
Following Albus Dumbledore 's death, Voldemort consolidates his support and power, including covert control of the Ministry of Magic, while Harry is about to turn seventeen, losing the protection of his home. The Order of the Phoenix move Harry to a new location before his birthday, but are attacked upon departure. In the ensuing battle, "Mad - Eye '' Moody is killed and George Weasley wounded; Voldemort himself arrives to kill Harry, but Harry 's wand fends him off of its own accord. Harry, Ron and Hermione make preparations to abandon Hogwarts and hunt down Voldemort 's four remaining Horcruxes, but have few clues to work with as to their identities and locations. One is a locket once owned by Hogwarts ' co-founder Salazar Slytherin which was stolen by the mysterious "R.A.B. '', one is possibly a cup originally belonging to co-founder Helga Hufflepuff, a third might be connected to co-founder Rowena Ravenclaw, and the fourth might be Nagini, Voldemort 's snake familiar. They also inherit strange bequests from among Dumbledore 's possessions: a Golden Snitch for Harry, a Deluminator for Ron, and a book of fairy tales for Hermione.
The trio attends Bill Weasley 's wedding, but during the reception the Ministry of Magic finally falls to Voldemort and the wedding is attacked by Death Eaters. They flee to 12 Grimmauld Place in London, the family home of Sirius Black, that Harry had inherited a year before. Thanks to the house - elf Kreacher they identify R.A.B. as Sirius ' deceased brother Regulus and learn that Slytherin 's locket was stolen from the house and ultimately seized by Dolores Umbridge of the Ministry of Magic. They infiltrate the Ministry in disguise and take back the locket, but accidentally break the protection of 12 Grimmauld Place during their escape and must go on the run across the countryside. With no way to destroy the locket, they argue frequently under the object 's evil influence, culminating in Ron abandoning Harry and Hermione.
Harry and Hermione continue the quest, discovering more about Dumbledore 's past, including the death of Dumbledore 's younger sister and his connection to the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald. They travel to Godric 's Hollow, Harry 's birthplace and the place where his parents died, and meet the elderly magical historian Bathilda Bagshot, but she turns out to be Nagini in disguise, awaiting their arrival. The snake attacks Harry and again they barely escape, but Harry 's wand is damaged beyond repair. Their luck finally appears to turn in the Forest of Dean. A mysterious silver doe Patronus appears and guides Harry to an icy pond containing the Sword of Hogwarts co-founder Godric Gryffindor, one of the few objects able to destroy Horcruxes. During Harry 's attempt to recover the sword, the Horcrux tries to kill him. He is saved by Ron, who appears suddenly, takes the sword and uses it to destroy the locket.
Ron had been guided back to them by the Deluminator, indicating that Dumbledore 's gifts may be more useful than they thought. Hermione identifies in Dumbledore 's book a strange symbol also worn at the wedding by Xenophilius Lovegood. They visit him and are told the symbol represents the mythical Deathly Hallows, three objects from an old fairy tale titled The Tale of the Three Brothers: the Elder Wand, an unbeatable wand; the Resurrection Stone, able to summon the dead; and an infallible Invisibility Cloak. Although Ron and Hermione are skeptical, Harry believes the Hallows are real and could explain the visions of Voldemort he has been having over the past few months. He suspects Voldemort is hunting the Elder Wand, won by Dumbledore after defeating Grindelwald, believing it will allow him to overpower the connection between his own wand and Harry 's. Harry believes the Resurrection Stone was inset into the ring horcrux that Dumbledore discovered the previous year, and may be hidden inside the Snitch Dumbledore left for him, but he ca n't open it. The description of the third Hallow also matches that of his own inherited Invisibility Cloak. Harry 's suspicions are confirmed when he has a vision of Voldemort breaking open Dumbledore 's tomb and stealing the Elder Wand from within.
The trio are captured by Snatchers and taken to Malfoy Manor, where Bellatrix Lestrange tortures Hermione to learn how the three acquired the sword, which she had believed was in her vault at Gringotts. With the help of Dobby the house - elf they escape along with fellow prisoners Luna Lovegood, Mr. Ollivander, Dean Thomas, and the goblin Griphook. During the escape, Peter Pettigrew is strangled by his own silver hand after Harry reminds him of the debt he owes him; Harry overpowers Draco Malfoy and steals his wand; and Dobby is killed by Bellatrix. Bellatrix 's anger in interrogating Hermione suggests to Harry some exceptional object is in her vault, and when questioned, Griphook confirms a gold cup is indeed in her vault. With Griphook 's help, they break into the vault at Gringotts, retrieve the cup, and escape on a dragon, but in the chaos Griphook steals the Sword of Gryffindor from them. Harry has another vision of Voldemort and sees that he now understands their plan, and intends to make his remaining horcruxes even safer. The vision also confirms the unidentified horcrux is at Hogwarts.
They enter the school through an undiscovered secret entrance in the Hog 's Head, a bar in Hogsmeade owned by Dumbledore 's brother, Aberforth. Harry alerts the teachers Voldemort is planning an assault on the school, and they drive out Snape and summon the Order of the Phoenix to help defend the school to win time for Harry to locate the horcrux. Voldemort had set a guard in the Ravenclaw tower, corroborating Harry 's belief the horcrux is Rowena Ravenclaw 's diadem, lost centuries ago. The Ravenclaw ghost 's story further confirms this belief, and Harry remembers an old diadem in the Room of Requirement. Ron and Hermione destroy the cup with basilisk fangs taken from the Chamber of Secrets as Voldemort and his army besiege the castle. They find the diadem but are ambushed by Draco Malfoy and his friends Crabbe and Goyle. Crabbe tries to kill them using Fiendfyre, a cursed fire, but is unable to control it; the fire destroys the diadem and himself while Harry and his friends save Malfoy and Goyle. Meanwhile, several major characters are killed in the Battle of Hogwarts, including Remus Lupin, Nymphadora Tonks, and Fred Weasley.
In his encampment, Voldemort feels the Elder Wand is not performing as he expected. According to legend, its full allegiance must be won by killing the previous owner, and Voldemort reasons that as Snape killed Dumbledore, he will not be able to fully wield the wand 's power until he kills Snape, which he does. Harry arrives as Snape is dying, and Snape passes him memories to view in a pensieve. They reveal Snape had a lifelong love for Harry 's mother and felt haunted for causing her death, and despite hating Harry 's father he agreed at Dumbledore 's request to watch over Harry and act as a double agent against Voldemort. The doe Patronus that led Harry to the Sword was summoned by Snape, who was watching over them the whole time. It is revealed that Dumbledore was slowly dying after mishandling the ring horcrux, and he planned his "murder '' with Snape in advance to prove Snape 's allegiance to Voldemort. The memories also explain that Harry himself is a horcrux and must die at Voldemort 's hand if Voldemort is to become mortal. Harry accepts his death and goes to the Forbidden Forest to allow Voldemort to kill him. On the way he mentions to Neville Longbottom that Voldemort 's snake Nagini must be killed to make Voldemort vulnerable. He finally manages to open the Snitch and uses the Resurrection Stone within to seek comfort and courage from his dead loved ones -- his parents, Sirius and Lupin -- dropping the Stone in the forest before reaching Voldemort 's camp. Voldemort uses the Killing Curse and Harry does not defend himself.
Harry awakens in a dreamlike location resembling Kings Cross station and is greeted by Dumbledore, who explains that Voldemort 's original Killing Curse left a fragment of Voldemort 's soul in Harry, which caused the connection they had felt, making Harry an unintended Horcrux; this fragment had just been destroyed by Voldemort himself. When Voldemort used Harry 's blood to regain his full strength, this further protected Harry from Voldemort, allowing Harry to return to life if he chooses, or to "go on ''. Harry chooses to return and feigns death. Voldemort calls a truce and displays Harry 's body, offering to spare most of the defenders if they surrender. Neville, however, pulls the Sword of Gryffindor out of the Sorting Hat and uses it to behead Nagini, leaving Voldemort unprotected, and Harry escapes under his cloak as the battle resumes.
In a final onslaught, Bellatrix is killed by Molly Weasley and Harry reveals to Voldemort that he is alive. He explains to Voldemort the Elder Wand 's loyalty transfers upon the defeat, not necessarily the killing, of its previous master. Although Voldemort believes by killing Snape he has gained the Wand 's loyalty, Snape was in fact never its master. Instead, Draco Malfoy inadvertently earned the Wand 's loyalty when he disarmed Dumbledore just before Snape arrived to kill him. Therefore, Harry believes that their duel will depend on whether or not the Wand recognises Harry to be its new master after he disarmed Draco at Malfoy Manor weeks prior. Voldemort attempts one final Killing Curse on Harry, but the Elder Wand refuses to act against Harry and the spell rebounds, striking Voldemort and destroying him once and for all.
Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his original wand, planning to return the Elder Wand to Dumbledore 's tomb where its power may vanish if Harry dies undefeated and it can drop out of history. Harry does not intend to search for the Resurrection Stone he dropped in the Forbidden Forest, but will keep the Invisibility Cloak he inherited. The wizarding world returns to peace once more.
In an epilogue set in King 's Cross station 19 years later, the primary characters are seeing their own children off to Hogwarts. Harry and Ginny are a couple with three children: James Sirius, Albus Severus, and Lily Luna. Ron and Hermione also have two children, Rose and Hugo. Harry 's godson Teddy Lupin is found kissing Bill Weasley and Fleur Delacour 's daughter Victoire; Neville Longbottom is now a Hogwarts professor; Draco Malfoy and his wife are also at the station to send off their son, Scorpius. Albus is departing for his first year at Hogwarts and is worried he will be placed into Slytherin House. Harry reassures him by telling his son he is named after two Hogwarts headmasters, one of them (Snape) a Slytherin and "the bravest man he had ever met '', but the Sorting Hat could also take account of personal preferences, as it did for Harry. The book ends with the words: "The scar had not pained Harry for nineteen years. All was well. ''
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury, the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom, on 30 June 1997. It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic -- the American publisher of the books -- as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone, after Rowling had received US $105,000 for the American rights -- an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then - unknown author. The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998, and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999, and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005, and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release.
The title of the book refers to three mythical objects featured in the story, collectively known as the "Deathly Hallows '' -- an unbeatable wand, a stone to bring the dead to life, and a cloak of invisibility. Shortly before releasing the title, J.K. Rowling announced that she had considered three titles for the book. The final title was released to the public on 21 December 2006, via a special Christmas - themed hangman puzzle on Rowling 's website, confirmed shortly afterwards by the book 's publishers. When asked during a live chat about the other titles she had been considering, Rowling mentioned Harry Potter and the Elder Wand and Harry Potter and the Peverell Quest.
Rowling completed the book while staying at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh in January 2007, and left a signed statement on a marble bust of Hermes in her room which read: "J.K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room (552) on 11 January 2007 ''. In a statement on her website, she said, "I 've never felt such a mixture of extreme emotions in my life, never dreamed I could feel simultaneously heartbroken and euphoric. '' She compared her mixed feelings to those expressed by Charles Dickens in the preface of the 1850 edition of David Copperfield, "a two - years ' imaginative task ''. "To which, '' she added, "I can only sigh, try seventeen years, Charles ''. She ended her message by saying "Deathly Hallows is my favourite, and that is the most wonderful way to finish the series ''.
When asked before publication about the forthcoming book, Rowling stated that she could not change the ending even if she wanted. "These books have been plotted for such a long time, and for six books now, that they 're all leading a certain direction. So, I really ca n't ''. She also commented that the final volume related closely to the previous book in the series, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, "almost as though they are two - halves of the same novel ''. She has said that the last chapter of the book was written "in something like 1990 '', as part of her earliest work on the series. Rowling also revealed she originally wrote the last words to be "something like: ' Only those who he loved could see his lightning scar ' ''. Rowling changed this because she did not want people to think Voldemort would rise again and to say that Harry 's mission was over.
In a 2006 interview, J.K. Rowling said that the main theme of the series is Harry dealing with death, which was influenced by her mother 's death in 1990, from multiple sclerosis. Lev Grossman of Time stated that the main theme of the series was the overwhelming importance of continuing to love in the face of death.
Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books, some more complex than others, and some including political subtexts. Themes such as normality, oppression, survival, and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series. Similarly, the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and "going over one 's most harrowing ordeals -- and thus coming to terms with them '' has also been considered. Rowling has stated that the books comprise "a prolonged argument for tolerance, a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry '' and that also pass on a message to "question authority and... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth ''.
Some political commentators have seen J.K. Rowling 's portrayal of the bureaucratised Ministry of Magic and the oppressive measures taken by the Ministry in the later books (like making attendance at Hogwarts School compulsory and the "registration of Mudbloods '' with the Ministry) as an allegory of criticising the state.
The Harry Potter series has been criticised for supposedly supporting witchcraft and the occult. Before publication of Deathly Hallows, Rowling refused to speak out about her religion, stating, "If I talk too freely, every reader, whether 10 or 60, will be able to guess what 's coming in the books ''. However, many have noted Christian allegories apparent in Deathly Hallows. For example, Harry dies and then comes back to life to save mankind, like Christ. The location where this occurs is King 's Cross. Harry also urges Voldemort to show remorse, to restore his shattered soul. Rowling also stated that "my belief and my struggling with religious belief... I think is quite apparent in this book '', which is shown as Harry struggles with his faith in Dumbledore.
Deathly Hallows begins with a pair of epigraphs, one by Quaker leader William Penn and one from Aeschylus ' The Libation Bearers. Of this, Rowling said "I really enjoyed choosing those two quotations because one is pagan, of course, and one is from a Christian tradition. I 'd known it was going to be those two passages since Chamber was published. I always knew (that) if I could use them at the beginning of book seven then I 'd cued up the ending perfectly. If they were relevant, then I went where I needed to go. They just say it all to me, they really do ''.
When Harry visits his parents ' grave, the biblical reference "The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death '' (1 Corinthians 15: 26) is inscribed on the grave. The Dumbledores ' family tomb also holds a biblical quote: "Where your treasure is, there your heart will be also '', which is from Matthew 6: 21. Rowling states, "They 're very British books, so on a very practical note Harry was going to find biblical quotations on tombstones... (but) I think those two particular quotations he finds on the tombstones at Godric 's Hollow, they sum up -- they almost epitomise the whole series ''.
Harry Potter pundit John Granger additionally noted that one of the reasons the Harry Potter books were so popular is their use of literary alchemy (similar to Romeo and Juliet, C.S. Lewis 's Perelandra and Charles Dickens 's A Tale of Two Cities) and vision symbolism. In this model, authors weave allegorical tales along the alchemical magnum opus. Since the medieval period, alchemical allegory has mirrored the passion, death and resurrection of Christ. While the entire series utilises symbols common in alchemy, the Deathly Hallows completes this cycle, tying themes of death, rebirth, and the Resurrection Stone to the principal motif of alchemical allegory, and topics presented in the first book of the series.
The launch was celebrated by an all - night book signing and reading at the Natural History Museum in London, which Rowling attended along with 1,700 guests chosen by ballot. Rowling toured the US in October 2007, where another event was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City with tickets allocated by sweepstake.
Scholastic, the American publisher of the Harry Potter series, launched a multimillion - dollar "There will soon be 7 '' marketing campaign with a "Knight Bus '' travelling to 40 libraries across the United States, online fan discussions and competitions, collectible bookmarks, tattoos, and the staged release of seven Deathly Hallows questions most debated by fans. In the build - up to the book 's release, Scholastic released seven questions that fans would find answered in the final book:
J.K. Rowling arranged with her publishers for a poster bearing the face of the missing British child Madeleine McCann to be made available to book sellers when Deathly Hallows was launched on 21 July 2007, and said that she hoped that the posters would be displayed prominently in shops all over the world.
After it was told that the novel would be released on 21 July 2007, Warner Bros. shortly thereafter said that the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix would be released shortly before the novel would be released, on 13 July 2007, making many people proclaim that July 2007, was the month of Harry Potter.
Bloomsbury invested £ 10 million in an attempt to keep the book 's contents secure until 21 July, the release date. Arthur Levine, US editor of the Harry Potter series, denied distributing any copies of Deathly Hallows in advance for press review, but two US papers published early reviews anyway. There was speculation that some shops would break the embargo and distribute copies of the book early, as the penalty imposed for previous instalments -- that the distributor would not be supplied with any further copies of the series -- would no longer be a deterrent.
In the week before its release, a number of texts purporting to be genuine leaks appeared in various forms. On 16 July, a set of photographs representing all 759 pages of the US edition was leaked and was fully transcribed prior to the official release date. The photographs later appeared on websites and peer - to - peer networks, leading Scholastic to seek a subpoena in order to identify one source. This represented the most serious security breach in the Harry Potter series ' history. Rowling and her lawyer confirmed that there were genuine online leaks. Reviews published in both The Baltimore Sun and The New York Times on 18 July 2007, corroborated many of the plot elements from this leak, and about one day prior to release, The New York Times confirmed that the main circulating leak was real.
Scholastic announced that approximately one - ten - thousandth (0.0001) of the US supply had been shipped early -- interpreted to mean about 1,200 copies. One reader in Maryland received a copy of the book in the mail from DeepDiscount.com four days before it was launched, which evoked incredulous responses from both Scholastic and DeepDiscount. Scholastic initially reported that they were satisfied it had been a "human error '' and would not discuss possible penalties; however, the following day Scholastic announced that it would be launching legal action against DeepDiscount.com and its distributor, Levy Home Entertainment. Scholastic filed for damages in Chicago 's Circuit Court of Cook County, claiming that DeepDiscount engaged in a "complete and flagrant violation of the agreements that they knew were part of the carefully constructed release of this eagerly awaited book. '' Some of the early release books soon appeared on eBay, in one case being sold to Publishers Weekly for US $250 from an initial price of US $18.
Asda, along with several other UK supermarkets, having already taken pre-orders for the book at a heavily discounted price, sparked a price war two days before the book 's launch by announcing they would sell it for just £ 5 a copy. Other retail chains then also offered the book at discounted prices. At these prices the book became a loss leader. This caused uproar from traditional UK booksellers who argued they had no hope of competing in those conditions. Independent shops protested loudest, but even Waterstone 's, the UK 's largest dedicated chain bookstore, could not compete with the supermarket price. Some small bookstores hit back by buying their stock from the supermarkets rather than their wholesalers. Asda attempted to counter this by imposing a limit of two copies per customer to prevent bulk purchases. Philip Wicks, a spokesman for the UK Booksellers Association, said, "It is a war we ca n't even participate in. We think it 's a crying shame that the supermarkets have decided to treat it as a loss - leader, like a can of baked beans. '' Michael Norris, an analyst at Simba Information, said: "You are not only lowering the price of the book. At this point, you are lowering the value of reading. ''
In Malaysia, a similar price war caused controversy regarding sales of the book. Four of the biggest bookstore chains in Malaysia, MPH Bookstores, Popular Bookstores, Times and Harris, decided to pull Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows off their shelves as a protest against Tesco and Carrefour hypermarkets. The retail price of the book in Malaysia is MYR 109.90, while the hypermarkets Tesco and Carrefour sold the book at MYR 69.90. The move by the bookstores was seen as an attempt to pressure the distributor Penguin Books to remove the books from the hypermarkets. However, as of 24 July 2007, the price war has ended, with the four bookstores involved resuming selling the books in their stores with discount. Penguin Books has also confirmed that Tesco and Carrefour are selling the book at a loss, urging them to practice good business sense and fair trade.
The book 's early Saturday morning release in Israel was criticised for violating Shabbat. Trade and Industry Minister Eli Yishai commented "It is forbidden, according to Jewish values and Jewish culture, that a thing like this should take place at 2 am on Saturday. Let them do it on another day. '' Yishai indicated that he would issue indictments and fines based on the Hours of Work and Rest Law.
The Baltimore Sun 's critic, Mary Carole McCauley, noted that the book was more serious than the previous novels in the series and had more straightforward prose. Furthermore, reviewer Alice Fordham from The Times wrote that "Rowling 's genius is not just her total realisation of a fantasy world, but the quieter skill of creating characters that bounce off the page, real and flawed and brave and lovable ''. Fordham concluded, "We have been a long way together, and neither Rowling nor Harry let us down in the end ''. The New York Times writer Michiko Kakutani agreed, praising Rowling 's ability to make Harry both a hero and a character that can be related to.
Time magazine 's Lev Grossman named it one of the Top 10 Fiction Books of 2007, ranking it at No. 8, and praised Rowling for proving that books can still be a global mass medium. Novelist Elizabeth Hand criticised that "... the spectacularly complex interplay of narrative and character often reads as though an entire trilogy 's worth of summing - up has been crammed into one volume. '' In a starred review from Kirkus Reviews, the reviewer said, "Rowling has shown uncommon skill in playing them with and against each other, and also woven them into a darn good bildungsroman, populated by memorable characters and infused with a saving, irrepressible sense of fun ''. They also praised the second half of the novel, but criticised the epilogue, calling it "provocatively sketchy ''. In another review from The Times, reviewer Amanda Craig said that while Rowling was "not an original, high - concept author '', she was "right up there with other greats of children 's fiction ''. Craig went on to say that the novel was "beautifully judged, and a triumphant return to form '', and that Rowling 's imagination changed the perception of an entire generation, which "is more than all but a handful of living authors, in any genre, have achieved in the past half - century ''.
In contrast, Jenny Sawyer of The Christian Science Monitor said that, "There is much to love about the Harry Potter series, from its brilliantly realised magical world to its multilayered narrative '', however, "A story is about someone who changes. And, puberty aside, Harry does n't change much. As envisioned by Rowling, he walks the path of good so unwaveringly that his final victory over Voldemort feels, not just inevitable, but hollow ''. In The New York Times, Christopher Hitchens compared the series to World War Two - era English boarding school stories, and while he wrote that "Rowling has won imperishable renown '' for the series as a whole, he also stated that he disliked Rowling 's use of deus ex machina, that the mid-book camping chapters are "abysmally long '', and Voldemort "becomes more tiresome than an Ian Fleming villain ''. Catherine Bennett of The Guardian praised Rowling for putting small details from the previous books and making them large in Deathly Hallows, such as Grindelwald being mentioned on a Chocolate Frog Card in the first book. While she points out "as her critics say, Rowling is no Dickens '', she says that Rowling "has willed into a fictional being, in every book, legions of new characters, places, spells, rules and scores of unimagined twists and subplots ''.
Stephen King criticised the reactions of some reviewers to the books, including McCauley, for jumping too quickly to surface conclusions of the work. He felt this was inevitable, because of the extreme secrecy before launch which did not allow reviewers time to read and consider the book, but meant that many early reviews lacked depth. Rather than finding the writing style disappointing, he felt it had matured and improved. He acknowledged that the subject matter of the books had become more adult, and that Rowling had clearly been writing with the adult audience firmly in mind since the middle of the series. He compared the works in this respect to Huckleberry Finn and Alice in Wonderland which achieved success and have become established classics, in part by appealing to the adult audience as well as children.
Sales for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows were record setting. The initial US print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies, and more than a million were pre-ordered through Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble, 500 percent higher than pre-sales had been for Half - Blood Prince. On 12 April 2007, Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre-order record, with more than 500,000 copies pre-ordered through its site. On opening day, a record 8.3 million copies were sold in the United States (over 96 per second), and 2.65 million copies in the United Kingdom. It holds the Guinness World record for fastest selling book of fiction in 24 hours for US sales. At WH Smith, sales reportedly reached a rate of 15 books sold per second. By June 2008, nearly a year after it was published, worldwide sales were reportedly around 44 million.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has won several awards. In 2007, the book was named one of The New York Times 100 Notable Books, and one of its Notable Children 's Books. The novel was named the best book of 2007, by Newsweek 's critic Malcolm Jones. Publishers Weekly also listed Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows among their Best Books of 2007. In 2008, the American Library Association named the novel one of its Best Books for Young Adults, and also listed it as a Notable Children 's Book. Furthermore, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows received the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award.
Due to its worldwide fame, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has been translated into many languages. The first translation to be released was the Ukrainian translation, on 25 September 2007 (as Гаррі Поттер і смертельні реліквії -- Harry Potter i smertel'ni relikviji). The Swedish title of the book was revealed by Rowling as Harry Potter and the Relics of Death (Harry Potter och Dödsrelikerna), following a pre-release question from the Swedish publisher about the difficulty of translating the two words "Deathly Hallows '' without having read the book. This is also the title used for the French translation (Harry Potter et les reliques de la mort), the Spanish translation (Harry Potter y las Reliquias de la Muerte), the Dutch translation (Harry Potter en de Relieken van de Dood) and the Brazilian Portuguese translation (Harry Potter e as Relíquias da Morte). The first Polish translation was released with a new title: Harry Potter i Insygnia Śmierci -- Harry Potter and the Insignia of Death. The Hindi translation Harry Potter aur Maut ke Tohfe (हैरी पॉटर और मौत के तोहफे), which means "Harry Potter and the Gifts of Death '', was released by Manjul Publication in India on 27 June 2008. The Romanian version was released on 1 December 2007 using the title (Harry Potter și Talismanele Morții).
Deathly Hallows was released in hardcover on 21 July 2007 and in paperback in the United Kingdom on 10 July 2008 and the United States on 7 July 2009. In SoHo, New York, there was a release party for the American paperback edition, with many games and activities. An "Adult Edition '' with a different cover illustration was released by Bloomsbury on 21 July 2007. To be released simultaneously with the original US hardcover on 21 July with only 100,000 copies was a Scholastic deluxe edition, highlighting a new cover illustration by Mary GrandPré. In October 2010, Bloomsbury released a "Celebratory '' paperback edition, which featured a foiled and starred cover. Lastly, on 1 November 2010, a "Signature '' edition of the novel was released in paperback by Bloomsbury.
A two - part film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is directed by David Yates, written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman, David Barron and J.K. Rowling. Part 1 was released on 19 November 2010, and Part 2 on 15 July 2011. Filming began in February 2009, and ended on 12 June 2010. However, the cast confirmed they would reshoot the epilogue scene as they only had two days to shoot the original. Reshoots officially ended around December 2010. Part 1 ended at Chapter 24 of the book, when Voldemort regained the Elder Wand. However, there were a few omissions, such as the appearances of Dean Thomas and Viktor Krum, and Peter Pettigrew 's death. James Bernadelli of Reelviews said that the script stuck closest to the text since Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, yet this was met with negativity from some audiences as the film inherited "the book 's own problems ''.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released simultaneously on 21 July 2007, in both the UK and the United States. The UK edition features the voice of Stephen Fry and runs about 24 hours while the US edition features the voice of Jim Dale and runs about 21 hours. Both Fry and Dale recorded 146 different and distinguishable character voices, and was the most recorded by an individual on an audiobook at the time.
For his work on Deathly Hallows, Dale won the 2008 Grammy Award for the Best Spoken Word Album for Children. He also was awarded an Earphone Award by AudioFile, who claimed, "Dale has raised the bar on audiobook interpretation so high it 's hard to imagine any narrator vaulting over it. ''
On 4 December 2008, Rowling released The Tales of Beedle the Bard both in the UK and US. The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a spin - off of Deathly Hallows and contains fairy tales that are told to children in the "Wizarding World ''. The book includes five short stories, including "The Tale of the Three Brothers '' which is the story of the Deathly Hallows.
Amazon.com released an exclusive collector 's edition of the book which is a replica of the book that Amazon.com purchased at auction in December 2007. Seven copies were auctioned off in London by Sotheby 's. Each was illustrated and handwritten by Rowling and is 157 pages. It was bound in brown Moroccan leather and embellished with five hand - chased hallmarked sterling silver ornaments and mounted moonstones.
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all fermentation pathways have the following in common | Fermentation - wikipedia
Fermentation is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen. The products are organic acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen - starved muscle cells, as in the case of lactic acid fermentation. The science of fermentation is known as zymology.
In microorganisms, fermentation is the primary means of producing ATP by the degradation of organic nutrients anaerobically. Humans have used fermentation to produce foodstuffs and beverages since the Neolithic age. For example, fermentation is used for preservation in a process that produces lactic acid as found in such sour foods as pickled cucumbers, kimchi and yogurt (see fermentation in food processing), as well as for producing alcoholic beverages such as wine (see fermentation in winemaking) and beer. Fermentation occurs within the gastrointestinal tracts of all animals, including humans.
Below are some definitions of fermentation. They range from informal, general usages to more scientific definitions.
Along with photosynthesis and aerobic respiration, fermentation is a way of extracting energy from molecules, but it is the only one common to all bacteria and eukaryotes. It is therefore considered the oldest metabolic pathway, suitable for an environment that did not yet have oxygen. Yeast, a form of fungus, occurs in almost any environment capable of supporting microbes, from the skins of fruits to the guts of insects and mammals and the deep ocean, and they harvest sugar - rich materials to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
The basic mechanism for fermentation remains present in all cells of higher organisms. Mammalian muscle carries out the fermentation that occurs during periods of intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited, resulting in the creation of lactic acid. In invertebrates, fermentation also produces succinate and alanine.
Fermentative bacteria play an essential role in the production of methane in habitats ranging from the rumens of cattle to sewage digesters and freshwater sediments. They produce hydrogen, carbon dioxide, formate and acetate and carboxylic acids; and then consortia of microbes convert the carbon dioxide and acetate to methane. Acetogenic bacteria oxidize the acids, obtaining more acetate and either hydrogen or formate. Finally, methanogens (which are in the domain Archea) convert acetate to methane.
Fermentation reacts NADH with an endogenous, organic electron acceptor. Usually this is pyruvate formed from sugar through glycolysis. The reaction produces NAD+ and an organic product, typical examples being ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen gas (H). However, more exotic compounds can be produced by fermentation, such as butyric acid and acetone. Fermentation products contain chemical energy (they are not fully oxidized), but are considered waste products, since they can not be metabolized further without the use of oxygen.
Fermentation normally occurs in an anaerobic environment. In the presence of O, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration. This is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, fermentation is rarely utilized when oxygen is available. However, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, some strains of yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration as long as there is an adequate supply of sugars (a phenomenon known as the Crabtree effect). Some fermentation processes involve obligate anaerobes, which can not tolerate oxygen.
Although yeast carries out the fermentation in the production of ethanol in beers, wines, and other alcoholic drinks, this is not the only possible agent: bacteria carry out the fermentation in the production of xanthan gum.
In ethanol fermentation, one glucose molecule is converted into two ethanol molecules and two carbon dioxide molecules. It is used to make bread dough rise: the carbon dioxide forms bubbles, expanding the dough into a foam. The ethanol is the intoxicating agent in alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer and liquor. Fermentation of feedstocks including sugarcane, corn and sugar beets produces ethanol that is added to gasoline. In some species of fish, including goldfish and carp, it provides energy when oxygen is scarce (along with lactic acid fermentation).
The figure illustrates the process. Before fermentation, a glucose molecule breaks down into two pyruvate molecules. The energy from this exothermic reaction is used to bind inorganic phosphates to ATP and convert NAD+ to NADH. The pyruvates break down into two acetaldehyde molecules and give off two carbon dioxide molecules as a waste product. The acetaldehyde is reduced into ethanol using the energy and hydrogen from NADH and the NADH is oxidized into NAD+ so that the cycle may repeat. The reaction is catalysed by the enzymes pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase.
Homolactic fermentation (producing only lactic acid) is the simplest type of fermentation. The pyruvate from glycolysis undergoes a simple redox reaction, forming lactic acid. It is unique because it is one of the only respiration processes to not produce a gas as a byproduct. Overall, one molecule of glucose (or any six - carbon sugar) is converted to two molecules of lactic acid:
It occurs in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the blood can supply oxygen. It also occurs in some kinds of bacteria (such as lactobacilli) and some fungi. It is the type of bacteria that converts lactose into lactic acid in yogurt, giving it its sour taste. These lactic acid bacteria can carry out either homolactic fermentation, where the end - product is mostly lactic acid, or
Heterolactic fermentation, where some lactate is further metabolized and results in ethanol and carbon dioxide (via the phosphoketolase pathway), acetate, or other metabolic products, e.g.:
If lactose is fermented (as in yogurts and cheeses), it is first converted into glucose and galactose (both six - carbon sugars with the same atomic formula):
Heterolactic fermentation is in a sense intermediate between lactic acid fermentation, and other types, e.g. alcoholic fermentation (see below). The reasons to go further and convert lactic acid into anything else are:
Hydrogen gas is produced in many types of fermentation (mixed acid fermentation, butyric acid fermentation, caproate fermentation, butanol fermentation, glyoxylate fermentation), as a way to regenerate NAD from NADH. Electrons are transferred to ferredoxin, which in turn is oxidized by hydrogenase, producing H. Hydrogen gas is a substrate for methanogens and sulfate reducers, which keep the concentration of hydrogen low and favor the production of such an energy - rich compound, but hydrogen gas at a fairly high concentration can nevertheless be formed, as in flatus.
As an example of mixed acid fermentation, bacteria such as Clostridium pasteurianum ferment glucose producing butyrate, acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas: The reaction leading to acetate is:
Glucose could theoretically be converted into just CO and H, but the global reaction releases little energy.
Most industrial fermentation uses batch or fed - batch procedures, although continuous fermentation can be more economical if various challenges, particularly the difficulty of maintaining sterility, can be met.
In a batch process, all the ingredients are combined and the reactions proceed without any further input. Batch fermentation has been used for millennia to make bread and alcoholic beverages, and it is still a common method, especially when the process is not well understood. However, it can be expensive because the fermentor must be sterilized using high pressure steam between batches. Strictly speaking, there is often addition of small quantities of chemicals to control the pH or suppress foaming.
Batch fermentation goes through a series of phases. There is a lag phase in which cells adjust to their environment; then a phase in which exponential growth occurs. Once many of the nutrients have been consumed, the growth slows and becomes non-exponential, but production of secondary metabolites (including commercially important antibiotics and enzymes) accelerates. This continues through a stationary phase after most of the nutrients have been consumed, and then the cells die.
Fed - batch fermentation is a variation of batch fermentation where some of the ingredients are added during the fermentation. This allows greater control over the stages of the process. In particular, production of secondary metabolites can be increased by adding a limited quantity of nutrients during the non-exponential growth phase. Fed - batch operations are often sandwiched between batch operations.
The high cost of sterilizing the fermentor between batches can be avoided using various open fermentation approaches that are able to resist contamination. One is to use a naturally evolved mixed culture. This is particularly favored in wastewater treatment, since mixed populations can adapt to a wide variety of wastes. Thermophilic bacteria can produce lactic acid at temperatures of around 50 degrees Celsius, sufficient to discourage microbial contamination; and ethanol has been produced at a temperature of 70 ° C. This is just below its boiling point (78 ° C), making it easy to extract. Halophilic bacteria can produce bioplastics in hypersaline conditions. Solid - state fermentation adds a small amount of water to a solid substrate; it is widely used in the food industry to produce flavors, enzymes and organic acids.
In continuous fermentation, substrates are added and final products removed continuously. There are three varieties: chemostats, which hold nutrient levels constant; turbidostats, which keep cell mass constant; and plug flow reactors in which the culture medium flows steadily through a tube while the cells are recycled from the outlet to the inlet. If the process works well, there is a steady flow of feed and effluent and the costs of repeatedly setting up a batch are avoided. Also, it can prolong the exponential growth phase and avoid byproducts that inhibit the reactions by continuously removing them. However, it is difficult to maintain a steady state and avoid contamination, and the design tends to be complex. Typically the fermentor must run for over 500 hours to be more economical than batch processors.
The use of fermentation, particularly for beverages, has existed since the Neolithic and has been documented dating from 7000 -- 6600 BCE in Jiahu, China, 5000 BCE in India, Ayurveda mentions many Medicated Wines, 6000 BCE in Georgia, 3150 BCE in ancient Egypt, 3000 BCE in Babylon, 2000 BCE in pre-Hispanic Mexico, and 1500 BC in Sudan. Fermented foods have a religious significance in Judaism and Christianity. The Baltic god Rugutis was worshiped as the agent of fermentation.
In 1837, Charles Cagniard de la Tour, Theodor Schwann and Friedrich Traugott Kützing independently published papers concluding, as a result of microscopic investigations, that yeast is a living organism that reproduces by budding. Schwann boiled grape juice to kill the yeast and found that no fermentation would occur until new yeast was added. However, a lot of chemists, including Antoine Lavoisier, continued to view fermentation as a simple chemical reaction and rejected the notion that living organisms could be involved. This was seen as a reversion to vitalism, and was lampooned in an anonymous publication by Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler.
The turning point came when Louis Pasteur (1822 -- 1895), during the 1850s and 1860s, repeated Schwann 's experiments and showed that fermentation is initiated by living organisms in a series of investigations. In 1857, Pasteur showed that lactic acid fermentation is caused by living organisms. In 1860, he demonstrated that bacteria cause souring in milk, a process formerly thought to be merely a chemical change, and his work in identifying the role of microorganisms in food spoilage led to the process of pasteurization. In 1877, working to improve the French brewing industry, Pasteur published his famous paper on fermentation, "Etudes sur la Bière '', which was translated into English in 1879 as "Studies on fermentation ''. He defined fermentation (incorrectly) as "Life without air '', but correctly showed that specific types of microorganisms cause specific types of fermentations and specific end - products.
Although showing fermentation to be the result of the action of living microorganisms was a breakthrough, it did not explain the basic nature of the fermentation process, or prove that it is caused by the microorganisms that appear to be always present. Many scientists, including Pasteur, had unsuccessfully attempted to extract the fermentation enzyme from yeast. Success came in 1897 when the German chemist Eduard Buechner ground up yeast, extracted a juice from them, then found to his amazement that this "dead '' liquid would ferment a sugar solution, forming carbon dioxide and alcohol much like living yeasts. Buechner 's results are considered to mark the birth of biochemistry. The "unorganized ferments '' behaved just like the organized ones. From that time on, the term enzyme came to be applied to all ferments. It was then understood that fermentation is caused by enzymes that are produced by microorganisms. In 1907, Buechner won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work.
Advances in microbiology and fermentation technology have continued steadily up until the present. For example, in the 1930s, it was discovered that microorganisms could be mutated with physical and chemical treatments to be higher - yielding, faster - growing, tolerant of less oxygen, and able to use a more concentrated medium. Strain selection and hybridization developed as well, affecting most modern food fermentations.
The word "ferment '' is derived from the Latin verb fervere, which means to boil. It is thought to have been first used in the late 14th century in alchemy, but only in a broad sense. It was not used in the modern scientific sense until around 1600.
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who played mary in the movie jesus of nazareth | Olivia Hussey - wikipedia
Olivia Hussey (born Olivia Osuna; 17 April 1951) is an English - Argentine actress. After appearing in theatre in London, Hussey was chosen to play the role of Juliet in Franco Zeffirelli 's 1968 film version of Romeo and Juliet. The role lent her international recognition, and she won a Golden Globe and also the David di Donatello Award for her performance.
In 1974, she appeared as the lead character, Jess, in the cult horror film Black Christmas. She would reunite with Zeffirelli in the miniseries Jesus of Nazareth (1977), as Mary, mother of Jesus, and appeared in John Guillermin 's Agatha Christie adaptation Death on the Nile (1978). She would appear in several international productions throughout the 1980s, including the Japanese production Virus (1980), and the Australian horror film Turkey Shoot (1982). In 1990, she appeared in two other horror productions: Psycho IV: The Beginning and Stephen King 's It.
In addition to screen acting, Hussey has also worked as a voice actress, providing voice roles in multiple Star Wars video games, including Star Wars: Rogue Squadron, Star Wars: Force Commander, and Star Wars: The Old Republic.
Hussey was born Olivia Osuna in Buenos Aires, Argentina, the first child of Andreas Osuna, an Argentine opera singer, and Joy Hussey, a secretary originally from England. Her parents divorced when she was two years old, and at age seven, Hussey moved with her mother and younger brother to London, where she spent the remainder of her early life. She was raised Roman Catholic.
In London, she attended the Italia Conti Academy drama school for five years. At age thirteen, she began acting professionally in theatre.
Assuming her mother 's maiden name as her stage name, Hussey appeared, at age thirteen, on the London stage as Jenny in The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, opposite Vanessa Redgrave. It was during the run of this play that Italian film director Franco Zeffirelli first spotted her because of her beauty and theatrical skill. At age fifteen, she was chosen out of 500 actresses to star as Juliet in Zeffirelli 's 1968 film version of Romeo and Juliet, opposite Leonard Whiting 's Romeo. Prior to her role in Romeo and Juliet, she had appeared in minor roles in two films: The Battle of the Villa Fiorita and Cup Fever (both 1965), and an episode of the television series Drama 61 -- 67 (1964). In 1969, she won a special David di Donatello Award and the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year - Actress for her performance in Romeo and Juliet.
In 1971, she appeared in the British drama All the Right Noises, followed by the crime film The Summertime Killer (1972), and the musical Lost Horizon (1973), opposite Liv Ullmann, John Gielgud, and Sally Kellerman. In 1974, she played the leading role of Jess in the Canadian horror film, Black Christmas (1974), which became influential as a forerunner of the slasher film genre of horror films. She played Mary, the mother of Jesus, in the 1977 television production of Jesus of Nazareth (her second work for director Zeffirelli). In 1978 she played Rosalie Otterbourne in Death on the Nile with Peter Ustinov, and appeared in The Cat and the Canary (1979). She also starred as Marit in the Japanese film Virus (1980), and played Rebecca of York in the 1982 remake of Ivanhoe (1982); the same year, she had a lead role in the Australian horror film Turkey Shoot (1982).
In 1987, Hussey appeared in a clip for the Michael Jackson video Liberian Girl, among others, who also included Steven Spielberg, John Travolta, Olivia Newton - John, Whoopi Goldberg, Lou Ferrigno, and Billy Dee Williams. In 1990, Hussey appeared in two horror projects, playing Norma Bates, the mother of Norman Bates, in Psycho IV: The Beginning, a prequel to Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho (1960), and in the miniseries It, an adaptation of the Stephen King novel.
In 2003 she played the lead in a film adaptation of the life of Mother Teresa, for which she was presented with a Character & Morality in Entertainment Award on 12 May 2007 in Hollywood. She stated in an interview that it had been her dream and wish to portray the role of Mother Teresa of Calcutta since she finished her role as the Virgin Mary in Jesus of Nazareth. In 2015 Hussey and Leonard Whiting reunited as on - screen partners in the film Social Suicide (2015), the only film that they both appeared in since Romeo and Juliet (1968).
Hussey has also worked as a voice actress, and was nominated for "Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Television Production '' at the Annie Awards for her work in Batman Beyond, as Talia. She voiced the character of Kasan Moor in the PC / Nintendo64 game, Star Wars: Rogue Squadron (1998) and was also in the massively multiplayer online role - playing game Star Wars: The Old Republic (2011) as Jedi Master Yuon Par. She also lent her voice to Star Wars: Force Commander in 2000.
She quit acting for two years following the success of Franco Zeffirelli 's Romeo and Juliet due to an ongoing struggle with agoraphobia. In 1971 Hussey married actor Dean Paul Martin, son of the singer Dean Martin. They had a son, Alexander Gunther Martin (later an actor), in 1973, before divorcing in 1978. Dean Paul Martin died in 1987 when his National Guard F - 4 Phantom jet fighter crashed in California 's San Bernardino Mountains during a snowstorm.
In 1980 Hussey married Japanese musician Akira Fuse in two ceremonies, one at home in Los Angeles and a second, an Indian wedding, in Miami. She gave birth to her son Max in 1983. She divorced Fuse in 1989.
In 1991 Hussey married American rock musician David Glen Eisley, a son of the late actor Anthony Eisley. In October 1993 she gave birth to her daughter, India Eisley. India, also an actress, played her first major role in the American teen drama The Secret Life of the American Teenager in 2008. Olivia Hussey has recently finished writing a memoir titled The Girl on the Balcony: Olivia Hussey Finds Life After Romeo and Juliet, which will be released in 2018.
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series of songs or poems composed round a central event or figure | English poetry - wikipedia
This article focuses on poetry written in English from the United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (and Ireland before 1922). However, though the whole of Ireland was politically part of the United Kingdom between January 1801 and December 1922, it can be controversial to describe Irish literature as British, and for some this includes authors from Northern Ireland. The article does not include poetry from other countries where the English language is spoken.
The earliest surviving English poetry, written in Anglo - Saxon, the direct predecessor of modern English, may have been composed as early as the 7th century.
The earliest known English poem is a hymn on the creation; Bede attributes this to Cædmon (fl. 658 -- 680), who was, according to legend, an illiterate herdsman who produced extemporaneous poetry at a monastery at Whitby. This is generally taken as marking the beginning of Anglo - Saxon poetry.
Much of the poetry of the period is difficult to date, or even to arrange chronologically; for example, estimates for the date of the great epic Beowulf range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there has never been anything even approaching a consensus. It is possible to identify certain key moments, however. The Dream of the Rood was written before circa AD 700, when excerpts were carved in runes on the Ruthwell Cross. Some poems on historical events, such as The Battle of Brunanburh (937) and The Battle of Maldon (991), appear to have been composed shortly after the events in question, and can be dated reasonably precisely in consequence.
By and large, however, Anglo - Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. The most important manuscripts are the four great poetical codices of the late 10th and early 11th centuries, known as the Cædmon manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Beowulf manuscript.
While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth. Beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others such as Waldere and the Finnesburg Fragment show that it was not unique in its time. Other genres include much religious verse, from devotional works to biblical paraphrase; elegies such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Ruin (often taken to be a description of the ruins of Bath); and numerous proverbs, riddles, and charms.
With one notable exception (Rhyming Poem), Anglo - Saxon poetry depends on alliterative verse for its structure and any rhyme included is merely ornamental.
With the Norman conquest of England, beginning in 1111 the Anglo - Saxon language rapidly diminished as a written literary language. The new aristocracy spoke predominantly Norman, and this became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society. As the invaders integrated, their language and literature mingled with that of the natives: the Oïl dialect of the upper classes became Anglo - Norman, and Anglo - Saxon underwent a gradual transition into Middle English.
While Anglo - Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture, English literature by no means died out, and a number of important works illustrate the development of the language. Around the turn of the 13th century, Layamon wrote his Brut, based on Wace 's 12th century Anglo - Norman epic of the same name; Layamon 's language is recognisably Middle English, though his prosody shows a strong Anglo - Saxon influence remaining. Other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament and courts of law.
It was with the 14th century that major works of English literature began once again to appear; these include the so - called Pearl Poet 's Pearl, Patience, Cleanness, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight; Langland 's political and religious allegory Piers Plowman; Gower 's Confessio Amantis; and the works of Chaucer, the most highly regarded English poet of the Middle Ages, who was seen by his contemporaries as a successor to the great tradition of Virgil and Dante.
The reputation of Chaucer 's successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, though Lydgate and Skelton are widely studied. A group of Scottish writers arose who were formerly believed to be influenced by Chaucer. The rise of Scottish poetry began with the writing of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland. The main poets of this Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas. Henryson and Douglas introduced a note of almost savage satire, which may have owed something to the Gaelic bards, while Douglas ' Eneados, a translation into Middle Scots of Virgil 's Aeneid, was the first complete translation of any major work of classical antiquity into an English or Anglic language.
The Renaissance was slow in coming to England, with the generally accepted start date being around 1509. It is also generally accepted that the English Renaissance extended until the Restoration in 1660. However, a number of factors had prepared the way for the introduction of the new learning long before this start date. A number of medieval poets had, as already noted, shown an interest in the ideas of Aristotle and the writings of European Renaissance precursors such as Dante.
The introduction of movable - block printing by Caxton in 1474 provided the means for the more rapid dissemination of new or recently rediscovered writers and thinkers. Caxton also printed the works of Chaucer and Gower and these books helped establish the idea of a native poetic tradition that was linked to its European counterparts. In addition, the writings of English humanists like Thomas More and Thomas Elyot helped bring the ideas and attitudes associated with the new learning to an English audience.
Three other factors in the establishment of the English Renaissance were the Reformation, Counter Reformation, and the opening of the era of English naval power and overseas exploration and expansion. The establishment of the Church of England in 1535 accelerated the process of questioning the Catholic world - view that had previously dominated intellectual and artistic life. At the same time, long - distance sea voyages helped provide the stimulus and information that underpinned a new understanding of the nature of the universe which resulted in the theories of Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler.
With a small number of exceptions, the early years of the 16th century are not particularly notable. The Douglas Aeneid was completed in 1513 and John Skelton wrote poems that were transitional between the late Medieval and Renaissance styles. The new king, Henry VIII, was something of a poet himself.
Thomas Wyatt (1503 -- 42), one of the earliest English Renaissance poets. He was responsible for many innovations in English poetry, and alongside Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516 / 1517 -- 47) introduced the sonnet from Italy into England in the early 16th century. Wyatt 's professed object was to experiment with the English tongue, to civilise it, to raise its powers to those of its neighbours. Much of his literary output consists of translations and imitations of sonnets by the Italian poet Petrarch, but he also wrote sonnets of his own. Wyatt took subject matter from Petrarch 's sonnets, but his rhyme schemes make a significant departure. Petrarch 's sonnets consist of an "octave '', rhyming abba abba, followed, after a turn (volta) in the sense, by a sestet with various rhyme schemes; however his poems never ended in a rhyming couplet. Wyatt employs the Petrarchan octave, but his most common sestet scheme is cddc ee. This marks the beginnings of the English sonnet with 3 quatrains and a closing couplet.
The Elizabethan period (1558 to 1603) in poetry is characterized by a number of frequently overlapping developments. The introduction and adaptation of themes, models and verse forms from other European traditions and classical literature, the Elizabethan song tradition, the emergence of a courtly poetry often centred around the figure of the monarch and the growth of a verse - based drama are among the most important of these developments.
A wide range of Elizabethan poets wrote songs, including Nicholas Grimald, Thomas Nashe and Robert Southwell. There are also a large number of extant anonymous songs from the period. Perhaps the greatest of all the songwriters was Thomas Campion. Campion is also notable because of his experiments with metres based on counting syllables rather than stresses. These quantitative metres were based on classical models and should be viewed as part of the wider Renaissance revival of Greek and Roman artistic methods.
The songs were generally printed either in miscellanies or anthologies such as Richard Tottel 's 1557 Songs and Sonnets or in songbooks that included printed music to enable performance. These performances formed an integral part of both public and private entertainment. By the end of the 16th century, a new generation of composers, including John Dowland, William Byrd, Orlando Gibbons, Thomas Weelkes and Thomas Morley were helping to bring the art of Elizabethan song to an extremely high musical level.
Elizabethan poems and plays were often written in iambic meters, based on a metrical foot of two syllables, one unstressed and one stressed. However, much metrical experimentation took place during the period, and many of the songs, in particular, departed widely from the iambic norm.
With the consolidation of Elizabeth 's power, a genuine court sympathetic to poetry and the arts in general emerged. This encouraged the emergence of a poetry aimed at, and often set in, an idealised version of the courtly world.
Among the best known examples of this are Edmund Spenser 's The Faerie Queene, which is effectively an extended hymn of praise to the queen, and Philip Sidney 's Arcadia. This courtly trend can also be seen in Spenser 's Shepheardes Calender. This poem marks the introduction into an English context of the classical pastoral, a mode of poetry that assumes an aristocratic audience with a certain kind of attitude to the land and peasants. The explorations of love found in the sonnets of William Shakespeare and the poetry of Walter Raleigh and others also implies a courtly audience.
Virgil 's Aeneid, Thomas Campion 's metrical experiments, and Spenser 's Shepheardes Calender and plays like Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra are all examples of the influence of classicism on Elizabethan poetry. It remained common for poets of the period to write on themes from classical mythology; Shakespeare 's Venus and Adonis and the Christopher Marlowe / George Chapman Hero and Leander are examples of this kind of work.
Translations of classical poetry also became more widespread, with the versions of Ovid 's Metamorphoses by Arthur Golding (1565 -- 67) and George Sandys (1626), and Chapman 's translations of Homer 's Iliad (1611) and Odyssey (c. 1615), among the outstanding examples.
English Renaissance poetry after the Elizabethan poetry can be seen as belonging to one of three strains; the Metaphysical poets, the Cavalier poets and the school of Spenser. However, the boundaries between these three groups are not always clear and an individual poet could write in more than one manner.
Shakespeare also popularized the English sonnet, which made significant changes to Petrarch 's model. A collection of 154 by sonnets, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality, were first published in a 1609 quarto.
John Milton (1608 -- 74) is considered one of the greatest English poets, and wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval. He is generally seen as the last major poet of the English Renaissance, though his most renowned epic poems were written in the Restoration period, including Paradise Lost (1667). Among the important poems Milton wrote during this period are L'Allegro, 1631; Il Penseroso, 1634; Comus (a masque), 1638; and Lycidas (1638).
The early 17th century saw the emergence of this group of poets who wrote in a witty, complicated style. The most famous of the Metaphysicals is probably John Donne. Others include George Herbert, Thomas Traherne, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, and Richard Crashaw. John Milton in his Comus falls into this group. The Metaphysical poets went out of favour in the 18th century but began to be read again in the Victorian era. Donne 's reputation was finally fully restored by the approbation of T.S. Eliot in the early 20th century.
Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian mysticism and eroticism, Donne 's metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic '' figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to reach surprise effects. For example, in "Valediction: Forbidding Mourning '', one of Donne 's Songs and Sonnets, the points of a compass represent two lovers, the woman who is home, waiting, being the centre, the farther point being her lover sailing away from her. But the larger the distance, the more the hands of the compass lean to each other: separation makes love grow fonder. The paradox or the oxymoron is a constant in this poetry whose fears and anxieties also speak of a world of spiritual certainties shaken by the modern discoveries of geography and science, one that is no longer the centre of the universe.
Another important group of poets at this time were the Cavalier poets. The Cavalier poets wrote in a lighter, more elegant and artificial style than the Metaphysical poets. They were an important group of writers, who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639 -- 51). (King Charles reigned from 1625 and was executed 1649). Leading members of the group include Ben Jonson, Richard Lovelace, Robert Herrick, Edmund Waller, Thomas Carew, Sir John Suckling, and John Denham. The Cavalier poets can be seen as the forerunners of the major poets of the Augustan era, who admired them greatly. They "were not a formal group, but all were influenced '' by Ben Jonson. Most of the Cavalier poets were courtiers, with notable exceptions. For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a Cavalier poet. Cavalier works make use of allegory and classical allusions, and are influence by Latin authors Horace, Cicero, and Ovid.
John Milton 's Paradise Lost (1667), a story of fallen pride, was the first major poem to appear in England after the Restoration. The court of Charles II had, in its years in France, learned a worldliness and sophistication that marked it as distinctively different from the monarchies that preceded the Republic. Even if Charles had wanted to reassert the divine right of kingship, the Protestantism and taste for power of the intervening years would have rendered it impossible.
One of the greatest English poets, John Milton (1608 -- 74), wrote during this period of religious and political instability. He is generally seen as the last major poet of the English Renaissance, though his major epic poems were written in the Restoration period. Some of Milton 's important poems, were written before the Restoration (see above). His later major works include Paradise Regained, 1671 and Samson Agonistes, 1671. Milton 's works reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self - determination, and the urgent issues and political turbulence of his day. Writing in English, Latin, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated Areopagitica (1644), written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history 's most influential and impassioned defences of free speech and freedom of the press. William Hayley 's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author '', and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language ''.
The world of fashion and scepticism that emerged encouraged the art of satire. All the major poets of the period, Samuel Butler, John Dryden, Alexander Pope and Samuel Johnson, and the Irish poet Jonathan Swift, wrote satirical verse. Their satire was often written in defence of public order and the established church and government. However, writers such as Pope used their gift for satire to create scathing works responding to their detractors or to criticise what they saw as social atrocities perpetrated by the government. Pope 's "The Dunciad '' is a satirical slaying of two of his literary adversaries (Lewis Theobald, and Colley Cibber in a later version), expressing the view that British society was falling apart morally, culturally, and intellectually.
The 18th century is sometimes called the Augustan age, and contemporary admiration for the classical world extended to the poetry of the time. Not only did the poets aim for a polished high style in emulation of the Roman ideal, they also translated and imitated Greek and Latin verse resulting in measured rationalised elegant verse. Dryden translated all the known works of Virgil, and Pope produced versions of the two Homeric epics. Horace and Juvenal were also widely translated and imitated, Horace most famously by John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester and Juvenal by Samuel Johnson 's Vanity of Human Wishes.
A number of women poets of note emerged during the period of the Restoration, including Aphra Behn, Margaret Cavendish, Mary Chudleigh, Anne Finch, Anne Killigrew, and Katherine Philips. Nevertheless, print publication by women poets was still relatively scarce when compared to that of men, though manuscript evidence indicates that many more women poets were practicing than was previously thought. Disapproval of feminine "forwardness '', however, kept many out of print in the early part of the period, and even as the century progressed women authors still felt the need to justify their incursions into the public sphere by claiming economic necessity or the pressure of friends. Women writers were increasingly active in all genres throughout the 18th century, and by the 1790s women 's poetry was flourishing. Notable poets later in the period include Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Joanna Baillie, Susanna Blamire, Felicia Hemans, Mary Leapor, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Hannah More, and Mary Robinson. In the past decades there has been substantial scholarly and critical work done on women poets of the long 18th century: first, to reclaim them and make them available in contemporary editions in print or online, and second, to assess them and position them within a literary tradition.
Towards the end of the 18th century, poetry began to move away from the strict Augustan ideals and a new emphasis on the sentiment and feelings of the poet was established. This trend can perhaps be most clearly seen in the handling of nature, with a move away from poems about formal gardens and landscapes by urban poets and towards poems about nature as lived in. The leading exponents of this new trend include Thomas Gray, George Crabbe, Christopher Smart and Robert Burns as well as the Irish poet Oliver Goldsmith. These poets can be seen as paving the way for the Romantic movement.
See also: Romantic literature in English; English Romantic sonnets
The last quarter of the 18th century was a time of social and political turbulence, with revolutions inthe United States, France, Ireland and elsewhere. In Great Britain, movement for social change and a more inclusive sharing of power was also growing. This was the backdrop against which the Romantic movement in English poetry emerged.
The main poets of this movement were William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, and John Keats. The birth of English Romanticism is often dated to the publication in 1798 of Wordsworth and Coleridge 's Lyrical Ballads. However, Blake had been publishing since the early 1780s. Much of the focus on Blake only came about during the last century when Northrop Frye discussed his work in his book Anatomy of Criticism. Shelley is most famous for such classic anthology verse works as Ozymandias, and long visionary poems which include Prometheus Unbound. Shelley 's groundbreaking poem The Masque of Anarchy calls for nonviolence in protest and political action. It is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. Mahatma Gandhi 's passive resistance was influenced and inspired by Shelley 's verse, and would often quote the poem to vast audiences.
In poetry, the Romantic movement emphasised the creative expression of the individual and the need to find and formulate new forms of expression. The Romantics, with the partial exception of Byron, rejected the poetic ideals of the 18th century, and each of them returned to Milton for inspiration, though each drew something different from Milton. They also put a good deal of stress on their own originality.
To the Romantics, the moment of creation was the most important in poetic expression and could not be repeated once it passed. Because of this new emphasis, poems that were not complete were nonetheless included in a poet 's body of work (such as Coleridge 's "Kubla Khan '' and "Christabel ''). This argument has, however, been challenged in Zachary Leader 's study Revision and Romantic Authorship (1996).
Additionally, the Romantic movement marked a shift in the use of language. Attempting to express the "language of the common man '', Wordsworth and his fellow Romantic poets focused on employing poetic language for a wider audience, countering the mimetic, tightly constrained Neo-Classic poems (although it 's important to note that the poet wrote first and foremost for his / her own creative, expression). In Shelley 's "Defense of Poetry '', he contends that poets are the "creators of language '' and that the poet 's job is to refresh language for their society.
The Romantics were not the only poets of note at this time. In the work of John Clare the late Augustan voice is blended with a peasant 's first - hand knowledge to produce arguably some of the finest nature poetry in the English language. Another contemporary poet who does not fit into the Romantic group was Walter Savage Landor. Landor was a classicist whose poetry forms a link between the Augustans and Robert Browning, who much admired it.
The Victorian era was a period of great political, social and economic change. The Empire recovered from the loss of the American colonies and entered a period of rapid expansion. This expansion, combined with increasing industrialisation and mechanisation, led to a prolonged period of economic growth. The Reform Act 1832 was the beginning of a process that would eventually lead to universal suffrage.
The major Victorian poets were John Clare, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Matthew Arnold and Gerard Manley Hopkins, though Hopkins was not published until 1918.
John Clare came to be known for his celebratory representations of the English countryside and his lamentation of its disruption. His biographer Jonathan Bate states that Clare was "the greatest labouring - class poet that England has ever produced. No one has ever written more powerfully of nature, of a rural childhood, and of the alienated and unstable self ''.
Tennyson was, to some degree, the Spenser of the new age and his Idylls of the Kings can be read as a Victorian version of The Faerie Queen, that is as a poem that sets out to provide a mythic foundation to the idea of empire.
The Brownings spent much of their time out of England and explored European models and matter in much of their poetry. Robert Browning 's great innovation was the dramatic monologue, which he used to its full extent in his long novel in verse, The Ring and the Book. Elizabeth Barrett Browning is perhaps best remembered for Sonnets from the Portuguese but her long poem Aurora Leigh is one of the classics of 19th century feminist literature.
Matthew Arnold was much influenced by Wordsworth, though his poem Dover Beach is often considered a precursor of the modernist revolution. Hopkins wrote in relative obscurity and his work was not published until after his death. His unusual style (involving what he called "sprung rhythm '' and heavy reliance on rhyme and alliteration) had a considerable influence on many of the poets of the 1940s.
The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a mid-19th century arts movement dedicated to the reform of what they considered the sloppy Mannerist painting of the day. Although primarily concerned with the visual arts, two members, the brother and sister Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Christina Rossetti, were also poets of some ability. Their poetry shares many of the concerns of the painters; an interest in Medieval models, an almost obsessive attention to visual detail and an occasional tendency to lapse into whimsy.
Dante Rossetti worked with, and had some influence on, the leading arts and crafts painter and poet William Morris. Morris shared the Pre-Raphaelite interest in the poetry of the European Middle Ages, to the point of producing some illuminated manuscript volumes of his work.
Towards the end of the century, English poets began to take an interest in French symbolism and Victorian poetry entered a decadent fin - de-siecle phase. Two groups of poets emerged, the Yellow Book poets who adhered to the tenets of Aestheticism, including Algernon Charles Swinburne, Oscar Wilde and Arthur Symons and the Rhymers ' Club group that included Ernest Dowson, Lionel Johnson and William Butler Yeats.
Comic verse abounded in the Victorian era. Magazines such as Punch and Fun magazine teemed with humorous invention and were aimed at a well - educated readership. The most famous collection of Victorian comic verse is the Bab Ballads.
The Victorian era continued into the early years of the 20th century and two figures emerged as the leading representative of the poetry of the old era to act as a bridge into the new. These were Yeats and Thomas Hardy. Yeats, although not a modernist, was to learn a lot from the new poetic movements that sprang up around him and adapted his writing to the new circumstances. Hardy was, in terms of technique at least, a more traditional figure and was to be a reference point for various anti-modernist reactions, especially from the 1950s onwards.
A.E. Housman (1859 -- 1936) was poet who was born in the Victorian era and who first published in the 1890s, but who only really became known in the 20th century. Housman is best known for his cycle of poems A Shropshire Lad (1896). This collection was turned down by several publishers so that Housman published it himself, and the work only became popular when "the advent of war, first in the Boer War and then in World War I, gave the book widespread appeal due to its nostalgic depiction of brave English soldiers ''. The poems ' wistful evocation of doomed youth in the English countryside, in spare language and distinctive imagery, appealed strongly to late Victorian and Edwardian taste, and the fact that several early 20th - century composers set it to music helped its popularity. Housman published a further highly successful collection Last Poems in 1922 while a third volume, More Poems, was published posthumously in 1936.
The Georgian poets were the first major grouping of the post-Victorian era. Their work appeared in a series of five anthologies called Georgian Poetry which were published by Harold Monro and edited by Edward Marsh. The poets featured included Edmund Blunden, Rupert Brooke, Robert Graves, D.H. Lawrence, Walter de la Mare and Siegfried Sassoon. Their poetry represented something of a reaction to the decadence of the 1890s and tended towards the sentimental.
Brooke and Sassoon were to go on to win reputations as war poets and Lawrence quickly distanced himself from the group and was associated with the modernist movement. Graves distanced himself from the group as well and wrote poetry in accordance with a belief in a prehistoric muse he described as The White Goddess. Other notable poets who wrote about the war include Isaac Rosenberg, Edward Thomas, Wilfred Owen, May Cannan and, from the home front, Thomas Hardy and Rudyard Kipling. Kipling is the author of the famous inspirational poem If --, which is an evocation of Victorian stoicism, as a traditional British virtue. Although many of these poets wrote socially - aware criticism of the war, most remained technically conservative and traditionalist.
Among the foremost avant - garde writers were the American - born poets Gertrude Stein, T.S. Eliot, H.D. and Ezra Pound, each of whom spent an important part of their writing lives in England, France and Italy.
Pound 's involvement with the Imagists marked the beginning of a revolution in the way poetry was written. English poets involved with this group included D.H. Lawrence, Richard Aldington, T.E. Hulme, F.S. Flint, Ford Madox Ford, Allen Upward and John Cournos. Eliot, particularly after the publication of The Waste Land, became a major figure and influence on other English poets.
In addition to these poets, other English modernists began to emerge. These included the London - Welsh poet and painter David Jones, whose first book, In Parenthesis, was one of the very few experimental poems to come out of World War I, the Scot Hugh MacDiarmid, Mina Loy and Basil Bunting.
The poets who began to emerge in the 1930s had two things in common; they had all been born too late to have any real experience of the pre-World War I world and they grew up in a period of social, economic and political turmoil. Perhaps as a consequence of these facts, themes of community, social (in) justice and war seem to dominate the poetry of the decade.
The poetic space of the decade was dominated by four poets; W.H. Auden, Stephen Spender, Cecil Day - Lewis and Louis MacNeice, although the last of these belongs at least as much to the history of Irish poetry. These poets were all, in their early days at least, politically active on the Left. Although they admired Eliot, they also represented a move away from the technical innovations of their modernist predecessors. A number of other, less enduring, poets also worked in the same vein. One of these was Michael Roberts, whose New Country anthology both introduced the group to a wider audience and gave them their name.
The 1930s also saw the emergence of a home - grown English surrealist poetry whose main exponents were David Gascoyne, Hugh Sykes Davies, George Barker, and Philip O'Connor. These poets turned to French models rather than either the New Country poets or English - language modernism, and their work was to prove of importance to later English experimental poets as it broadened the scope of the English avant - garde tradition.
John Betjeman and Stevie Smith, who were two other significant poets of this period, who stood outside all schools and groups. Betjeman was a quietly ironic poet of Middle England, with a command of a wide range of verse techniques. Smith was an entirely unclassifiable one - off voice.
The 1940s opened with the United Kingdom at war and a new generation of war poets emerged in response. These included Keith Douglas, Alun Lewis, Henry Reed and F.T. Prince. As with the poets of the First World War, the work of these writers can be seen as something of an interlude in the history of 20th century poetry. Technically, many of these war poets owed something to the 1930s poets, but their work grew out of the particular circumstances in which they found themselves living and fighting.
The main movement in post-war 1940s poetry was the New Romantic group that included Dylan Thomas, George Barker, W.S. Graham, Kathleen Raine, Henry Treece and J.F. Hendry. These writers saw themselves as in revolt against the classicism of the New Country poets. They turned to such models as Gerard Manley Hopkins, Arthur Rimbaud and Hart Crane and the word play of James Joyce. Thomas, in particular, helped Anglo - Welsh poetry to emerge as a recognisable force.
Other significant poets to emerge in the 1940s include Lawrence Durrell, Bernard Spencer, Roy Fuller, Norman Nicholson, Vernon Watkins, R.S. Thomas and Norman MacCaig. These last four poets represent a trend towards regionalism and poets writing about their native areas; Watkins and Thomas in Wales, Nicholson in Cumberland and MacCaig in Scotland.
The 1950s were dominated by three groups of poets, The Movement, The Group, and poets clarified by the term Extremist Art, which was first used by the poet A. Alvarez to describe the work of the American poet Sylvia Plath.
The Movement poets as a group came to public notice in Robert Conquest 's 1955 anthology New Lines. The core of the group consisted of Philip Larkin, Elizabeth Jennings, D.J. Enright, Kingsley Amis, Thom Gunn and Donald Davie. They were identified with a hostility to modernism and internationalism, and looked to Hardy as a model. However, both Davie and Gunn later moved away from this position.
As befits their name, the Group were much more formally a group of poets, meeting for weekly discussions under the chairmanship of Philip Hobsbaum and Edward Lucie - Smith. Other Group poets included Martin Bell, Peter Porter, Peter Redgrove, George MacBeth and David Wevill. Hobsbaum spent some time teaching in Belfast, where he was a formative influence on the emerging Northern Ireland poets including Seamus Heaney.
Other poets associated with Extremist Art included Plath 's one - time husband Ted Hughes, Francis Berry and Jon Silkin. These poets are sometimes compared with the Expressionist German school.
A number of young poets working in what might be termed a modernist vein also started publishing during this decade. These included Charles Tomlinson, Gael Turnbull, Roy Fisher and Bob Cobbing. These poets can now be seen as forerunners of some of the major developments during the following two decades.
In the early part of the 1960s, the centre of gravity of mainstream poetry moved to Northern Ireland, with the emergence of Seamus Heaney, Tom Paulin, Paul Muldoon and others. In England, the most cohesive groupings can, in retrospect, be seen to cluster around what might loosely be called the modernist tradition and draw on American as well as indigenous models.
The British Poetry Revival was a wide - reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings that embraces performance, sound and concrete poetry as well as the legacy of Pound, Jones, MacDiarmid, Loy and Bunting, the Objectivist poets, the Beats and the Black Mountain poets, among others. Leading poets associated with this movement include J.H. Prynne, Eric Mottram, Tom Raworth, Denise Riley and Lee Harwood.
The Mersey Beat poets were Adrian Henri, Brian Patten and Roger McGough. Their work was a self - conscious attempt at creating an English equivalent to the Beats. Many of their poems were written in protest against the established social order and, particularly, the threat of nuclear war. Although not actually a Mersey Beat poet, Adrian Mitchell is often associated with the group in critical discussion. Contemporary poet Steve Turner has also been compared with them.
Some consider the late Geoffrey Hill to have been the finest English poet of recent years. The last three decades of the 20th century saw a number of short - lived poetic groupings, including the Martians, along with a general trend towards what has been termed ' Poeclectics ', namely an intensification within individual poets ' oeuvres of "all kinds of style, subject, voice, register and form ''. There has also been a growth in interest in women 's writing, and in poetry from England 's minorities, especially the West Indian community. Performance poetry including poetry slam continues to be active. Some poets who emerged in this period include Carol Ann Duffy, Andrew Motion, Craig Raine, Wendy Cope, James Fenton, Blake Morrison, Liz Lochhead, George Szirtes, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Benjamin Zephaniah. Mark Ford is an example of a poet influenced by New York School.
There has been recent activity focused on poets in Bloodaxe Books ' The New Poetry, including Simon Armitage, Kathleen Jamie, Glyn Maxwell, Selima Hill, Maggie Hannan, Michael Hofmann and Peter Reading. The New Generation movement flowered in the 1990s and early 2000s, producing poets such as Don Paterson, Julia Copus, John Stammers, Jacob Polley, David Morley and Alice Oswald. A new generation of innovative poets has also sprung up in the wake of the Revival grouping, notably Caroline Bergvall, Tony Lopez, Allen Fisher and Denise Riley. Important independent and experimental poetry pamphlet publishers include Barque, Flarestack, Knives, Forks and Spoons Press, Penned in the Margins, Heaventree (founded in 2002 but no longer publishing) and Perdika Press. Throughout this period, and to the present, independent poetry presses such as Enitharmon have continued to promote original work from (among others) Dannie Abse, Martyn Crucefix and Jane Duran.
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how many rooms at disney all star sports | Disney 's All - Star sports Resort - wikipedia
Disney 's All - Star Sports Resort is a resort that is part of the Walt Disney World Resort. It is one of five Resorts in the Value Resort category, along with Disney 's All - Star Music Resort, Disney 's All - Star Movies Resort, Disney 's Pop Century Resort, and Disney 's Art of Animation Resort. The resort is located on the southern portion of the WDW property and has a sports theme. As is characteristic with all Disney Value resorts, the property is decorated with giant novelty items such as SurfBoard Bay, the baseball - themed Grand Slam Pool and a football field, and a giant football helmet.
As with the other All - Star resorts, the Miami firm Arquitectonica designed the resort.
Disney 's All - Star Resorts are connected via bus to the various theme parks and activities located throughout the resort complex.
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who developed the recovery model in mental health | Recovery approach - wikipedia
Psychological recovery or recovery model or the recovery approach to mental disorder or substance dependence emphasizes and supports a person 's potential for recovery. Recovery is generally seen in this approach as a personal journey rather than a set outcome, and one that may involve developing hope, a secure base and sense of self, supportive relationships, empowerment, social inclusion, coping skills, and meaning. Recovery sees symptoms as a continuum of the norm rather than an aberration and rejects sane - insane dichotomy.
William Anthony, Director of the Boston Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation developed a quaint cornerstone definition of mental health recovery in 1993. "Recovery is a deeply personal, unique process of changing one 's attitudes, values, feelings, goals, skills and / or roles. It is a way of living a satisfying, hopeful, and contributing life even with limitations caused by the illness. Recovery involves the development of new meaning and purpose in one 's life as one grows beyond the catastrophic effects of mental illness. ''
Originating from the 12 - Step Program of Alcoholics Anonymous, the use of the concept in mental health emerged as deinstitutionalization resulted in more individuals living in the community. It gained impetus as a social movement due to a perceived failure by services or wider society to adequately support social inclusion, and by studies demonstrating that many people do recover. A recovery approach has now been explicitly adopted as the guiding principle of the mental health or substance dependency policies of a number of countries and states. In many cases practical steps are being taken to base services on a recovery model, although a range of obstacles, concerns and criticisms have been raised both by service providers and by recipients of services. A number of standardized measures have been developed to assess aspects of recovery, although there is some variation between professionalized models and those originating in the psychiatric survivors movement.
In general medicine and psychiatry, recovery has long been used to refer to the end of a particular experience or episode of illness. The broader concept of "recovery '' as a general philosophy and model was first popularized in regard to recovery from substance abuse / drug addiction, for example within twelve - step programs.
Application of recovery models to psychiatric disorders is comparatively recent. The concept of recovery can be traced back as far as 1840, when John Perceval, son of one of Britain 's prime ministers, wrote of his personal recovery from the psychosis that he experienced from 1830 until 1832, a recovery that he obtained despite the "treatment '' he received from the "lunatic '' doctors who attended him. But by consensus the main impetus for the development came from the within the consumer / survivor / ex-patient movement, a grassroots self - help and advocacy initiative, particularly within the United States during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The professional literature, starting with the psychiatric rehabilitation movement in particular, began to incorporate the concept from the early 1990s in the United States, followed by New Zealand and more recently across nearly all countries within the "First World ''. Similar approaches developed around the same time, without necessarily using the term recovery, in Italy, the Netherlands and the UK.
Developments were fueled by a number of long term outcome studies of people with "major mental illnesses '' in populations from virtually every continent, including landmark cross-national studies by the World Health Organization from the 1970s and 1990s, showing unexpectedly high rates of complete or partial recovery, with exact statistics varying by region and the criteria used. The cumulative impact of personal stories or testimony of recovery has also been a powerful force behind the development of recovery approaches and policies. A key issue became how service consumers could maintain the ownership and authenticity of recovery concepts while also supporting them in professional policy and practice.
Increasingly, recovery became both a subject of mental health services research and a term emblematic of many of the goals of the Consumer / Survivor / Ex-Patient Movement. The concept of recovery was often defined and applied differently by consumers / survivors and professionals. Specific policy and clinical strategies were developed to implement recovery principles although key questions remained.
It has been emphasized that each individual 's journey to recovery is a deeply personal process, as well as being related to an individual 's community and society. A number of features or signs of recovery have been proposed as often core elements and comprehensively they have been categorized under the concept of CHIME. CHIME is an abbreviation of Connectedness, Hope and optimism, Identity, Meaning & Purpose and Empowerment.
A common aspect of recovery is said to be the presence of others who believe in the person 's potential to recover, and who stand by them. While mental health professionals can offer a particular limited kind of relationship and help foster hope, relationships with friends, family and the community are said to often be of wider and longer - term importance. Others who have experienced similar difficulties, who may be on a journey of recovery, can be of particular importance. Those who share the same values and outlooks more generally (not just in the area of mental health) may also be particularly important. It is said that one - way relationships based on being helped can actually be devaluing, and that reciprocal relationships and mutual support networks can be of more value to self - esteem and recovery.
Finding and nurturing hope has been described as a key to recovery. It is said to include not just optimism but a sustainable belief in oneself and a willingness to persevere through uncertainty and setbacks. Hope may start at a certain turning point, or emerge gradually as a small and fragile feeling, and may fluctuate with despair. It is said to involve trusting, and risking disappointment, failure and further hurt.
Recovery of a durable sense of self (if it had been lost or taken away) has been proposed as an important element. A research review suggested that people sometimes achieve this by "positive withdrawal '' -- regulating social involvement and negotiating public space in order to only move towards others in a way that feels safe yet meaningful; and nurturing personal psychological space that allows room for developing understanding and a broad sense of self, interests, spirituality, etc. It was suggested that the process is usually greatly facilitated by experiences of interpersonal acceptance, mutuality, and a sense of social belonging; and is often challenging in the face of the typical barrage of overt and covert negative messages that come from the broader social context. Being able to move on can mean having to cope with feelings of loss, which may include despair and anger. When an individual is ready for change, a process of grieving is initiated. It may require accepting past suffering and lost opportunities or lost time.
The development of personal coping strategies (including self - management or self - help) is said to be an important element. This can involve making use of medication or psychotherapy if the consumer is fully informed and listened to, including about adverse effects and about which methods fit with the consumer 's life and their journey of recovery. Developing coping and problem solving skills to manage individual traits and problem issues (which may or may not be seen as symptoms of mental disorder) may require a person becoming their own expert, in order to identify key stress points and possible crisis points, and to understand and develop personal ways of responding and coping. Developing a sense of meaning and overall purpose is said to be important for sustaining the recovery process. This may involve recovering or developing a social or work role. It may also involve renewing, finding or developing a guiding philosophy, religion, politics or culture. From a postmodern perspective, this can be seen as developing a narrative.
Building a positive culture of healing is essential in recovery approach. Since recovery is not synonymous with cure a strong supportive network is required. Appropriate housing, a sufficient income, freedom from violence, and adequate access to health care have also been proposed. It has been suggested that home (housing first) is where recovery may begin. Housing services, if required, need to flexibly involve people and to build on individuals ' personal visions and strengths, instead of "placing '' and potentially "re-institutionalizing '' people. Empowerment and self - determination are said to be important to recovery for reducing the social and psychological effects of stress. This can mean developing the confidence for independent assertive decision making and help - seeking which translates into proper medication and active self care practices. Achieving social inclusion and overcoming challenging social stigma and prejudice about mental distress / disorder / difference is an important part of empowerment. This may require recovering detached social skills and identity, making up for gaps in work history for better self - management, etc.
What constitutes ' recovery ', or a recovery model, is a matter of ongoing debate both in theory and in practice. In general, professionalized clinical models tend to focus on improvement in particular symptoms and functions, and on the role of treatments, while consumer / survivor models tend to put more emphasis on peer support, empowerment and real - world personal experience. Similarly, recovery may be viewed in terms of a social model of disability rather than a medical model of disability, and there may be differences in the acceptance of diagnostic "labels '' and treatments.
A review of research suggested that writers on recovery are rarely explicit about which of the various concepts they are employing. The reviewers classified the approaches they found in to broadly "rehabilitation '' perspectives, which they defined as being focused on life and meaning within the context of enduring disability, and "clinical '' perspectives which focused on observable remission of symptoms and restoration of functioning. From a psychiatric rehabilitation perspective, a number of additional qualities of the recovery process have been suggested, including that it: can occur without professional intervention, but requires people who believe in and stand by the person in recovery; does not depend on believing certain theories about the cause of conditions; can be said to occur even if symptoms later re-occur, but does change the frequency and duration of symptoms; requires recovery from the consequences of a psychiatric condition as well as the condition itself; is not linear but does tend to take place as a series of small steps; does not mean the person was never really psychiatrically disabled; focuses on wellness not illness, and on consumer choice.
A consensus statement on mental health recovery from US agencies, that involved some consumer input, defined recovery as a journey of healing and transformation enabling a person with a mental health problem to live a meaningful life in a community of his or her choice while striving to achieve his or her full potential. Ten fundamental components were elucidated, all assuming that the person continues to be a "consumer '' or to have a "mental disability ''. Conferences have been held on the importance of the "elusive '' concept from the perspectives of consumers and psychiatrists.
One approach to recovery known as the Tidal Model focuses on the continuous process of change inherent in all people, conveying the meaning of experiences through water metaphors. Crisis is seen as involving opportunity; creativity is valued; and different domains are explored such as sense of security, personal narrative and relationships. Initially developed by mental health nurses along with service users, Tidal is a particular model that has been specifically researched. Based on a discrete set of values (the Ten Commitments), it emphasizes the importance of each person 's own voice, resourcefulness and wisdom. Since 1999, projects based on the Tidal Model have been established in several countries.
For many, recovery has a political as well as personal implication -- where to recover is to: find meaning; challenge prejudice (including diagnostic "labels '' in some cases); perhaps to be a "bad '' non-compliant patient and refuse to accept the indoctrination of the system; to reclaim a chosen life and place within society; and to validate the self. Recovery can thus be viewed as one manifestation of empowerment. Such an empowerment model may emphasize that conditions are not necessarily permanent; that other people have recovered who can be role models and share experiences; and that "symptoms '' can be understood as expressions of distress related to emotions and other people. One such model from the US National Empowerment Center proposes a number of principles of how people recover and seeks to identify the characteristics of people in recovery.
In general, recovery may be seen as more of a philosophy or attitude than a specific model, requiring fundamentally that "we regain personal power and a valued place in our communities. Sometimes we need services to support us to get there ''.
Particular kinds of recovery models have been adopted in drug rehabilitation services. While interventions in this area have tended to focus on harm reduction, particularly through substitute prescribing (or alternatively requiring total abstinence) recovery approaches have emphasised the need to simultaneously address the whole of people 's lives, and to encourage aspirations while promoting equal access and opportunities within society. From the perspective of services the work may include helping people with "developing the skills to prevent relapse into further illegal drug taking, rebuilding broken relationships or forging new ones, actively engaging in meaningful activities and taking steps to build a home and provide for themselves and their families. Milestones could be as simple as gaining weight, re-establishing relationships with friends, or building self - esteem. What is key is that recovery is sustained. ''. Key to the philosophy of the recovery movement is the aim for an equal relationship between "Experts by Profession '' and "Experts by Experience ''.
Some concerns have been raised about a recovery approach in theory and in practice. These include suggestions that it: is an old concept; only happens to very few people; represents an irresponsible fad; happens only as a result of active treatment; implies a cure; can only be implemented with new resources; adds to the burden of already stretched providers; is neither reimbursable nor evidence based; devalues the role of professional intervention; and increases providers ' exposure to risk and liability.
Other criticisms focused on practical implementation by service providers include that: the recovery model can be manipulated by officials to serve various political and financial interests including withdrawing services and pushing people out before they 're ready; that it is becoming a new orthodoxy or bandwagon that neglects the empowerment aspects and structural problems of societies and primarily represents a middle class experience; that it hides the continued dominance of a medical model; and that it potentially increases social exclusion and marginalizes those who do n't fit into a recovery narrative.
There have been specific tensions between recovery models and "evidence - based practice '' models in the transformation of US mental health services based on the recommendations of the New Freedom Commission on Mental Health. The Commission 's emphasis on recovery has been interpreted by some critics as saying that everyone can fully recover through sheer will power and therefore as giving false hope and implicitly blaming those who may be unable to recover. However, the critics have themselves been charged with undermining consumer rights and failing to recognize that the model is intended to support a person in their personal journey rather than expecting a given outcome, and that it relates to social and political support and empowerment as well as the individual.
Various stages of resistance to recovery approaches have been identified amongst staff in traditional services, starting with "Our people are much sicker than yours. They wo n't be able to recover '' and ending in "Our doctors will never agree to this ''. However, ways to harness the energy of this perceived resistance and use it to move forward have been proposed. In addition, staff training materials have been developed by various organisations, for example by the National Empowerment Center.
Some positives and negatives of recovery models were highlighted in a study of a community mental health service for people diagnosed with schizophrenia. It was concluded that while the approach may be a useful corrective to the usual style of case management - at least when genuinely chosen and shaped by each unique individual on the ground - serious social, institutional and personal difficulties made it essential that there be sufficient ongoing effective support with stress management and coping in daily life. Cultural biases and uncertainties were also noted in the ' North American ' model of recovery in practice, reflecting views about the sorts of contributions and lifestyles that should be considered valuable or acceptable.
A number of standardized questionnaires and assessments have been developed to try to assess aspects of an individual 's recovery journey. These include the Milestones of Recovery (MOR) Scale, Recovery Enhancing Environment (REE) measure, Recovery Measurement Tool (RMT), Recovery Oriented System Indicators (ROSI) Measure, Stages of Recovery Instrument (STORI), and numerous related instruments.
The data - collection systems and terminology used by services and funders are said to be typically incompatible with recovery frameworks, so methods of adapting them have been developed. It has also been argued that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (and to some extent any system of categorical classification of mental disorders) uses definitions and terminology that are inconsistent with a recovery model, leading to suggestions that the next version, the DSM - V, requires: greater sensitivity to cultural issues and gender; to recognize the need for others to change as well as just those singled out for a diagnosis of disorder; and to adopt a dimensional approach to assessment that better captures individuality and does not erroneously imply excess psychopathology or chronicity.
The New Freedom Commission on Mental Health has proposed to transform the mental health system in the US by shifting the paradigm of care from traditional medical psychiatric treatment toward the concept of recovery, and the American Psychiatric Association has endorsed a recovery model from a psychiatric services perspective.
The US Department of Health and Human Services reports developing national and state initiatives to empower consumers and support recovery, with specific committees planning to launch nationwide pro-recovery, anti-stigma education campaigns; develop and synthesize recovery policies; train consumers in carrying out evaluations of mental health systems; and help further the development of peer - run services. Mental Health service directors and planners are providing guidance to help state services implement recovery approaches.
Some US states, such as California (see the California Mental Health Services Act), Wisconsin and Ohio, already report redesigning their mental health systems to stress recovery model values like hope, healing, empowerment, social connectedness, human rights, and recovery - oriented services.
At least some parts of the Canadian Mental Health Association, such as the Ontario region, have adopted recovery as a guiding principle for reforming and developing the mental health system.
Since 1998, all mental health services in New Zealand have been required by government policy to use a recovery approach and mental health professionals are expected to demonstrate competence in the recovery model. Australia 's National Mental Health Plan 2003 - 2008 states that services should adopt a recovery orientation although there is variation between Australian states and territories in the level of knowledge, commitment and implementation.
In 2005, the National Institute for Mental Health in England (NIMHE) endorsed a recovery model as a possible guiding principle of mental health service provision and public education. The National Health Service is implementing a recovery approach in at least some regions, and has developed a new professional role of Support Time and Recovery Worker. Centre for Mental Health issued a 2008 policy paper proposing that the recovery approach is an idea "whose time has come '' and, in partnership with the NHS Confederation Mental Health Network, and support and funding from the Department of Health, manages the Implementing Recovery through Organisational Change (ImROC) nationwide project that aims to put recovery at the heart of mental health services in the UK. The Scottish Executive has included the promotion and support of recovery as one of its four key mental health aims and funded a Scottish Recovery Network to facilitate this. A 2006 review of nursing in Scotland recommended a recovery approach as the model for mental health nursing care and intervention. The Mental Health Commission of Ireland reports that its guiding documents place the service user at the core and emphasize an individual 's personal journey towards recovery.
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what was the last year toyota made the supra | Toyota Supra - wikipedia
The Toyota Supra (Japanese: トヨタ スープラ, Toyota Sūpura) is a sports car / grand tourer that was produced by Toyota Motor Corporation from 1978 to 2002. The styling of the Supra was derived from the Toyota Celica, but it was both longer and wider. Starting in mid-1986, the A70 Supra became a separate model from the Celica. In turn, Toyota also stopped using the prefix Celica and began just calling the car Supra. Owing to the similarity and past of the Celica 's name, it is frequently mistaken for the Supra, and vice versa. First, second, and third generation Supras were assembled at Tahara plant in Tahara, Aichi while the fourth generation Supra was assembled at the Motomachi plant in Toyota City.
The Supra also traces much of its roots back to the Toyota 2000GT with the main instance being its engine. The first three generations were offered with a direct descendant to the Toyota Crown 's and 2000GT 's M engine. All four generations of Supra produced have an inline 6 - cylinder engine. Interior aspects were also similar, as was the chassis code "A ''.
Along with this name and car Toyota also included its own logo for the Supra. It is derived from the original Celica logo, being blue instead of orange. This logo was used until January 1986, when the A70 Supra was introduced. The new logo was similar in size, with orange writing on a red background, but without the dragon design. That logo, in turn, was on Supras until 1991 when Toyota switched to its current oval company logo. (The dragon logo was a Celica logo regardless of what color it was. It appeared on the first two generations of the Supra because they were officially Toyota Celicas. The dragon logo was used for the Celica line until it too was discontinued.)
In 1998, Toyota ceased sales of the Supra in the United States and in 2002 Toyota officially stopped production of the Supra in Japan.
Generation names are A40, A60, A70, A80. A trend started by American owners was to name the cars using Volkswagen Mark terms but this was never adopted by Toyota nor used in any of its publications. The official Toyota names refer to the chassis codes only. Toyota uses the name Mark II to refer to its X chassis platform cars that include the Mark II, Cressida, Chaser, and Cresta models.
The Supra has appeared in numerous video games, movies, music videos and TV shows. Some of the most notable appearances include the Gran Turismo, Forza Motorsport, Need for Speed, Midnight Club, and Forza Horizon video games and The Fast and the Furious film series.
The first generation Supra was based largely upon the Toyota Celica liftback, but was longer by 129.5 mm (5.10 in). The doors and rear section were shared with the Celica but the front panels were elongated to accommodate the Inline - 6 instead of the stock Celica 's 4 - cylinder engine. Toyota 's original plan for the Supra at this time was to make it a competitor to the very popular Datsun (now Nissan) Z - car.
In April 1978 Toyota began production of the Supra in Japan, as the Celica XX, and sold alongside the Celica at Japanese dealership sales channels called Toyota Corolla Store
The Supra was offered with a 123 hp (92 kW) 2.0 L 12 - valve SOHC inline - 6 engine (M - EU, chassis code MA45) or the 110 hp (82 kW) 2,563 cc (2.563 L; 156.4 cu in) 12 - valve SOHC inline - 6 engine (4M - E, chassis code MA46). The Japanese Supra was equipped with the smaller 2.0 L engine so that buyers would not incur an additional tax under vehicle size and engine displacement regulations. Both engines were equipped with electronic fuel injection. The installation of the 2.0 litre engine did obligate Japanese buyers to pay a higher annual road tax, making owning the car more expensive than the smaller Celica.
The Supra was first exported outside Japan in January 1979. The export version of the Mark I was originally equipped with a 110 hp (82 kW) 2,563 cc (2.563 L; 156.4 cu in) 12 - valve SOHC inline - 6 engine (4M - E, chassis code MA46).
Drive train options for the model were either a 5 - speed manual (W50) or an optional 4 - speed automatic transmission (A40D). Both transmissions featured an overdrive gear. The top gear in the 5 - speed was its overdrive gear whereas the automatic transmission featured an overdrive gear that would engage at speeds over 35 mph (56 km / h). The drive train for the Supra retained the T series solid rear axle configuration of the Celica in the Japanese MA45 version and a larger F series (and optional Limited Slip Differential) in the MA46 and MA47. The car also came standard with 4 - wheel disc brakes and featured a four - link rear suspension with coil springs, lateral track bar, and stabilizer bar. The front suspension consisted of MacPherson struts and a stabilizer bar.
The interior of the Supra had optional power windows and power locks as part of the convenience package. The convenience package also included cruise control and special door trim with door pull straps, with an optional sunroof. As for standard features, in the center console there was an extendable map light and a flip - top armrest, which provided storage. Some other features were the tilt steering wheel, deep zippered pockets on the backs of the front seats, and a tonneau cover under the liftback. The dashboard also contained a state of the art AM / FM / MPX 4 - speaker stereo radio, analog clock, and tachometer as part of the instrument panel.
The mid 1979 changes for the 1980 model year US version were mostly cosmetic. The interior received a redesigned center console and a digital quartz clock. On the exterior were redesigned side view mirrors and 14x5 ⁄ '' aluminum wheels were standard (the previous year had steel wheels with plastic wheel covers standard and the aluminum wheels were optional). In addition, body molded mudflaps became available. On the copper metallic and white cars, the mudflaps were painted the body color while the mudflaps were left black on all other colors. On the rear of the mudflaps, the word "Celica '' was painted in white lettering.
The official Supra site also notes that there was an addition of optional leather - trimmed seating and automatic climate - control.
In August 1980 (for the 1981 model year), the Supra received an upgrade in displacement with the 2,759 cc (2.759 L; 168.4 cu in) 5M - E engine. It was still a 12 - valve SOHC engine, but made 116 hp (87 kW) and 145 lb ⋅ ft (197 N ⋅ m) of torque. The car 's automatic transmission was changed to the revised Toyota A43D and it gained a revised final drive gearing. Because of the change in engine and transmission they dubbed a new chassis code of MA47. In the final year of the first generation supra, it achieved a 0 -- 60 mph time of 10.24 seconds and finished the 1 / 4 - mile in 17.5 seconds at 77.7 mph (125.0 km / h).
Also in 1980 (for the 1981 model year), a new Sports Performance Package became an option, which included sport suspension, raised white letter tires, and front and rear spoilers. This also marked the last year that an 8 - track tape player was offered in any Supra.
The Celica XX (pronounced as "double X '') is the Japanese market name of the first generation model Toyota Celica Supra. It was offered in Japan during the years 1978 -- 1981, and was redesigned in 1981. Toyota obtained engineering assistance from Lotus Cars, and supplied some components for use in the Lotus Excel. The Supra was sold as the Celica XX only in Japan at Japanese dealership sales channels called Toyota Corolla Store, as elsewhere it was sold as the Celica Supra, although they remain popular as grey imports to New Zealand.
The 2000GT was the flagship model of the XX range. Featuring the smaller 2.0 - litre six - cylinder DOHC 24 - valve 1G - EU, Yamaha took the base 1G - EU and improved it, resulting in the 1G - GEU significantly upping the output of the engine, which also served in the 1985 Toyota Soarer. The smaller - capacity engine meant road taxes were less than the bigger 5M - GEU of the 2800GT. 1G - GEU made 160 PS (118 kW) at 6400 rpm.
The 2800GT was the most powerful of the range, featuring the 2.8 - litre six - cylinder DOHC 5M - GEU making 175 PS (129 kW) at 5,600 rpm. The 2000G / S with M - TEU with intercooler made 160 PS (118 kW) at 5400 rpm, as much as the 1G - GEU, but made more torque lower down the rev range, 23.5 kgf ⋅ m (230 N ⋅ m at 3000 rpm. The lower - range models, being 2000G / S, were the least powerful, featuring the 1G - EU, which made 125 PS (92 kW) at 5,400 rpm. They also lacked a lot of features found on other models in an effort to lower cost.
In 1981, the Celica XX introduced the world 's first navigation computer.
In late 1981, Toyota completely redesigned the Celica Supra as well as the entire Celica lineup for its 1982 production year. In Japan, they were known as Celica XX, but everywhere else the Celica Supra name was used. Still being based around the Celica platform, there were several key differences, most notably the design of the front end and fully retractable pop - up headlights. Other differences would be the inline - 6 still present in the Supra instead of the inline - 4 as well as an increase in length and wheelbase to accommodate the larger engine. Vehicles installed with the 5M engine were slightly wider, while other models remained compliant with Japanese dimension regulations. In 1981, Japanese buyers were offered an alternative to the Celica XX fastback bodystyle, called the Toyota Soarer coupe, which was offered at a different Japanese Toyota dealership network called the Toyota Store, as the Celica XX was sold at the Toyota Corolla Store. The four - door performance sedan offered by the Celica Camry was realigned with the Japanese market Toyota Chaser, while in North America the Toyota Cressida took on that role.
In the North American market, the Celica Supra was available in two distinct models. There was the "Performance Type '' (P - type) and the "Luxury Type '' (L - type). While being mechanically identical, they were differentiated by the available options; tire size, wheel size, and body trim. The P - type had fiberglass fender flares over the wheel wells, while the L - type did not. The P - type was also standard with the more sporty eight - way adjustable seats. The P - type did not get the option of a leather interior until 1983. All editions of the P - type had the same 14x7 - inch aluminum alloy wheels and throughout the years the L - type had 14x5. 5 - inch wheels until 1985 when they were changed to a P - type styled 15x6. The L - type also had the option of a digital dash with trip computer; some Canadian models (both L - types and P - types) had this option as well as a few rare instances of American models. The digital dash featured a digital tachometer, digital speedometer, and electronic fuel level and coolant level gauges. The trip computer could calculate and display various things such as fuel economy in miles - per - gallon, estimated time of arrival (ETA), and distance remaining to destination. Excluding the 1982 model, all P - types were available with headlight washers as an option, but the L - types were never given such an option. Although gear ratios changed throughout the years, all P - types came standard with a limited slip differential.
For 1982, in the North American market, the Celica Supra 's engine was the 2,759 cc (2.759 L; 168.4 cu in) 12 - valve (two valves per cylinder) DOHC 5M - GE. Power output was 145 hp (108 kW) and 155 lb ⋅ ft (210 N ⋅ m) of torque. The engine utilized an 8.8: 1 compression ratio to achieve the power and featured a vacuum advanced distributor. When the car debuted it clocked a 0 -- 60 time of 9.8 seconds and netted a 17.2 - second 1 / 4 - mile at 80 mph (130 km / h)
The standard transmission for this year was the W58 5 - speed manual with the A43DL 4 - speed automatic transmission being an option for L - types. Both transmissions featured an overdrive gear and the automatic featured a locking torque converter. The top gear in the 5 - speed was its overdrive whereas the automatic transmission featured an overdrive gear that would engage at speeds over 35 mph (56 km / h). The 1982 model 's rear differential featured a 3.72: 1 ratio. The Celica Supra 's four - wheel independent suspension was specially tuned and designed by Lotus and featured variable assisted power rack - and - pinion steering and MacPherson struts up front. At the rear, it had semi-trailing arm suspension with coil springs and a stabilizer bar. Braking on the Celica Supra was handled by four - wheel disc brakes.
On the inside, this generation had standard power windows, power door locks, and power mirrors as well as a tilt steering wheel. The power door lock was located in the center console next to the power mirror control. The analog dash of this year only went to 85 mph (140 km / h) in North America. The optional automatic climate control was renovated and was now seen as a standard feature on the A60. Cruise control was standard in this generation. Toyota also included the retractable map light as standard. Some options included the addition of a sunroof, two - tone paint schemes, and a five - speaker AM / FM / MPX tuner with cassette. The optional cassette stereo featured a 105 - watt power amplifier and a seven - band graphic equalizer. The standard stereo was a five - channel AM / FM / MPX tuner. Leather was an option on L - types of this year, but P - types were limited to standard striped cloth.
The AM / FM antenna was integrated into the front windshield rather than a typical external mast antenna. There was a key lock on the gas tank door (in lieu of a remote release) and the hatch and rear bumper were black regardless of paint color on the rest of the car. The P - types were available with an optional rear sunshade above the hatch glass. The lights in the rear featured a reverse light in the center and the door handles opened the doors by pulling sideways. The front nose badge and B - pillar only read "Supra '' for the first several months of production, but were changed to read "Celica Supra '' midway through the model year. L - types had front and rear mudflaps but P - types of this year did not.
For the 1983 models not much was altered, but there was an increase in power output to 150 hp (112 kW) and 159 lb ⋅ ft (216 N ⋅ m) of torque from the same 5M - GE. The only real change in the engine area was the switch from a vacuum advanced to an electronic advanced distributor, yet that did not increase the power. Toyota switched to a 4.10: 1 rear gear ratio for the P - type and a 3.73: 1 for the L - type. As for the optional automatic transmission, they replaced the A43DL 4 - speed with a newly designed A43DE 4 - speed. It featured an electronic controller that would adjust its shift pattern for a balance between performance and economy. It was the first in the industry to provide an electronically controlled transmission (ECT). This allowed the driver to choose either the "power '' driving mode or "normal '' driving mode at the touch of the button. The power mode provided the quickest acceleration and the normal mode provided the best all - around performance.
On the inside of the car there were virtually no changes, but changes to the exterior included a switch to a power mast antenna, mudflaps on all models, and the addition of headlight washers on P - types. All B - pillar and nose badges for cars sold in North America read "Celica Supra '' and only P - types were available in two - tone color schemes.
In 1984, Toyota changed quite a bit on the Supra. Power output was increased on the 5 - speed models with a bump up to 160 hp (119 kW) and 163 lb ⋅ ft (221 N ⋅ m) of torque. The increase was achieved by a mixture of a redesigned intake manifold with "D '' - shaped intake runners and an increase in compression ratio to: 9.2: 1. Another notable change in the 5 - speeds was the switch to a 4.30: 1 gear ratio in the rear differential. All automatic Supras retained the previous years power numbers, but the rear gear ratio was changed to a 4.10: 1.
The most notable exterior change was the switch to wraparound front turn signals. Also on the outside the tail - lights were redesigned and the hatch received a billboard "Supra '' sticker instead of the smaller sticker, which was previously positioned on the right. The rear hatch and bumper was changed and received the same color as the rest of the car (instead of the black of previous years). The door handles were also switched around, opening by pulling up instead of sideways. This year Toyota also decided to offer two - tone paint schemes on both the P - type and L - type.
Some interior controls such as the steering wheel, cruise control, and door lock switch were redesigned. Toyota included a 130 mph (210 km / h) speedometer instead of the traditional 85 mph (140 km / h) one and the automatic climate control display was also changed. The previous year 's cassette and equalizer stereo option was now made a standard feature.
The Supra was altered again in 1985. On the engine side, power output was increased to 161 hp (120 kW) and 169 lb ⋅ ft (229 N ⋅ m) of torque. All Supras this year had the same amount of power (both automatics and 5 - speeds). The engine received a redesigned throttle position sensor (TPS) as well as a new EGR system and knock sensor. With the slight increase in power the Supra was able to propel itself from 0 -- 60 mph in 8.4 seconds and netted a 16.1 second quarter - mile at 85 mph (137 km / h).
Other changes would be a redesigned, more integrated sunshade and spoiler on the rear hatch. The rear spoiler was changed from a one - piece to a two - piece. The L - types of this year were not available with a leather interior, but P - types were. Toyota added a standard factory theft deterrent system and the outside mirrors were equipped with a defogger that activated with the rear defroster. All Supras this year received automatic - off lights that also encompassed an automatic illuminated entry and fade - out system.
While 1985 was to be the last year of the second generation model, delays in production of the third generation model led to a surplus of second generation Supras. During the first half of 1986 the 1985 P - type was still offered for sale, with only minor cosmetic changes as well as the addition of a now mandatory rear - mounted third brake light on the hatch. These were all labelled officially as 1986 models. P - types were the only model available in 1986.
The second generation Supra came in a variety of options around the world as well as only being offered during select years.
In May 1986, Toyota was ready to release its next version of the Supra. The bonds between the Celica and the Supra were cut; they were now two completely different models. The Celica changed to front - wheel drive, utilizing the Toyota "T '' platform associated with the Toyota Corona, while the Supra kept its rear - wheel - drive platform. The engine was updated to a more powerful 3.0 200 hp (149 kW) inline 6. Although initially only available with naturally aspirated engines, a turbocharged engine was added in the 1987 model year. The Supra was now related mechanically to the Toyota Soarer for the Japanese market.
All Japanese market Supras with the various versions of the 2.0 L engine were installed in a vehicle that was slightly narrower on the outside so as to be in compliance with Japanese Government dimension regulations so that Japanese buyers were n't liable for yearly taxes for driving a larger car.
The new A70 Supra engine, the Toyota 7M - GE, was the flagship engine of Toyota 's arsenal. Both versions of the engine contained 4 valves per cylinder and dual overhead cams. The turbocharged 7M - GTE engine was Toyota 's first distributor-less engine offered in the US which used coil packs sitting on the cam covers and a cam position sensor driven by the exhaust camshaft. It was equipped with a CT26 turbocharger and was rated at 230 hp (172 kW) at 5600 rpm while the naturally aspirated 7M - GE engine was rated at 200 hp (149 kW) at 6000 rpm. Further refinement on the turbo model increased power to 232 hp (173 kW) and 254 lb ⋅ ft (344 N ⋅ m) in 1989. This was mostly due to a redesign of the wastegate. All models used the same tire size of 225 / 50R16 on 16x7 inch wheels. Spare tires were full - sized but on steel wheels.
Owing to a large error in the factory head bolt torque specifications (likely owing to switching away from using an asbestos head gasket in lieu of a copper one), all of these engines had severe problems with blown head gaskets. Toyota never issued a recall for any of the affected vehicles. The problem could be easily fixed by replacing the head gasket and torquing the head bolts to 75 lb ⋅ ft (102 N ⋅ m) of torque. However, owing to the lack of a recall or appropriate service bulletin, the head gasket problem would recur in another 75,000 miles or so if the gasket was replaced and the bolts were retorqued to the erroneous service manual specifications of 56 lb ⋅ ft (76 N ⋅ m). With the head bolts torqued correctly, the engines were otherwise extremely durable.
The naturally aspirated came as standard issue with the W58 manual transmission. The turbo versions included the more robust R154 manual transmission. Both were available with the optional 4 - speed A340E automatic transmission.
The third - generation Supra represented a great deal of new technology. In 1986, options available for the Supra included 3 - channel ABS and TEMS which gave the driver 2 settings which affected the damper rates; a third was automatically activated at WOT, hard braking, and high speed maneuvering. HKS also made a "TEMS Controller '' to hack the system and activate it on the fly, though the controllers are now nearly impossible to find.
ACIS (Acoustic Control Induction System), a method of controlling air compression pulses inside the intake piping to increase power, was also a part of the 7M - GE 's technological arsenal. All models were fitted with double wishbone suspension front and rear. A targa top was offered in all years along with a metal power sliding sunroof (added in ' 91).
Total Supra A70 's produced (GA70 / MA70 / JZA70): Estimated 241,471
The third generation Supra was introduced in May 1986 as a free standing model, officially separating it from the Celica. Whereas the Celica became a front - wheel - drive sport coupe, the Supra retained its image as a rear - wheel - drive sports / GT car. The new Supra would continue to move upscale and become a showcase for Toyota technology. The all new Supra was powered by a 3.0 - liter DOHC inline six - cylinder engine rated at 200 bhp. Notable features included an electronically controlled independent suspension (called the Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension -- TEMS), and some came with a removable Sport - Roof panel (Targa top).
Estimated North American Export Production: 33,283
The first Supra Turbo was introduced in 1987. The inter-cooled, turbo charged version of the 3.0 - liter inline 6 - cylinder engine boosted power to 230 hp (172 kW; 233 PS) 240 lb ft (325 N m). The Turbo model also included an engine oil cooler and integrated rear spoiler. The sports package, which was standard on the Turbo and optional on the base model, included a limited slip differential (LSD), TEMS, and headlamp washers. A new Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) was optional on both models. Also in 87 a new beige / tan color combination was implemented, and only 1000 models were produced with this scheme. Toyota installed its variable induction technology into the DOHC twin turbo 1G - GT called T - VIS and also included it into the 7M - GT engine as well.
Estimated North American Export Production: 29,907
Not much changed for the 1988 year, with the exception of the dropping of two - toned brown exterior paint. The turbo spoiler brake light changed from a square, to a trapezoid shape. Seat pattern was changed from squares to lines, and "foil '' on climate control and switch gear changed from light to dark gray. Japanese buyers could select from six different trim packages starting with the top level 3.0 GT Turbo Limited with the 7M - GTEU, followed by 3.0 GT Turbo, GT Twin Turbo with the 1G - GTEU DOHC 2.0 L engine, the GT with the 1G - GEU 2.0 L DOHC, the G with the 1G - EU and the S with the 1G - EU engine as the base model. All Japanese Supras came with either a 5 - speed manual transmission or the 4 - speed automatic transmission with ECT - s except the G and the S where ECT - S was n't available. In Japan the 3.0 GT Turbo Limited, the 3.0 GT Turbo and the GT Twin Turbo were installed standard with a digital instrument panel, the 3.0 L installed versions came with an AM / FM Cassette stereo with an integrated CD player and cruise control. Climate control was also standard on all turbo equipped vehicles, and leather interior was only available on the GT Turbo Limited.
Estimated North American Export Production: 19,596
During the year of 1989, modifications to the wastegate actuator, feed location and engine management netted another 2 hp (1 kW) on the turbo model. The engine mount and brace were also changed in late 1989, with the exact date not known as of this writing. The changes made to the cross member and mounts made to accommodate the 1JZ engine for Japan models. The protective body molding was also changed by taking away the steel reinforcement. This made the molding lighter and prevented the rusting problem on the previous years. The "white package '' was introduced as well, featuring white body molding and white "saw blade '' wheels. Interior choices were limited to blue and burgundy only. Other than pure cosmetics, there was nothing different from other models. All models received rear 3 - point seat belts to replace the previous years ' two - point lap belts. New tail lights, front bumper with integrated lower grille (as opposed to the previous years ' detachable grille), side mirrors, turn signals, upper grilles, foglights, steering wheel, door panels, climate control, window switches and bezels, and stereo. Addition of coat hooks on B - pillar and removal of rear seat pockets round out interior changes. Turbo models received three piece spoiler with an integrated LED brake light. 1989 also marked the end of headlight washers in the US and SuperMonitor; an advanced system offered by Toyota able to calculate miles able to be traveled on current tank, ability to check vehicle codes from inside the cabin, among other features.
Estimated North American Export Production: 14,544
For the 1990 model year, changes included larger protective laminate in front of rear wheels, lower redline (owing to the heavier crank with cylinders 2 & 5 counterbalanced), redesigned steering wheel with cruise control relocated to a stalk on the right side. In addition to an airbag and airbag indicator light on dash, there was also a redesign of the left side switch panel, which replaced one of the coin slots with the dimmer. Lower dash panel became a two piece design, which was also much heavier than the previous one piece panel owing to a change in material. Finally the memory lever on the steering column was removed. In short, a plethora of the changes for the 1989 and 1990 were from the interior.
Estimated North American Export Production: 6,419
For the 1991 model year, the wheel design was changed to 5 - spoke wheels. Both models wore 16x7 aluminum alloy wheels that were fitted with 225 / 50 / 16 tires and full - sized spares on steel wheels. Body molding changed in color to better match the exterior. The front "Supra '' emblem was also changed to the current corporate oval Toyota symbol which was then used for every Supra after. The speedometer was also revised, and included more lines in the speedometer, that were removed in 1989, but still did not have as many (one line per mph) as 86.5 to 1988 models. New interior colors shadow gray and deep red were introduced, which marked the end of medium gray, tan and burgundy. Blue became only available on white packages, and those with blue paint. Burgundy was replaced with white package - only deep red. Every other body color received shadow gray, with leather interiors retaining medium gray seats and interior inserts. Front speakers were changed from 3.5 '' to 6.5 '' and the speaker cover was also enlarged to accommodate them. Beginning in 1991, Toyota began to offer a factory spoiler - style panel sunroof. These sunroof are now highly sought after and rare since the introduction to the sunroofs were introduced in the ending years of this generation Supra.
Estimated North American Export Production: 3,623
For 1992 leather shadow gray interiors received black seats and inserts. Non-turbo models lost the option of a targa top, and a new optional subwoofer was available. Subwoofer - equipped Supras did without the rear bins, and wooden "floorboard. '' Instead rear carpet was molded to the spare tire, and there was a cut - out for the woofer housing.
Estimated North American Export Production: 1,193
The Supra was also available in two non-export models in Japan which were right hand drive (RHD), the JZA70 with a 2.5 - liter 280 PS (206 kW) parallel twin - turbo setup 1JZ - GTE, known as 2.5 GT Twin Turbo (JZA70), and the GA70 with a 2.0 - liter 210 PS (154 kW) twin - turbo 1G - GTE and non-turbo 1G - GEU.
A special version of the 1JZ - GTE equipped JZA70, the 2.5 Twin Turbo R, had a Torsen differential, Bilstein suspension, larger diameter sway bars, Recaro seats, Momo wheel and gear knob and matching interior trim. The front lip included front brake ducts. The Twin Turbo R introduced the color option Jade Mica Green. This model was the fastest production A70.
The Turbo - A was Toyota 's evolution model for (Group A) Japanese Touring Car Championships (JTCC) all over the world which required a minimum homologation run of 500 units which were only sold in Japan and was produced between August and September 1988. Thus the term 88 Spec A. Some noted differences between the standard Supra 3.0 GT and the Turbo - A model are both cosmetic and mechanical. The stock CT - 26 turbo had a slightly larger inducer and can be identified by a stamped "E '' on the raised casting on the compressor housing. The turbo - A had a 65 mm (2.6 in) throttle body and accompanied larger diameter crossover pipe, instead of the standard 7M - GTE 60 mm (2.4 in) and "3000 '' cast original unit. The Turbo - A also benefited from a larger volume steel air cleaner, instead of the factory plastic unit.
The fuel management used a MAP system, instead of the standard Karmen Vortex AFM. The front nose features an additional "Turbo A duct '' to add airflow to the intercooler. Also unique was the side decal and rear badging ("3.0 GT Turbo A '') and a black paint job (paint code 202). All Turbo - As came standard with grey leather interior featuring a Momo - sourced steering wheel and shift knob. Its engine bay features a 266 hp (198 kW) 7M - GTEU. It is important to note, that the 7M - GTEU was standard in all Japanese spec delivered MA70 's, the 7M - GTEU was not unique to the Turbo - A. The "U '' designation meant the engine came equipped with a catalytic converter as per Japan - spec emissions.
The car did not win as many races as hoped as it was bumped up a class due to engine size. Being a 3.0 - liter, it was forced to run with more weight whereas more powerful, and lighter but slightly smaller capacity Ford Sierra Cosworth RS500s did not have the same issue. By its debut in 1989 the lack of power and heavy weight meant that the Turbo A was already outperformed by many much more competitive cars such as the BMW M3 (E30) from a lower division and their chances of success further reduced by the introduction of the Nissan Skyline GTR (R32) For the Japanese Touring Car Championship (JTCC) in 1989, Toyota would in 1991 switch to racing the Corolla Levins instead in the lower category while many privateer soldiered on with the Supra until Group A racing 's final demise in 1993.
All Group - A race cars were fitted with a TRD - sourced torque - vectoring mechanical limited - slip differential with 50: 50 left: right lockup on full throttle. TRD was also responsible for the thick rear - anti squat tram - rods which was integral to the multi-link rear suspension setup to control rear squat under hard acceleration and launching.
The A80 program began in February 1989 under various teams for design, product planning, and engineering. By the middle of 1990, a final A80 design concept from Toyota Technical Centre Aichi was approved and frozen for production in late 1990. The first test mules were hand - built in A70 bodies during late 1990, followed by the first A80 prototypes being hand - assembled in 1991. Again using subframe, suspension, and drivetrain assemblies from the Z30 Soarer (Lexus SC300 / 400), test model pre-production started in December 1992 with 20 models, and official mass production began in April 1993. This redesign saw Toyota placing great emphasis on a more serious high - performance car. The new Supra was completely redesigned, with rounded body styling and featured two new engines: a naturally aspirated Toyota 2JZ - GE producing 220 hp (164 kW; 223 PS) at 5800 rpm and 210 lb ⋅ ft (280 N ⋅ m) at 4800 rpm of torque and a twin turbocharged Toyota 2JZ - GTE making 276 hp (206 kW; 280 PS) and 318 lb ⋅ ft (431 N ⋅ m) of torque for the Japanese version. The styling, while modern, does seem to borrow some elements from Toyota 's first grand touring sports car, the Toyota 2000GT. For the export model (America / Europe) Toyota upgraded the Supra turbo 's engine (smaller, steel wheeled turbochargers, bigger fuel injectors, etc.). This increased the power output to 320 hp (239 kW; 324 PS) at 5600 rpm and 315 lb ⋅ ft (427 N ⋅ m) at 4000 rpm. Upon launch in 1993, it was the first Toyota - badged vehicle to include a passenger airbag as standard (US - market only). (326 hp / 325lbft for Europe)
The turbocharged variant could achieve 0 -- 60 mph in as low as 4.6 seconds and 1 / 4 - mile (402 m) in 13.1 seconds at 109 mph (175 km / h). The turbo version was tested to reach over 285 km / h (177 mph), but the cars are restricted to just 180 km / h (112 mph) in Japan and 250 km / h (155 mph) elsewhere. European versions of the car also had an air intake or scoop on the hood. Drag coefficient is 0.31 for the naturally aspirated models and 0.32 for the turbo models but unknown with the rear spoiler.
The twin turbos operated in sequential mode, not parallel. Initially, all of the exhaust is routed to the first turbine for reduced lag. This resulted in boost and enhanced torque as early as 1800 rpm, where it already produced 300 lb ⋅ ft (410 N ⋅ m) of torque. At 3500 rpm, some of the exhaust is routed to the second turbine for a "pre-boost '' mode, although none of the compressor output is used by the engine at this point. At 4000 rpm, the second turbo 's output is used to augment the first turbo 's output. Compared to the parallel mode, sequential mode turbos provide quicker low RPM response and increased high RPM boost. This high RPM boost was also aided with technology originally present in the 7M - GE in the form of the Acoustic Control Induction System (ACIS) which is a way of managing the air compression pulses within the intake piping as to increase power.
For this generation, the Supra received a new six - speed Getrag / Toyota V160 gearbox on the turbo models while the naturally aspirated models made do with a five - speed manual W58, revised from the previous version. Each model was offered with a four - speed automatic with manual shifting mode. All vehicles were equipped with five - spoke aluminum alloy wheels, the naturally aspirated model had 16 - inch wheels and the turbo models were 17 - inch. The difference in wheel size was to accommodate the larger brakes equipped as standard onto the turbo model, but in Japan were optional extras. Both models had a space saver spare tire on a steel rim to save both space and weight.
Toyota took measures to reduce the weight of this new model. Aluminium was used for the hood, targa top (when fitted), front crossmember, oil and transmission pans, and the suspension upper A-arms. Other measures included hollow carpet fibers, magnesium - alloy steering wheel, plastic gas tank and lid, gas injected rear spoiler, and a single pipe exhaust. Despite having more features such as dual airbags, traction control, larger brakes, wheels, tires, and an additional turbo, the car was at least 200 lb (91 kg) lighter than its predecessor. The base model with a manual transmission had a curb weight of 3,210 lb (1,460 kg). The Sport Roof added 40 lb (18 kg) while the automatic transmission added 55 lb (25 kg). It had a 51: 49 (front: rear) weight distribution. The turbo model weighed 3,450 lb (1,560 kg) with a manual transmission while the automatic added another 10 lb (4.5 kg). Weight distribution was 53 % front / 47 % rear. The Supra was heavier than the spartan Mazda RX - 7 and all aluminium bodied Acura / Honda NSX, but it was lighter than the Mitsubishi 3000GT VR - 4.
For the 1996 model year in the US, the turbo model was only available with the automatic transmission owing to OBD - II certification requirements. The targa roof was also made standard on all turbo models. For 1997, manual transmission returned for the optional engine along with a redesign of the tail lights, headlights, front fascia, polished wheels, and other minor changes such as the radio and steering wheel designs. All 1997 models included badges indicating "Limited Edition 15th Anniversary ''. All turbo models came standard with the rear spoiler. For 1998, updates were a 3 - spoke steering wheel and redesigned radio. In Japan, the turbo engines were installed with VVT - i. The SZ - R model was also updated with the introduction of a six - speed Getrag V161 transmission, the same used for the twin - turbo RZ models.
The stock A80 Supra chassis has also proven an effective platform for roadracing, with several top 20 and top 10 One Lap of America finishes in the SSGT1 class. In 1994, the A80 managed remarkable skidpad ratings of 0.95 lateral g 's (200 ft) and 0.98 lateral g 's (300 ft) Supra also featured a four - sensor four - channel track tuned ABS system with yaw control whereby each caliper is sensored and the brakes are controlled individually according to the speed, angle, and pitch of the approaching corner. This unique Formula One - inspired braking system allowed the Supra Turbo to record a 70 mph (113 km / h) - 0 braking distance of 149 ft (45 m), the best braking performance of any production car tested in 1997 by Car and Driver magazine. This record was finally broken in 2004 by a Porsche Carrera GT, which does it in 145 ft (44 m).
By the late 1990s, sales of all sporty coupes were declining in North America, so the Supra was withdrawn from the Canadian market in 1996 and the US in 1998. The Turbo was not available in 1998 in California Air Resources Board (CARB) states. Production continued in Japan until August 2002, ceasing owing to restrictive emission standards.
Diecast Supra models have been made from various companies, with Hot Wheels offering a large variety of colors and finishes.
Motor Trend has reported a possible Supra successor could be based on the Toyota FT - HS (Future Toyota - Hybrid Sport), which debuted at the 2007 North American International Auto Show. A Supra successor could be powered by a 3.5 - liter V - 6 hybrid system generating over 400 hp. Toyota says it is not rushing the Supra successor but instead is waiting to see how the sales and interests of its GT86 / FR - S goes.
In 2010, Toyota applied for a trademark to the Supra name. The trademark must be used within three years for it to be valid. In December 2011, Autoguide reported a possible Supra replacement that would sit above the Toyota 86. Tetsuya Tada, the chief engineer of the Toyota 86 / Scion FR - S told reporters in Germany "the president (Akio Toyoda) has asked me to make a successor to the Supra as soon as possible. ''
In late 2013, AutoBlog reported a Supra successor concept was coming to the January 2014 North American International Auto Show. On 13 January, Toyota unveiled its new FT - 1 concept car. Little is known about this new concept car; other than that it has a front engine and rear wheel drive layout. Toyota did also state their new concept car draws inspiration from Toyota 's past sports cars like the 2000GT, Supra, MR - 2, and 2007 FT - HS concept car. Toyota did not state whether the FT - 1 would use the Supra name, or if it was even bound for production. However, Toyota did say if the FT - 1 is approved from production to expect a price tag of around US $60,000.
On 10 February 2014, Toyota submitted an application to the United States Patent and Trademark Office to renew the Supra trademark.
In June 2016, a trademark application for the Supra nameplate was filed with the European Union Intellectual Property Office. According to Autocar, the new Supra is set to debut in 2018. The car will likely feature an all - wheel - drive hybrid system; four - cylinder engines are expected to be available, with a high - performance version to use a twin - turbo V6 codenamed 943F. Kleine Zeitung reported that the new jointly - developed Supra will be produced at a Magna Steyr facility near Graz, Austria, along with the BMW Z4 's successor. Although the sports car 's name is yet to be officially confirmed, Toyota global chief engineer Tetsuya Tada said that it will likely carry the nameplate Supra, due to its name recognition and historical significance.
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when did the first coca cola come out | Coca - Cola - Wikipedia
Coca - Cola, or Coke (also Pemberton 's Cola at certain Georgian vendors), is a carbonated soft drink produced by The Coca - Cola Company. Originally intended as a patent medicine, it was invented in the late 19th century by John Pemberton and was bought out by businessman Asa Griggs Candler, whose marketing tactics led Coca - Cola to its dominance of the world soft - drink market throughout the 20th century. The drink 's name refers to two of its original ingredients, which were kola nuts (a source of caffeine) and coca leaves. The current formula of Coca - Cola remains a trade secret, although a variety of reported recipes and experimental recreations have been published.
The Coca - Cola Company produces concentrate, which is then sold to licensed Coca - Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the finished product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water and sweeteners. A typical 12 - US - fluid - ounce (350 ml) can contains 38 grams (1.3 oz) of sugar (usually in the form of high fructose corn syrup). The bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise Coca - Cola to retail stores, restaurants, and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca - Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants and foodservice distributors.
The Coca - Cola Company has on occasion introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. The most common of these is Diet Coke, along with others including Caffeine - Free Coca - Cola, Diet Coke Caffeine - Free, Coca - Cola Zero Sugar, Coca - Cola Cherry, Coca - Cola Vanilla, and special versions with lemon, lime, and coffee. Based on Interbrand 's "best global brand '' study of 2015, Coca - Cola was the world 's third most valuable brand, after Apple and Google. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries worldwide, with consumers drinking more than 1.8 billion company beverage servings each day.
Confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. The prototype Coca - Cola recipe was formulated at Pemberton 's Eagle Drug and Chemical House, a drugstore in Columbus, Georgia, originally as a coca wine. He may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine. It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called "Kola Coca '' was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, a year before the official birth of Coca - Cola. The rights for this Spanish drink were bought by Coca - Cola in 1953.
In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic. In 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca - Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca. The first sales were at Jacob 's Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 8, 1886. It was initially sold as a patent medicine for five cents a glass at soda fountains, which were popular in the United States at the time due to the belief that carbonated water was good for the health. Pemberton claimed Coca - Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the same year in the Atlanta Journal.
By 1888, three versions of Coca - Cola -- sold by three separate businesses -- were on the market. A co-partnership had been formed on January 14, 1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen: J.C. Mayfield, A.O. Murphey, C.O. Mullahy, and E.H. Bloodworth. Not codified by any signed document, a verbal statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pemberton 's company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the name "Coca - Cola '' belonged to his son, Charley, but the other two manufacturers could continue to use the formula.
Charley Pemberton 's record of control over the "Coca - Cola '' name was the underlying factor that allowed for him to participate as a major shareholder in the March 1888 Coca - Cola Company incorporation filing made in his father 's place. Charley 's exclusive control over the "Coca - Cola '' name became a continual thorn in Asa Candler 's side. Candler 's oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University. In this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states: "..., on April 14, 1888, the young druggist Asa Griggs Candler purchased a one - third interest in the formula of an almost completely unknown proprietary elixir known as Coca - Cola. ''
The deal was actually between John Pemberton 's son Charley and Walker, Candler & Co. -- with John Pemberton acting as cosigner for his son. For $50 down and $500 in 30 days, Walker, Candler & Co. obtained all of the one - third interest in the Coca - Cola Company that Charley held, all while Charley still held on to the name. After the April 14 deal, on April 17, 1888, one - half of the Walker / Dozier interest shares were acquired by Candler for an additional $750.
In 1892, Candler set out to incorporate a second company; "The Coca - Cola Company '' (the current corporation). When Candler had the earliest records of the "Coca - Cola Company '' burned in 1910, the action was claimed to have been made during a move to new corporation offices around this time.
After Candler had gained a better foothold on Coca - Cola in April 1888, he nevertheless was forced to sell the beverage he produced with the recipe he had under the names "Yum Yum '' and "Koke ''. This was while Charley Pemberton was selling the elixir, although a cruder mixture, under the name "Coca - Cola '', all with his father 's blessing. After both names failed to catch on for Candler, by the middle of 1888, the Atlanta pharmacist was quite anxious to establish a firmer legal claim to Coca - Cola, and hoped he could force his two competitors, Walker and Dozier, completely out of the business, as well.
On August 16, 1888, Dr. John Stith Pemberton suddenly died; Asa G. Candler then sought to move swiftly forward to attain his vision of taking full control of the whole Coca - Cola operation.
Charley Pemberton, an alcoholic, was the one obstacle who unnerved Asa Candler more than anyone else. Candler is said to have quickly maneuvered to purchase the exclusive rights to the name "Coca - Cola '' from Pemberton 's son Charley right after Dr. Pemberton 's death. One of several stories was that Candler bought the title to the name from Charley 's mother for $300; approaching her at Dr. Pemberton 's funeral. Eventually, Charley Pemberton was found on June 23, 1894, unconscious, with a stick of opium by his side. Ten days later, Charley died at Atlanta 's Grady Hospital at the age of 40.
In Charles Howard Candler 's 1950 book about his father, he stated: "On August 30th (1888), he (Asa Candler) became sole proprietor of Coca - Cola, a fact which was stated on letterheads, invoice blanks and advertising copy. ''
With this action on August 30, 1888, Candler 's sole control became technically all true. Candler had negotiated with Margaret Dozier and her brother Woolfolk Walker a full payment amounting to $1,000, which all agreed Candler could pay off with a series of notes over a specified time span. By May 1, 1889, Candler was now claiming full ownership of the Coca - Cola beverage, with a total investment outlay by Candler for the drink enterprise over the years amounting to $2,300.
In 1914, Margaret Dozier, as co-owner of the original Coca - Cola Company in 1888, came forward to claim that her signature on the 1888 Coca - Cola Company bill of sale had been forged. Subsequent analysis of certain similar transfer documents had also indicated John Pemberton 's signature was most likely a forgery, as well, which some accounts claim was precipitated by his son Charley.
On September 12, 1919, Coca - Cola Co. was purchased by a group of investors for $25 million and reincorporated. The company publicly offered 500,000 shares of the company for $40 a share.
In 1986, The Coca - Cola Company merged with two of their bottling operators (owned by JTL Corporation and BCI Holding Corporation) to form Coca - Cola Enterprises Inc. (CCE).
In December 1991, Coca - Cola Enterprises merged with the Johnston Coca - Cola Bottling Group, Inc.
The first bottling of Coca - Cola occurred in Vicksburg, Mississippi, at the Biedenharn Candy Company in 1894. The proprietor of the bottling works was Joseph A. Biedenharn. The original bottles were Hutchinson bottles, very different from the much later hobble - skirt design of 1915 now so familiar.
It was then a few years later that two entrepreneurs from Chattanooga, Tennessee, namely Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead, proposed the idea of bottling and were so persuasive that Candler signed a contract giving them control of the procedure for only one dollar. Candler never collected his dollar, but in 1899, Chattanooga became the site of the first Coca - Cola bottling company. Candler remained very content just selling his company 's syrup. The loosely termed contract proved to be problematic for The Coca - Cola Company for decades to come. Legal matters were not helped by the decision of the bottlers to subcontract to other companies, effectively becoming parent bottlers. This contract specified that bottles would be sold at 5 ¢ each and had no fixed duration, leading to the fixed price of Coca - Cola from 1886 to 1959.
The first outdoor wall advertisement that promoted the Coca - Cola drink was painted in 1894 in Cartersville, Georgia. Cola syrup was sold as an over-the - counter dietary supplement for upset stomach. By the time of its 50th anniversary, the soft drink had reached the status of a national icon in the USA. In 1935, it was certified kosher by Atlanta Rabbi Tobias Geffen, after the company made minor changes in the sourcing of some ingredients.
The longest running commercial Coca - Cola soda fountain anywhere was Atlanta 's Fleeman 's Pharmacy, which first opened its doors in 1914. Jack Fleeman took over the pharmacy from his father and ran it until 1995; closing it after 81 years. On July 12, 1944, the one - billionth gallon of Coca - Cola syrup was manufactured by The Coca - Cola Company. Cans of Coke first appeared in 1955.
On April 23, 1985, Coca - Cola, amid much publicity, attempted to change the formula of the drink with "New Coke ''. Follow - up taste tests revealed most consumers preferred the taste of New Coke to both Coke and Pepsi but Coca - Cola management was unprepared for the public 's nostalgia for the old drink, leading to a backlash. The company gave in to protests and returned to a variation of the old formula using high fructose corn syrup instead of cane sugar as the main sweetener, under the name Coca - Cola Classic, on July 10, 1985.
On July 5, 2005, it was revealed that Coca - Cola would resume operations in Iraq for the first time since the Arab League boycotted the company in 1968.
In April 2007, in Canada, the name "Coca - Cola Classic '' was changed back to "Coca - Cola ''. The word "Classic '' was removed because "New Coke '' was no longer in production, eliminating the need to differentiate between the two. The formula remained unchanged. In January 2009, Coca - Cola stopped printing the word "Classic '' on the labels of 16 - US - fluid - ounce (470 ml) bottles sold in parts of the southeastern United States. The change is part of a larger strategy to rejuvenate the product 's image. The word "Classic '' was removed from all Coca - Cola products by 2011.
In November 2009, due to a dispute over wholesale prices of Coca - Cola products, Costco stopped restocking its shelves with Coke and Diet Coke for two months; a separate pouring rights deal in 2013 saw Coke products removed from Costco food courts in favor of Pepsi. Some Costco locations (such as the ones in Tucson, Arizona) additionally sell imported Coca - Cola from Mexico with cane sugar instead of corn syrup from separate distributors. Coca - Cola introduced the 7.5 - ounce mini-can in 2009, and on September 22, 2011, the company announced price reductions, asking retailers to sell eight - packs for $2.99. That same day, Coca - Cola announced the 12.5 - ounce bottle, to sell for 89 cents. A 16 - ounce bottle has sold well at 99 cents since being re-introduced, but the price was going up to $1.19.
In 2012, Coca - Cola resumed business in Myanmar after 60 years of absence due to U.S. - imposed investment sanctions against the country. Coca - Cola 's bottling plant will be located in Yangon and is part of the company 's five - year plan and $200 million investment in Myanmar. Coca - Cola with its partners is to invest USD 5 billion in its operations in India by 2020. In 2013, it was announced that Coca - Cola Life would be introduced in Argentina that would contain stevia and sugar.
In August 2014 the company announced it was forming a long - term partnership with Monster Beverage, with the two forging a strategic marketing and distribution alliance, and product line swap. As part of the deal Coca - Cola was to acquire a 16.7 % stake in Monster for $2.15 billion, with an option to increase it to 25 %.
In December 2016, Coca - Cola bought many of the former SABMiller 's Coca - Cola operations. In March 2018, Coca - Cola announced it would be launching an alcoholic drink for the first time, a chūhai product in Japan.
A typical can of Coca - Cola (12 fl ounces / 355 ml) contains 38 grams of sugar (usually in the form of HFCS), 50 mg of sodium, 0 grams fat, 0 grams potassium, and 140 calories. On May 5, 2014, Coca - Cola said it is working to remove a controversial ingredient, brominated vegetable oil, from all of its drinks.
The exact formula of Coca - Cola 's natural flavorings (but not its other ingredients, which are listed on the side of the bottle or can) is a trade secret. The original copy of the formula was held in SunTrust Bank 's main vault in Atlanta for 86 years. Its predecessor, the Trust Company, was the underwriter for the Coca - Cola Company 's initial public offering in 1919. On December 8, 2011, the original secret formula was moved from the vault at SunTrust Banks to a new vault containing the formula which will be on display for visitors to its World of Coca - Cola museum in downtown Atlanta.
According to Snopes, a popular myth states that only two executives have access to the formula, with each executive having only half the formula. However, several sources state that while Coca - Cola does have a rule restricting access to only two executives, each knows the entire formula and others, in addition to the prescribed duo, have known the formulation process.
On February 11, 2011, Ira Glass said on his PRI radio show, This American Life, that TAL staffers had found a recipe in "Everett Beal 's Recipe Book '', reproduced in the February 28, 1979, issue of The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, that they believed was either Pemberton 's original formula for Coca - Cola, or a version that he made either before or after the product hit the market in 1886. The formula basically matched the one found in Pemberton 's diary. Coca - Cola archivist Phil Mooney acknowledged that the recipe "could... be a precursor '' to the formula used in the original 1886 product, but emphasized that Pemberton 's original formula is not the same as the one used in the current product.
When launched, Coca - Cola 's two key ingredients were cocaine and caffeine. The cocaine was derived from the coca leaf and the caffeine from kola nut, leading to the name Coca - Cola (the "K '' in Kola was replaced with a "C '' for marketing purposes).
Pemberton called for five ounces of coca leaf per gallon of syrup, a significant dose; in 1891, Candler claimed his formula (altered extensively from Pemberton 's original) contained only a tenth of this amount. Coca - Cola once contained an estimated nine milligrams of cocaine per glass. (For comparison, a typical dose or "line '' of cocaine is 50 -- 75 mg.) In 1903, it was removed.
After 1904, instead of using fresh leaves, Coca - Cola started using "spent '' leaves -- the leftovers of the cocaine - extraction process with trace levels of cocaine. Since then, Coca - Cola uses a cocaine - free coca leaf extract prepared at a Stepan Company plant in Maywood, New Jersey.
In the United States, the Stepan Company is the only manufacturing plant authorized by the Federal Government to import and process the coca plant, which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca - Cola, the Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt, a St. Louis, Missouri, pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the United States licensed to purify cocaine for medicinal use.
Long after the syrup had ceased to contain any significant amount of cocaine, in the southeastern U.S., "dope '' remained a common colloquialism for Coca - Cola, and "dope - wagons '' were trucks that transported it. The traditional shape of the bottle is said to resemble the seed - pod of the coca bush, memorializing the cocaine recipe.
Kola nuts act as a flavoring and the source of caffeine in Coca - Cola. In Britain, for example, the ingredient label states "Flavourings (Including Caffeine). '' Kola nuts contain about 2.0 to 3.5 % caffeine, are of bitter flavor, and are commonly used in cola soft drinks. In 1911, the U.S. government initiated United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola, hoping to force Coca - Cola to remove caffeine from its formula. The case was decided in favor of Coca - Cola. Subsequently, in 1912, the U.S. Pure Food and Drug Act was amended, adding caffeine to the list of "habit - forming '' and "deleterious '' substances which must be listed on a product 's label.
Coca - Cola contains 34 mg of caffeine per 12 fluid ounces (9.8 mg per 100 ml).
The actual production and distribution of Coca - Cola follows a franchising model. The Coca - Cola Company only produces a syrup concentrate, which it sells to bottlers throughout the world, who hold Coca - Cola franchises for one or more geographical areas. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup with filtered water and sweeteners, and then carbonate it before putting it in cans and bottles, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and food service distributors.
The Coca - Cola Company owns minority shares in some of its largest franchises, such as Coca - Cola Enterprises, Coca - Cola Amatil, Coca - Cola Hellenic Bottling Company, and Coca - Cola FEMSA, but fully independent bottlers produce almost half of the volume sold in the world. Independent bottlers are allowed to sweeten the drink according to local tastes.
The bottling plant in Skopje, Macedonia, received the 2009 award for "Best Bottling Company ''.
Since it announced its intention to begin distribution in Myanmar in June 2012, Coca - Cola has been officially available in every country in the world except Cuba and North Korea. However, it is reported to be available in both countries as a grey import.
Coca - Cola has been a point of legal discussion in the Middle East. In the early 20th century, a fatwa was created in Egypt to discuss the question of "whether Muslims were permitted to drink Coca - Cola and Pepsi cola. '' The fatwa states: "According to the Muslim Hanefite, Shafi'ite, etc., the rule in Islamic law of forbidding or allowing foods and beverages is based on the presumption that such things are permitted unless it can be shown that they are forbidden on the basis of the Qur'an. '' The Muslim jurists stated that, unless the Qu'ran specifically prohibits the consumption of a particular product, it is permissible to consume. Another clause was discussed, whereby the same rules apply if a person is unaware of the condition or ingredients of the item in question.
This is a list of variants of Coca - Cola introduced around the world. In addition to the caffeine - free version of the original, additional fruit flavors have been included over the years. Not included here are versions of Diet Coke and Coca - Cola Zero; variant versions of those no - calorie colas can be found at their respective articles.
The Coca - Cola logo was created by John Pemberton 's bookkeeper, Frank Mason Robinson, in 1885. Robinson came up with the name and chose the logo 's distinctive cursive script. The writing style used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid-19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period.
Robinson also played a significant role in early Coca - Cola advertising. His promotional suggestions to Pemberton included giving away thousands of free drink coupons and plastering the city of Atlanta with publicity banners and streetcar signs.
The Coca - Cola bottle, called the "contour bottle '' within the company, was created by bottle designer Earl R. Dean and Coca - Cola 's general counsel, Harold Hirsch. In 1915, The Coca - Cola Company was represented by their general counsel to launch a competition among its bottle suppliers as well as any competition entrants to create a new bottle for their beverage that would distinguish it from other beverage bottles, "a bottle which a person could recognize even if they felt it in the dark, and so shaped that, even if broken, a person could tell at a glance what it was. ''
Chapman J. Root, president of the Root Glass Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, turned the project over to members of his supervisory staff, including company auditor T. Clyde Edwards, plant superintendent Alexander Samuelsson, and Earl R. Dean, bottle designer and supervisor of the bottle molding room. Root and his subordinates decided to base the bottle 's design on one of the soda 's two ingredients, the coca leaf or the kola nut, but were unaware of what either ingredient looked like. Dean and Edwards went to the Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library and were unable to find any information about coca or kola. Instead, Dean was inspired by a picture of the gourd - shaped cocoa pod in the Encyclopædia Britannica. Dean made a rough sketch of the pod and returned to the plant to show Root. He explained to Root how he could transform the shape of the pod into a bottle. Root gave Dean his approval.
Faced with the upcoming scheduled maintenance of the mold - making machinery, over the next 24 hours Dean sketched out a concept drawing which was approved by Root the next morning. Dean then proceeded to create a bottle mold and produced a small number of bottles before the glass - molding machinery was turned off.
Chapman Root approved the prototype bottle and a design patent was issued on the bottle in November 1915. The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts. Dean resolved this issue by decreasing the bottle 's middle diameter. During the 1916 bottler 's convention, Dean 's contour bottle was chosen over other entries and was on the market the same year. By 1920, the contour bottle became the standard for The Coca - Cola Company. A revised version was also patented in 1923. Because the Patent Office releases the Patent Gazette on Tuesday, the bottle was patented on December 25, 1923, and was nicknamed the "Christmas bottle. '' Today, the contour Coca - Cola bottle is one of the most recognized packages on the planet... "even in the dark! ''.
As a reward for his efforts, Dean was offered a choice between a $500 bonus or a lifetime job at the Root Glass Company. He chose the lifetime job and kept it until the Owens - Illinois Glass Company bought out the Root Glass Company in the mid-1930s. Dean went on to work in other Midwestern glass factories.
One alternative depiction has Raymond Loewy as the inventor of the unique design, but, while Loewy did serve as a designer of Coke cans and bottles in later years, he was in the French Army the year the bottle was invented and did not emigrate to the United States until 1919. Others have attributed inspiration for the design not to the cocoa pod, but to a Victorian hooped dress.
In 1944, Associate Justice Roger J. Traynor of the Supreme Court of California took advantage of a case involving a waitress injured by an exploding Coca - Cola bottle to articulate the doctrine of strict liability for defective products. Traynor 's concurring opinion in Escola v. Coca - Cola Bottling Co. is widely recognized as a landmark case in U.S. law today.
Earl R. Dean 's original 1915 concept drawing of the contour Coca - Cola bottle
The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts.
Final production version with slimmer middle section.
Karl Lagerfeld is the latest designer to have created a collection of aluminum bottles for Coca - Cola. Lagerfeld is not the first fashion designer to create a special version of the famous Coca - Cola Contour bottle. A number of other limited edition bottles by fashion designers for Coca - Cola Light soda have been created in the last few years.
In 2009, in Italy, Coca - Cola Light had a Tribute to Fashion to celebrate 100 years of the recognizable contour bottle. Well known Italian designers Alberta Ferretti, Blumarine, Etro, Fendi, Marni, Missoni, Moschino, and Versace each designed limited edition bottles.
Pepsi, the flagship product of PepsiCo, The Coca - Cola Company 's main rival in the soft drink industry, is usually second to Coke in sales, and outsells Coca - Cola in some markets. RC Cola, now owned by the Dr Pepper Snapple Group, the third largest soft drink manufacturer, is also widely available.
Around the world, many local brands compete with Coke. In South and Central America Kola Real, known as Big Cola in Mexico, is a growing competitor to Coca - Cola. On the French island of Corsica, Corsica Cola, made by brewers of the local Pietra beer, is a growing competitor to Coca - Cola. In the French region of Brittany, Breizh Cola is available. In Peru, Inca Kola outsells Coca - Cola, which led The Coca - Cola Company to purchase the brand in 1999. In Sweden, Julmust outsells Coca - Cola during the Christmas season. In Scotland, the locally produced Irn - Bru was more popular than Coca - Cola until 2005, when Coca - Cola and Diet Coke began to outpace its sales. In the former East Germany, Vita Cola, invented during Communist rule, is gaining popularity.
In India, Coca - Cola ranked third behind the leader, Pepsi - Cola, and local drink Thums Up. The Coca - Cola Company purchased Thums Up in 1993. As of 2004, Coca - Cola held a 60.9 % market - share in India. Tropicola, a domestic drink, is served in Cuba instead of Coca - Cola, due to a United States embargo. French brand Mecca Cola and British brand Qibla Cola are competitors to Coca - Cola in the Middle East.
In Turkey, Cola Turka, in Iran and the Middle East, Zamzam Cola and Parsi Cola, in some parts of China, China Cola, in Slovenia, Cockta, and the inexpensive Mercator Cola, sold only in the country 's biggest supermarket chain, Mercator, are some of the brand 's competitors. Classiko Cola, made by Tiko Group, the largest manufacturing company in Madagascar, is a competitor to Coca - Cola in many regions.
Coca - Cola 's advertising has significantly affected American culture, and it is frequently credited with inventing the modern image of Santa Claus as an old man in a red - and - white suit. Although the company did start using the red - and - white Santa image in the 1930s, with its winter advertising campaigns illustrated by Haddon Sundblom, the motif was already common. Coca - Cola was not even the first soft drink company to use the modern image of Santa Claus in its advertising: White Rock Beverages used Santa in advertisements for its ginger ale in 1923, after first using him to sell mineral water in 1915. Before Santa Claus, Coca - Cola relied on images of smartly dressed young women to sell its beverages. Coca - Cola 's first such advertisement appeared in 1895, featuring the young Bostonian actress Hilda Clark as its spokeswoman.
1941 saw the first use of the nickname "Coke '' as an official trademark for the product, with a series of advertisements informing consumers that "Coke means Coca - Cola ''. In 1971 a song from a Coca - Cola commercial called "I 'd Like to Teach the World to Sing '', produced by Billy Davis, became a hit single.
Coke 's advertising is pervasive, as one of Woodruff 's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca - Cola as their preferred beverage. This is especially true in southern areas of the United States, such as Atlanta, where Coke was born.
Some Coca - Cola television commercials between 1960 through 1986 were written and produced by former Atlanta radio veteran Don Naylor (WGST 1936 -- 1950, WAGA 1951 -- 1959) during his career as a producer for the McCann Erickson advertising agency. Many of these early television commercials for Coca - Cola featured movie stars, sports heroes, and popular singers.
During the 1980s, Pepsi - Cola ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests demonstrating that, according to the commercials, "fifty percent of the participants who said they preferred Coke actually chose the Pepsi. '' Statisticians pointed out the problematic nature of a 50 / 50 result: most likely, the taste tests showed that in blind tests, most people can not tell the difference between Pepsi and Coke. Coca - Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi 's ads in an incident sometimes referred to as the cola wars; one of Coke 's ads compared the so - called Pepsi challenge to two chimpanzees deciding which tennis ball was furrier. Thereafter, Coca - Cola regained its leadership in the market.
Selena was a spokesperson for Coca - Cola from 1989 until the time of her death. She filmed three commercials for the company. During 1994, to commemorate her five years with the company, Coca - Cola issued special Selena coke bottles.
The Coca - Cola Company purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982, and began inserting Coke - product images into many of its films. After a few early successes during Coca - Cola 's ownership, Columbia began to under - perform, and the studio was sold to Sony in 1989.
Coca - Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including "The pause that refreshes '', "I 'd like to buy the world a Coke '', and "Coke is it ''.
In 2006, Coca - Cola introduced My Coke Rewards, a customer loyalty campaign where consumers earn points by entering codes from specially marked packages of Coca - Cola products into a website. These points can be redeemed for various prizes or sweepstakes entries.
In Australia in 2011, Coca - Cola began the "share a Coke '' campaign, where the Coca - Cola logo was replaced on the bottles and replaced with first names. Coca - Cola used the 150 most popular names in Australia to print on the bottles. The campaign was paired with a website page, Facebook page, and an online "share a virtual Coke ''. The same campaign was introduced to Coca - Cola, Diet Coke & Coke Zero bottles and cans in the UK in 2013.
Coca - Cola has also advertised its product to be consumed as a breakfast beverage, instead of coffee or tea for the morning caffeine.
From 1886 to 1959, the price of Coca - Cola was fixed at five cents, in part due to an advertising campaign.
Throughout the years, Coca - Cola has released limited time collector bottles for Christmas.
The "Holidays are coming! '' advertisement features a train of red delivery trucks, emblazoned with the Coca - Cola name and decorated with Christmas lights, driving through a snowy landscape and causing everything that they pass to light up and people to watch as they pass through.
The advertisement fell into disuse in 2001, as the Coca - Cola company restructured its advertising campaigns so that advertising around the world was produced locally in each country, rather than centrally in the company 's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2007, the company brought back the campaign after, according to the company, many consumers telephoned its information center saying that they considered it to mark the beginning of Christmas. The advertisement was created by U.S. advertising agency Doner, and has been part of the company 's global advertising campaign for many years.
Keith Law, a producer and writer of commercials for Belfast CityBeat, was not convinced by Coca - Cola 's reintroduction of the advertisement in 2007, saying that "I do n't think there 's anything Christmassy about HGVs and the commercial is too generic. ''
In 2001, singer Melanie Thornton recorded the campaign 's advertising jingle as a single, Wonderful Dream (Holidays are Coming), which entered the pop - music charts in Germany at no. 9. In 2005, Coca - Cola expanded the advertising campaign to radio, employing several variations of the jingle.
In 2011, Coca - Cola launched a campaign for the Indian holiday Diwali. The campaign included commercials, a song, and an integration with Shah Rukh Khan 's film Ra. One.
Coca - Cola was the first commercial sponsor of the Olympic games, at the 1928 games in Amsterdam, and has been an Olympics sponsor ever since. This corporate sponsorship included the 1996 Summer Olympics hosted in Atlanta, which allowed Coca - Cola to spotlight its hometown. Most recently, Coca - Cola has released localized commercials for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver; one Canadian commercial referred to Canada 's hockey heritage and was modified after Canada won the gold medal game on February 28, 2010 by changing the ending line of the commercial to say "Now they know whose game they 're playing ''.
Since 1978, Coca - Cola has sponsored the FIFA World Cup, and other competitions organized by FIFA. One FIFA tournament trophy, the FIFA World Youth Championship from Tunisia in 1977 to Malaysia in 1997, was called "FIFA -- Coca - Cola Cup ''. In addition, Coca - Cola sponsors the annual Coca - Cola 600 and Coke Zero 400 for the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series at Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord, North Carolina and Daytona International Speedway in Daytona, Florida.
Coca - Cola has a long history of sports marketing relationships, which over the years have included Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League, as well as with many teams within those leagues. Coca - Cola has had a longtime relationship with the NFL 's Pittsburgh Steelers, due in part to the now - famous 1979 television commercial featuring "Mean Joe '' Greene, leading to the two opening the Coca - Cola Great Hall at Heinz Field in 2001 and a more recent Coca - Cola Zero commercial featuring Troy Polamalu.
Coca - Cola is the official soft drink of many collegiate football teams throughout the nation, partly due to Coca - Cola providing those schools with upgraded athletic facilities in exchange for Coca - Cola 's sponsorship. This is especially prevalent at the high school level, which is more dependent on such contracts due to tighter budgets.
Coca - Cola was one of the official sponsors of the 1996 Cricket World Cup held on the Indian subcontinent. Coca - Cola is also one of the associate sponsors of Delhi Daredevils in the Indian Premier League.
In England, Coca - Cola was the main sponsor of The Football League between 2004 and 2010, a name given to the three professional divisions below the Premier League in soccer (football). In 2005, Coca - Cola launched a competition for the 72 clubs of The Football League -- it was called "Win a Player ''. This allowed fans to place one vote per day for their favorite club, with one entry being chosen at random earning £ 250,000 for the club; this was repeated in 2006. The "Win A Player '' competition was very controversial, as at the end of the 2 competitions, Leeds United A.F.C. had the most votes by more than double, yet they did not win any money to spend on a new player for the club. In 2007, the competition changed to "Buy a Player ''. This competition allowed fans to buy a bottle of Coca - Cola or Coca - Cola Zero and submit the code on the wrapper on the Coca - Cola website. This code could then earn anything from 50p to £ 100,000 for a club of their choice. This competition was favored over the old "Win a Player '' competition, as it allowed all clubs to win some money. Between 1992 and 1998, Coca - Cola was the title sponsor of the Football League Cup (Coca - Cola Cup), the secondary cup tournament of England.
Between 1994 and 1997, Coca - Cola was also the title sponsor of the Scottish League Cup, renaming it the Coca - Cola Cup like its English counterpart. From 1998 to 2001, the company were the title sponsor of the Irish League Cup in Northern Ireland, where it was named the Coca - Cola League Cup.
Coca - Cola is the presenting sponsor of the Tour Championship, the final event of the PGA Tour held each year at East Lake Golf Club in Atlanta, GA.
Introduced March 1, 2010, in Canada, to celebrate the 2010 Winter Olympics, Coca - Cola sold gold colored cans in packs of 12 355 mL (12 imp fl oz; 12 US fl oz) each, in select stores.
Coca - Cola has been prominently featured in many films and television programs. It was a major plot element in films such as One, Two, Three, The Coca - Cola Kid, and The Gods Must Be Crazy, among many others. In music, in the Beatles ' song, "Come Together '', the lyrics say, "He shoot Coca - Cola, he say... ''. The Beach Boys also referenced Coca - Cola in their 1964 song "All Summer Long '' (i.e. "' Member when you spilled Coke all over your blouse? '')
The best selling artist of all time Elvis Presley, promoted Coca - Cola during his last tour of 1977. The Coca - Cola Company used Elvis ' image to promote the product. For example, the company used a song performed by Presley, A Little Less Conversation, in a Japanese Coca - Cola commercial.
Other artists that promoted Coca - Cola include David Bowie, George Michael, Elton John, and Whitney Houston, who appeared in the Diet Coca - Cola commercial, among many others.
Not all musical references to Coca - Cola went well. A line in "Lola '' by the Kinks was originally recorded as "You drink champagne and it tastes just like Coca - Cola. '' When the British Broadcasting Corporation refused to play the song because of the commercial reference, lead singer Ray Davies re-recorded the lyric as "it tastes just like cherry cola '' to get airplay for the song.
Political cartoonist Michel Kichka satirized a famous Coca - Cola billboard in his 1982 poster "And I Love New York. '' On the billboard, the Coca - Cola wave is accompanied by the words "Enjoy Coke. '' In Kichka 's poster, the lettering and script above the Coca - Cola wave instead read "Enjoy Cocaine. ''
Coca - Cola is sometimes used for the treatment of gastric phytobezoars. In about 50 % of cases studied, Coca - Cola alone was found to be effective in gastric phytobezoar dissolution. Unfortunately, this treatment can result in the potential of developing small bowel obstruction in a minority of cases, necessitating surgical intervention.
Criticism of Coca - Cola has arisen from various groups, concerning a variety of issues, including health effects, environmental issues, and business practices. The drink 's coca flavoring, and the nickname "Coke '', remain a common theme of criticism due to the relationship with the illegal drug cocaine. In 1911 the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca - Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health '', leading to amended food safety legislation.
The Coca - Cola Company, its subsidiaries and products have been subject to sustained criticism by both consumer groups, leftist activists, and watchdogs, particularly since the early 2000s.
Coca - Cola is rich in sugar, especially sucrose, which causes dental caries when consumed regularly. Besides this, the high caloric value contributes to obesity. Both are major health issues in the developed world.
In July 2001, the Coca - Cola company was sued over its alleged use of political far - right wing death squads (the United Self - Defense Forces of Colombia) to kidnap, torture, and kill Colombian bottler workers that were linked with trade union activity. Coca - Cola was sued in a US federal court in Miami by the Colombian food and drink union Sinaltrainal. The suit alleged that Coca - Cola was indirectly responsible for having "contracted with or otherwise directed paramilitary security forces that utilized extreme violence and murdered, tortured, unlawfully detained or otherwise silenced trade union leaders ''. This sparked campaigns to boycott Coca - Cola in the UK, US, Germany, Italy, and Australia. Javier Correa, the president of Sinaltrainal, said the campaign aimed to put pressure on Coca - Cola "to mitigate the pain and suffering '' that union members had suffered.
Speaking from the Coca - Cola company 's headquarters in Atlanta, company spokesperson Rafael Fernandez Quiros said "Coca - Cola denies any connection to any human - rights violation of this type '' and added "We do not own or operate the plants ''.
A documentary on the controversy, titled The Coca - Cola Case, was released in 2010.
Coca - Cola has a high degree of identification with the United States, being considered by some an "American Brand '' or as an item representing America. During World War II, this gave rise to brief production of the White Coke as a neutral brand. The drink is also often a metonym for the Coca - Cola Company.
Coca - Cola was introduced to China in 1927, and was very popular until 1949. After the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949, the beverage was no longer imported into China, as it was perceived to be a symbol of decadent Western culture and the capitalist lifestyle. Importation and sales of the beverage resumed in 1979, after diplomatic relations between the United States and China were restored.
There are some consumer boycotts of Coca - Cola in Arab countries due to Coke 's early investment in Israel during the Arab League boycott of Israel (its competitor Pepsi stayed out of Israel). Mecca Cola and Pepsi have been successful alternatives in the Middle East.
A Coca - Cola fountain dispenser (officially a Fluids Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus or FGBA) was developed for use on the Space Shuttle as a test bed to determine if carbonated beverages can be produced from separately stored carbon dioxide, water, and flavored syrups and determine if the resulting fluids can be made available for consumption without bubble nucleation and resulting foam formation. FGBA - 1 flew on STS - 63 in 1995 and dispensed pre-mixed beverages, followed by FGBA - 2 on STS - 77 the next year. The latter mixed CO2, water, and syrup to make beverages. It supplied 1.65 liters each of Coca - Cola and Diet Coke.
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who won the football world cup in 2014 | 2014 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2014 FIFA World Cup was the 20th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men 's national football teams organized by FIFA. It took place in Brazil from 12 June to 13 July 2014, after the country was awarded the hosting rights in 2007. It was the second time that Brazil staged the competition, the first being in 1950, and the fifth time that it was held in South America.
Thirty - one national teams advanced through qualification competitions to join the host nation in the final tournament (with Bosnia and Herzegovina as only debutant). A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues located in as many host cities across Brazil. For the first time at a World Cup finals, match officials used goal - line technology, as well as vanishing spray for free kicks. FIFA Fan Fests in each host city gathered a total of 5 million people, and the country received 1 million visitors from 202 countries. Every World Cup - winning team since the first tournament in 1930 -- Argentina, Brazil, England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Uruguay -- qualified for this tournament. Spain, the title holders, were eliminated at the group stage, along with England and Italy. Uruguay were eliminated in the round of 16, and France exited in the quarter - finals. Host nation Brazil, who had won the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, lost to Germany 7 -- 1 in the semi-finals and eventually finished in fourth place.
In the final, Germany defeated Argentina 1 -- 0 to win the tournament and secure the country 's fourth world title, the first after the German reunification in 1990, when as West Germany they also beat Argentina in the World Cup final. Germany became the first European team to win a World Cup staged in the Americas, and this result marked the third consecutive title won by a European team, after Italy in 2006 and Spain in 2010.
In March 2003, FIFA announced that the tournament would be held in South America for the first time since 1978, in line with its then - active policy of rotating the right to host the World Cup among different confederations. With 2010 FIFA World Cup hosted in South Africa, it would be the second consecutive World Cup outside of Europe, which was a first for the tournament. It was also second in the Southern Hemisphere. Only Brazil and Colombia formally declared their candidacy but, after the withdrawal of the latter from the process, Brazil was officially elected as host nation unopposed on 30 October 2007.
Following qualification matches played between June 2011 and November 2013, the following 32 teams -- shown with their last pre-tournament FIFA world ranking -- qualified for the final tournament. Twenty - four of these teams were returning participants from the 2010 World Cup. Bosnia and Herzegovina were the only team with no previous appearance at the World Cup finals. Colombia qualified for the World Cup after 16 years of absence, while the 2018 World Cup hosts Russia and Belgium returned after 12 years. Paraguay failed to qualify for the first time since 1994. This was also the first World Cup for 32 years that did not feature a representative from the Nordic countries. The highest ranked team not to qualify was Ukraine (ranked 16th), while the lowest ranked team that did qualify was Australia (ranked 62nd).
The 32 participating teams were drawn into eight groups. In preparation for this, the teams were organised into four pots with the seven highest - ranked teams joining host nation Brazil in the seeded pot. As with the previous tournaments, FIFA aimed to create groups which maximised geographic separation and therefore the unseeded teams were arranged into pots based on geographic considerations. The draw took place on 6 December 2013 at the Costa do Sauípe resort in Bahia, during which the teams were drawn by various past World Cup - winning players. Under the draw procedure, one randomly drawn team -- Italy -- was firstly relocated from Pot 4 to Pot 2 to create four equal pots of eight teams.
In March 2013, FIFA published a list of 52 prospective referees, each paired, on the basis of nationality, with two assistant referees, from all six football confederations for the tournament. On 14 January 2014, the FIFA Referees Committee appointed 25 referee trios and eight support duos representing 43 countries for the tournament. Yuichi Nishimura from Japan acted as referee in the opening match whereas Nicola Rizzoli from Italy acted as referee in the final.
As with the 2010 tournament, each team 's squad consists of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers). Each participating national association had to confirm their final 23 - player squad no later than 10 days before the start of the tournament. Teams were permitted to make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their first game. During a match, all remaining squad members not named in the starting team are available to be one of the three permitted substitutions (provided the player is not serving a suspension).
12 venues (seven new and five renovated) in twelve cities were selected for the tournament. The venues covered all the main regions of Brazil and created more evenly distributed hosting than the 1950 finals in Brazil. Consequently, the tournament required long - distance travel for teams. During the World Cup, Brazilian cities were also home to the participating teams at 32 separate base camps, as well as staging official fan fests where supporters could view the games.
The most used stadiums were the Maracana and Brasilia, which hosted seven matches each. The least - used venues were in Cuiaba, Manaus, Natal and Curitiba, which hosted four matches each; as the four smallest stadiums in use at the tournament, they did not host any knockout round matches.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 31 January 2014, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team, having earlier circulated a brochure of 84 prospective locations. Most teams opted to stay in the Southeast Region of Brazil, with only eight teams choosing other regions; five teams (Croatia, Germany, Ghana, Greece and Switzerland) opted to stay in the Northeast Region and three teams (Ecuador, South Korea and Spain) opted to stay in the South Region. None opted to stay in the North Region or the Central - West Region.
For a third consecutive World Cup tournament, FIFA staged FIFA Fan Fests in each of the 12 host cities throughout the competition. Prominent examples were the Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro, which already held a Fan Fest in 2010, and São Paulo 's Vale do Anhangabaú. The first official event took place on Iracema Beach, in Fortaleza, on 8 June 2014.
To avoid ghost goals the 2014 World Cup introduced goal - line technology following successful trials at among others 2013 Confederations Cup. The chosen Goal Control system featured 14 high speed cameras, 7 directed to each of the goals. Data were sent to the central image - processing centre, where a virtual representation of the ball was output on a widescreen to confirm the goal. The referee was equipped with a watch which vibrated and displayed a signal upon a goal. France 's second goal in their group game against Honduras was the first time goal - line technology was needed to confirm that a goal should be given.
Following successful trials, FIFA approved the use of vanishing spray by the referees for the first time at a World Cup Finals. The water - based spray, which disappears within minutes of application, can be used to mark a ten - yard line for the defending team during a free kick and also to draw where the ball is to be placed for a free kick.
The Adidas Brazuca was the official match ball of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and was supplied by Forward Sports of Sialkot, Pakistan. Adidas created a new design of ball after criticisms of the Adidas Jabulani used in the previous World Cup. The number of panels was reduced to six, with the panels being thermally bonded. This created a ball with increased consistency and aerodynamics compared to its predecessor. Furthermore, Adidas underwent an extensive testing process lasting more than two years to produce a ball that would meet the approval of football professionals.
Because of the relatively high ambient temperatures in Brazil, particularly at the northern venues, cooling breaks for the players were introduced. Breaks could take place at the referee 's discretion after the 30th minute of each half if the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature exceeded 32 ° C (90 ° F).
The first cooling break in World Cup play took place during the 32nd minute of the match between the Netherlands and Mexico in the round of 16. At the start of the match, FIFA listed the temperature at 32 ° C (90 ° F) with 68 % humidity.
The biological passport was introduced in the FIFA World Cup starting in 2014. Blood and urine samples from all players before the competition, and from two players per team per match, are analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses. FIFA reported that 91.5 % of the players taking part in the tournament were tested before the start of the competition and none tested positive. However, FIFA was criticised for how it conducted doping tests.
The first round, or group stage, was a competition between the 32 teams divided among eight groups of four, where each group engaged in a round - robin tournament within itself. The two highest ranked teams in each group advanced to the knockout stage. Teams were awarded three points for a win and one for a draw. When comparing teams in a group over-all result came before head - to - head.
In the knockout stage there were four rounds (round of 16, quarter - finals, semi-finals, and the final), with each eliminating the losers. The two semi-final losers competed in a third place play - off. For any match in the knockout stage, a draw after 90 minutes of regulation time was followed by two 15 minute periods of extra time to determine a winner. If the teams were still tied, a penalty shoot - out was held to determine a winner.
The match schedule was announced on 20 October 2011 with the kick - off times being confirmed on 27 September 2012; after the final draw, the kick - off times of seven matches were adjusted by FIFA. The competition was organised so that teams that played each other in the group stage could not meet again during the knockout phase until the final (or the 3rd place match). The group stage began on 12 June, with the host nation competing in the opening game as has been the format since the 2006 tournament. The opening game was preceded by an opening ceremony that began at 15: 15 local time.
The group stage of the cup took place in Brazil from 12 June 2014 to 26 June 2014: each team played three games. The group stage was notable for a scarcity of draws and a large number of goals. The first drawn (and goalless) match did not occur until the 13th match of the tournament, between Iran and Nigeria: a drought longer than any World Cup since 1930. The group stage produced a total of 136 goals (an average of 2.83 goals per match), nine fewer than were scored during the entire 2010 tournament. This is the largest number of goals in the group stage since the 32 - team system was implemented in 1998 and the largest average in a group stage since 1958. World Cup holders Spain were eliminated after only two games, the quickest exit for the defending champions since Italy 's from the 1950 tournament. Spain also became the fourth nation to be eliminated in the first round while holding the World Cup crown, the first one being Italy in 1950 (and again in 2010), the second Brazil in 1966, and the third France in 2002.
Scores after extra time are indicated by (aet), and penalty shoot - outs are indicated by (pen.).
For the first time since the introduction of a round of 16 after the group stage in 1986, all the group winners advanced into the quarter - finals. They included four teams from UEFA, three from CONMEBOL, and one from CONCACAF. Of the eight matches, five required extra-time, and two of these required penalty shoot - outs; this was the first time penalty shoot - outs occurred in more than one game in a round of 16. The goal average per game in the round of 16 was 2.25, a drop of 0.58 goals per game from the group stage. The eight teams to win in the round of 16 included four former champions (Brazil, Germany, Argentina and France), a three - time runner - up (Netherlands), and two first - time quarter - finalists (Colombia and Costa Rica). Belgium reached the quarter - finals for the first time since 1986.
All times listed below are at local time (UTC − 3)
With a 1 -- 0 victory over France, Germany set a World Cup record with four consecutive semi-final appearances. Brazil beat Colombia 2 -- 1, but Brazil 's Neymar was injured and missed the rest of the competition. Argentina reached the final four for the first time since 1990 after a 1 -- 0 win over Belgium. The Netherlands reached the semi-finals for the second consecutive tournament, after overcoming Costa Rica in a penalty shoot - out following a 0 -- 0 draw at the end of extra time.
Germany qualified for the final for the eighth time with a historic 7 -- 1 win over Brazil -- the biggest defeat in Brazilian football since 1920. Miroslav Klose 's goal in this match was his 16th throughout all World Cups, breaking the record he had previously shared with Ronaldo. Klose set another record by becoming the first player to appear in four World Cup semi-finals. Argentina reached their first final since 1990, and the fifth overall after overcoming the Netherlands in a penalty shoot - out following a 0 -- 0 draw at the end of extra time.
The Netherlands defeated Brazil 3 -- 0 to secure third place, the first for the Dutch team in their history. Overall, Brazil conceded 14 goals in the tournament; this was the most by a team at any single World Cup since 1986, and the most by a host nation in history, although their fourth - place finish still represented Brazil 's best result in a World Cup since their last win in 2002.
The final featured Germany against Argentina for a record third time after 1986 and 1990.
This marked the first time that teams from the same continent had won three consecutive World Cups (following Italy in 2006 and Spain in 2010). It was also the first time that a European nation had won the World Cup in the Americas. On aggregate Europe now has 11 victories, compared to South America 's 9 victories.
James Rodríguez was awarded the Golden Boot for scoring six goals, the first time that a Colombian player received the award. In total, 171 goals were scored by a record 121 players, with five credited as own goals. Goals scored from penalty shoot - outs are not counted.
Source: FIFA
The most notable disciplinary case was that of Uruguayan striker Luis Suárez, who was suspended for nine international matches and banned from taking part in any football - related activity (including entering any stadium) for four months, following a biting incident on Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini. He was also fined CHF 100,000. After an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, Suárez was later allowed to participate in training and friendly matches with new club Barcelona.
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament:
Lionel Messi Thomas Müller Arjen Robben
Ángel Di María James Rodríguez Javier Mascherano Mats Hummels Neymar Philipp Lahm Toni Kroos
James Rodríguez (6 goals, 2 assists) Thomas Müller (5 goals, 3 assists) Neymar (4 goals, 1 assist)
Manuel Neuer
Keylor Navas Sergio Romero
Paul Pogba
Memphis Depay Raphaël Varane
Colombia
The members of the Technical Study Group, the committee that decided which players won the awards, were led by FIFA 's head of the Technical Division Jean - Paul Brigger and featured:
There were changes to the voting procedure for awards for the 2014 edition: while in 2010 accredited media were allowed to vote for the Golden Ball award, in 2014 only the Technical Study Group could select the outcome.
As was the case during the 2010 edition, FIFA did not release an official All - Star Team, but instead invited users of FIFA.com to elect their Dream Team.
Manuel Neuer (Germany)
Marcelo (Brazil) Mats Hummels (Germany) Thiago Silva (Brazil) David Luiz (Brazil)
Ángel Di María (Argentina) Toni Kroos (Germany) James Rodríguez (Colombia)
Neymar (Brazil) Lionel Messi (Argentina) Thomas Müller (Germany)
Joachim Löw (Germany)
Castrol, the official sponsor of the tournament, released a team of the tournament based on their Castrol Performance Index, which evaluates player performances through statistical data. The team consisted of the players leading each position, with midfielder Toni Kroos ranked as the overall leader. Lionel Messi, the Golden Ball recipient, finished fifth among forwards and was thus not included in the team.
Manuel Neuer (Germany)
Marcos Rojo (Argentina) Mats Hummels (Germany) Thiago Silva (Brazil) Stefan de Vrij (Netherlands)
Oscar (Brazil) Toni Kroos (Germany) Philipp Lahm (Germany) James Rodríguez (Colombia)
Arjen Robben (Netherlands) Thomas Müller (Germany)
The total prize money on offer for the tournament was confirmed by FIFA as US $576 million (including payments of $70 million to domestic clubs and $100 million as player insurances), a 37 percent increase from the amount allocated in the 2010 tournament. Before the tournament, each of the 32 entrants received $1.5 million for preparation costs. At the tournament, the prize money was distributed as follows:
Per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws.
Costs of the tournament totalled $11.6 billion, making it the most expensive World Cup to date, until surpassed by 2018 FIFA World Cup which cost an estimated $14.2 billion. FIFA was expected to spend US $2 billion on staging the finals, with its greatest single expense being the US $576 million prize money pot.
Although organisers originally estimated costs of US $1.1 billion, a reported US $3.6 billion was ultimately spent on stadium works. Five of the chosen host cities had brand new venues built specifically for the World Cup, while the Estádio Nacional Mané Garrincha in the capital Brasília was demolished and rebuilt, with the remaining six being extensively renovated.
An additional R $3 billion (US $1.3 billion, € 960 million, £ 780 million at June 2014 rates) was earmarked by the Brazilian government for investment in infrastructure works and projects for use during the 2014 World Cup and beyond. However, the failed completion of many of the proposed works provoked discontent among some Brazilians.
The Brazilian government pledged US $900 million to be invested into security forces and that the tournament would be "one of the most protected sports events in history. ''
The marketing of the 2014 FIFA World Cup included sale of tickets, support from sponsors and promotion through events that utilise the symbols and songs of the tournament. Popular merchandise included items featuring the official mascot as well as an official video game that has been developed by EA Sports. The official song of the tournament was "We Are One (Ole Ola) '' with vocals from Pitbull, Jennifer Lopez and Claudia Leitte. As a partner of the German Football Association, the German airline Lufthansa renamed itself "Fanhansa '' on some of its planes that flew the German national team, media representatives and football fans to Brazil.
The sponsors of the 2014 World Cup are divided into three categories: FIFA Partners, FIFA World Cup Sponsors and National Supporters.
For a fourth consecutive FIFA World Cup Finals, the coverage was provided by HBS (Host Broadcast Services), a subsidiary of Infront Sports & Media. Sony was selected as the official equipment provider and built 12 bespoke high definition production 40 - foot - long containers, one for each tournament venue, to house the extensive amount of equipment required. Each match utilised 37 standard camera plans, including Aerial and Cablecam, two Ultramotion cameras and dedicated cameras for interviews. The official tournament film, as well as three matches, will be filmed with ultra high definition technology (4K resolution), following a successful trial at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.
The broadcasting rights -- covering television, radio, internet and mobile coverage -- for the tournament were sold to media companies in each individual territory either directly by FIFA, or through licensed companies or organisations such as the European Broadcasting Union, Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana, International Media Content, Dentsu and RS International Broadcasting & Sports Management. The sale of these rights accounted for an estimated 60 % of FIFA 's income from staging a World Cup. The International Broadcast Centre was situated at the Riocentro in the Barra da Tijuca neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro.
Worldwide, several games qualified as the most - watched sporting events in their country in 2014, including 42.9 million people in Brazil for the opening game between Brazil and Croatia, the 34.1 million in Japan who saw their team play Ivory Coast, and 34.7 million in Germany who saw their national team win the World Cup against Argentina, while the 24.7 million viewers during the game between the USA and Portugal is joint with the 2010 final as the most - watched football game in the United States. According to FIFA, over one billion people tuned in worldwide to watch the final between Germany and Argentina.
The 2014 FIFA World Cup generated various controversies, including demonstrations, some of which took place even before the tournament started. Furthermore, there were various issues with safety, including eight deaths of workers and a fire during construction, breaches into stadiums, an unstable makeshift staircase at the Maracanã Stadium, a monorail collapse, and the collapse of an unfinished overpass in Belo Horizonte. The houses of thousands of families living in Rio de Janeiro 's slums were cleared for redevelopments for the World Cup in spite of protests and resistance. Favela do Metrô, near the Maracanã Stadium, was completely destroyed as a result, having previously housed 700 families in 2010.
Prior to the opening ceremony of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup staged in Brazil, demonstrations took place outside the venue, organised by people unhappy with the amount of public money spent to enable the hosting of the FIFA World Cup. Both the Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff and FIFA president Sepp Blatter were heavily booed as they were announced to give their speeches at the 2013 tournament 's opening, which resulted in FIFA announcing that the 2014 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony would not feature any speeches. Further protests took place during the Confederations Cup as well as prior to and during the World Cup.
At the Group B match between Spain and Chile, around 100 Chilean supporters who had gathered outside Maracanã Stadium forced their way into the stadium and caused damage to the media centre. Military police reported that 85 Chileans were detained during the events, while others reached the stands. Earlier, about 20 Argentinians made a similar breach during Argentina 's Group F game against Bosnia and Herzegovina at the same stadium.
On 3 July 2014, an overpass under construction in Belo Horizonte as part of the World Cup infrastructure projects collapsed onto a busy carriageway below, leaving two people dead and 22 others injured.
During the tournament, FIFA received significant criticism for the way head injuries are handled during matches. Two incidents in particular attracted the most attention. First, in a group stage match, after Uruguayan defender Álvaro Pereira received a blow to the head, he lay unconscious. The Uruguayan doctor signaled for the player to be substituted, but he returned to the match. The incident drew criticism from the professional players ' union FIFPro, and from Michel D'Hooghe, a member of the FIFA executive board and chairman of its medical committee.
Second, in the Final, German midfielder Christoph Kramer received a blow to the head from a collision in the 14th minute, but returned to the match before collapsing in the 31st minute. During that time, Kramer was disoriented and confused, and asked the referee Nicola Rizzoli whether the match he was playing in was the World Cup Final.
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what is the purpose of the privileges and immunities clause that is located in the constitution | Privileges and Immunities Clause - wikipedia
The Privileges and Immunities Clause (U.S. Constitution, Article IV, Section 2, Clause 1, also known as the Comity Clause) prevents a state from treating citizens of other states in a discriminatory manner. Additionally, a right of interstate travel may plausibly be inferred from the clause.
The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.
The clause is similar to a provision in the Articles of Confederation: "the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States. ''
James Madison discussed that provision of the Articles of Confederation in Federalist No. 42. Madison wrote: "those who come under the denomination of free inhabitants of a State, although not citizens of such State, are entitled, in every other State, to all the privileges of free citizens of the latter; that is, to greater privileges than they may be entitled to in their own State... '' Madison apparently did not believe that this clause in the Articles of Confederation dictated how a state must treat its own citizens. Alexander Hamilton wrote in Federalist No. 80 that the corresponding Privileges and Immunities Clause in the proposed federal Constitution is "the basis of the union ''.
In the federal circuit court case of Corfield v. Coryell, Justice Bushrod Washington wrote in 1823 that the protections provided by the clause are confined to privileges and immunities which are, "in their nature, fundamental; which belong, of right, to the citizens of all free governments; and which have, at all times, been enjoyed by the citizens of the several states which compose this Union, from the time of their becoming free, independent, and sovereign. ''
In his explanation of the scope of the rights protected by the clause, Justice Washington included the right to travel through and reside in states, the right to claim benefit of the writ of heabeas corpus, the right of access to the courts, the right to purchase and hold property, and an exemption from higher taxes than state residents pay. The Corfield case involved the rights of an out - of - state citizen, rather than the rights of an in - state citizen, and Justice Washington 's opinion did not suggest that this provision of the Constitution addresses how a legislature must treat its own citizens. On the contrary, Washington 's handwritten notes indicate his belief that this provision of the Constitution did not address how a legislature must treat its own citizens.
Another pertinent federal circuit court case was decided by Justice Henry Baldwin, who succeeded Justice Washington. In the case of Magill v. Brown, Justice Baldwin addressed the Privileges and Immunities Clause: "We must take it therefore as a grant by the people of the state in convention, to the citizens of all the other states of the Union, of the privileges and immunities of the citizens of this state. ''
These federal circuit court statements by Justices Washington and Baldwin were not inconsistent with each other. They both became the settled doctrine of the U.S. Supreme Court after the Civil War.
Justice Joseph Story also addressed this Clause of the Constitution, in 1833:
It is obvious, that, if the citizens of each state were to be deemed aliens to each other, they could not take, or hold real estate, or other privileges, except as other aliens. The intention of this clause was to confer on them, if one may so say, a general citizenship; and to communicate all the privileges and immunities, which the citizens of the same state would be entitled to under the like circumstances.
Thus, Story thought that this Clause of the Constitution was meant "only to provide temporary visitors with equality in certain rights with the citizens of the states they were visiting. ''
This Clause of the Constitution was also mentioned by the Supreme Court in the infamous Scott v. Sandford case in 1857: Chief Justice Taney, speaking for the majority, said that this Clause gives state citizens, when in other states, the right to travel, the right to sojourn, the right to free speech, the right to assemble, and the right to keep and bear arms; even as the Court excluded all African - Americans from citizenship, it indicated that citizens ' free speech was limited: "full liberty of speech in public and in private upon all subjects upon which its (a slave State 's) own citizens might speak. '' Justice McLean in his dissent speaks of the right to sue without expounding this Clause at length. Justice Curtis asserts in his dissent that this Clause does not confer any rights other than rights that a visited state chooses to guarantee to its own citizens.
In 1866, during the congressional debates about the draft Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, Senator Jacob Howard noted that the U.S. Supreme Court had never squarely addressed the meaning of the Privileges and Immunities Clause:
It would be a curious question to solve what are the privileges and immunities of citizens of each of the States in the several States... I am not aware that the Supreme Court have ever undertaken to define either the nature or extent of the privileges and immunities thus guarantied.
The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified two years later, in 1868, and still the Supreme Court had not spoken. The following year, on November 1 of 1869, the Court finally addressed this issue. In the case of Paul v. Virginia, 75 U.S. 168 (1868), the Court said the following:
It was undoubtedly the object of the clause in question to place the citizens of each State upon the same footing with citizens of other States, so far as the advantages resulting from citizenship in those States are concerned. It relieves them from the disabilities of alienage in other States; it inhibits discriminating legislation against them by other States; it gives them the right of free ingress into other States, and egress from them; it insures to them in other States the same freedom possessed by the citizens of those States in the acquisition and enjoyment of property and in the pursuit of happiness; and it secures to them in other States the equal protection of their laws.
The Court went on to explain that the laws of one state would not become effective in another: "It was not intended by the provision to give to the laws of one State any operation in other States. They can have no such operation, except by the permission, express or implied, of those States. '' These sections of Paul v. Virginia are still good law, and were relied upon, for example, in Saenz v. Roe, 526 U.S. 489 (1999). Other portions of Paul v. Virginia were reversed in U.S. v. South - Eastern Underwriters Ass'n, 322 U.S. 533 (1944). The Court has never deviated from the principle stated in Paul that the Privileges and Immunities Clause in Article IV of the Constitution has no bearing on how a state treats its own citizens. In - state residents "have no claim under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. '' United Building & Construction Trades Council v. Mayor and Council of Camden, 465 U.S. 208 (1984).
The Privileges and Immunities Clause prevents discrimination against people from out of state, but only with regard to basic rights. The Court uses a two - part test to determine if the Privileges and Immunities Clause has been violated. First, it looks to see if a law discriminates against people from out of state regarding fundamental rights (e.g. protection by the government of the enjoyment of life, and liberty, the right to acquire and possess property of every kind, and to pursue and obtain happiness and safety). These rights often focus on the economic right to pursue a livelihood. The second part of the test focuses on whether the state is justified in the discrimination. It examines if there is a substantial reason for the difference in treatment, and if the discriminatory law has a substantial relationship to that reason. For example, the Court has asked: "Does the distinction made by Montana between residents and nonresidents in establishing access to elk hunting threaten a basic right in a way that offends the Privileges and Immunities Clause? '' See Baldwin v. Fish and Game Commission of Montana 436 U.S. 371 (1978). The court held it did not, because hunting is a recreational sport, which is outside the fundamental rights protected by the Constitution. If the court had found that recreation and sports were fundamental rights, it would have still had to examine whether the state had a compelling interest (protecting elk herds from being over-hunted), and whether the law was designed to address that problem.
The Court 's decision in the Slaughterhouse Cases (1873) is consistent with the idea that the Privileges and Immunities Clause was intended only to guarantee that a citizen of one state could enjoy equality in another state, with regard to fundamental rights. Referring to the words of Justice Washington in Corfield, the Slaughterhouse Court stated:
(P) rivileges and immunities... are, in the language of Judge Washington, those rights which are fundamental. Throughout his opinion, they are spoken of as rights belonging to the individual as a citizen of a State... The constitutional provision there alluded to did not create those rights... It threw around them in that clause no security for the citizen of the State in which they were claimed or exercised. Nor did it profess to control the power of the State governments over the rights of its own citizens. Its sole purpose was to declare to the several States, that whatever those rights, as you grant or establish them to your own citizens, or as you limit or qualify, or impose restrictions on their exercise, the same, neither more nor less, shall be the measure of the rights of citizens of other States within your jurisdiction. (emphasis added)
The Supreme Court has never interpreted the Privileges and Immunities Clause as requiring any state to protect general rights of citizenship beyond those that the state already protects for its own citizens, though even a state 's own citizens must be allowed to leave the state in order to enjoy privileges and immunities in any other state.
The Privileges and Immunities Clause says that a citizen of one state is entitled to the privileges in another state, from which a right to travel to that other state may be inferred. Indeed, in the 1982 case of Zobel v Williams, a majority of the U.S. Supreme Court agreed that the Privileges and Immunities Clause plausibly includes a right of interstate travel. In that case, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor explained:
Article IV 's Privileges and Immunities Clause has enjoyed a long association with the rights to travel and migrate interstate. The Clause derives from Art. IV of the Articles of Confederation. The latter expressly recognized a right of "free ingress and regress to and from any other State, '' in addition to guaranteeing "the free inhabitants of each of these states... (the) privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States. '' While the Framers of our Constitution omitted the reference to "free ingress and regress, '' they retained the general guaranty of "privileges and immunities. '' Charles Pinckney, who drafted the current version of Art. IV, told the Convention that this Article was "formed exactly upon the principles of the 4th article of the present Confederation. '' Commentators, therefore, have assumed that the Framers omitted the express guaranty merely because it was redundant, not because they wished to excise the right from the Constitution. Early opinions by the Justices of this Court also traced a right to travel or migrate interstate to Art. IV 's Privileges and Immunities Clause... Similarly, in Paul v. Virginia, the Court found that one of the "undoubt (ed) '' effects of the Clause was to give "the citizens of each State... the right of free ingress into other States, and egress from them... ''
Despite scholarly and judicial opinions acknowledging that the Privileges and Immunities Clause may include a right to travel, the issue is not without controversy.
Unlike the Dormant Commerce Clause, there is no market participant exception to the Privileges and Immunities Clause. That means that even when a state is acting as a producer or supplier for a marketable good or service, the Privileges and Immunities Clause may prevent it from discriminating against non-residents.
Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship by the Jones -- Shafroth Act in 1917; subsequently, the U.S. Congress passed a law (signed by President Truman in 1947) which expressly extended this constitutional clause to the U.S. citizens in the jurisdiction of Puerto Rico:
The rights, privileges, and immunities of citizens of the United States shall be respected in Puerto Rico to the same extent as though Puerto Rico were a State of the Union and subject to the provisions of paragraph 1 of section 2 of article IV of the Constitution of the United States.
In the 1970s the Supreme Court began to recognize the application to Puerto Rico of several Constitutional protections contained in the Bill of Rights. In its opinions, the Court, without elaborating, relied on the insular cases of Downes and Balzac as precedent for the application of these constitutional rights.
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when did the last episode of psych air | List of Psych episodes - wikipedia
Psych is an American crime / mystery dramedy television series that premiered on July 7, 2006 on USA Network, and aired its series finale on March 26, 2014. It stars James Roday as Shawn Spencer, who uses his eidetic memory with the observational and investigative skills that his father ingrained in him during childhood to fake being a psychic who consults with the Santa Barbara Police Department to solve cases, as well as running a psychic detective agency called Psych. He is (reluctantly) helped in his charade by his best friend, Burton "Gus '' Guster (Dulé Hill), and his father, Henry Spencer (Corbin Bernsen). He generally works with police detectives Carlton Lassiter (Timothy Omundson) and Juliet O'Hara (Maggie Lawson) and under the direction of Police Chief Karen Vick (Kirsten Nelson). Episodes usually begin with a flashback to Shawn 's youth, showcasing one of Henry 's lessons for his son. These lessons are typically used or applied later in the episode. During the run of Psych, 120 episodes aired. A two - hour TV movie based on the Psych series, titled Psych: The Movie, aired on December 7, 2017.
† denotes a two - hour movie (with advertisements).
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kool and the gang open sesame album cover | Open Sesame (Kool & the Gang album) - Wikipedia
Open Sesame is the eighth studio album by the funk band Kool & the Gang, released in 1976. The album yielded the hit title track, "Open Sesame '', which achieved some success, first as a top ten R&B single, then later as part of the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack. "Super Band '' also reached the R&B top twenty. The album was the second of two albums released by the band in 1976.
All tracks written by Kool & the Gang unless otherwise noted.
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after the great revolt of 1857 british rule changed in that | Indian rebellion of 1857 - Wikipedia
British victory
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India during 1857 -- 58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The event is known by many names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and India 's First War of Independence.
The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Company 's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40 miles northeast of Delhi (now Old Delhi). It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions, chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels ' defeat in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859.
The Indian rebellion was fed by resentment that had emerged against elements of British rule, including invasive British - style social reforms, harsh land taxes, summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, and broader scepticism about the improvements brought about by British rule. Many Indians did rise against the British, but many others fought for the British, and the majority remained seemingly compliant to British rule. Violence, which sometimes betrayed exceptional cruelty, was inflicted on both sides; on British officers and civilians (including women and children) by the rebels, and on the rebels and their supporters (sometimes including entire villages) by British reprisals. The cities of Delhi and Lucknow were laid waste in the fighting and during the British retaliation.
After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi and declared its 81 - year - old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, they also captured large tracts of the North - Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). The East India Company 's response came rapidly as well. With help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857 and Delhi by the end of September. Even so, it then took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow, and especially the Awadh countryside. Other regions of Company - controlled India -- the Bengal Presidency, the Bombay Presidency and the Madras Presidency -- remained largely calm. In the Punjab, the Sikhs crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states (Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir), as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion, serving the British, in the words of Governor - General Lord Canning, as "breakwaters in a storm. ''
In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence and power. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system. Even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian and British Empire history. It led to the dissolution of the East India Company, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India, through the passage of the Government of India Act 1858. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj. On 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, Indians were to pointedly refer to the Queen 's proclamation in growing avowals of a new nationalism.
Although the British East India Company had established a presence in India as far back as 1612, and earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its firm foothold in eastern India. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the emperor granted the Company the right to the "collection of Revenue '' in the provinces of Bengal (modern day Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha), known as "Diwani '' to the Company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo - Mysore Wars (1766 -- 1799) and the Anglo - Maratha Wars (1772 -- 1818) led to control of even more of India.
In 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
After the turn of the 19th century, Governor - General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Punjab, North - West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo - Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the Anglo - Nepalese War of 1814 -- 16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. For practical purposes, the Company was the government of much of India.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 occurred as the result of an accumulation of factors over time, rather than any single event.
The sepoys were Indian soldiers who were recruited into the Company 's army. Just before the rebellion, there were over 300,000 sepoys in the army, compared to about 50,000 British. The forces were divided into three presidency armies: Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. The Bengal Army recruited higher castes, such as Rajputs and Bhumihar, mostly from the Awadh and Bihar regions, and even restricted the enlistment of lower castes in 1855. In contrast, the Madras Army and Bombay Army were "more localized, caste - neutral armies '' that "did not prefer high - caste men. '' The domination of higher castes in the Bengal Army has been blamed in part for initial mutinies that led to the rebellion.
In 1772, when Warren Hastings was appointed India 's first Governor - General, one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Company 's army. Since the sepoys from Bengal -- many of whom had fought against the Company in the Battles of Plassey and Buxar -- were now suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the high - caste rural Rajputs and Bhumihar of Awadh and Bihar, a practice that continued for the next 75 years. However, in order to forestall any social friction, the Company also took action to adapt its military practices to the requirements of their religious rituals. Consequently, these soldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service, considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the army soon came officially to recognise Hindu festivals. "This encouragement of high caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest, even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of their prerogatives. '' Stokes argues that "The British scrupulously avoided interference with the social structure of the village community which remained largely intact. ''
After the annexation of Oudh (Awadh) by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts, and from the anticipation of any increased land - revenue payments that the annexation might bring about. Other historians have stressed that by 1857, some Indian soldiers, interpreting the presence of missionaries as a sign of official intent, were convinced that the Company was masterminding mass conversions of Hindus and Muslims to Christianity. Although earlier in the 1830s, evangelicals such as William Carey and William Wilberforce had successfully clamoured for the passage of social reform, such as the abolition of sati and allowing the remarriage of Hindu widows, there is little evidence that the sepoys ' allegiance was affected by this.
However, changes in the terms of their professional service may have created resentment. As the extent of the East India Company 's jurisdiction expanded with victories in wars or annexation, the soldiers were now expected not only to serve in less familiar regions, such as in Burma, but also to make do without the "foreign service '' remuneration that had previously been their due.
A major cause of resentment that arose ten months prior to the outbreak of the rebellion was the General Service Enlistment Act of 25 July 1856. As noted above, men of the Bengal Army had been exempted from overseas service. Specifically, they were enlisted only for service in territories to which they could march. Governor - General Lord Dalhousie saw this as an anomaly, since all sepoys of the Madras and Bombay Armies and the six "General Service '' battalions of the Bengal Army had accepted an obligation to serve overseas if required. As a result, the burden of providing contingents for active service in Burma, readily accessible only by sea, and China had fallen disproportionately on the two smaller Presidency Armies. As signed into effect by Lord Canning, Dalhousie 's successor as Governor - General, the act required only new recruits to the Bengal Army to accept a commitment for general service. However, serving high - caste sepoys were fearful that it would be eventually extended to them, as well as preventing sons following fathers into an army with a strong tradition of family service.
There were also grievances over the issue of promotions, based on seniority. This, as well as the increasing number of European officers in the battalions, made promotion slow, and many Indian officers did not reach commissioned rank until they were too old to be effective.
The final spark was provided by the ammunition for the new Enfield P - 53 rifle. These rifles, which fired Minié balls, had a tighter fit than the earlier muskets, and used paper cartridges that came pre-greased. To load the rifle, sepoys had to bite the cartridge open to release the powder. The grease used on these cartridges was rumoured to include tallow derived from beef, which would be offensive to Hindus, and pork, which would be offensive to Muslims. At least one Company official pointed out the difficulties this may cause:
unless it be proven that the grease employed in these cartridges is not of a nature to offend or interfere with the prejudices of caste, it will be expedient not to issue them for test to Native corps.
However, in August 1856, greased cartridge production was initiated at Fort William, Calcutta, following a British design. The grease used included tallow supplied by the Indian firm of Gangadarh Banerji & Co. By January, rumours were abroad that the Enfield cartridges were greased with animal fat.
Company officers became aware of the rumours through reports of an altercation between a high - caste sepoy and a low - caste labourer at Dum Dum. The labourer had taunted the sepoy that by biting the cartridge, he had himself lost caste, although at this time such cartridges had been issued only at Meerut and not at Dum Dum. There had been rumours that the British sought to destroy the religions of the Indian people, and forcing the native soldiers to break their sacred code would have certainly added to this rumour, as it apparently did. The Company was quick to reverse the effects of this policy in hopes that the unrest would be quelled.
On 27 January, Colonel Richard Birch, the Military Secretary, ordered that all cartridges issued from depots were to be free from grease, and that sepoys could grease them themselves using whatever mixture "they may prefer ''. A modification was also made to the drill for loading so that the cartridge was torn with the hands and not bitten. This however, merely caused many sepoys to be convinced that the rumours were true and that their fears were justified. Additional rumours started that the paper in the new cartridges, which was glazed and stiffer than the previously used paper, was impregnated with grease. In February, a court of inquiry was held at Barrackpore to get to the bottom of these rumours. Native soldiers called as witnesses complained of the paper "being stiff and like cloth in the mode of tearing '', said that when the paper was burned it smelled of grease, and announced that the suspicion that the paper itself contained grease could not be removed from their minds.
The civilian rebellion was more multifarious. The rebels consisted of three groups: the feudal nobility, rural landlords called taluqdars, and the peasants. The nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse, which refused to recognise the adopted children of princes as legal heirs, felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group; the latter, for example, was prepared to accept East India Company supremacy if her adopted son was recognised as her late husband 's heir. In other areas of central India, such as Indore and Saugar, where such loss of privilege had not occurred, the princes remained loyal to the Company, even in areas where the sepoys had rebelled. The second group, the taluqdars, had lost half their landed estates to peasant farmers as a result of the land reforms that came in the wake of annexation of Oudh. As the rebellion gained ground, the taluqdars quickly reoccupied the lands they had lost, and paradoxically, in part because of ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, did not experience significant opposition from the peasant farmers, many of whom joined the rebellion, to the great dismay of the British. It has also been suggested that heavy land - revenue assessment in some areas by the British resulted in many landowning families either losing their land or going into great debt to money lenders, and providing ultimately a reason to rebel; money lenders, in addition to the Company, were particular objects of the rebels ' animosity. The civilian rebellion was also highly uneven in its geographic distribution, even in areas of north - central India that were no longer under British control. For example, the relatively prosperous Muzaffarnagar district, a beneficiary of a Company irrigation scheme, and next door to Meerut, where the upheaval began, stayed relatively calm throughout.
Charles Canning, the Governor - General of India during the rebellion.
Lord Dalhousie, the Governor - General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse.
Lakshmibai, the Rani of Maratha - ruled Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse.
Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor, crowned Emperor of India, by the Indian troops, he was deposed by the British, and died in exile in Burma
"Utilitarian and evangelical - inspired social reform '', including the abolition of sati and the legalisation of widow remarriage were considered by many -- especially the British themselves -- to have caused suspicion that Indian religious traditions were being "interfered with '', with the ultimate aim of conversion. Recent historians, including Chris Bayly, have preferred to frame this as a "clash of knowledges '', with proclamations from religious authorities before the revolt and testimony after it including on such issues as the "insults to women '', the rise of "low persons under British tutelage '', the "pollution '' caused by Western medicine and the persecuting and ignoring of traditional astrological authorities. European - run schools were also a problem: according to recorded testimonies, anger had spread because of stories that mathematics was replacing religious instruction, stories were chosen that would "bring contempt '' upon Indian religions, and because girl children were exposed to "moral danger '' by education.
The justice system was considered to be inherently unfair to the Indians. The official Blue Books, East India (Torture) 1855 -- 1857, laid before the House of Commons during the sessions of 1856 and 1857, revealed that Company officers were allowed an extended series of appeals if convicted or accused of brutality or crimes against Indians.
The economic policies of the East India Company were also resented by many Indians.
Each of the three "Presidencies '' into which the East India Company divided India for administrative purposes maintained their own armies. Of these, the Army of the Bengal Presidency was the largest. Unlike the other two, it recruited heavily from among high - caste Hindus and comparatively wealthy Muslims. The Muslims formed a larger percentage of the 18 irregular cavalry units within the Bengal army, whilst Hindus were mainly to be found in the 84 regular infantry and cavalry regiments. The sepoys were therefore affected to a large degree by the concerns of the landholding and traditional members of Indian society. In the early years of Company rule, it tolerated and even encouraged the caste privileges and customs within the Bengal Army, which recruited its regular soldiers almost exclusively amongst the landowning Brahmins and Rajputs of the Bihar and Awadh regions. These soldiers were known as Purbiyas. By the time these customs and privileges came to be threatened by modernising regimes in Calcutta from the 1840s onwards, the sepoys had become accustomed to very high ritual status and were extremely sensitive to suggestions that their caste might be polluted.
The sepoys also gradually became dissatisfied with various other aspects of army life. Their pay was relatively low and after Awadh and the Punjab were annexed, the soldiers no longer received extra pay (batta or bhatta) for service there, because they were no longer considered "foreign missions ''. The junior European officers became increasingly estranged from their soldiers, in many cases treating them as their racial inferiors. In 1856, a new Enlistment Act was introduced by the Company, which in theory made every unit in the Bengal Army liable to service overseas. Although it was intended to apply only to new recruits, the serving sepoys feared that the Act might be applied retroactively to them as well. A high - caste Hindu who travelled in the cramped conditions of a wooden troop ship could not cook his own food on his own fire, and accordingly risked losing caste through ritual pollution.
Several months of increasing tensions coupled with various incidents preceded the actual rebellion. On 26 February 1857 the 19th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment became concerned that new cartridges they had been issued were wrapped in paper greased with cow and pig fat, which had to be opened by mouth thus affecting their religious sensibilities. Their Colonel confronted them supported by artillery and cavalry on the parade ground, but after some negotiation withdrew the artillery, and cancelled the next morning 's parade.
On 29 March 1857 at the Barrackpore parade ground, near Calcutta, 29 - year - old Mangal Pandey of the 34th BNI, angered by the recent actions of the East India Company, declared that he would rebel against his commanders. Informed about Pandey 's behaviour Sergeant - Major James Hewson went to investigate, only to have Pandey shoot at him. Hewson raised the alarm. When his adjutant Lt. Henry Baugh came out to investigate the unrest, Pandey opened fire but hit Baugh 's horse instead.
General John Hearsey came out to the parade ground to investigate, and claimed later that Mangal Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy ''. He ordered the Indian commander of the quarter guard Jemadar Ishwari Prasad to arrest Mangal Pandey, but the Jemadar refused. The quarter guard and other sepoys present, with the single exception of a soldier called Shaikh Paltu, drew back from restraining or arresting Mangal Pandey. Shaikh Paltu restrained Pandey from continuing his attack.
After failing to incite his comrades into an open and active rebellion, Mangal Pandey tried to take his own life, by placing his musket to his chest and pulling the trigger with his toe. He managed only to wound himself. Court - martialled on 6 April, he was hanged two days later.
The Jemadar Ishwari Prasad was sentenced to death and hanged on 22 April. The regiment was disbanded and stripped of its uniforms because it was felt that it harboured ill - feelings towards its superiors, particularly after this incident. Shaikh Paltu was promoted to the rank of havildar in the Bengal Army, but was murdered shortly before the 34th BNI dispersed.
Sepoys in other regiments thought these punishments were harsh. The demonstration of disgrace during the formal disbanding helped foment the rebellion in view of some historians. Disgruntled ex-sepoys returned home to Awadh with a desire for revenge.
During April, there was unrest and fires at Agra, Allahabad and Ambala. At Ambala in particular, which was a large military cantonment where several units had been collected for their annual musketry practice, it was clear to General Anson, Commander - in - Chief of the Bengal Army, that some sort of rebellion over the cartridges was imminent. Despite the objections of the civilian Governor - General 's staff, he agreed to postpone the musketry practice and allow a new drill by which the soldiers tore the cartridges with their fingers rather than their teeth. However, he issued no general orders making this standard practice throughout the Bengal Army and, rather than remain at Ambala to defuse or overawe potential trouble, he then proceeded to Simla, the cool "hill station '' where many high officials spent the summer.
Although there was no open revolt at Ambala, there was widespread arson during late April. Barrack buildings (especially those belonging to soldiers who had used the Enfield cartridges) and European officers ' bungalows were set on fire.
At Meerut, a large military cantonment, 2,357 Indian sepoys and 2,038 British soldiers were stationed along with 12 British - manned guns. The station held one of the largest concentrations of British troops in India and this was later to be cited as evidence that the original rising was a spontaneous outbreak rather than a pre-planned plot.
Although the state of unrest within the Bengal Army was well known, on 24 April Lieutenant Colonel George Carmichael - Smyth, the unsympathetic commanding officer of the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry, ordered 90 of his men to parade and perform firing drills. All except five of the men on parade refused to accept their cartridges. On 9 May, the remaining 85 men were court martialled, and most were sentenced to 10 years ' imprisonment with hard labour. Eleven comparatively young soldiers were given five years ' imprisonment. The entire garrison was paraded and watched as the condemned men were stripped of their uniforms and placed in shackles. As they were marched off to jail, the condemned soldiers berated their comrades for failing to support them.
The next day was Sunday. Some Indian soldiers warned off - duty junior European officers that plans were afoot to release the imprisoned soldiers by force, but the senior officers to whom this was reported took no action. There was also unrest in the city of Meerut itself, with angry protests in the bazaar and some buildings being set on fire. In the evening, most European officers were preparing to attend church, while many of the European soldiers were off duty and had gone into canteens or into the bazaar in Meerut. The Indian troops, led by the 3rd Cavalry, broke into revolt. European junior officers who attempted to quell the first outbreaks were killed by the rebels. European officers ' and civilians ' quarters were attacked, and four civilian men, eight women and eight children were killed. Crowds in the bazaar attacked off - duty soldiers there. About 50 Indian civilians, some of them officers ' servants who tried to defend or conceal their employers, were killed by the sepoys. While the action of the sepoys in freeing their 85 imprisoned comrades appears to have been spontaneous, some civilian rioting in the city was reportedly encouraged by kotwal (local police commander) Dhan Singh Gurjar
Some sepoys (especially from the 11th Bengal Native Infantry) escorted trusted British officers and women and children to safety before joining the revolt. Some officers and their families escaped to Rampur, where they found refuge with the Nawab.
The British historian Philip Mason notes that it was inevitable that most of the sepoys and sowars from Meerut should have made for Delhi on the night of 10 May. It was a strong walled city located only forty miles away, it was the ancient capital and present seat of the nominal Mughal Emperor and finally there were no British troops in garrison there in contrast to Meerut. No effort was made to pursue them.
Early on 11 May, the first parties of the 3rd Cavalry reached Delhi. From beneath the windows of the King 's apartments in the palace, they called on him to acknowledge and lead them. Bahadur Shah did nothing at this point, apparently treating the sepoys as ordinary petitioners, but others in the palace were quick to join the revolt. During the day, the revolt spread. European officials and dependents, Indian Christians and shop keepers within the city were killed, some by sepoys and others by crowds of rioters.
There were three battalion - sized regiments of Bengal Native Infantry stationed in or near the city. Some detachments quickly joined the rebellion, while others held back but also refused to obey orders to take action against the rebels. In the afternoon, a violent explosion in the city was heard for several miles. Fearing that the arsenal, which contained large stocks of arms and ammunition, would fall intact into rebel hands, the nine British Ordnance officers there had opened fire on the sepoys, including the men of their own guard. When resistance appeared hopeless, they blew up the arsenal. Six of the nine officers survived, but the blast killed many in the streets and nearby houses and other buildings. The news of these events finally tipped the sepoys stationed around Delhi into open rebellion. The sepoys were later able to salvage at least some arms from the arsenal, and a magazine two miles (3 km) outside Delhi, containing up to 3,000 barrels of gunpowder, was captured without resistance.
Many fugitive European officers and civilians had congregated at the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge north of Delhi, where telegraph operators were sending news of the events to other British stations. When it became clear that the help expected from Meerut was not coming, they made their way in carriages to Karnal. Those who became separated from the main body or who could not reach the Flagstaff Tower also set out for Karnal on foot. Some were helped by villagers on the way; others were killed.
The next day, Bahadur Shah held his first formal court for many years. It was attended by many excited sepoys. The King was alarmed by the turn events had taken, but eventually accepted the sepoys ' allegiance and agreed to give his countenance to the rebellion. On 16 May, up to 50 Europeans who had been held prisoner in the palace or had been discovered hiding in the city were killed by some of the King 's servants under a peepul tree in a courtyard outside the palace.
The news of the events at Delhi spread rapidly, provoking uprisings among sepoys and disturbances in many districts. In many cases, it was the behaviour of British military and civilian authorities themselves which precipitated disorder. Learning of the fall of Delhi by telegraph, many Company administrators hastened to remove themselves, their families and servants to places of safety. At Agra, 160 miles (260 km) from Delhi, no less than 6,000 assorted non-combatants converged on the Fort.
The military authorities also reacted in disjointed manner. Some officers trusted their sepoys, but others tried to disarm them to forestall potential uprisings. At Benares and Allahabad, the disarmings were bungled, also leading to local revolts.
Most Muslims did not share the rebels ' dislike of the British administration and their ulema could not agree on whether to declare a jihad. There were Islamic scholars such as Maulana Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi and Maulana Rashid Ahmad Gangohi who took up arms against the colonial rule. But a large number of Muslims, among them ulema from both the Sunni and Shia sects, sided with the British. Various Ahl - i - Hadith scholars and colleagues of Nanautavi rejected the jihad. The most influential member of Ahl - i - Hadith ulema in Delhi, Maulana Sayyid Nazir Husain Dehlvi, resisted pressure from the mutineers to call for a jihad and instead declared in favour of British rule, viewing the Muslim - British relationship as a legal contract which could not be broken unless their religious rights were breached.
Although most of the mutinous sepoys in Delhi were Hindus, a significant proportion of the insurgents were Muslims. The proportion of ghazis grew to be about a quarter of the local fighting force by the end of the siege and included a regiment of suicide ghazis from Gwalior who had vowed never to eat again and to fight until they met certain death at the hands of British troops.
The Sikhs and Pathans of the Punjab and North - West Frontier Province supported the British and helped in the recapture of Delhi. Historian John Harris has asserted that the Sikhs wanted to avenge the annexation of the Sikh Empire eight years earlier by the Company with the help of Purbiyas (' Easterners '), Biharis and those from the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh who had formed part of the East India Company 's armies in the First and Second Anglo - Sikh Wars. He has also suggested that Sikhs felt insulted by the attitude of sepoys who, in their view, had beaten the Khalsa only with British help; they resented and despised them far more than they did the British.
The Sikhs feared reinstatement of Mughal rule in northern India because they had been persecuted heavily in the past by the Mughal dynasty.
Sikh support for the British resulted from grievances surrounding sepoys ' perceived conduct during and after the Anglo - Sikh Wars. Firstly, many Sikhs resented that Hindustanis / Purbiyas in service of the Sikh state had been foremost in urging the wars, which lost them their independence. Sikh soldiers also recalled that the bloodiest battles of the war, Chillianwala and Ferozeshah, were won by British troops, and they believed that the Hindustani sepoys had refused to meet them in battle. These feelings were compounded when Hindustani sepoys were assigned a very visible role as garrison troops in Punjab and awarded profit - making civil posts in Punjab.
In 1857, the Bengal Army had 86,000 men, of which 12,000 were European, 16,000 Sikh and 1,500 Gurkha. There were 311,000 native soldiers in India altogether, 40,160 European soldiers and 5,362 officers. Fifty - four of the Bengal Army 's 74 regular Native Infantry Regiments mutinied, but some were immediately destroyed or broke up, with their sepoys drifting away to their homes. A number of the remaining 20 regiments were disarmed or disbanded to prevent or forestall mutiny. In total, only twelve of the original Bengal Native Infantry regiments survived to pass into the new Indian Army. All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments mutinied.
The Bengal Army also contained 29 irregular cavalry and 42 irregular infantry regiments. Of these, a substantial contingent from the recently annexed state of Awadh mutinied en masse. Another large contingent from Gwalior also mutinied, even though that state 's ruler supported the British. The remainder of the irregular units were raised from a wide variety of sources and were less affected by the concerns of mainstream Indian society. Some irregular units actively supported the Company: three Gurkha and five of six Sikh infantry units, and the six infantry and six cavalry units of the recently raised Punjab Irregular Force.
On 1 April 1858, the number of Indian soldiers in the Bengal army loyal to the Company was 80,053. However large numbers were hastily raised in the Punjab and North - West Frontier after the outbreak of the Rebellion. The Bombay army had three mutinies in its 29 regiments, whilst the Madras army had none at all, although elements of one of its 52 regiments refused to volunteer for service in Bengal. Nonetheless, most of southern India remained passive, with only intermittent outbreaks of violence. Many parts of the region were ruled by the Nizams or the Mysore royalty, and were thus not directly under British rule.
Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the Emperor of the whole of India. Most contemporary and modern accounts suggest that he was coerced by the sepoys and his courtiers to sign the proclamation against his will. In spite of the significant loss of power that the Mughal dynasty had suffered in the preceding centuries, their name still carried great prestige across northern India. Civilians, nobility and other dignitaries took an oath of allegiance. The emperor issued coins in his name, one of the oldest ways of asserting imperial status. The adhesion of the Mughal emperor, however, turned the Sikhs of the Punjab away from the rebellion, as they did not want to return to Islamic rule, having fought many wars against the Mughal rulers. The province of Bengal was largely quiet throughout the entire period. The British, who had long ceased to take the authority of the Mughal Emperor seriously, were astonished at how the ordinary people responded to Zafar 's call for war.
Initially, the Indian rebels were able to push back Company forces, and captured several important towns in Haryana, Bihar, the Central Provinces and the United Provinces. When European troops were reinforced and began to counterattack, the mutineers were especially handicapped by their lack of centralized command and control. Although the rebels produced some natural leaders such as Bakht Khan, whom the Emperor later nominated as commander - in - chief after his son Mirza Mughal proved ineffectual, for the most part they were forced to look for leadership to rajahs and princes. Some of these were to prove dedicated leaders, but others were self - interested or inept.
In the countryside around Meerut, a general Gurjar uprising posed the largest threat to the British. In Parikshitgarh near Meerut, Gurjars declared Choudhari Kadam Singh (Kuddum Singh) their leader, and expelled Company police. Kadam Singh Gurjar led a large force, estimates varying from 2,000 to 10,000. Bulandshahr and Bijnor also came under the control of Gurjars under Walidad Khan and Maho Singh respectively. Contemporary sources report that nearly all the Gurjar villages between Meerut and Delhi participated in the revolt, in some cases with support from Jullundur, and it was not until late July that, with the help of local Jats, the British managed to regain control of the area.
The Imperial Gazetteer of India states that throughout the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Gurjars and Ranghars (Muslim rajpoots) proved the "most irreconcilable enemies '' of the British in the Bulandshahr area.
Mufti Nizamuddin, a renowned scholar of Lahore, issued a Fatwa against the British forces and called upon the local population to support the forces of Rao Tula Ram. Casualties were high at the subsequent engagement at Narnaul (Nasibpur). After the defeat of Rao Tula Ram on 16 November 1857, Mufti Nizamuddin was arrested, and his brother Mufti Yaqinuddin and brother - in - law Abdur Rahman (alias Nabi Baksh) were arrested in Tijara. They were taken to Delhi and hanged. Having lost the fight at Nasibpur, Rao Tula Ram and Pran Sukh Yadav requested arms from Russia, which had just been engaged against Britain in the Crimean War.
The British were slow to strike back at first. It took time for troops stationed in Britain to make their way to India by sea, although some regiments moved overland through Persia from the Crimean War, and some regiments already en route for China were diverted to India.
It took time to organise the European troops already in India into field forces, but eventually two columns left Meerut and Simla. They proceeded slowly towards Delhi and fought, killed, and hanged numerous Indians along the way. Two months after the first outbreak of rebellion at Meerut, the two forces met near Karnal. The combined force including two Gurkha units serving in the Bengal Army under contract from the Kingdom of Nepal, fought the main army of the rebels at Badli - ke - Serai and drove them back to Delhi.
The Company established a base on the Delhi ridge to the north of the city and the Siege of Delhi began. The siege lasted roughly from 1 July to 21 September. However, the encirclement was hardly complete, and for much of the siege the Company forces were outnumbered and it often seemed that it was the Company forces and not Delhi that were under siege, as the rebels could easily receive resources and reinforcements. For several weeks, it seemed likely that disease, exhaustion and continuous sorties by rebels from Delhi would force the Company forces to withdraw, but the outbreaks of rebellion in the Punjab were forestalled or suppressed, allowing the Punjab Movable Column of British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers under John Nicholson to reinforce the besiegers on the Ridge on 14 August. On 30 August the rebels offered terms, which were refused.
The Jantar Mantar observatory in Delhi in 1858, damaged in the fighting
Mortar damage to Kashmiri Gate, Delhi, 1858
Hindu Rao 's house in Delhi, now a hospital, was extensively damaged in the fighting
Bank of Delhi was attacked by mortar and gunfire
An eagerly awaited heavy siege train joined the besieging force, and from 7 September, the siege guns battered breaches in the walls and silenced the rebels ' artillery. An attempt to storm the city through the breaches and the Kashmiri Gate was launched on 14 September. The attackers gained a foothold within the city but suffered heavy casualties, including John Nicholson. The British commander wished to withdraw, but was persuaded to hold on by his junior officers. After a week of street fighting, the British reached the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah Zafar had already fled to Humayun 's tomb. The British had retaken the city.
The troops of the besieging force proceeded to loot and pillage the city. A large number of the citizens were killed in retaliation for the Europeans and Indian civilians that had been slaughtered by the rebels. During the street fighting, artillery was set up city 's main mosque, neighbourhoods within range were bombarded; the homes of the Muslim nobility that contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literary and monetary riches destroyed.
The British soon arrested Bahadur Shah, and the next day the British agent William Hodson had his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Khazir Sultan, and grandson Mirza Abu Bakr shot under his own authority at the Khooni Darwaza (the bloody gate) near Delhi Gate. On hearing the news Zafar reacted with shocked silence while his wife Zinat Mahal was content as she believed her son was now Zafar 's heir. Shortly after the fall of Delhi, the victorious attackers organised a column that relieved another besieged Company force in Agra, and then pressed on to Cawnpore, which had also recently been retaken. This gave the Company forces a continuous, although still tenuous, line of communication from the east to west of India.
In June, sepoys under General Wheeler in Cawnpore (now Kanpur) rebelled and besieged the European entrenchment. Wheeler was not only a veteran and respected soldier but also married to a high - caste Indian lady. He had relied on his own prestige, and his cordial relations with the Nana Sahib to thwart rebellion, and took comparatively few measures to prepare fortifications and lay in supplies and ammunition.
The besieged endured three weeks of the Siege of Cawnpore with little water or food, suffering continuous casualties to men, women and children. On 25 June Nana Sahib made an offer of safe passage to Allahabad. With barely three days ' food rations remaining, the British agreed provided they could keep their small arms and that the evacuation should take place in daylight on the morning of the 27th (the Nana Sahib wanted the evacuation to take place on the night of the 26th). Early in the morning of 27 June, the European party left their entrenchment and made their way to the river where boats provided by the Nana Sahib were waiting to take them to Allahabad. Several sepoys who had stayed loyal to the Company were removed by the mutineers and killed, either because of their loyalty or because "they had become Christian. '' A few injured British officers trailing the column were also apparently hacked to death by angry sepoys. After the European party had largely arrived at the dock, which was surrounded by sepoys positioned on both banks of the Ganges, with clear lines of fire, firing broke out and the boats were abandoned by their crew, and caught or were set on fire using pieces of red hot charcoal. The British party tried to push the boats off but all except three remained stuck. One boat with over a dozen wounded men initially escaped, but later grounded, was caught by mutineers and pushed back down the river towards the carnage at Cawnpore. Towards the end rebel cavalry rode into the water to finish off any survivors. After the firing ceased the survivors were rounded up and the men shot. By the time the massacre was over, most of the male members of the party were dead while the surviving women and children were removed and held hostage to be later killed in the Bibighar massacre. Only four men eventually escaped alive from Cawnpore on one of the boats: two private soldiers, a lieutenant, and Captain Mowbray Thomson, who wrote a first - hand account of his experiences entitled The Story of Cawnpore (London, 1859).
During his trial, Tatya Tope denied the existence of any such plan and described the incident in the following terms: the Europeans had already boarded the boats and Tatya Tope raised his right hand to signal their departure. That very moment someone from the crowd blew a loud bugle, which created disorder and in the ongoing bewilderment, the boatmen jumped off the boats. The rebels started shooting indiscriminately. Nana Sahib, who was staying in Savada Kothi (Bungalow) nearby, was informed about what was happening and immediately came to stop it. Some British histories allow that it might well have been the result of accident or error; someone accidentally or maliciously fired a shot, the panic - stricken British opened fire, and it became impossible to stop the massacre.
The surviving women and children were taken to the Nana Sahib and then confined first to the Savada Kothi and then to the home of the local magistrate 's clerk (the Bibighar) where they were joined by refugees from Fatehgarh. Overall five men and two hundred and six women and children were confined in The Bibigarh for about two weeks. In one week 25 were brought out dead, from dysentery and cholera. Meanwhile, a Company relief force that had advanced from Allahabad defeated the Indians and by 15 July it was clear that the Nana Sahib would not be able to hold Cawnpore and a decision was made by the Nana Sahib and other leading rebels that the hostages must be killed. After the sepoys refused to carry out this order, two Muslim butchers, two Hindu peasants and one of Nana 's bodyguards went into The Bibigarh. Armed with knives and hatchets they murdered the women and children. After the massacre the walls were covered in bloody hand prints, and the floor littered with fragments of human limbs. The dead and the dying were thrown down a nearby well. When the 50 - foot (15 m) deep well was filled with remains to within 6 feet (1.8 m) of the top, the remainder were thrown into the Ganges.
Historians have given many reasons for this act of cruelty. With Company forces approaching Cawnpore and some believing that they would not advance if there were no hostages to save, their murders were ordered. Or perhaps it was to ensure that no information was leaked after the fall of Cawnpore. Other historians have suggested that the killings were an attempt to undermine Nana Sahib 's relationship with the British. Perhaps it was due to fear, the fear of being recognised by some of the prisoners for having taken part in the earlier firings.
Photograph entitled, "The Hospital in General Wheeler 's entrenchment, Cawnpore. '' (1858) The hospital was the site of the first major loss of European lives in Cawnpore
1858 picture of Sati Chaura Ghat on the banks of the Ganges River, where on 27 June 1857 many British men lost their lives and the surviving women and children were taken prisoner by the rebels.
Bibigarh house where European women and children were killed and the well where their bodies were found, 1858.
The Bibighar Well site where a memorial had been built. Samuel Bourne, 1860.
The killing of the women and children hardened British attitudes against the sepoys. The British public was aghast and the anti-Imperial and pro-Indian proponents lost all their support. Cawnpore became a war cry for the British and their allies for the rest of the conflict. Nana Sahib disappeared near the end of the Rebellion and it is not known what happened to him.
Other British accounts state that indiscriminate punitive measures were taken in early June, two weeks before the murders at the Bibighar (but after those at both Meerut and Delhi), specifically by Lieutenant Colonel James George Smith Neill of the Madras Fusiliers, commanding at Allahabad while moving towards Cawnpore. At the nearby town of Fatehpur, a mob had attacked and murdered the local European population. On this pretext, Neill ordered all villages beside the Grand Trunk Road to be burned and their inhabitants to be killed by hanging. Neill 's methods were "ruthless and horrible '' and far from intimidating the population, may well have induced previously undecided sepoys and communities to revolt.
Neill was killed in action at Lucknow on 26 September and was never called to account for his punitive measures, though contemporary British sources lionised him and his "gallant blue caps ''. When the British retook Cawnpore, the soldiers took their sepoy prisoners to the Bibighar and forced them to lick the bloodstains from the walls and floor. They then hanged or "blew from the cannon '', the traditional Mughal punishment for mutiny, the majority of the sepoy prisoners. Although some claimed the sepoys took no actual part in the killings themselves, they did not act to stop it and this was acknowledged by Captain Thompson after the British departed Cawnpore for a second time.
Very soon after the events at Meerut, rebellion erupted in the state of Awadh (also known as Oudh, in modern - day Uttar Pradesh), which had been annexed barely a year before. The British Commissioner resident at Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, had enough time to fortify his position inside the Residency compound. The Company forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyal sepoys. The rebels ' assaults were unsuccessful, and so they began a barrage of artillery and musket fire into the compound. Lawrence was one of the first casualties. The rebels tried to breach the walls with explosives and bypass them via underground tunnels that led to underground close combat. After 90 days of siege, defended by John Eardley Inglis, numbers of Company forces were reduced to 300 loyal sepoys, 350 British soldiers and 550 non-combatants.
On 25 September, a relief column under the command of Sir Henry Havelock and accompanied by Sir James Outram (who in theory was his superior) fought its way from Cawnpore to Lucknow in a brief campaign, in which the numerically small column defeated rebel forces in a series of increasingly large battles. This became known as ' The First Relief of Lucknow ', as this force was not strong enough to break the siege or extricate themselves, and so was forced to join the garrison. In October another, larger, army under the new Commander - in - Chief, Sir Colin Campbell, was finally able to relieve the garrison and on 18 November, they evacuated the defended enclave within the city, the women and children leaving first. They then conducted an orderly withdrawal, firstly to Alambagh 4 miles (6.4 km) north where a force of 4,000 were left to construct a fort, then to Cawnpore, where they defeated an attempt by Tatya Tope to recapture the city in the Second Battle of Cawnpore.
In March 1858, Campbell once again advanced on Lucknow with a large army, meeting up with the force at Alambagh, this time seeking to suppress the rebellion in Awadh. He was aided by a large Nepalese contingent advancing from the north under Jang Bahadur. Campbell 's advance was slow and methodical, with a force under General Outram crossing the river on cask bridges on 4 March to enable them to fire artillery in flank, the forces drove the large but disorganised rebel army from Lucknow with the final fighting shooting on 21 March, there were few casualties to his own troops. This nevertheless allowed large numbers of the rebels to disperse into Awadh, and Campbell was forced to spend the summer and autumn dealing with scattered pockets of resistance while losing men to heat, disease and guerrilla actions.
Jhansi was a Maratha - ruled princely state in Bundelkhand. When the Raja of Jhansi died without a biological male heir in 1853, it was annexed to the British Raj by the Governor - General of India under the doctrine of lapse. His widow, Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi protested against the denial of rights of their adopted son. When war broke out, Jhansi quickly became a centre of the rebellion. A small group of Company officials and their families took refuge in Jhansi Fort, and the Rani negotiated their evacuation. However, when they left the fort they were massacred by the rebels over whom the Rani had no control; the Europeans suspected the Rani of complicity, despite her repeated denials.
By the end of June 1857, the Company had lost control of much of Bundelkhand and eastern Rajasthan. The Bengal Army units in the area, having rebelled, marched to take part in the battles for Delhi and Cawnpore. The many princely states that made up this area began warring amongst themselves. In September and October 1857, the Rani led the successful defence of Jhansi against the invading armies of the neighbouring rajas of Datia and Orchha.
On 3 February, Sir Hugh Rose broke the 3 - month siege of Saugor. Thousands of local villagers welcomed him as a liberator, freeing them from rebel occupation.
In March 1858, the Central India Field Force, led by Sir Hugh Rose, advanced on and laid siege to Jhansi. The Company forces captured the city, but the Rani fled in disguise.
After being driven from Jhansi and Kalpi, on 1 June 1858 Rani Lakshmi Bai and a group of Maratha rebels captured the fortress city of Gwalior from the Scindia rulers, who were British allies. This might have reinvigorated the rebellion but the Central India Field Force very quickly advanced against the city. The Rani died on 17 June, the second day of the Battle of Gwalior, probably killed by a carbine shot from the 8th King 's Royal Irish Hussars according to the account of three independent Indian representatives. The Company forces recaptured Gwalior within the next three days. In descriptions of the scene of her last battle, she was compared to Joan of Arc by some commentators.
Colonel Henry Marion Durand, the then - Company resident at Indore, had brushed away any possibility of uprising in Indore. However, on 1 July, sepoys in Holkar 's army revolted and opened fire on the cavalry pickets of the Bhopal Contingent (a locally raised force with British officers). When Colonel Travers rode forward to charge, the Bhopal Cavalry refused to follow. The Bhopal Infantry also refused orders and instead levelled their guns at European sergeants and officers. Since all possibility of mounting an effective deterrent was lost, Durand decided to gather up all the European residents and escape, although 39 European residents of Indore were killed.
What was then referred to by the British as the Punjab was a very large administrative division, centered on Lahore. It included not only the present - day Indian and Pakistani Punjabi regions but also the North West Frontier districts bordering Afghanistan
Much of the region had been the Sikh Empire, ruled by Ranjit Singh until his death in 1839. The kingdom had then fallen into disorder, with court factions and the Khalsa (the Sikh army) contending for power at the Lahore Durbar (court). After two Anglo - Sikh Wars, the entire region was annexed by the East India Company in 1849. In 1857, the region still contained the highest numbers of both European and Indian troops.
The inhabitants of the Punjab were not as sympathetic to the sepoys as they were elsewhere in India, which limited many of the outbreaks in the Punjab to disjointed uprisings by regiments of sepoys isolated from each other. In some garrisons, notably Ferozepore, indecision on the part of the senior European officers allowed the sepoys to rebel, but the sepoys then left the area, mostly heading for Delhi. At the most important garrison, that of Peshawar close to the Afghan frontier, many comparatively junior officers ignored their nominal commander, General Reed, and took decisive action. They intercepted the sepoys ' mail, thus preventing their coordinating an uprising, and formed a force known as the "Punjab Movable Column '' to move rapidly to suppress any revolts as they occurred. When it became clear from the intercepted correspondence that some of the sepoys at Peshawar were on the point of open revolt, the four most disaffected Bengal Native regiments were disarmed by the two British infantry regiments in the cantonment, backed by artillery, on 22 May. This decisive act induced many local chieftains to side with the British.
Jhelum in Punjab saw a mutiny of native troops against the British. Here 35 British soldiers of Her Majesty 's 24th Regiment of Foot (South Wales Borderers) were killed by mutineers on 7 July 1857. Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring. To commemorate this event St. John 's Church Jhelum was built and the names of those 35 British soldiers are carved on a marble lectern present in that church.
The final large - scale military uprising in the Punjab took place on 9 July, when most of a brigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi. They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross the Ravi River. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island. Three days later, Nicholson annihilated the 1,100 trapped sepoys in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat.
The British had been recruiting irregular units from Sikh and Pakhtun communities even before the first unrest among the Bengal units, and the numbers of these were greatly increased during the Rebellion, 34,000 fresh levies eventually being raised.
At one stage, faced with the need to send troops to reinforce the besiegers of Delhi, the Commissioner of the Punjab (Sir John Lawrence) suggested handing the coveted prize of Peshawar to Dost Mohammed Khan of Afghanistan in return for a pledge of friendship. The British Agents in Peshawar and the adjacent districts were horrified. Referring to the massacre of a retreating British army in 1842, Herbert Edwardes wrote, "Dost Mahomed would not be a mortal Afghan... if he did not assume our day to be gone in India and follow after us as an enemy. Europeans can not retreat -- Kabul would come again. '' In the event Lord Canning insisted on Peshawar being held, and Dost Mohammed, whose relations with Britain had been equivocal for over 20 years, remained neutral.
In September 1858 Rae Ahmed Nawaz Khan Kharal, head of the Khurrul tribe, led an insurrection in the Neeli Bar district, between the Sutlej, Ravi and Chenab rivers. The rebels held the jungles of Gogaira and had some initial successes against the British forces in the area, besieging Major Crawford Chamberlain at Chichawatni. A squadron of Punjabi cavalry sent by Sir John Lawrence raised the siege. Ahmed Khan was killed but the insurgents found a new leader in Mahr Bahawal Fatyana, who maintained the uprising for three months until Government forces penetrated the jungle and scattered the rebel tribesmen.
Kunwar Singh, the 80 - year - old Rajput Zamindar of Jagdispur, whose estate was in the process of being sequestrated by the Revenue Board, instigated and assumed the leadership of revolt in Bihar.
On 25 July, mutiny erupted in the garrisons of Dinapur. Mutinying sepoys from the 7th, 8th and 40th regiments of Bengal Native Infantry quickly moved towards the city of Arrah and were joined by Kunwar Singh and his men. Mr. Boyle, a British railway engineer in Arrah, had already prepared an outbuilding on his property for defence against such attacks. As the rebels approached Arrah, all European residents took refuge at Mr. Boyle 's house. A siege soon ensued -- eighteen civilians and 50 loyal sepoys from the Bengal Military Police Battalion under the command of Herwald Wake, the local magistrate, defended the house against artillery and musketry fire from an estimated 2000 to 3000 mutineers and rebels.
On 29 July 400 men were sent out from Dinapore to relieve Arrah, but this force was ambushed by the rebels around a mile away from the siege house, severely defeated, and driven back. On 30 July, Major Vincent Eyre, who was going up the river with his troops and guns, reached Buxar and heard about the siege. He immediately disembarked his guns and troops (the 5th Fusiliers) and started marching towards Arrah, disregarding direct orders not to do so. On 2 August, some 6 miles (9.7 km) short of Arrah, the Major was ambushed by the mutineers and rebels. After an intense fight, the 5th Fusiliers charged and stormed the rebel positions successfully. On 3 August, Major Eyre and his men reached the siege house and successfully ended the siege.
After receiving reinforcements Major Eyre pursued Kunwar Singh to his palace in Jagdispur, however Singh had left by the time Eyre 's forces arrived. Eyre then proceeded to destroy the palace and the homes of Singh 's brothers.
In September 1857, sepoys took control of the treasury in Chittagong. The treasury remained under rebel control for several days. Further mutinies on 18 November saw the 2nd, 3rd and 4th companies of the 34th Bengal Infantry Regiment storming the Chittagong Jail and releasing all prisoners. The mutineers were eventually suppressed by the Gurkha regiments. The mutiny also spread to Dacca, the former Mughal capital of Bengal. Residents in the city 's Lalbagh area were kept awake at night by the rebellion. Sepoys joined hands with the common populace in Jalpaiguri to take control of the city 's cantonment. In January 1858, many sepoys received shelter from the royal family of the princely state of Hill Tippera.
The interior areas of Bengal proper were already experiencing growing resistance to Company rule due to the Muslim Faraizi movement.
In central and north Gujarat, the rebellion was sustained by land owner Jagirdars, Talukdars and Thakors with the support of armed communities of Bhil, Koli, Pathans and Arabs, unlike the mutiny by sepoys in north India. Their main opposition of British was due to Inam commission. The Bet Dwarka island, along with Okhamandal region of Kathiawar peninsula which was under Gaekwad of Baroda State, saw a revolt by the Vaghers in January 1858 who, by July 1859, controlled that region. In October 1859, a joint offensive by British, Gaekwad and other princely states troops ousted the rebels and recaptured the region.
The authorities in British colonies with an Indian population, sepoy or civilian, took measures to secure themselves against copycat uprisings. In the Straits Settlements, and Trinidad the annual Hosay processions were banned, riots broke out in penal settlements in Burma, and the Settlements, in Penang the loss of a musket provoked a near riot, and security was boosted especially in locations with an Indian convict population.
Both combatant sides committed atrocities against civilians.
In Oudh alone, 150,000 Indians were estimated to have been killed during the war, with 100,000 of them being civilians. The general population in places such as Delhi, Allahabad, Kanpur and Lucknow was massacred after being recaptured by British forces.
Another notable atrocity was carried out by General Neill who massacred thousands of Indian mutineers and Indian civilians suspected of supporting the rebellion.
The rebels ' murder of women, children and wounded British soldiers at Cawnpore, and the subsequent printing of the events in the British papers, left many British soldiers outraged and seeking revenge. As well as hanging mutineers, the British had some "blown from cannon, '' (an old Mughal punishment adopted many years before in India), in which sentenced rebels were tied over the mouths of cannons and blown to pieces when the cannons were fired. A particular act of cruelty on behalf of the British troops at Cawnpore included forcing many Muslim or Hindu rebels to eat pork or beef, as well as licking buildings freshly stained with blood of the dead before subsequent public hangings.
Most of the British press, outraged by the stories of rape and the killings of civilians and wounded British soldiers, did not advocate clemency of any kind. Governor General Canning ordered moderation in dealing with native sensibilities and earned the scornful sobriquet "Clemency Canning '' from the press and later parts of the British public.
In terms of sheer numbers, the casualties were much higher on the Indian side. A letter published after the fall of Delhi in the Bombay Telegraph and reproduced in the British press testified to the scale of the Indian casualties:
... All the city 's people found within the walls of the city of Delhi when our troops entered were bayoneted on the spot, and the number was considerable, as you may suppose, when I tell you that in some houses forty and fifty people were hiding. These were not mutineers but residents of the city, who trusted to our well - known mild rule for pardon. I am glad to say they were disappointed.
From the end of 1857, the British had begun to gain ground again. Lucknow was retaken in March 1858. On 8 July 1858, a peace treaty was signed and the rebellion ended. The last rebels were defeated in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. By 1859, rebel leaders Bakht Khan and Nana Sahib had either been slain or had fled.
Edward Vibart, a 19 - year - old officer whose parents, younger brothers, and two of his sisters had died in the Cawnpore massacre, recorded his experience:
The orders went out to shoot every soul... It was literally murder... I have seen many bloody and awful sights lately but such a one as I witnessed yesterday I pray I never see again. The women were all spared but their screams on seeing their husbands and sons butchered, were most painful... Heaven knows I feel no pity, but when some old grey bearded man is brought and shot before your very eyes, hard must be that man 's heart I think who can look on with indifference...
Some British troops adopted a policy of "no prisoners ''. One officer, Thomas Lowe, remembered how on one occasion his unit had taken 76 prisoners -- they were just too tired to carry on killing and needed a rest, he recalled. Later, after a quick trial, the prisoners were lined up with a British soldier standing a couple of yards in front of them. On the order "fire '', they were all simultaneously shot, "swept... from their earthly existence ''.
The aftermath of the rebellion has been the focus of new work using Indian sources and population studies. In The Last Mughal, historian William Dalrymple examines the effects on the Muslim population of Delhi after the city was retaken by the British and finds that intellectual and economic control of the city shifted from Muslim to Hindu hands because the British, at that time, saw an Islamic hand behind the mutiny.
The scale of the punishments handed out by the British "Army of Retribution '' were considered largely appropriate and justified in a Britain shocked by embellished reports of atrocities carried out against British and European civilians by the rebels. Accounts of the time frequently reach the "hyperbolic register '', according to Christopher Herbert, especially in the often - repeated claim that the "Red Year '' of 1857 marked "a terrible break '' in British experience. Such was the atmosphere -- a national "mood of retribution and despair '' that led to "almost universal approval '' of the measures taken to pacify the revolt.
Incidents of rape allegedly committed by Indian rebels against European women and girls appalled the British public. These atrocities were often used to justify the British reaction to the rebellion. British newspapers printed various eyewitness accounts of the rape of English women and girls. One such account was published by The Times, regarding an incident where 48 English girls as young as 10 had been raped by Indian rebels in Delhi. Karl Marx criticized this story as false propaganda, and pointed out that the story was written by a clergyman in Bangalore, far from the events of the rebellion, with no evidence to support his allegation. Individual incidents captured the public 's interest and were heavily reported by the press. One such incident was that of General Wheeler 's daughter Margaret being forced to live as her captor 's concubine, though this was reported to the Victorian public as Margaret killing her rapist then herself. Another version of the story suggested that Margaret had been killed after her abductor had argued with his wife over her.
During the aftermath of the rebellion, a series of exhaustive investigations were carried out by British police and intelligence officials into reports that British women prisoners had been "dishonored '' at the Bibighar and elsewhere. One such detailed enquiry was at the direction of Lord Canning. The consensus was that there was no convincing evidence of such crimes having been committed, although numbers of European women and children had been killed outright.
The term ' Sepoy ' or ' Sepoyism ' became a derogatory term for nationalists, especially in Ireland.
Bahadur Shah was tried for treason by a military commission assembled at Delhi, and exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862, bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. In 1877 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India on the advice of Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli.
The rebellion saw the end of the East India Company 's rule in India. In August, by the Government of India Act 1858, the company was formally dissolved and its ruling powers over India were transferred to the British Crown. A new British government department, the India Office, was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The Governor - General of India gained a new title, Viceroy of India, and implemented the policies devised by the India Office. Some former East India Company territories, such as the Straits Settlements, became colonies in their own right. The British colonial administration embarked on a program of reform, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government and abolishing attempts at Westernization. The Viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates.
Essentially the old East India Company bureaucracy remained, though there was a major shift in attitudes. In looking for the causes of the Rebellion the authorities alighted on two things: religion and the economy. On religion it was felt that there had been too much interference with indigenous traditions, both Hindu and Muslim. On the economy it was now believed that the previous attempts by the Company to introduce free market competition had undermined traditional power structures and bonds of loyalty placing the peasantry at the mercy of merchants and money - lenders. In consequence the new British Raj was constructed in part around a conservative agenda, based on a preservation of tradition and hierarchy.
On a political level it was also felt that the previous lack of consultation between rulers and ruled had been another significant factor in contributing to the uprising. In consequence, Indians were drawn into government at a local level. Though this was on a limited scale a crucial precedent had been set, with the creation of a new ' white collar ' Indian elite, further stimulated by the opening of universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, a result of the Indian Universities Act. So, alongside the values of traditional and ancient India, a new professional middle class was starting to arise, in no way bound by the values of the past. Their ambition can only have been stimulated by Queen Victoria 's Proclamation of November 1858, in which it is expressly stated, "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligations of duty which bind us to our other subjects... it is our further will that... our subjects of whatever race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may be qualified by their education, ability and integrity, duly to discharge. ''
Acting on these sentiments, Lord Ripon, viceroy from 1880 to 1885, extended the powers of local self - government and sought to remove racial practices in the law courts by the Ilbert Bill. But a policy at once liberal and progressive at one turn was reactionary and backward at the next, creating new elites and confirming old attitudes. The Ilbert Bill had the effect only of causing a white mutiny and the end of the prospect of perfect equality before the law. In 1886 measures were adopted to restrict Indian entry into the civil service.
The Bengal army dominated the Indian army before 1857 and a direct result after the rebellion was the scaling back of the size of the Bengali contingent in the army. The Brahmin presence in the Bengal Army was reduced because of their perceived primary role as mutineers. The British looked for increased recruitment in the Punjab for the Bengal army as a result of the apparent discontent that resulted in the Sepoy conflict.
The rebellion transformed both the native and European armies of British India. Of the 74 regular Bengal Native Infantry regiments in existence at the beginning of 1857, only twelve escaped mutiny or disbandment. All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments were lost. The old Bengal Army had accordingly almost completely vanished from the order of battle. These troops were replaced by new units recruited from castes hitherto under - utilised by the British and from the minority so - called "Martial Races '', such as the Sikhs and the Gurkhas.
The inefficiencies of the old organisation, which had estranged sepoys from their British officers, were addressed, and the post-1857 units were mainly organised on the "irregular '' system. From 1797 until the rebellion of 1857, each regular Bengal Native Infantry regiment had had 22 or 23 British officers, who held every position of authority down to the second - in - command of each company. In irregular units there were fewer European officers, but they associated themselves far more closely with their soldiers, while more responsibility was given to the Indian officers.
The British increased the ratio of British to Indian soldiers within India. From 1861 Indian artillery was replaced by British units, except for a few mountain batteries. The post-rebellion changes formed the basis of the military organisation of British India until the early 20th century.
Medals were awarded to members of the British Armed Forces and the British Indian Army during the rebellion. The 182 recipients of the Victoria Cross are listed here.
290,000 Indian Mutiny Medals were awarded. Clasps were awarded for the siege of Delhi and the siege and relief of Lucknow.
A military and civilian decoration of British India, the Indian Order of Merit was first introduced by the East India Company in 1837, and was taken over by the Crown in 1858, following the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The Indian Order of Merit was the only gallantry medal available to Native soldiers between 1837 and 1907.
There is no universally agreed name for the events of this period.
In India and Pakistan it has been termed as the "War of Independence of 1857 '' or "First War of Indian Independence '' but it is not uncommon to use terms such as the "Revolt of 1857 ''. The classification of the Rebellion being "First War of Independence '' is not without its critics in India. The use of the term "Indian Mutiny '' is considered by some Indian politicians as belittling the importance of what happened and therefore reflecting an imperialistic attitude. Others dispute this interpretation.
In the UK and parts of the Commonwealth it is commonly called the "Indian Mutiny '', but terms such as "Great Indian Mutiny '', the "Sepoy Mutiny '', the "Sepoy Rebellion '', the "Sepoy War '', the "Great Mutiny '', the "Rebellion of 1857 '', "the Uprising '', the "Mahomedan Rebellion '', and the "Revolt of 1857 '' have also been used. "The Indian Insurrection '' was a name used in the press of the UK and British colonies at the time.
Adas (1971) examines the historiography with emphasis on the four major approaches: the Indian nationalist view; the Marxist analysis; the view of the Rebellion as a traditionalist rebellion; and intensive studies of local uprisings. Many of the key primary and secondary sources appear in Biswamoy Pati, ed. 1857 Rebellion.
Thomas Metcalf has stressed the importance of the work by Cambridge professor Eric Stokes (1924 -- 1981), especially Stokes ' The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India (1978). Metcalf says Stokes undermines the assumption that 1857 was a response to general causes emanating from entire classes of people. Instead, Stokes argues that 1) those Indians who suffered the greatest relative deprivation rebelled and that 2) the decisive factor in precipitating a revolt was the presence of prosperous magnates who supported British rule. Stokes also explores issues of economic development, the nature of privileged landholding, the role of moneylenders, the usefulness of classical rent theory, and, especially, the notion of the "rich peasant. ''
To Professor Kim Wagner, who has the most recent survey of the historiography, modern Indian historiography is yet to move beyond responding to the '' prejudice '' of colonial accounts. Wagner sees no reason why atrocities committed by Indians should be understated or inflated merely because these things '' offend our post-colonial sensibilities. ''
Wagner also stresses the importance of William Dalrymple 's The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi 1857. Dalrymple was assisted by Mahmood Farooqui, who translated key Urdu and Shikastah sources and published a selection in Besieged: Voices from Delhi 1857. Dalrymple emphasized the role of religion, and explored in detail the internal divisions and politico - religious discord amongst the rebels. He did not discover much in the way of proto - nationalism or any of the roots of modern India in the rebellion. Sabbaq Ahmed has looked at the ways in which ideologies of royalism, militarism, and Jihad influenced the behaviour of contending Muslim factions.
Almost from the moment the first sepoys mutinied in Meerut, the nature and the scope of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 has been contested and argued over. Speaking in the House of Commons in July 1857, Benjamin Disraeli labelled it a ' national revolt ' while Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister, tried to downplay the scope and the significance of the event as a ' mere military mutiny '. Reflecting this debate, an early historian of the rebellion, Charles Ball, used the word mutiny in his title, but labelled it a ' struggle for liberty and independence as a people ' in the text. Historians remain divided on whether the rebellion can properly be considered a war of Indian independence or not, although it is popularly considered to be one in India. Arguments against include:
A second school of thought while acknowledging the validity of the above - mentioned arguments opines that this rebellion may indeed be called a war of India 's independence. The reasons advanced are:
The Government of India celebrated the year 2007 as the 150th anniversary of "India 's First War of Independence ''. Several books written by Indian authors were released in the anniversary year including Amresh Mishra 's "War of Civilizations '', a controversial history of the Rebellion of 1857, and "Recalcitrance '' by Anurag Kumar, one of the few novels written in English by an Indian based on the events of 1857.
In 2007, a group of retired British soldiers and civilians, some of them descendants of British soldiers who died in the conflict, attempted to visit the site of the Siege of Lucknow. However, fears of violence by Indian demonstrators, supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party, prevented the British visitors from visiting the site. Despite the protests, Sir Mark Havelock was able to make his way past police to visit the grave of his ancestor, General Henry Havelock.
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who won the match india versus sri lanka | Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017 -- 18 - wikipedia
The Sri Lanka cricket team toured India in November and December 2017. The original schedule had the tour consisting of three Tests, five One Day Internationals (ODIs) and one Twenty20 International (T20I) match starting in February 2018.
In March 2017, Sri Lanka Cricket (SLC) announced the dates for the 2018 Nidahas Trophy, a limited - overs tri-series tournament featuring Sri Lanka, India and Bangladesh. This is scheduled to take place in March 2018. The SLC president Thilanga Sumathipala said that some of the scheduled limited - overs matches fixtures in this series would now be played in the Nidahas Trophy. The revised schedule of the tour now has three Tests, three ODIs and three T20Is. Ahead of the Test series, a two - day tour match was played between the India Board President XI and Sri Lanka.
In August 2017, Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) acting secretary Amitabh Choudhary mentioned that the Tests would be played in Kolkata, Nagpur and Delhi. The ODI venues would be in Dharamshala, Mohali and Visakhapatnam and the three T20 games would be played in Cuttack, Indore and Mumbai. Moreover, Choudhary said that a second reason for Sri Lanka 's advanced arrival was the cancellation of the proposed series between India and Pakistan.
In October 2017, Virat Kohli was named as India 's captain for the Test series. However, in November 2017, he was rested for the ODIs as well as T20Is in preparation for India 's tour to South Africa at the end of the year, with Rohit Sharma named as captain. On 29 November 2017, Thisara Perera was named as Sri Lanka 's captain for the ODI and T20I matches, replacing Upul Tharanga.
India won the Test series 1 -- 0, after the first and third matches were drawn. India won the ODI series 2 -- 1, their eighth consecutive series win since beating Zimbabwe in June 2016. India won the T20I series 3 -- 0.
Hardik Pandya was initially named in India 's Test squad, but was later withdrawn from the series to manage his workload. Ahead of the second Test, Bhuvneshwar Kumar and Shikhar Dhawan were released from the team due to personal reasons. Vijay Shankar was named as Bhuvneshwar Kumar 's replacement in the squad. However, ahead of third Test, Dhawan was added back in India 's Test squad. Rangana Herath was ruled out of Sri Lanka 's squad for the third Test, with Jeffrey Vandersay replacing him.
Ahead of the first ODI, Kedar Jadhav injured his hamstring and was ruled out of the series. He was replaced by Washington Sundar in India 's squad.
During the second T20I, Angelo Mathews injured his hamstring and was ruled out of Sri Lanka 's squad for the last T20I.
During the second day of the third Test, the Smog in Delhi forced the Sri Lanka cricketers to halt play and wear anti-pollution masks. Cricketer Lahiru Gamage was reported to have breathing shortness. Nic Pothas, coach of the Sri Lankan cricket team, reported that Dhananjaya de Silva and Suranga Lakmal had vomited regularly due to the severe pollution at the ground. There was a haltage of play between 12: 32pm to 12: 49pm, which caused Indian coach Ravi Shastri to come out to consult with the on - field umpires. BCCI president C.K. Khanna accused the Sri Lankan team of making fuss while Indian spectators called the team "melodramatic ''. On day 4, India 's Mohammed Shami was also seen vomiting on the field.
Following the match, both participating countries criticised the choice to play the Test in Delhi with the high levels of pollution. The Sri Lanka manager Asanka Gurusinha said that both teams were using oxygen cylinders in their dressing rooms due to breathing difficulties, and suggested the use of air - quality meters in future fixtures. President of the Indian Medical Association, KK Agarwal, said that playing in such conditions could result in lung and heart disease, and recommended the inclusion of atmospheric pollution as a factor in the assessment criteria for a match.
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who voices sam fisher in splinter cell blacklist | Sam Fisher (Splinter Cell) - wikipedia
Samuel "Sam '' Fisher is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell series of video games developed by Ubisoft as well as a series of tie - in novels endorsed by Tom Clancy. His full name is first seen in Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell, the first game of the series, when he was using the computer in the V - 22 Osprey to encrypt his home call. Fisher was originally voiced by veteran actor Michael Ironside in the first five installments of the series. In 2013, Eric Johnson assumed the voice and physical role in Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell: Blacklist. Ironside later returned to the role in 2018, participating in a crossover downloadable content for Tom Clancy 's Ghost Recon: Wildlands.
Samuel Fisher (LCDR, USN - Ret.) is a former member of Third Echelon, a top - secret black ops sub-branch within the National Security Agency (NSA) and currently the commander / head field operative of Fourth Echelon, a newly created covert special operations / counter-terrorism group that only reports to the President of the United States.
Fisher was born in 1957 in the affluent Baltimore suburbs of Towson, Maryland. While not much is known of his childhood, it is known that Sam attended a military boarding school after the death of his parents when he was a child until being accepted into the United States Naval Academy, where he graduated from in 1977 with a bachelor 's degree in Political Science and commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Navy. Soon after, his personnel file was flagged for recruitment by the Navy SEALs, which he joined after passing their grueling selection process and training program.
In the mid-1980s, while Fisher was attached to the CIA (though still on active duty with the Navy) and working under an official diplomatic cover in Georgia (at the time part of the USSR), he met an NSA cryptanalyst named Regan Burns and they married in 1984 / 85 at a small ceremony at Rhein - Main Air Base in Frankfurt, Germany, after learning that Regan was pregnant. On 31 May 1985, Regan gave birth to their only child whom they named Sarah. Fisher and Regan divorced after three years of marriage, and after gaining custody of Sarah, Regan reverted to her maiden name and changed Sarah 's as well. When Regan died from ovarian cancer sometime in 2000, Fisher gained guardianship of Sarah, moved back to the U.S. and took a bureaucratic job with the CIA, where he worked in weapons development as well as studied experimental weaponry and information warfare, in order to spend more time with her and focus on her upbringing.
While Fisher was on a mission in Iceland, he was informed that Sarah was allegedly killed by a drunk driver in late 2007 or early 2008; however, three years later, he heard a rumor that her death was no accident and went to Malta to investigate. After being captured by Third Echelon in Malta, Grim revealed that Sarah is alive but if Sam wanted to see his daughter again he had to help her investigate Tom Reed. At Third Echelon HQ, Grim played a recording that Lambert made before his death in New York explaining that Sarah 's death was faked to prevent her from being used as leverage by a mole inside Third Echelon to compromise Sam and the agency. After learning of this revelation, Sam reluctantly continued to help Grim in stopping Reed from assassinating the President, all the while reuniting with his daughter and retiring from government work.
Bored with the civilian life, Fisher accept a job from his old associate and best - friend, Victor Coste at Paladin Nine Security which specialized at high - tech defense solutions and kidnapping recovery work. But when Coste is injured during the Blacklist attack at Anderson Air Base at Guam, he is then offered by President Patricia Caldwell as a commander of Fourth Echelon, which consisted of Sam himself, alongside civilian hacker Charlie Cole, former CIA officer Isaac Briggs and lastly his co-worker at Third Echelon Anna Grimsdottir.
Sam 's direct supervisor and handler in Third Echelon was Irving Lambert (Colonel, USA - Ret.) (deceased, 2008), who maintained constant radio contact with Sam during his missions, providing him with updates and support, and was even one of Fisher 's oldest friends, especially the closest. Assisting Lambert were several other Third Echelon employees who provided additional reconnaissance, logistical, and technical support to Sam while operating in the field: Vernon ' Junior ' Wilkes (deceased), Anna Grímsdóttir, Frances Coen and William Redding (introduced in Chaos Theory, reassigned sometime after Double Agent).
Another of Sam Fisher 's oldest friends, Douglas Shetland (Major, USMC - Ret.), a former USMC Force Recon officer and the CEO of a PMC who plays a prominent role in the third game, Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory, established that Fisher had served with Shetland in Kuwait during the Gulf War (while Shetland 's unit was operating alongside the Navy SEALs and became close friends while stationed aboard the USS Nimitz) shortly after Fisher rescues him from a hostage situation during the "East Timor '' mission in the second game, Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow, when Shetland asks, "Where are the rest of the SEALs? '' to which Sam replies and establishing that he left the U.S. Navy Reserve in 1996 by saying "I came alone. Have n't been Navy for a decade. '' When the role of Shetland and his PMC, Displace International, in Chaos Theory becomes clear, Sam hunted him down and kills him on the roof of a bathhouse in Tokyo.
Victor ' Vic ' Coste is another one of Sam Fisher 's oldest and closest friends. The two served together in the Navy SEALs in Iraq during the Persian Gulf War in 1991. During their time in Iraq, Vic and Sam was part of a four - man Navy SEAL team that was ambushed by soldiers of the Iraqi Republican Guard during a routine foot patrol while traversing along the road leading into Baghdad. Two of the four men within the squad were killed in the ambush, Sam (the squad leader at the time) was captured, and Vic Coste was left for dead. Having disobeyed direct orders to hold position and wait for evacuation, Coste single - handedly fought his way through to Sam behind enemy lines and rescued him, despite being heavily outnumbered and outgunned. This is a debt which Sam has never forgotten and as a result, Vic is one of the only people that Sam trusts unconditionally, and often turns to him for covert assistance in the field.
Sam is 177 cm (5 ft 10 in) tall, weighs 78 kg (170 pounds), has greying, brown - black hair and green eyes. He still has an athletic build physique for a man in his late 40s. He was the first person to be recruited as a field agent of the "Splinter Cell '' program, Third Echelon 's highly clandestine black ops project. A highly decorated veteran of JSOC 's DEVGRU, and the CIA 's Special Activities Division, Fisher is a master in the art of stealth, having been trained in various undercover and covert infiltration tactics. He not only specializes in night - time combat but in close - quarters combat in urban warfare and fieldcraft - related skills as well. In addition, Sam is extremely proficient in tradecraft skills such as surveillance tactics, computer hacking, handling explosives and the use of nearly any conventional firearm ambidextrously. He is also a highly trained expert in various forms of martial arts but he far excels in the Israeli self - defense and combat system of Krav Maga. In Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell: Conviction, he utilized the Center Axis Relock, a modern shooting stance used in close - quarters combat and was invented by Paul Castle. He prefers to work alone in the field. Established from the novels, Sam is known to have command of a startling number of languages, including English (natively), Spanish, German, Russian, Korean, Chinese, Arabic, Burmese, Georgian, and Persian. While not on assignment or stationed at Fort Meade (while he was working for Third Echelon), Fisher resided in a townhouse in Towson and a farmhouse in rural Germantown, Maryland (according to the novelizations of the series). According to the 2013 graphic novel, Splinter Cell: Echoes (which takes place during the end of Conviction and before the events that happened at the beginning of Splinter Cell: Blacklist), Sam now resides in a two - story house in Falls Church, Virginia, where his daughter, who currently lives in Atlanta, Georgia, stayed with him for a while during the book before moving to New York. Sam 's signature sidearm is the FN Five - seveN, which is also his preferred weapon of choice throughout the Splinter Cell franchise. During the "Washington Monument '' level in Conviction, he retrieves the Five - seveN from Victor Coste, who refers to it as Sam 's "favorite pistol ''.
Fisher has conducted operations all over the world: Bolivia, Canada, Cuba, the former East Germany, the Democratic Republic of Congo, mainland China, Iceland, Israel, East Timor, Indonesia, Guam, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Ukraine, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Libya, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, North and South Korea, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Paraguay, Myanmar, Serbia (when it was part of Yugoslavia), Georgia, and France. He has also conducted operations inside the United States, in places such as Los Angeles International Airport, Denver International Airport, Sabine Pass, Chicago, Philadelphia, Fort Meade, New York City, New Orleans, Washington, D.C., Ellsworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas and the CIA 's headquarters in Langley, Virginia.
The novel version of Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell establishes that Sam hated his time in the CIA when he was working there in the mid-late 1980s, and that he mostly had official cover (i.e. he was a "diplomatic aide ''). It is also established during the "Bank '' mission in Chaos Theory that Fisher served in Panama during Operation Just Cause when Redding reveals in the level 's pre-mission briefing that Fisher was part of a CIA team that raided the same bank during the conflict searching for some of Noriega 's drug money.
It is also established during the same mission in Chaos Theory that shortly after or around the time the conflict in Panama ended in January 1990, Fisher was called back to active duty with the SEALs and deployed to Iraq, where he spent the next several months leading up to the Persian Gulf War "sleeping in a ditch on the road between Baghdad and Kuwait '' prior to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, and was already present once the Western military intervention by the U.S. - led coalition forces began at the beginning of the Gulf War itself in January 1991.
As a covert operative whose existence is completely deniable by the U.S. government, Fisher approaches his target objectives in a gruff, no - nonsense manner, but maintains a light - hearted relationship with his colleagues and even with his momentary hostages (even if he is going to kill them). Fisher has little patience for government bureaucracy or behind - the - scenes political maneuvering. A realist who is well aware of the overarching political ramifications behind his assignments and the specific manner authorized for their completion, Fisher maintains a cynical, jaded and sarcastic sense of humor about the covert, illegal, and often morally ambiguous nature of his work. In Pandora Tomorrow, when Lambert informs Fisher that "Nobody knows whether he 's (Norman Soth) a US intelligence agent or a terrorist, '' Fisher replies that, "Those things are n't mutually exclusive. ''
At the same time, he is highly loyal and a staunch believer in the ideals his work ultimately protects. He is quickly angered by the casual and / or intentional slaughter of innocent civilians or unarmed military personnel by his enemies.
In the original Splinter Cell, Fisher is the original trial agent of the nascent Third Echelon initiative and its inaugural Splinter Cell program, and thus his interactions with his handler Colonel Lambert are relatively straightforward but respectful. At the same time, Fisher does drop the occasional sarcastic wisecrack at particularly unusual or obtuse instructions. For instance, during the final level in Pandora Tomorrow, Sam is in an elevator that shuts down when his enemies cut the power. Lambert informs him that the elevator has stopped, and Sam retorts with a sarcastic, "Thanks, Lambert. ''
In Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory, Fisher is blunt, and he appears fairly disappointed when Lambert orders him to avoid enemy fatalities as part of his mission parameters. Frequently holding captured enemies at knife - point, his dialog with them is creative and highly intimidating, though often morbidly humorous to the audience. In Splinter Cell: Conviction, Fisher 's personality takes a leap towards ruthlessness as intimidating threats of lethality in Chaos Theory become standard practice. Fisher often tortures his subjects of interrogation through creative use of surrounding objects such pianos, fire extinguishers or windowsills.
The tie - in novels expand on Fisher 's character. They portray him as detached and preferring solitude, buying non-perishables (such as any CDs he wants) online, and living by himself. The first novel explained in a one - sentence paragraph that Fisher "like (s) it that way. '' He avoids relationships due to the demands of his job, though he eventually engages in a relationship with his Krav Maga instructor Katia in Operation Barracuda, only to be reminded later in that same book why he can not have relationships when Katia is killed by a sniper shot that was meant for him. However, he does have a close relationship with his daughter, Sarah, which is used to bait him into a trap in the first novel when Sarah is kidnapped in order to get to Fisher.
In the novels, Fisher also mentions that he has the ability to fall asleep on command, unlike most people who can only sleep when tired. This, he says, is an asset in his line of work, which often requires him to obtain sleep in the most awkward of places.
Tom Hardy will be playing a younger Sam Fisher in a film adaptation of Splinter Cell, expected to be released in 2019.
The 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition lists the character as the twenty - fourth most popular video game character. Fisher was also voted as the twelfth top character of the 2000s decade by Game Informer 's readers. In 2008, The Age ranked Fisher as the seventh greatest Xbox character of all time, stating "he 's a man of action rather than words and a lone wolf, and sometimes, you 've just got to respect that. '' UGO Networks featured Fisher on their list of "The Coolest Helmets and Headgear in Video Games '' at number 5, remarking he is "unrecognizable without '' the three - eyed night vision goggles "perched on his forehead. '' In 2013, Complex ranked Sam Fisher at number 18 on the list of the greatest soldiers in video games, calling him "a little bit like an American James Bond -- only without all the things that James Bond does besides kill dudes. '' Although Fisher ultimately did not make the cut, Game Informer staff considered his inclusion in their "30 characters that defined a decade '' collection, with Bryan Vore saying, "Before Splinter Cell... it was easy to assume that Sam Fisher was simply a poor man 's Solid Snake. But (he) quickly won over gamers thanks to his quiet and deadly efficiency, gruff yet sarcastic demeanor, and the willingness to disobey orders that he does n't believe in. '' In 2012, GamesRadar ranked him as the 37th "most memorable, influential, and badass '' protagonist in games, adding that, "He 's voiced by Michael Ironside and he wears awesome night vision goggles. That 's good enough, right? No? Fine... He 's like Macgyver - meets - James Bond - meets - Batman. ''
On the other hand, PC Zone ' staff listed in 2008 Fisher as the eighth worst character in PC gaming history, declaring "Once a great, iconic character - now one in freefall due to a genuine lack of imagination on the part of his creators. The man was barely identifiable to begin with, a fairly plain superspy with no particular agendas. ''
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meaning of the song power of love by celine dion | The Power of Love (Jennifer Rush song) - wikipedia
"The Power of Love '' is a song co-written and originally recorded by Jennifer Rush in 1984. It has been covered by several artists, most notably by Celine Dion, Laura Branigan and Air Supply.
Rush 's original version, released in her native United States at the end of 1984 and in Europe during 1985, went to number one in the United Kingdom in October 1985 and became the biggest - selling single of the year in that country. It was also a number one single in several other European countries, as well as Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Dion 's version went to number one in the United States, Canada and Australia in 1994. The song has been translated into several languages, becoming a pop standard.
"The Power of Love '' was first recorded by Jennifer Rush for her 1984 eponymous album. It was released as a single in West Germany in December 1984. In June 1985, "The Power of Love '' was issued as a single in the United Kingdom, where it topped the chart for five weeks in October 1985 and became the best - selling single of the year. As of March 2017, it has sold 1.45 million copies in the UK.
The massive success of "The Power of Love '' in the UK followed with widespread international success for the single in the last months of 1985 and the first of 1986, including a German re-release with a resultant number - nine charting. Eventually "The Power of Love '' reached number one in Australia, Austria, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa and Spain (where Rush topped the chart with a version in Spanish called "Si tú eres mi hombre y yo tu mujer '', translated as "If you are my man and I 'm your woman ''), number three in Switzerland, Sweden and Belgium, and number seven in the Netherlands.
CBS held off on releasing "The Power of Love '' in North America feeling the disc was too European. It finally saw release in the United States and Canada in January 1986 but despite rising to number one in Canada, "The Power of Love '' failed to become a significant US hit, stalling at number fifty - seven on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week - ending of 5 April 1986 and spending 13 weeks within the Hot 100. The song was performed by Rush on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in March 1986 and American Bandstand in April 1986.
Australian duo Air Supply covered "The Power of Love '' for their 1985 eponymous album. Since the song was sung by Russell Hitchcock, the gender roles were reversed in the lyrics ("I 'm your lady and you are my man '' became "You are my lady and I am your man ''). It was released as a single in July 1985 in the United States, and later in Canada and New Zealand. Their version was titled "The Power of Love (You Are My Lady) '' so as not to be confused with "The Power of Love '' by Huey Lewis and the News which was on the charts at the same time. Air Supply 's version was a moderate success in New Zealand and Canada, reaching the top 40 in both countries in late 1985. In the US, it peaked at number 68. This cover was featured in the 2017 film Death Note.
Laura Branigan recorded "The Power of Love '' under the title "Power of Love '' for her 1987 album, Touch. Produced by David Kershenbaum, the track was released in October 1987 as the album 's second single, after "Shattered Glass. '' In December 1987, "Power of Love '' reached number twenty - six on the Billboard Hot 100. It also peaked at number nineteen on the US Adult Contemporary chart.
Canadian singer Celine Dion covered "The Power of Love '' for her third English - language studio album, The Colour of My Love (1993). It was produced by David Foster and released as the first single in November 1993 in North America, in December 1993 in Japan, and in early 1994 in the rest of the world.
A music video for the song was released. It only used the radio edit, which was the opening track for all releases of the song.
"The Power of Love '' became Dion 's first US number - one song, topping the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks in February 1994. It also became her first Australian chart topper and second number - one single in Canada. The song also topped the adult contemporary charts in the United States and Canada. In the rest of the world, "The Power of Love '' reached top ten in France, United Kingdom, Belgium, Sweden and New Zealand. It was certified Platinum in the United States and Australia, Gold in New Zealand and Silver in France. In the United States, it has sold 1.5 million copies.
"The Power of Love '' won the ASCAP Pop Award for Most Performed Song in the United States. It was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, American Music Award for Favorite Pop / Rock Single, two Billboard Music Awards for Hot 100 Single of the Year and Hot Adult Contemporary Single of the Year, and for the Juno Award for Single of the Year. Thanks to "The Power of Love, '' David Foster was also nominated for the Juno Award for Producer of the Year.
"The Power of Love '' became one of Dion 's signature songs. She performed it during all of her concert tours and included it on her live albums. "The Power of Love '' was also featured on Dion 's greatest hits compilations: All the Way... A Decade of Song (1999), Complete Best (2008), My Love: Essential Collection (2008) and The Best of Celine Dion & David Foster (2012). Live performances are included on À l'Olympia (album), Live à Paris (album), Live à Paris (video), Au cœur du stade (video), Live in Las Vegas: A New Day... (video), Taking Chances World Tour: The Concert (album / video), and Céline une seule fois / Live 2013 (album / video). She also performed the song at the American Music Awards of 1995 and her CBS television special That 's Just the Woman in Me on 15 February 2008.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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i don't hate you but i just want to save you lyrics | Savior (Rise Against song) - wikipedia
"Savior '' is a song by American rock band Rise Against, featured on their fifth studio album Appeal to Reason (2008). In contrast to the social and political topics normally discussed in Rise Against songs, "Savior '' is about forgiveness and broken relationships. It is a punk rock song, with a "frenetic pace '' that John Hanson of Sputnikmusic described as reminiscent of tracks from the band 's 2003 album Revolutions per Minute. It was released as Appeal to Reason 's third single on June 3, 2009.
"Savior '' was well received by critics, with praise directed toward its lyrics, and remains one of the band 's most commercially successful singles to date. It peaked at number three on both the Hot Rock Songs and Alternative Songs music charts, and holds the record for the most consecutive weeks spent on the latter chart with sixty - five weeks. The accompanying music video depicts actors in animal costumes engaging in a mosh pit.
"Savior '' is a punk rock song, and was described by Aaron Burgess of The A.V. Club as an "uptempo anthem ''. The song 's composition is written in the time signature of common time, with a moderate tempo of 94 beats per minute. It follows verse - chorus form, and is composed in the key F minor, with a melody that spans a tonal range of E4 to C ♯. John Hanson of Sputnikmusic noted that the song had a "frenetic pace '', which was reminiscent of many of the tracks from the band 's 2003 album Revolutions per Minute.
Lyrically, "Savior '' deviates from the social and political topics normally discussed in Rise Against songs, and is instead about forgiveness and broken relationships. It tells the story of a couple who have recently split up. The two attempt to reconcile their differences, with lines such as "I do n't hate you, boy / I just want to save you while there 's still something left to save. '' Critics have characterized the lyrics as "poignant '', and "poetic ''.
Lead vocalist Tim McIlrath wrote the lyrics. While writing the lyrics for Rise Against songs, McIlrath will often sing nonsensical words over completed melodies, in order to identify the lyrical tone that each song will eventually convey. For "Savior '', McIlrath remarked that while he mostly sang gibberish, he always found himself singing the line "I do n't hate you ''. McIlrath used this line as a base to construct the lyrics and themes present within "Savior ''. In a 2014 interview, McIlrath commented on how he had originally voted to cut the song from Appeal to Reason, but was eventually overruled.
"Savior '' was released on June 3, 2009, as the third and final single from Rise Against 's fifth album Appeal to Reason. It remains one of the band 's most successful singles to date, and spent a considerable amount of time on multiple Billboard music charts. Reaching as high as number two on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, it spent thirty - six weeks on the chart, the fourth most amount of time for any song on the chart. "Savior '' peaked at number three on both the Hot Rock Songs and Alternative Songs charts, and holds the record for the most amount of time spent for the Alternative Songs chart with sixty - five weeks. It also held the longevity record on the Hot Rock Songs chart with sixty - three weeks, before Awolnation 's "Sail '' broke the record by spending ninety - six weeks. "Savior '' was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, denoting shipments of 1,000,000 copies. In Canada, the song reached number sixty - eight on the Canadian Hot 100.
"Savior '' was well received by critics. Hanson and Davey Boy of Sputnikmusic both praised the song; Hanson described it as "one of the most inspired songs (Rise Against) have written to date '', while Boy wrote that "' Savior ' sees absolutely everything come together perfectly to make for one hell of a song ''. Burgess felt that "Savior '' was one of three Appeal to Reason tracks that would "satisfy anyone still uneasy about Rise Against 's radio aspirations ''. Bob Hoose of Plugged In complimented the positive and hopeful lyrics.
The accompanying music video was directed by Kevin Kerslake, who had previously directed the band 's music videos for "Ready to Fall '', and "Re-Education (Through Labor) ''. The video centers around actors wearing animal costumes, who in the beginning, engage in a mosh pit. One of the animals, a polar bear, is constantly being punched and kicked by an elephant, and decides to leave. While traveling on a bus, it sees the same elephant limping. The polar bear reluctantly asks the driver to stop and let the elephant on, who sits next to the polar bear, and the two hold hands. Scenes of Rise Against performing and destroying their instruments are intermittently shown throughout.
McIlrath originally envisioned a simple performance video, with the band "going nuts in a parking lot, trashing equipment, having fun and showing the physical nature of Rise Against ''. However, Kerslake came up with the idea for the animals, as he felt it would be a bizarre element that would keep people watching. Despite its humorous nature, Kerslake stated that there were some political undertones in the video, with the polar bear representing endangered species, while the elephant represents the Republican Party of the United States.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Appeal to Reason.
Additional backing vocals by Chad Price
shipments figures based on certification alone
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dipesh chakrabarty a small history of subaltern studies | Subaltern Studies - wikipedia
The Subaltern Studies Group (SSG) or Subaltern Studies Collective is a group of South Asian scholars interested in the postcolonial and post-imperial societies with a particular focus on those of South Asia while also covering the developing world in general sense. The term Subaltern Studies is sometimes also applied more broadly to others who share many of their views. Their anti-essentialist approach is one of history from below, focused more on what happens among the masses at the base levels of society than among the elite.
The term "subaltern '' in this context is an allusion to the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1891 -- 1937). It refers to any person or group of inferior rank and station, whether because of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or religion.
The SSG arose in the 1980s, influenced by the scholarship of Eric Stokes and Ranajit Guha, to attempt to formulate a new narrative of the history of India and South Asia. This narrative strategy most clearly inspired by the writings of Gramsci was explicated in the writings of their "mentor '' Ranajit Guha, most clearly in his "manifesto '' in Subaltern Studies I and also in his classic monograph The Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency. Although they are, in a sense, on the left, they are very critical of the traditional Marxist narrative of Indian history, in which semi-feudal India was colonized by the British, became politicized, and earned its independence. In particular, they are critical of the focus of this narrative on the political consciousness of elites, who in turn inspire the masses to resistance and rebellion against the British.
Instead, they focus on non-elites -- subalterns -- as agents of political and social change. They have had a particular interest in the discourses and rhetoric of emerging political and social movements, as against only highly visible actions like demonstrations and uprisings.
One of the group 's early contributors, Sumit Sarkar, later began to critique it. He entitled one of his essays "Decline of the Subaltern in Subaltern Studies '', criticizing the turn to Foucauldian studies of power - knowledge that left behind many of the empiricist and Marxist efforts of the first two volumes of Subaltern Studies. He writes that the socialist inspiration behind the early volumes led to a greater impact in India itself, while the later volumes ' focus on western discourse reified the subaltern - colonizer divide and then rose in prominence mainly in western academia. Even Gayatri Spivak, one of the most prominent names associated with the movement, has called herself a critic of "metropolitan post-colonialism ''.
Indian sociologist Vivek Chibber has criticized the premise of Subaltern Studies for its obfuscation of class struggle and class formation in its analysis, and accused it of excising class exploitation from the story of the oppression of the subaltern. His critique, explained in his book Postcolonial Theory and the Specter of Capital, is focused on the works of two Indian scholars: Ranajit Guha and Dipesh Chakrabarty.
Scholars associated with Subaltern Studies include:
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dungeon ni deai o motomeru no wa machigatte iru darou ka chapters | Is It Wrong to Try to Pick up Girls in a Dungeon? - Wikipedia
Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon? (Japanese: ダンジョン に 出会い を 求める の は 間違っ て いる だろ うか, Hepburn: Danjon ni Deai o Motomeru no wa Machigatteiru Darō ka), also known as DanMachi (ダン まち) for short, and with English subtitle Familia Myth, is a Japanese light novel series written by Fujino Ōmori and illustrated by Suzuhito Yasuda. SB Creative has published eleven volumes since January 2013 under their GA Bunko imprint. It has received two manga adaptations as well as an anime television adaptation by J.C. Staff, which aired from April 4 to June 27, 2015. An OVA was released on December 7, 2016.
Additionally, a spin - off light novel series titled Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon?: Sword Oratoria began in January 2014, and another spin - off light novel series titled Is It Wrong to Try to Pick Up Girls in a Dungeon?: Familia Chronicle (illustrated by Nilitsu) began in March 2017. Both spinoffs have also received manga adaptations, and a television anime adaptation of Sword Oratoria aired from April 14 to June 30, 2017.
The story takes place in the fictional city of Orario whose main feature place is the Dungeon (ダンジョン, Danjon) which contains an assortment of monsters from goblins to dragons. Adventurers visit the dungeon to defeat monsters and take their crystal shards, which are used to craft magic items, among other treasures; however, they can also be exchanged for the world 's currency. The people of Orario join groups called Familia (ファミリア, Famiria), who serve a range of functions from dungeon crawling to crafting items. Each Familia is named after and serves a resident deity. In a fashion similar to role playing games, the adventurers are grouped into levels, increasing their levels and abilities according to their achievements.
The story follows the exploits of Bell Cranel, a 14 - year - old solo adventurer under the goddess Hestia. As the only member of the Hestia Familia, he works hard every day in the dungeon to make ends meet while seeking to improve himself. He looks up to Ais Wallenstein, a famous and powerful swordswoman who once saved his life, and with whom he fell in love. He is unaware that several other girls, deities and mortals alike, also develop affections towards him; most notably Hestia herself, as he also gains allies and improves himself with each new challenge he faces.
Fujino Ōmori wrote the story under the title Familia Myth as his entry for the 4th GA Bunko Award, where he won the Great Prize and received an offer for publication. The first light novel volume was published on January 15, 2013, by SB Creative under their GA Bunko imprint. As of October 14, 2016, eleven volumes have been published. The series has estimated sales of over 1,500,000 copies. Yen Press has licensed the series in North America and released the first volume under the Yen On imprint in December 2014. The light novel ranked at No. 4 in 2014 in Takarajimasha 's annual light novel guide book Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi!.
A manga adaptation with art by Kunieda began serialization in Square Enix 's seinen manga magazine Young Gangan from August 2, 2013. It has been collected in seven tankōbon volumes. Yen Press announced at New York Comic Con the rights to publish the manga in North America.
A four - panel manga series titled Dungeon ni Deai o Motomeru no wa Machigatteiru Darō ka 4 - koma: Kamisama no Nichijō (ダンジョン に 出会い を 求める の は 間違っ て いる だろ うか 4 コマ (神様 の 日常)) by Masaya Takamura began serialization in Square Enix 's online manga magazine Gangan Online from August 14, 2014.
An anime television series adaptation by J.C. Staff began airing the broadcast night of April 3, 2015. The opening theme is "Hey World '' by Yuka Iguchi, and the ending theme is "Right Light Rise '' by Kanon Wakeshima. Crunchyroll has streamed the series internationally. Sentai Filmworks has licensed the anime for digital and home video release in North America with an English dub slated to be released in March 2017. An original video animation was released on December 7, 2016.
5pb. announced that they are developing a "dungeon action RPG '' based on the light novels. The platforms have yet to be announced.
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when does mother of all secrets come out | Mother of All Secrets - wikipedia
Mother of All Secrets is a female - led thriller, set in the island of Bermuda. It is directed by Lucinda Spurling and stars Kate Mansi. Kelly McGillis, Brooke Burfitt, Sean Stolzen and LuAnn de Lesseps. The film was filmed under the working title "Babymoon '', but the film trailer was released in June under a new title "Mother Of All Secrets ''.
When a US state senator goes missing on vacation in Bermuda, his pregnant girlfriend Aubrey searches for answers. What she learns is his estranged mother is on the island and knows more about the disappearance than she is letting on.
The film was shot in January / February 2017 on the island of Bermuda. It is the first film to be shot on the island in over twenty - five years. Post-production is due to be completed by the end of the summer, according to the director. It has been awarded a triple F - rating by the Bath Film Festival for their movement supporting more women in film. The film was co-written and directed by Lucinda Spurling and Louise Ascot Byres and produced by Brooke Williams. Kate Mansi told Soap Opera Digest she was most proud that it "was the largest female cast & crew I have ever worked with so far. ''
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city with the most tornadoes in the united states | Tornadoes in the United States - wikipedia
Tornadoes are more common in United States than in any other country. The United States receives more than 1,200 tornadoes annually -- four times the amount seen in Europe. Violent tornadoes -- those rated EF4 or EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale -- occur more often in the United States than in any other country.
Most tornadoes in the United States occur east of the Rocky Mountains. The Great Plains, the Midwest, the Mississippi Valley and the southern United States are all areas that are vulnerable to tornadoes. They are relatively rare west of the Rockies and are also less frequent in the northeastern states. Tornado Alley is a colloquial term for an area particularly prone to tornadoes. There is no officially defined ' Tornado Alley ' -- at its broadest this area stretches from North Texas to Canada with its core centered on Oklahoma, Kansas and northern Texas. Another highly significant region -- colloquially known as Dixie Alley -- is the southern United States and particularly the northern and central parts of Alabama and Mississippi. Florida is one of the most tornado - prone states. However, Florida tornadoes only rarely approach the strength of those that occur elsewhere.
Although favorable conditions for tornadoes in the United States can occur at any time, they are most common in spring and least common in winter. Because spring is a transitional period for the climate, there are more chances of cooler air meeting with warmer air, resulting in more thunderstorms. Tornadoes can also be spawned by landfalling tropical cyclones, which usually occur in late summer and autumn. In the United States, thunderstorms capable of producing tornadoes usually form when the temperature is at its highest, typically from 4: 00 p.m. to 7: 00 p.m.
Although the period in which most tornadoes strike ("tornado season '') is March through June, tornadoes -- including violent tornadoes and major tornado outbreaks -- have been documented in the United States during every month of the year. Two examples of this are when a series of tornadoes hit the state of Indiana on November 22, 1992, and injured at least nine people. Another notable non-season tornado was where a tornado struck the area of McLean County, Illinois. Even though the tornado was during a winter month, it blew 20 railroad cars off their tracks, and hauled a camper over 100 yards (91 m).
During the winter months of the year, tornadoes have been known to hit the Southern United States and Southeastern United States the most, but have hit other areas as well. One notable recent example of a winter tornado outbreak was the 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak on February 5 and February 6, 2008. 84 tornadoes occurred over the course of the outbreak. The storm system produced several destructive tornadoes in heavily populated areas, most notably in the Memphis metropolitan area, in Jackson, Tennessee, and the northeastern end of the Nashville metropolitan area. At least 57 people were killed across four states and 18 counties, with hundreds of others injured. The outbreak was the deadliest of the modern NEXRAD doppler radar era, until the 2011 Super Outbreak killed over 348 people (324 of which were tornado - related). It was the deadliest single outbreak since the May 31, 1985 outbreak, which killed 76 across Ohio and Pennsylvania, as well claiming 12 victims in Ontario, Canada. It was also the deadliest outbreak in both Tennessee and Kentucky since the 1974 Super Outbreak.
Usually, tornadoes hit specific areas of the United States in specific seasons. During the winter months, tornadoes are usually spotted in the Southern area of the country, as well as states near the Gulf of Mexico. This is due to cold air moving southward reaching its southern limit of expansion, and stopping over the Gulf Coast. As spring comes, hot air progressively moves back into the Gulf Coast. This pushes the mass of colder air forward out of the Gulf States and into the Southeastern states, where tornado frequency is highest in April.
As spring passes and summer begins, the mass of warm moist air moves northwest into the Great Plains and Midwestern states. During the months of May and June, tornado activity is as its peak in the southern Great Plains. The air mass then moves northward into the Northern Great Plains and the Great Lakes area, causing a tornado activity peak in these areas during the summer months. During the late summer and early fall months, tornado activity in the United States tapers off. This is due to the relatively small difference between the temperature at the boundary of the hot air mass and the cool air mass at that time and an extension of the Bermuda High sitting over parts of the United States. Though there may be some thunderstorms, they do n't often become severe enough to spawn tornadoes.
Tornadoes may be formed out of season, especially during the months of hurricane season in the Gulf Coast states and Southeastern states. Because these areas are prone to hurricanes, they may be struck with tornadoes that are spawned from hurricanes. Tornadoes are most likely to form in the right - front quadrant of the hurricane, but can also form in rain bands associated with the storm. This is caused by the large amount of vertical wind shear to the right of the storm. Tornadoes are also spawned from U.S. hurricanes due to the moistness of the air at the landfall of the storm, which makes conditions favorable for a supercell storm to develop within the hurricane.
Tornadoes have been documented in every U.S. state (not including the non-state territories of Guam, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico) at least once since 1950, although some regions and states are hit by tornadoes far more than others. For example, the average number of tornadoes to hit the states of Alaska, Rhode Island, and Vermont is less than one, while the state of Oklahoma receives an average of 52 tornadoes per year, and the state of Texas is hit with 126 tornadoes in an average year. The state with the most tornadoes per unit area is Florida, though most are weak tornadoes of EF0 or EF1 intensity. A number of Florida 's tornadoes occur along the edge of hurricanes that strike the state. The state with the highest number of strong tornadoes per unit area is Oklahoma. States such as Oklahoma and Kansas have much lower population densities than Florida, so tornadoes may go unreported.
The Midwestern states are very prone to tornado activity, as it is part of "Tornado Alley. '' States included in the area that are hit by tornadoes the most are Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Iowa, and South Dakota. The Midwestern States are often hit by tornadoes during the late spring and early summer months, especially the months of May and June. This is due to the aforementioned air mass moving northward into the Midwest and combining with another air mass that move southward from Canada. This creates unstable air, creating the potential for storms to strike the most during these months. The frequency begins to decrease in the middle of the summer, as the air mass moves northward into the Great Lakes states.
A very notable recent storm that has hit this area was the Northwood, Kansas tornado, in the May 2007 Tornado Outbreak. The tornado apparently strengthened as it neared Northwood, and at 9: 38 pm CDT (0238 UTC), storm chasers reported that it had grown to over ⁄ mile (0.8 km) in diameter. Several satellite tornadoes were observed as the very large wedge approached the town of Greensburg, Kansas. It was an estimated 1.7 miles (2.7 km) in diameter and was later confirmed to have been an EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale (the highest possible rating). Based on the damage produced, winds inside the tornado were estimated to have been in excess of 205 mph (330 km / h).
Nebraska is fifth overall for sheer numbers of tornadoes, while Indiana has had 88 violent tornado reports from the 1950 -- 2006 period, more than any state except Oklahoma. Iowa reported 3'900 almost as many as Texas. The deadliest tornado in US history, the Tri-State Tornado, struck Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana in March 1925. St. Louis, Missouri and neighboring East St. Louis, Illinois have been hit more than once by violent tornadoes, the most notorious of which was the St. Louis Tornado of May 1896. The New Richmond Tornado of May 1899 and the Flint, Michigan tornado of June 1953 also rank amongst the deadliest tornadoes in US history. The region was badly hit by the Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak in April 1965 and by the Super Outbreak of April 1974. According to NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period, Nebraska reported 2,440 tornadoes followed by Iowa (2,185), Illinois (2,086), Missouri (1,922), South Dakota (1,487), Minnesota (1,477), Indiana (1,327), North Dakota (1,216), Wisconsin (1,185), Michigan (981), and Ohio (916).
The Southern United States has suffered more tornado fatalities than any other part of the country. Some areas experience repeated damaging tornado events, such as the Tennessee Valley and in northern Alabama. The state of Alabama is tied for the most reported F5 tornadoes. For the period 1950 to 2006, three hundred and fifty eight people were killed by tornadoes in Alabama, ranking the state third nationwide behind Texas (521) and neighboring Mississippi (404). Fourth is Arkansas (336) and fifth is Tennessee with 271 fatalities.
Tornado disasters to affect the southern USA include the Great Natchez Tornado of May 1840 -- second deadliest on record in the US, behind only the Tri-State Tornado. Other outbreaks included the Tupelo - Gainesville tornado outbreak of April 1936, the 1908 Southeast tornado outbreak of April 1908 and the Candlestick Park Tornado of 1966. Alabama and Kentucky were very badly affected by the Super Outbreak of 1974. The 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak was the deadliest tornado outbreak in the USA in 23 years. 58 people lost their lives with Tennessee, Arkansas, and Kentucky particularly badly affected. The 2011 Super Outbreak devastated much of the South, leaving 348 people dead.
Hurricanes and other tropical storms can also generate tornadoes. Louisiana and the coastal regions of Mississippi and Alabama are most at risk from these storms. The Atlantic seaboard states can be affected too. According to NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period, Mississippi reported 1,787 tornadoes, followed by Arkansas (1,644), Louisiana (1,608), Alabama (1,579), Georgia (1,324), North Carolina (1,042), Tennessee (892), South Carolina (819), Kentucky (710) and Virginia (565). West Virginia, by contrast, is one of the least vulnerable states of all with just 120 tornadoes reported over the period.
The Northeastern U.S. to the east of the Appalachian Mountains is much less vulnerable to violent tornadoes but is by no means immune. One of the most extraordinary tornadoes in history struck Worcester, Massachusetts. This F4 tornado struck the city on 9 June 1953 and killed 90 people. The tornado was generated by the same storm system that delivered a devastating tornado to the town of Flint, Michigan.
Areas further south -- notably Pennsylvania and Maryland -- and areas to the west of the Appalachians are more vulnerable to tornadoes. NCDC figures for the period 1950 to 2006 show that Pennsylvania reported 697 tornadoes, followed by New York State (358), Maryland (269), Massachusetts (153), New Jersey (144), Maine (101), New Hampshire (86), Connecticut (82), Delaware (58), Vermont (37), Rhode Island (9), and the District of Columbia (1). The worst tornado outbreak in the Northeast occurred in Pennsylvania on May 31, 1985, and produced the only F5 tornado in the region to date.
Florida is one of the most tornado prone states, with only Texas, Kansas and Oklahoma reporting more storms. During the period 1950 to 2006, Florida reported 2,884 tornadoes according to NCDC figures. However, Florida tornadoes are usually weak in comparison with those that strike the Plains and the Southern states -- there have been only four reports of F4 strength tornadoes since 1950 and none of F5 strength. Florida experiences more thunderstorms than any other state but fewer supercell storms. Florida tornadoes are more often spawned by the frequent ordinary thunderstorms that occur over the state. Hurricanes and other tropical storms can generate large numbers of tornadoes. Non-supercell tornadoes are rarely as strong as supercell - generated storms.
Florida 's most violent tornadoes generally occur during the winter months, when the state is most vulnerable to invasions of cold air that help generate such storms. In recent years there have been some particularly disastrous tornado events. During the night of February 22 and 23, 1998, an F3 tornado struck Kissimmee and killed 25 people. Later that night, another F3 tornado struck Seminole and Volusia Counties and killed 13 people (see Kissimmee Tornado Outbreak). On February 2, 2007, an EF3 tornado struck Lake County with 21 fatalities resulting -- see 2007 Central Florida Tornadoes.
Of the states around the Rocky Mountains, Colorado reports by far the greatest numbers of tornadoes. Eastern Colorado, both climatically and physically, has much more in common with the neighboring Plains states of Kansas and Nebraska than with the mountainous areas further west. Small cities such as Limon, Kit Carson, Thurman, and Flagler are some places in Eastern Colorado that have experienced dangerous tornadoes. The same can be said, to a lesser extent, of eastern Wyoming. Tornadoes are less frequent in mountainous areas. Of the states in this region -- according to NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period -- Colorado reported 1,617 tornadoes, followed by Wyoming with 560, Montana (345), Idaho (175), and Utah (114).
In the Southwestern United States, New Mexico reported 485 tornadoes during the 1950 to 2006 period (NCDC figures), California reported 355, Arizona reported 209, and Nevada reported 75. New Mexico borders the notoriously tornado prone states of Texas and Oklahoma, hence the noticeably higher figures. Most of the tornadoes here happen in the very eastern part of the state. New Mexico 's region and the desert landscape of the state help prevent the amount of twisters that happen in Oklahoma and Texas. Arizona and New Mexico experience regular summer thunderstorms during their monsoon season. These are sometimes tornadic but rarely produce violent tornadoes.
The Pacific Northwest is perhaps the least vulnerable region. NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period show that Washington reported just 96 tornadoes for the entire period and that Oregon reported 91. However, Portland, Oregon and neighboring Vancouver, Washington were hit by a deadly tornado on 5 April 1972. This storm was the deadliest to hit the United States that year.
Alaska has only been hit by 2 tornadoes between 1950 and 2006 (the first being November 4, 1959 and the other was August 2, 2005); both were only F0. Hawaii has only been hit by 49 tornadoes since 1950.
Tornadoes create different damage depending on how fast their wind speeds are. The Fujita Scale classifies a tornado by its wind speeds. For example, if the tornado 's wind speeds are low, then it is classified as a F0 tornado. If the tornado 's wind speeds are about 200 miles per hour or at 200 miles per hour, then it is classified as a F5 tornado. In the United States, tornadoes have been known to form at high and low intensities. The probability of a high intensity or violent tornado differs by location across the country. For example, due to the high frequency of tornadoes in the "Tornado Alley '' area mentioned before, a more violent tornado would be more likely to form there due to the strength of the thunderstorms produced by the two bordering air masses. The states with the highest number of F5 and EF5 rated tornadoes since data was available in 1950 are Alabama and Oklahoma, each with seven tornadoes. Iowa, Kansas, and Texas each are tied for second most with six. The state with the highest number of F5 and EF5 tornadoes per square mile, however, was Iowa. The state with the most number of tornadoes classified as "violent '', or F4 and F5, is Kentucky, and the state with the highest average intensity ranking for tornadoes is Alabama.
Tornadoes that are classified as EF4 and EF5 (or "violent tornadoes '') on the Enhanced Fujita Scale only account for an average of two percent of all tornadoes in the United States each year. However, these high intensity storms do account for an average of seventy percent of all tornado - related deaths in the United States each year. These storms can have winds of over 200 miles per hour (320 km / h) and stay on the ground for over an hour.
The United States has seen 58 F5 and EF5 (the highest intensity and damage ranking) tornadoes since records began in 1950. No tornadoes prior to 1950 were officially ranked F5, due to inadequate engineering data and other information on the historical tornadoes. From 1950 -- 1970 tornadoes were assessed retrogressively, primarily using information recorded in government databases, and newspaper photographs and descriptions. Beginning in 1971, tornadoes were rated by the NWS using on - site damage surveys.
On May 3, 1999, a storm produced a violent tornado in the vicinity of Oklahoma City and was a part of the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak, which also brought many violent storms to the states of Kansas, Arkansas, and Tennessee. In total, the storm produced 66 tornadoes over four states. The strong F5 storm took place near the town of Bridge Creek, Oklahoma, located in Grady County. During the storm, a group of students in meteorology from the University of Oklahoma had chased the storm on a Doppler on Wheels (or DOW), which scans storms while attached to a car. Doppler on Wheels data from the nearby storm revealed winds of 301 ± 20 miles per hour (484 ± 32 km / h), which was over the wind speed in the F5 classification of that time. Though the wind speed was over the F5 maximum, the tornado was not named the first ever F6 storm, as there was no F6 classification. Other scientists reviewed the DOW data taken by the students, and concluded that the estimated wind speed may have been inaccurate, but still over 300 miles per hour (130 m / s). Also, the wind speed recorded was taken from over 200 feet (61 m) above ground level. The National Weather Service also did a damage check, and found that the damage was that of an average F5 tornado.
In the United States over 80 deaths and 1,500 injuries are associated with tornadoes each year. According to the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, most tornado deaths are caused by people not following instructions on what to do the right way. They also mention that some people are not even warned that a tornadic storm is coming, while others get a warning but do not believe that a tornado will hit their area. In 2012, 68 people were killed by tornadoes in the United States. Kentucky had the most fatalities, 22. Kentucky was followed by Indiana (13), Illinois (9), Missouri and Oklahoma (6), Ohio (4), Alabama and Tennessee (3), and Florida and Kansas (1).
Over 39 percent of all tornado - related deaths and many injuries come from residents of mobile homes. It is a widespread myth that tornadoes are "attracted '' to mobile home parks, and cause the most fatalities there because they hit there the most. This is not true. However, mobile homes do often have poor construction and do not provide adequate protection during a tornado event. An example to confirm this occurred in April 1991, when a very powerful tornado struck the town of Andover, Kansas. When the town was hit, eighty - four homes and fourteen businesses were destroyed by the tornado, but with no fatalities and only minor injuries. After the tornado hit Andover, it swept through a mobile home park consisting of 223 trailers. The park did have a tornado shelter, to which over 200 residents fled and survived without injuries. Others that did not take shelter in the tornado shelter stayed in their mobile homes, and thirteen of them were killed by the tornado.
The Enhanced Fujita Scale classifies tornado strength from weakest, an EF0 tornado, to strongest, an EF5 tornado, by the damage the tornado caused to property and infrastructure. An EF0 tornado has winds from 65 -- 85 MPH (105 -- 137 KPH), may take off a roof or damage gutters, and can bring down tree limbs. If a tornado causes no damage because it did not occur in a populated area, it is always classed as EF0. An EF5 tornado has winds over 200 MPH (322 KPH) and can totally destroy reinforced concrete structures, even throwing rail cars a considerable distance.
Until recently there was little hope of forecasting these systems. Meteorologists could identify those conditions that were likely to produce severe weather and generate a watch. If a tornado was spotted a warning was issued. More recently Doppler radar allows investigators to see a circulation develop in the storm. Because of their size and intensity, there are few storm observations. Increasing information has been gathered in the field from those chasing the storm.
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what are the pointy things on forks called | Fork - wikipedia
A fork, in cutlery or kitchenware, is a tool consisting of a handle with several narrow tines on one end. The usually metal utensil is used to lift food to the mouth or to hold ingredients in place while they are being cut by a knife. Food can be lifted either by spearing it on the tines or by holding it on top of the tines, which are often curved slightly.
The word fork comes from the Latin furca, meaning "pitchfork ''. Some of the earliest known uses of forks with food occurred in Ancient Egypt, where large forks were used as cooking utensils.
Bone forks had been found in archaeological sites of the Bronze Age Qijia culture (2400 -- 1900 BC), the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 -- c. 1050 BC), as well as later Chinese dynasties. A stone carving from an Eastern Han tomb (in Ta - kua - liang, Suide County, Shaanxi) depicts three hanging two - pronged forks in a dining scene. Conversely, similar forks has also been depicted on top of a stove in a scene at another Eastern Han tomb (in Suide County, Shaanxi).
In the Roman Empire, bronze and silver forks were used, and indeed many examples are displayed in museums around Europe. The use varied according to local customs, social class and the nature of food, but forks of the earlier periods were mostly used as cooking and serving utensils. The personal table fork was most likely invented in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, where they were in common use by the 4th century (its origin may even go back to Ancient Greece, before the Roman period). Records show that by the 9th century a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use in Persia within some elite circles. By the 10th century, the table fork was in common use throughout the Middle East.
The first recorded introduction of the fork to Europe, as recorded by the theologian and cardinal Peter Damian, was by Theophano Sklereina the Byzantine wife of Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, who nonchalantly wielded one at an Imperial banquet in 972, astonishing her Western hosts. By the 11th century, the table fork had become increasingly prevalent in the Italian peninsula. It gained a following in Italy before any other European region because of historical ties with Byzantium, and continued to gain popularity due to the increasing presence of pasta in the Italian diet. At first, pasta was consumed using a long wooden spike, but this eventually evolved into three spikes, a design better suited to gathering the noodles. In Italy, it became commonplace by the 14th century and was almost universally used by the merchant and upper classes by 1600. It was proper for a guest to arrive with his own fork and spoon enclosed in a box called a cadena; this usage was introduced to the French court with Catherine de ' Medici 's entourage. In Portugal, forks were first used at the time of Infanta Beatrice, Duchess of Viseu, King Manuel I of Portugal 's mother around 1450. However, forks were not commonly used in Southern Europe until the 16th century when they became part of Italian etiquette. The utensil had also gained some currency in Spain by this time, Its use gradually spread to France. Nevertheless, most of Europe did not adopt use of the fork until the 18th century.
Polish deputy minister has said in 2016, that Poland "taught the French how to use a fork ''. However the truth is less clear, Henri III was the one to actually introduce proper usage of the fork after a journey to Poland, however on the way home he apparently went to Venice to visit his mother homeland and that 's where he supposedly discovered the table fork.
Long after the personal table fork had become commonplace in France, at the supper celebrating the marriage of the duc de Chartres to Louis XIV 's natural daughter in 1692, the seating was described in the court memoirs of Saint - Simon: "King James having his Queen on his right hand and the King on his left, and each with their cadenas. '' In Perrault 's contemporaneous fairy tale of La Belle au bois dormant (1697), each of the fairies invited for the christening is presented with a splendid "fork holder ''.
The fork 's adoption in northern Europe was slower. Its use was first described in English by Thomas Coryat in a volume of writings on his Italian travels (1611), but for many years it was viewed as an unmanly Italian affectation. Some writers of the Roman Catholic Church expressly disapproved of its use, St. Peter Damian seeing it as "excessive delicacy '': It was not until the 18th century that the fork became commonly used in Great Britain, although some sources say that forks were common in France, England and Sweden already by the early 17th century.
The fork did not become popular in North America until near the time of the American Revolution. The curved fork used in most parts of the world today was developed in Germany in the mid 18th century while the standard four - tine design became current in the early 19th century. The fork was important in Germany because they believed that eating with the fingers was rude and disrespectful. The fork led to family dinners and sit - down meals, which are important features of German culture.
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who proposed the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane | Fluid mosaic model - wikipedia
The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. According to this model, there is a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded. The lipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane. Small amounts of carbohydrates are also found in cell membrane. The model, which was devised by SJ Singer and GL Nicolson in 1972, describes the cell membrane as a two - dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components. Such domains are defined by the existence of regions within the membrane with special lipid and protein composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts or protein and glycoprotein complexes. Another way to define membrane domains is the association of the lipid membrane with the cytoskeleton filaments and the extracellular matrix through membrane proteins. The current model describes important features relevant to many cellular processes, including: cell - cell signaling, apoptosis, cell division, membrane budding, and cell fusion. The fluid mosaic model is the most acceptable model of plasma membrane.
Chemically a cell membrane is composed of four components: Phospholipids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Cholesterol.
The fluid property of functional biological membranes had been determined through labeling experiments, x-ray diffraction, and calorimetry. These studies showed that integral membrane proteins diffuse at rates affected by the viscosity of the lipid bilayer in which they were embedded, and demonstrated that the molecules within the cell membrane are dynamic rather than static.
Previous models of biological membranes included the Robertson Unit Membrane Model and the Davidson - Danielli Tri-Layer model. These models had proteins present as sheets neighboring a lipid layer, rather than incorporated into the phospholipid bilayer. Other models described repeating, regular units of protein and lipid. These models were not well supported by microscopy and thermodynamic data, and did not accommodate evidence for dynamic membrane properties.
An important experiment that provided evidence supporting fluid and dynamic biological was performed by Frye and Edidin. They used Sendai virus to force human and mouse cells to fuse and form a heterokaryon. Using antibody staining, they were able to show that the mouse and human proteins remained segregated to separate halves of the heterokaryon a short time after cell fusion. However, the proteins eventually diffused and over time the border between the two halves was lost. Lowering the temperature slowed the rate of this diffusion by causing the membrane phospholipids to transition from a fluid to a gel phase. Singer and Nicholson rationalized the results of these experiments using their fluid mosaic model.
The fluid mosaic model explains changes in structure and behavior of cell membranes under different temperatures, as well as the association of membrane proteins with the membranes. While Singer and Nicolson had substantial evidence drawn from multiple subfields to support their model, recent advances in fluorescence microscopy and structural biology have validated the fluid mosaic nature of cell membranes.
Additionally, the two leaflets of biological membranes are asymmetric and divided into subdomains composed of specific proteins or lipids, allowing spatial segregation of biological processes associated with membranes. Cholesterol and cholesterol - interacting proteins can concentrate into lipid rafts and constrain cell signaling processes to only these rafts. Another form of asymmetry was shown by the work of Mouritsen and Bloom in 1984, where they proposed a Mattress Model of lipid - protein interactions to address the biophysical evidence that the membrane can range in thickness and hydrophobicity of proteins. Phospholipids can be asymmetric through the active translocation of a phospholipid type from one leaflet of the membrane to the other. This process is controlled by flippase and scramblase enzymes. A biological example of this is the segregation of phosphatidylserine to be highly enriched on the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane. Phosphatidylserine localization to the outer leaflet can trigger immune responses.
The existence of non-bilayer lipid formations with important biological functions was confirmed subsequent to publication of the fluid mosaic model. These membrane structures may be useful when the cell needs to propagate a non bilayer form, which occurs during cell division and the formation of a gap junction.
The membrane bilayer is not always flat. Local curvature of the membrane can be caused by the asymmetry and non-bilayer organization of lipids as discussed above. More dramatic and functional curvature is achieved through BAR domains, which bind to phosphatidylinositol on the membrane surface, assisting in vesicle formation, organelle formation and cell division. Curvature development is in constant flux and contributes to the dynamic nature of biological membranes.
During the decade of 1970, it was acknowledged that individual lipid molecules undergo free lateral diffusion within each of the layers of the lipid membrane. Diffusion occurs at a high speed, with an average lipid molecule diffusing ~ 2 μm, approximately the length of a large bacterial cell, in about 1 second. It has also been observed that individual lipid molecules rotate rapidly around their own axis. Moreover, phospholipid molecules can, although they seldom do, migrate from one side of the lipid bilayer to the other (a process known as flip - flop). However, flip - flop might be enhanced by flippase enzymes. The processes described above influence the disordered nature of lipid molecules and interacting proteins in the lipid membranes, with consequences to membrane fluidity, signaling, trafficking and function.
There are restrictions to the lateral mobility of the lipid and protein components in the fluid membrane imposed by the formation of subdomains within the lipid bilayer. These subdomains arise by several processes e.g. binding of membrane components to the extracellular matrix, nanometric membrane regions with a particular biochemical composition that promote the formation of lipid rafts and protein complexes mediated by protein - protein interactions. Furthermore, protein - cytoskeleton associations mediate the formation of "cytoskeletal fences '', corrals wherein lipid and membrane proteins can diffuse freely, but that they can seldom leave. Restriction on lateral diffusion rates of membrane components is very important because it allows the functional specialization of particular regions within the cell membranes.
Lipid rafts are membrane nanometric platforms with a particular lipid and protein composition that laterally diffuse, navigating on the liquid bilipid layer. Sphingolipids and cholesterol are important building blocks of the lipid rafts.
Cell membrane proteins and glycoproteins do not exist as single elements of the lipid membrane, as first proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. Rather, they occur as diffusing complexes within the membrane. The assembly of single molecules into these macromolecular complexes has important functional consequences for the cell; such as ion and metabolite transport, signaling, cell adhesion, and migration.
Some proteins embedded in the bilipid layer interact with the extracellular matrix outside the cell, cytoskeleton filaments inside the cell, and septin ring - like structures. These interactions have a strong influence on shape and structure, as well as on compartmentalization. Moreover, they impose physical constraints that restrict the free lateral diffusion of proteins and at least some lipids within the bilipid layer.
When integral proteins of the lipid bilayer are tethered to the extracellular matrix, they are unable to diffuse freely. Proteins with a long intracellular domain may collide with a fence formed by cytoskeleton filaments. Both processes restrict the diffusion of proteins and lipids directly involved, as well as of other interacting components of the cell membranes.
Septins are a family of GTP - binding proteins highly conserved among eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have similar proteins called paraseptins. They form compartmentalizing ring - like structures strongly associated with the cell membranes. Septins are involved in the formation of structures such as, cilia and flagella, dendritic spines, and yeast buds.
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when do stores stop selling alcohol in indiana | Alcohol Laws of Indiana - Wikipedia
Until 2018, Indiana was one of nearly a dozen U.S. states to ban all Sunday alcohol sales outside of bars and restaurants. That ban was repealed when Senate Bill 1 was signed by Gov. Eric Holcomb on February 28, 2018. Effective March 4, 2018, convenience stores, grocers, and liquor stores may sell alcohol from 12: 00 PM to 8: 00 PM on Sundays.
Effective July 4, 2010, beer sold in microbreweries may be sold on Sundays pursuant to Senate Bill 75. The sales must take place where the brewing is done. However, off - site sales may take place in trade shows and similar back door events. The sales limit is two cases per person, or 576 ounces.
In Indiana, alcohol may be sold only to those 21 years of age or older during the hours 7 a.m. to 3 a.m.
Establishments that sell beverages by the "drink '' must have food service for 25 persons at a minimum (hot soups, hot sandwiches, coffee, milk, and soft drinks) available at all times. It is unlawful for establishments to provide discounts on alcohol to certain customers or at certain times of day (e.g., during "happy hour '') that are not available to everyone.
Sale or serving of alcoholic beverages from 3 a.m. Christmas Day until 7 a.m. December 26 was banned until HB 1542 was passed in 2015.
Indiana is not an alcoholic beverage control state.
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor in Indiana.
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who played mozart in mozart in the jungle | Mozart in the Jungle - wikipedia
Mozart in the Jungle is an American comedy - drama web television series developed by Roman Coppola, Jason Schwartzman, Alex Timbers, and Paul Weitz for the video on demand service Amazon Video. The show received a production order in March 2014.
The story was inspired by Mozart in the Jungle: Sex, Drugs, and Classical Music, oboist Blair Tindall 's 2005 memoir of her professional career in New York, playing various high - profile gigs with ensembles including the New York Philharmonic and the orchestras of numerous Broadway shows. The series stars Gael García Bernal as Rodrigo, a character based on conductor Gustavo Dudamel, alongside Lola Kirke, Malcolm McDowell, Saffron Burrows, Hannah Dunne, Peter Vack, and Bernadette Peters.
The first season premiered in full on December 23, 2014. The show 's renewal for a second season was announced by Amazon on February 18, 2015. All episodes of the second season were made available online on December 30, 2015. On February 9, 2016 a third season was announced. All episodes of the third season were made available online on December 9, 2016. On January 30, 2017, Amazon announced that the series had been renewed for a fourth season, which was released on February 16, 2018. On April 6, 2018, Amazon canceled the show after four seasons.
The many oboe solos played by the protagonist and other characters throughout the series are performed by Lelie Resnick, principal oboist of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, while the character of Rodrigo is loosely based on Gustavo Dudamel, the Venezuelan music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic. Dudamel coached García Bernal before the latter conducted, in the character of Rodrigo, for a real performance of the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, scenes of which were used for the second season opener. Dudamel has a cameo in that episode, acting as a stagehand trying to convince Rodrigo to move to Los Angeles. Other musicians that have cameos in the series are violinist Joshua Bell, pianists Emanuel Ax and Lang Lang, composers Anton Coppola and Nico Muhly, Broadway star Brian d'Arcy James and conductors Alan Gilbert and Bernard Uzan. Blair Tindall, oboist and writer of the book on which the series is based, also appears in a cameo. Much of the original music for the show (most notably "Impromptu, '' and other work presented within the show 's continuity as by Thomas Pembridge) is composed by acclaimed contemporary female composer Missy Mazzoli. For Pembridge 's more experimental music in Season 4, the show turned to another female composer, Laura Karpman. Irish female composer and conductor Eímear Noone served as Lola Kirke 's real - life conducting coach in season four. Interior shots of the home concert hall were filmed at the Performing Arts Center at SUNY Purchase.
In addition to behind - the - scenes contributions from Mazzoli, Karpman and Noone, the theme of underrepresented, or unjustly forgotten or overlooked women composers and conductors in the world of classical music has become central on screen in the show 's third and fourth seasons. Historical female composers who appear in the show include Vítězslava Kaprálová, Isabella Leonarda, Nannerl Mozart and Fanny Mendelssohn. The fourth season featured Pulitzer Prize - winning contemporary composer Caroline Shaw appearing as herself (and the characters perform one of her actual compositions). Composer Paola Prestini also makes a brief cameo in season four, playing one of her own compositions.
The first season of the series received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the series a ' fresh ' 95 % rating based on 20 critic reviews, with the critical consensus "Though confined to the isolated world of classical music, Mozart in the Jungle 's Gael Garcia Bernal makes this charming little show sing. '' Metacritic gave the series a 73 out of 100, indicating ' generally favorable reviews. ' Cory Barker, writing for TV.com, praised the series. "What works so well is that Mozart is n't afraid to throw you into a world you 're likely unfamiliar with, but it does n't swim so far into the deep end that you immediately drown in jargon and distanced dramatic stakes. '' Robert Lloyd, writing for The Los Angeles Times, also lauded the first season. He stated that "Characters who were mouthpieces for attitudes start to seem like people, more complicated than a thumbnail description can accommodate. You grow interested in what will become of them without expecting or rooting for any particular outcome. '' Kory Grow of Rolling Stone also praised the series, writing that "(t) hanks to quirky scripts and a smart ensemble cast... it comes off whimsical without ringing off - pitch. ''
Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter also gave the first season a positive review. "Bernal is both likable and magnetic, and makes the eclectic maestro surge on the screen. He alone is worth streaming the series, but, thankfully, there 's a lot more going on here. '' Brian Lowry, writing for Variety, also lauded the series. "While Mozart is surely a niche confection, the show generally shines by proving long on charm even when it 's short on laughs. '' In a more mixed review, Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the series a "B - ''.
While socially - minded critics have praised the show 's push for gender equity, the almost all - white orchestra and main cast has drawn fire from critics at NPR for being unrealistic, given the prevalence of Asian musicians in real - life orchestras.
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when is the slender man movie coming out | Slender Man (film) - wikipedia
Slender Man is a 2018 American supernatural horror film directed by Sylvain White and written by David Birke, based on the character of the same name. The film stars Joey King, Julia Goldani Telles, Jaz Sinclair, and Annalise Basso, with Javier Botet as the title creature. The film was announced in May 2016, and much of the cast signed on a year later. Filming took place in Ayer, Massachusetts in June and July of 2017. Slender Man was released in the United States on August 10, 2018, by Screen Gems, and received a largely negative reception from critics and audiences alike.
In a small town in Massachusetts, four friends, Wren, Hallie, Chloe and Katie summon the Slender Man. A week later, Katie disappears and the other three girls go to her house to investigate for clues. The three discover that Katie had been involved in the occult and that she wanted the Slender Man to take her.
The three girls decide to make contact with the Slender Man in an attempt to get Katie back in exchange for something else. Wren, who has researched Slender Man mythology, warns Hallie and Chloe not to open their eyes while the three are making contact with the Slender Man for fear of death or madness. Chloe panics, opens her eyes and comes face to face with the Slender Man. Some time later, the Slender Man enters Chloe 's house and drives her insane.
Wren, suffering from frightening visions, searches for a solution while Hallie unsuccessfully attempts to move on. A short while later, Lizzie, Hallie 's younger sister, suffers a major panic attack and is sent to the hospital and sedated. Hallie discovers Wren had attempted to come into contact with the Slender Man again, with the help of Lizzie.
Hallie confronts Wren about her sister. Wren tells Hallie that the Slender Man only wants them, before she is taken by the Slender Man. Hallie, realizing that the only way to save Lizzie is to give herself to the Slender Man, sacrifices herself for her sister. Lizzie is able to recover, and reflects on the situation that resulted in the death of her sister and her sister 's friends.
In May 2016, it was reported that Sony Pictures had started developing Slender Man, a film based on the supernatural mythical character created by Eric Knudsen, with the screenplay to be written by David Birke. Sony 's Screen Gems was in talks with Mythology Entertainment, Madhouse Entertainment, and It Is No Dream Entertainment to produce and distribute the project.
In January 2017, Sylvain White was hired to direct the film, while producers were set as Mythology 's Brad Fischer, James Vanderbilt, and William Sherak, Madhouse 's Robyn Meisinger, and No Dream 's Sarah Snow.
In May 2017, Joey King, Julia Goldani Telles, Jaz Sinclair, Annalise Basso, Talitha Bateman (who would later be replaced by Taylor Richardson) and Alex Fitzalan joined the cast. In July 2017, Kevin Chapman was also added, to play an emotionally defeated, alcoholic father.
Principal photography on the film began on June 19, 2017, in Boston and concluded on July 28, 2017.
On January 2, 2018, the first teaser poster was revealed, with a teaser trailer the following day. Reactions were mixed, with some online publications describing the trailer as taking a "traditional, low - budget horror route ''. Other publications noted the film 's release coming four years after the Slender Man stabbing in Waukesha County, Wisconsin in 2014. After the trailer 's online debut, Bill Weier, the father of Anissa Weier (who had committed the stabbing alongside Morgan Geyser), stated that the film 's production and release is "extremely distasteful '', and advised local theaters to not screen the film. A second trailer was released on July 26, 2018.
Slender Man was released by Screen Gems on August 10, 2018. It was previously slated for May 18, and then August 24, 2018. Prior to the release, Screen Gems shopped the film to other distributors following disagreements between the studio and producers regarding the marketing strategy.
Marcus Theaters decided not to screen the film in their theaters in the Waukesha and Milwaukee Counties in Wisconsin out of consideration and respect for those impacted by the real - life events.
After the film was released, it was reported that Screen Gems mandated a PG - 13 MPAA rating and reworked the original script, as well as forcibly editing out several major scenes over fears of public backlash, which resulted in massive transition and continuity issues. This came after Bill Weier 's comments on the production. The studio also reportedly had never shown any support of the development of the project to begin with.
In the United States and Canada, Slender Man was released alongside The Meg and BlacKkKlansman, and was projected to gross $8 -- 12 million from 2,109 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $4.9 million on its first day, including $1 million from Thursday night previews, and went on to debut to $11.3 million, finishing fourth at the box office. It fell 56 % to $5 million in its second weekend, finishing eighth.
On Rotten Tomatoes, Slender Man holds an approval rating of 7 % based on 54 reviews, with an average rating of 3.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Slender Man might be thin, but he 's positively robust compared to the flimsy assortment of scares generated by the would - be chiller that bears his name. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 29 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "D -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an "awful '' 38 % positive score.
David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a D, writing "a tasteless and inedibly undercooked serving of the Internet 's stalest creepypasta, Slender Man aspires to be for the YouTube era what The Ring was to the last gasps of the VHS generation. But... there 's one fundamental difference that sets the two movies apart: The Ring is good, and Slender Man is terrible. ''
Caillou Pettis of Caillou Pettis Movie Reviews scored the film an F, and stated "An abysmal mix of bland characters, awful dialogue, lazy and boring scares, Slender Man is one of the worst horror films in years. ''
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when does kim's convenience season 2 start | Kim 's Convenience (TV series) - wikipedia
Kim 's Convenience is a Canadian television sitcom that premiered on CBC Television in October 2016. The series centres on the Korean Canadian Kim family who run a convenience store in the Moss Park neighbourhood of Toronto: parents "Appa '' (Paul Sun - Hyung Lee) and "Umma '' (Jean Yoon) -- Korean for "dad '' and "mom '' -- along with their daughter Janet (Andrea Bang) and estranged son Jung (Simu Liu). Additional characters include Jung 's friend and co-worker Kimchee (Andrew Phung) and his manager Shannon (Nicole Power). The series is based on Ins Choi 's 2011 play of the same name.
The first season was filmed from June to August 2016 at Showline Studios in Toronto. It is produced by Thunderbird Films in conjunction with Toronto 's Soulpepper Theatre Company, with Lee and Yoon reprising their roles from the play. Scripts were created by Choi and Kevin White, who had previously written for Corner Gas.
CBC announced on December 20, 2016 that it had renewed Kim 's Convenience for a second season of 13 episodes, starting September 26, 2017.
Interior scenes at the store, Handy Car Rental and home are shot at Showline Studios at 901 Lake Shore Boulevard East, where an exact replica of Mimi Variety, the model for the store, has been recreated. The studio is also used as the exterior of the car rental business. One episode was shot in Koreatown at Bloor and Christie Streets. Mimi Variety at 252 Queen Street East has had its signage replaced with "Kim 's Convenience '' signs and painted a mural on an exterior wall; while not used for shooting of scenes is used in the credit sequence and for stock transitional shots as well as for promotional shots. The owners of the store have retained the new signage although the business has not officially changed its name.
Originally set to premiere on October 4, 2016, on CBC, the series premiere was delayed to October 11, 2016, with back - to - back episodes, so it would not conflict with the Toronto Blue Jays ' American League Wild Card Game. The first season consists of 13 half - hour episodes.
CBC announced on December 20, 2016, that it had renewed Kim 's Convenience for a second season of 13 episodes, to air in the fall of 2017. Season 2 is scheduled to premiere on September 26, 2017.
John Doyle of The Globe and Mail wrote that the show "stays away from the pseudo-seriousness that could easily plague a comedy about immigrants and family dynamics. There is little obviousness and mugging, and moral lessons are few in the breezy speed of it. What 's it all about? Good jokes, mainly. Heartily recommended, Kim 's Convenience is a clever, generally engaging screwball comedy with an eye on entertainment ''.
The Toronto Star 's Tony Wong wrote: "The show is good. Possibly even great. The dialogue is sharp, on point and borderline subversive. It has the potential to be a future classic. It has bite... It 's funny and true, but not a reality we typically see reflected on television. ''
Midway through its first season, Kim 's Convenience was estimated by Numeris to have an average audience of 933,000 per episode with 39 % of viewers between the ages of 25 and 54.
For the 5th Canadian Screen Awards in 2017, Kim 's Convenience garnered 11 nominations, including Best Comedy Series, Best Actor in a Comedy Series (Lee), Best Actress in a Comedy Series (Yoon and Bang), and Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (Phung). Lee won the award for best actor in a continuing leading comedic role for his portrayal of Appa, and Phung won Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Kimchee.
Kim 's Convenience won two awards at the 2017 Toronto ACTRA Awards, Outstanding Performance - Female for actress Jean Yoon and the Members ' Choice Series Ensemble Award for Best Cast.
The first - season episodes "Ddong Chim '' and "Janet 's Photos '' are 2017 Writers Guild of Canada 's Canadian Screenwriting Awards finalists in the TV comedy category.
The characters are younger in the television series with Janet and Jung being about a decade younger, in their early to mid-twenties, and Janet starting art college at the beginning of the series while in the play she has already graduated and is working as a photographer. Jung is married and has a baby in the play while he is single and childless in the series. The store is set in Regent Park in the play while in the television series it is in the adjacent neighbourhood of Moss Park. The television series also introduces a number of supporting characters who are not in the play, most notably Kimchee and Shannon.
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when did sweet potatoes come to north america | Sweet potato - wikipedia
The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the bindweed or morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet - tasting, tuberous roots are a root vegetable. The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as greens. The sweet potato is only distantly related to the potato (Solanum tuberosum) and does not belong to the nightshade family, Solanaceae, but both families belong to the same taxonomic order, the Solanales.
The plant is a herbaceous perennial vine, bearing alternate heart - shaped or palmately lobed leaves and medium - sized sympetalous flowers. The edible tuberous root is long and tapered, with a smooth skin whose color ranges between yellow, orange, red, brown, purple, and beige. Its flesh ranges from beige through white, red, pink, violet, yellow, orange, and purple. Sweet potato cultivars with white or pale yellow flesh are less sweet and moist than those with red, pink or orange flesh.
Ipomoea batatas is native to the tropical regions in the Americas. Of the approximately 50 genera and more than 1,000 species of Convolvulaceae, I. batatas is the only crop plant of major importance -- some others are used locally (e.g., I. aquatica "kangkong ''), but many are poisonous. The genus Ipomoea that contains the sweet potato also includes several garden flowers called morning glories, though that term is not usually extended to Ipomoea batatas. Some cultivars of Ipomoea batatas are grown as ornamental plants under the name tuberous morning glory, used in a horticultural context.
Although the soft, orange sweet potato is often called a "yam '' in parts of North America, the sweet potato is botanically very distinct from a genuine yam (Dioscorea), which is native to Africa and Asia and belongs to the monocot family Dioscoreaceae. To add to the confusion, a different crop plant, the oca (Oxalis tuberosa, a species of wood sorrel), is called a "yam '' in many parts of Polynesia, including New Zealand.
Although the sweet potato is not closely related botanically to the common potato, they have a shared etymology. The first Europeans to taste sweet potatoes were members of Christopher Columbus 's expedition in 1492. Later explorers found many cultivars under an assortment of local names, but the name which stayed was the indigenous Taino name of batata. The Spanish combined this with the Quechua word for potato, papa, to create the word patata for the common potato.
In Argentina, Venezuela, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic the sweet potato is called batata. In Mexico, Peru, Chile, Central America, and the Philippines, the sweet potato is known as camote (alternatively spelled kamote in the Philippines), derived from the Nahuatl word camotli.
In Peru, the Quechua name for a type of sweet potato is kumar, strikingly similar to the Polynesian name kumara and its regional Oceanic cognates (kumala, umala, ' uala, etc.), which has led some scholars to suspect an instance of pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact.
In New Zealand, the most common cultivar is the red (purple) cultivar called kumara (spelled kūmara in the Māori language), but orange (' Beauregard ') and gold cultivars are also available. Kumara is particularly popular as a roasted food, often served with sour cream and sweet chili sauce. Occasionally, shops in Australia will label purple cultivars as "purple sweet potato '' to denote the difference to the other cultivars. About 95 % of Australia 's production is of the orange cultivar named ' Beauregard ', originally from North America, known simply as "sweet potato ''. A reddish - purple cultivar, ' Northern Star ', is 4 % of production and is sold as "kumara ''.
The origin and domestication of sweet potato is thought to be in either Central America or South America. In Central America, sweet potatoes were domesticated at least 5,000 years ago. One author postulated that the origin of I. batatas was between the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and the mouth of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. The cultigen had most likely been spread by local people to the Caribbean and South America by 2500 BC. Sweet potatoes are cultivated throughout tropical and warm temperate regions wherever there is sufficient water to support their growth.
Due to a major crop failure, sweet potatoes were introduced to Fujian province of China in about 1594 from Luzon. The growing of sweet potatoes was encouraged by the Governor Chin Hsüeh - tseng (Jin Xuezeng).
The sweet potato was grown in Polynesia before western exploration. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon - dated in the Cook Islands to 1000 AD, and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia around 700 AD, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back, and spread across Polynesia to Hawaii and New Zealand from there. It is possible, however, that South Americans brought it to the Pacific, although this is unlikely as it was the Polynesians, and not the native South Americans, who had a strong maritime tradition. The theory that the plant could spread by floating seeds across the ocean is not supported by evidence. Another point is that the sweet potato in Polynesia is the cultivated Ipomoea batatas, which is generally spread by vine cuttings and not by seeds.
The sweet potato was introduced to Okinawa, Japan in the early 1600s. Sweet potatoes became a staple in Japan because they were important in preventing famine when rice harvests were poor. Sweet potatoes were later planted in Shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune 's private garden. It was also introduced to Korea in 1764.
Sweet potatoes became common as a food crop in the islands of the Pacific Ocean, South India, Uganda and other African countries. In the Caribbean, a cultivar of the sweet potato called the boniato is grown. The flesh of the boniato is cream - colored, unlike the more common orange hue seen in other cultivars. Boniatos are not as sweet and moist as other sweet potatoes, but their consistency and delicate flavor are different than the common orange - colored sweet potato. Sweet potatoes have been a part of the diet in the United States for most of its history, especially in the Southeast. The average per capita consumption of sweet potatoes in the United States is only about 1.5 -- 2 kg (3.3 -- 4.4 lb) per year, down from 13 kg (29 lb) in 1920. "Orange sweet potatoes (the most common type encountered in the US) received higher appearance liking scores compared with yellow or purple cultivars. '' Purple and yellow sweet potatoes were not as well liked by consumers compared to orange sweet potatoes "possibly because of the familiarity of orange color that is associated with sweet potatoes. ''
A study published in 2015 by scientists from Ghent University and the International Potato Center found that the genome of cultivated sweet potatoes contains sequences of DNA from Agrobacterium, with genes being actively expressed by the plants. The discovery of the transgenes was made while performing metagenomic analysis of the sweet potato genome for viral diseases. Transgenes were observed both in the sweet potato 's closely related wild relatives, and also were found in more distantly related wild species. This observation makes cultivated sweet potatoes the first known example of a naturally transgenic food crop.
The plant does not tolerate frost. It grows best at an average temperature of 24 ° C (75 ° F), abundant sunshine and warm nights. Annual rainfalls of 750 -- 1,000 mm (30 -- 39 in) are considered most suitable, with a minimum of 500 mm (20 in) in the growing season. The crop is sensitive to drought at the tuber initiation stage 50 -- 60 days after planting, and it is not tolerant to water - logging, as it may cause tuber rots and reduce growth of storage roots if aeration is poor.
Depending on the cultivar and conditions, tuberous roots mature in two to nine months. With care, early - maturing cultivars can be grown as an annual summer crop in temperate areas, such as the northern United States and China. Sweet potatoes rarely flower when the daylight is longer than 11 hours, as is normal outside of the tropics. They are mostly propagated by stem or root cuttings or by adventitious shoots called "slips '' that grow out from the tuberous roots during storage. True seeds are used for breeding only.
They grow well in many farming conditions and have few natural enemies; pesticides are rarely needed. Sweet potatoes are grown on a variety of soils, but well - drained, light - and medium - textured soils with a pH range of 4.5 - 7.0 are more favorable for the plant. They can be grown in poor soils with little fertilizer. However, sweet potatoes are very sensitive to aluminum toxicity and will die about six weeks after planting if lime is not applied at planting in this type of soil. Because they are sown by vine cuttings rather than seeds, sweet potatoes are relatively easy to plant. Because the rapidly growing vines shade out weeds, little weeding is needed. A commonly used herbicide to rid the soil of any unwelcome plants that may interfere with growth is DCPA, also known as Dacthal. In the tropics, the crop can be maintained in the ground and harvested as needed for market or home consumption. In temperate regions, sweet potatoes are most often grown on larger farms and are harvested before first frosts.
In the Southeastern United States, sweet potatoes are traditionally cured to improve storage, flavor, and nutrition, and to allow wounds on the periderm of the harvested root to heal. Proper curing requires drying the freshly dug roots on the ground for two to three hours, then storage at 29 -- 32 ° C (85 -- 90 ° F) with 90 to 95 % relative humidity from five to fourteen days. Cured sweet potatoes can keep for thirteen months when stored at 13 -- 15 ° C (55 -- 59 ° F) with > 90 % relative humidity. Colder temperatures injure the roots.
In 2010, the world average annual yield for sweet potato crop was 13.2 tonnes per hectare. The most productive farms of sweet potato breeds were in Senegal, where the nationwide average annual yield was 33.3 tonnes per hectare. Yields as high as 80 metric tonnes per hectare have been reported from farms of Israel.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics, world production in 2004 was 127 million tonnes. The majority comes from China, with a production of 105 million tonnes from 49,000 km (19,000 sq mi). About half of the Chinese crop is used for livestock feed.
Per capita production is greatest in countries where sweet potatoes are a staple of human consumption, led by Papua New Guinea at about 500 kg (1,100 lb) per person per year, the Solomon Islands at 160 kg (350 lb), Burundi and Rwanda at 130 kg (290 lb) and Uganda at 100 kg (220 lb).
About 20,000 tonnes of sweet potatoes are produced annually in New Zealand, where sweet potato is known by the name kumara (or kūmara in Māori). It was a staple food for Māori before European contact.
In the United States, North Carolina, the leading state in sweet potato production, provided 38.5 % of the 2007 U.S. production of sweet potatoes. In 2007, California produced 23 %, Louisiana 15.9 %, and Mississippi 19 % of the U.S. total.
Mississippi has about 150 farmers growing sweet potatoes on about 8,200 acres (30 km), contributing $19 million to the state 's economy. Mississippi 's top five sweet - potato - producing counties are Calhoun, Chickasaw, Pontotoc, Yalobusha, and Panola. The National Sweet Potato Festival is held annually the entire first week in November in Vardaman (Calhoun County), which proclaims itself as "The Sweet Potato Capital ''.
Besides simple starches, raw sweet potatoes are rich in complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber and beta - carotene (a provitamin A carotenoid), while having moderate contents of other micronutrients, including vitamin B, vitamin B and manganese (table). When cooked by baking, small variable changes in micronutrient density occur to include a higher content of vitamin C at 24 % of the Daily Value per 100 g serving (right table).
The Center for Science in the Public Interest ranked the nutritional value of sweet potatoes as highest among several other foods.
Sweet potato cultivars with dark orange flesh have more beta - carotene than those with light - colored flesh, and their increased cultivation is being encouraged in Africa where vitamin A deficiency is a serious health problem. A 2012 study of 10,000 households in Uganda found that children eating beta - carotene enriched sweet potatoes suffered less vitamin A deficiency than those not consuming as much beta - carotene.
The table below presents the relative performance of sweet potato to other staple foods. While sweet potato provides less edible energy and protein per unit weight than cereals, it has higher nutrient density than cereals.
According to a study by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, sweet potatoes are the most efficient staple food to grow in terms of farmland, yielding approximately 70,000 kcal / ha d.
Although the leaves and shoots are also edible, the starchy tuberous roots are by far the most important product. In some tropical areas, they are a staple food crop.
Amukeke (sun - dried slices of root) and inginyo (sun - dried crushed root) are a staple food for people in northeastern Uganda. Amukeke is mainly served for breakfast, eaten with peanut sauce. Inginyo is mixed with cassava flour and tamarind to make atapa. People eat atapa with smoked fish cooked in peanut sauce or with dried cowpea leaves cooked in peanut sauce. Emukaru (earth - baked root) is eaten as a snack anytime and is mostly served with tea or with peanut sauce. Similar uses are also found in South Sudan.
The young leaves and vine tips of sweet potato leaves are widely consumed as a vegetable in West African countries (Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, for example), as well as in northeastern Uganda, East Africa. According to FAO leaflet No. 13 - 1990, sweet potato leaves and shoots are a good source of vitamins A, C, and B (riboflavin), and according to research done by A. Khachatryan, are an excellent source of lutein.
In Kenya, Rhoda Nungo of the home economics department of the Ministry of Agriculture has written a guide to using sweet potatoes in modern recipes. This includes uses both in the mashed form and as flour from the dried tubers to replace part of the wheat flour and sugar in baked products such as cakes, chapatis, mandazis, bread, buns and cookies. A nutritious juice drink is made from the orange - fleshed cultivars, and deep - fried snacks are also included.
In Egypt, sweet potato tubers are known as "batata '' (بطاطا) and are a common street food in winter, when street vendors with carts fitted with ovens sell them to people passing time by the Nile or the sea. The cultivars used are an orange - fleshed one as well as a white / cream - fleshed one. They are also baked at home as a snack or dessert, drenched with honey.
In Ethiopia, the commonly found cultivars are black - skinned, cream - fleshed and called "bitatis '' or "mitatis ''. They are cultivated in the eastern and southern lower highlands and harvested during the rainy season (June / July). In recent years, better yielding orange - fleshed cultivars were released for cultivation by Haramaya University as a less sugary sweet potato with higher vitamin A content. Sweet potatoes are widely eaten boiled as a favored snack providing calories and carbohydrates.
In East Asia, roasted sweet potatoes are popular street food. In China, sweet potatoes, typically yellow cultivars, are baked in a large iron drum and sold as street food during winter. In Korea, sweet potatoes, known as goguma, are roasted in a drum can, baked in foil or on an open fire, typically during winter. In Japan, a dish similar to the Korean preparation is called yaki - imo (roasted sweet potato), which typically uses either the yellow - fleshed "Japanese sweet potato '' or the purple - fleshed "Okinawan sweet potato '', which is known as beni - imo.
Sweet potato soup, served during winter, consists of boiling sweet potato in water with rock sugar and ginger. Sweet potato greens are a common side dish in Taiwanese cuisine, often boiled or sautéed and served with a garlic and soy sauce mixture, or simply salted before serving. They, as well as dishes featuring the sweet potato root, are commonly found at bento (Pe̍h - ōe - jī: piān - tong) restaurants. In northeastern Chinese cuisine, sweet potatoes are often cut into chunks and fried, before being drenched into a pan of boiling syrup.
In some regions of India, sweet potato is roasted slow over kitchen coals at night and eaten with some dressing while the easier way in the south is simply boiling or pressure cooking before peeling, cubing and seasoning for a vegetable dish as part of the meal. In Indian state of Tamil Nadu, it is known as ' Sakkara valli Kilangu '. It is boiled and consumed as evening snack. In some parts of India, fresh sweet potato is chipped, dried and then ground into flour; this is then mixed with wheat flour and baked into chapattis (bread). Between 15 and 20 percent of sweet potato harvest is converted by some Indian communities into pickles and snack chips. A part of the tuber harvest is used in India as cattle fodder.
In Pakistan, sweet potato is known as shakarqandi and is cooked as vegetable dish and also with meat dishes (chicken, mutton or beef). The ash roasted sweet potatoes are sold as a snack and street food in Pakistani bazaars especially during the winter months.
In Sri Lanka, it is called ' Bathala ' and tubers are used mainly for breakfast (boiled sweet potato commonly with sambal or grated coconut) or as an supplementary curry dish for rice. There are many other culinary uses with sweet potato as well.
The tubers of this plant, known as kattala in Dhivehi, have been used in the traditional diet of the Maldives. The leaves were finely chopped and used in dishes such as mas huni.
In Japan, both sweet potatoes (called "satsuma - imo '') and true purple yams (called "daijo '' or "beni - imo '') are grown. Boiling and steaming are the most common cooking methods. Also, the use in vegetable tempura is common. Daigaku - imo is a baked sweet potato dessert. Because it is sweet and starchy, it is used in imo - kinton and some other traditional sweets, such as ofukuimo. Shōchū, a Japanese spirit normally made from the fermentation of rice, can also be made from sweet potato, in which case it is called imo - jōchū. Imo - gohan, sweet potato cooked with rice, is popular in Guangdong, Taiwan and Japan. It is also served in nimono or nitsuke, boiled and typically flavored with soy sauce, mirin and dashi. In Korean cuisine, sweet potato starch is used to produce dangmyeon (cellophane noodles). Sweet potatoes are also boiled, steamed, or roasted, and young stems are eaten as namul. Pizza restaurants such as Pizza Hut and Domino 's in Korea are using sweet potatoes as a popular topping. Sweet potatoes are also used in the distillation of a variety of Soju.
In Malaysia and Singapore, sweet potato is often cut into small cubes and cooked with taro and coconut milk (santan) to make a sweet dessert called bubur caca or "bubu chacha ''. A favorite way of cooking sweet potato is deep frying slices of sweet potato in batter, and served as a tea - time snack. In homes, sweet potatoes are usually boiled. The leaves of sweet potatoes are usually stir - fried with only garlic or with sambal belacan and dried shrimp by Malaysians.
In the Philippines, sweet potatoes (locally known as camote or kamote) are an important food crop in rural areas. They are often a staple among impoverished families in provinces, as they are easier to cultivate and cost less than rice. The tubers are boiled or baked in coals and may be dipped in sugar or syrup. Young leaves and shoots (locally known as talbos ng kamote or camote tops) are eaten fresh in salads with shrimp paste (bagoong alamang) or fish sauce. They can be cooked in vinegar and soy sauce and served with fried fish (a dish known as adobong talbos ng kamote), or with recipes such as sinigang. The stew obtained from boiling camote tops is purple - colored, and is often mixed with lemon as juice. Sweet potatoes are also sold as street food in suburban and rural areas. Fried sweet potatoes coated with caramelized sugar and served in skewers (camote cue) are popular afternoon snacks. Sweet potatoes are also used in a variant of halo - halo called ginatan, where they are cooked in coconut milk and sugar and mixed with a variety of rootcrops, sago, jackfruit and bilu - bilo (glutinous rice balls). Bread made from sweet potato flour is also gaining popularity. Sweet potato is relatively easy to propagate, and in rural areas that can be seen abundantly at canals and dikes. The uncultivated plant is usually fed to pigs.
In Indonesia, sweet potatoes are locally known as ubi jalar (lit: spreading tuber) and are frequently fried with batter and served as snacks with spicy condiments, along with other kinds of fritters such as fried bananas, tempeh, tahu, breadfruits, or cassava. In the mountainous regions of West Papua, sweet potatoes are the staple food among the natives there. Using the bakar batu way of cooking (free translation: burning rocks), rocks that have been burned in a nearby bonfire are thrown into a pit lined with leaves. Layers of sweet potatoes, an assortment of vegetables, and pork are piled on top of the rocks. The top of the pile then is insulated with more leaves, creating a pressure of heat and steam inside which cooks all food within the pile after several hours.
Young sweet potato leaves are also used as baby food particularly in Southeast Asia and East Asia. Mashed sweet potato tubers are used similarly throughout the world.
Candied sweet potatoes are a side dish consisting mainly of sweet potatoes prepared with brown sugar, marshmallows, maple syrup, molasses, orange juice, marron glacé, or other sweet ingredients. It is often served in America on Thanksgiving. Sweet potato casserole is a side dish of mashed sweet potatoes in a casserole dish, topped with a brown sugar and pecan topping. Sweet potato pie is also a traditional favorite dish in Southern U.S. cuisine. Sweet potato slices are fried in bacon drippings and eaten with the bacon on toast. Sweet potato fries or chips are another common preparation, and are made by julienning and deep frying sweet potatoes, in the fashion of French fried potatoes. Sweet potato fries are served with a variety of condiments such as blue cheese salad dressing. Baked sweet potatoes are sometimes offered in restaurants as an alternative to baked potatoes. They are often topped with brown sugar and butter. Sweet potato butter can be cooked into a gourmet spread. Sweet potato mash is served as a side dish, often at Thanksgiving dinner or with barbecue. John Buttencourt Avila is called the "father of the sweet potato industry '' in North America. Another variation on the typical sweet potato pie is the Okinawan (Sweet Potato) Haupia pie, which is made with purple sweet potatoes, native to the island of Hawaii and believed to have been originally cultivated as early as 500 AD.
The town of Opelousas, Louisiana 's "Yambilee '' has been celebrated every October since 1946. The Frenchmen who established the first settlement at Opelousas in 1760 discovered the native Atakapa, Alabama, Choctaw, and Appalousa tribes eating sweet potatoes. The sweet potato became a favorite food item of the French and Spanish settlers and thus continued a long history of cultivation in Louisiana.
The town of Benton, Kentucky, celebrates the sweet potato annually with its Tater Day Festival on the first Monday of April. The town of Gleason, Tennessee, celebrates the sweet potato on Labor Day weekend with its Tater Town Special. The town of Gilmer, Texas celebrates the East Texas Yamboree each year in October.
Sweet potatoes are recognized as the state vegetable of North Carolina.
Before European contact, the Māori grew the small, yellow - skin, finger - sized kūmara known as taputini, hutihuti and rekamaroa that they had brought with them from east Polynesia. Modern trials have shown that the taputini was capable of producing well, but when American whalers, sealers and trading vessels introduced larger cultivars in the early 19th century, they quickly predominated.
In New Zealand, Māori traditionally cooked the kūmara in a hāngi earth oven. This is still a common practice when there are large gatherings on marae.
Currently there are three main cultivars or groups of cultivar (red, orange and gold) grown in the subtropical northern part of the North Island near Dargaville and widely available throughout New Zealand year - round, where they are a popular alternative to potatoes. The red cultivar has dull red skin and purple - streaked white flesh, and is the most popular. The orange cultivar is the same as the American ' Beauregard '. The gold kumara has pale, yellowish skin and flesh.
Kumara are an integral part of roast meals in New Zealand. They are served alongside such vegetables as potatoes and pumpkin and, as such, are generally prepared in a savory manner. Kumara are ubiquitous in supermarkets, roast meal takeaway shops and hāngi.
Among the Urapmin people of Papua New Guinea, taro (known in Urap as ima) and the sweet potato (Urap: wan) are the main sources of sustenance, and in fact the word for "food '' in Urap is a compound of these two words.
In Spain, sweet potato is called boniato. On the evening of All Souls ' Day, in Catalonia (northeastern Spain) it is traditional to serve roasted sweet potato and chestnuts, panellets and sweet wine. The occasion is called La Castanyada. Sweet potato is also appreciated to make cakes or to eat roasted through the whole country.
In Peru, sweet potatoes are called ' camote ' and are frequently served alongside ceviche. Sweet potato chips are also a commonly sold snack, be it on the street or in packaged foods.
Dulce de batata is a traditional Argentine, Paraguayan and Uruguayan dessert, which is made of sweet potatoes. It is a sweet jelly, which resembles a marmalade because of its color and sweetness but it has a harder texture, and it has to be sliced in thin portions with a knife as if it was a pie. It is commonly served with a portion of the same size of soft cheese on top of it.
In the Veneto (northeast Italy), sweet potato is known as patata mericana in the Venetian language (patata americana in Italian, meaning "American potato ''), and it is cultivated above all in the southern area of the region; it is a traditional fall dish, boiled or roasted.
In South America, the juice of red sweet potatoes is combined with lime juice to make a dye for cloth. By varying the proportions of the juices, every shade from pink to black can be obtained.
Purple sweet potato color is used as food coloring.
All parts of the plant are used for animal fodder.
Sweet potatoes or camotes are often found in Moche ceramics.
Several selections are cultivated in gardens as ornamental plants for their attractive foliage, including the dark - leafed cultivars ' Blackie ' and ' Ace of Spades ' and the chartreuse - foliaged ' Margarita '.
Cuttings of sweet potato vine, either edible or ornamental cultivars, will rapidly form roots in water and will grow in it, indefinitely, in good lighting with a steady supply of nutrients. For this reason, sweet potato vine is ideal for use in home aquariums, trailing out of the water with its roots submerged, as its rapid growth is fueled by toxic ammonia and nitrates, a waste product of aquatic life, which it removes from the water. This improves the living conditions for fish, which also find refuge in the vast root systems.
Researchers at North Carolina State University are breeding sweet potato cultivars that would be grown primarily for biofuel production.
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when was the one and only ivan published | The One and Only Ivan - wikipedia
The One and Only Ivan is a children 's novel written by K.A. Applegate and illustrated by Patricia Castelao. The book is about a silverback gorilla named Ivan who lived in a cage at a mall. The novel is written in first person from the point of view of Ivan, a silverback gorilla. In 2013 it was named the winner of the Newbery Medal. It has won several other awards and is currently nominated to several reading lists.
Plot
The story is placed at the Exit 8 Big Top Mall and Video Arcade. Ivan, the silverback gorilla, has lived in captivity at the Big Top Mall for 214 days by his own tally. He lives in his domain, and is generally content with his life. He watches television, eats bananas and makes artwork that is sold by the owner. Along with Ivan, Stella the elephant and Bob a stray dog, live at the mall. Stella is an older elephant who has a chronic injury in one leg and regularly performs in the daily shows. Unlike Ivan, Stella has a long memory, and can remember living other places, like the circus where she was taught many of her tricks. However, Stella would like to live at a zoo, because they have much wider spaces for their domains. Stella believes that zoos are how humans make amends.
When Ruby, a baby elephant is brought to the Big Top Mall to live with Stella and learn new tricks, things begin to change. Stella 's old injury causes her to get sick. Just before Stella succumbs to her illness and passes away, she asks Ivan to take care of Ruby and find her a better place. Ivan promises he will take care of Ruby, even though he does not know how he will manage to do it. After Stella 's death, Ivan begins to remember his life before the Big Top Mall, and what it was like to have freedom, if only to have stories to tell to Ruby. While Mack, the owner of the Big Top Mall is trying to train Ruby to do tricks, Ivan witnesses first hand the abuse to which she is subjected and starts to decide how to keep his promise to Stella.
When Julia, the custodian 's daughter gives Ivan some finger paints, he begins to get an idea of how to help Ruby. He also changes his opinion of the Big Top Mall. He no longer thinks of his area as his domain, but as a cage. Ivan uses his art to make a large picture of a zoo. George and Julia help him by putting it on the billboard outside of the Big Top Mall. When people see the new signs, they begin to protest the treatment of the animals. Investigators are sent to the Big Top Mall, and eventually it is closed down, and Ivan, Ruby and the other animals are taken away to a zoo. Ivan and Ruby are both adopted by the same zoo. Ivan was tested if he really was a silverback at the new zoo. The story ends with Ivan and Ruby adapting to their new habitats and the other animals they will live with.
Although The One and Only Ivan is an entirely fictional story, it is inspired by the true story of Ivan, who lived in a similar situation for 27 years. Eventually Ivan was adopted by Zoo Atlanta in 1994.
According to Kirkus Reviews, "Fittingly, Ivan narrates his tale in short, image - rich sentences and acute, sometimes humorous observations that are all the more heartbreaking for their simple delivery... Utterly believable, this bittersweet story... will inspire a new generation of advocates. '' Jonathan Hunt wrote in The Horn Book Magazine, "The choice to tell this story in the first person and to personify the gorilla with an entire range of human thoughts, feelings, and emotions poses important questions to the reader, not only about what it means to be human but also about what it means to be a living creature, and what kind of kinship we all share. '' Carolyn Phelan wrote in Booklist that "The text, written in first person from Ivan 's point of view, does a good job of vividly conveying his personality, emotions, and intelligence as well as creating a sense of otherness in his point of view. '' Writing for School Library Journal, Elizabeth Bird said, "There 's nothing twee or precious about it. Just good crisp writing, complex characters, and a story that will make animal rights activists out of the most lethargic of readers. Applegate has penned a real doozy of a book that speaks to the best and worst in all of us. ''
On April 9, 2014, it was announced that Disney may adapt the book with Allison Shearmur to produce. On May 6, 2016, it was announced that Mike Newell would direct the film, but on March 1, 2018 he was replaced by Thea Sharrock. The script will be written by Mike White. The cast for the film include Sam Rockwell as Ivan, Angelina Jolie as Stella, Bryan Cranston as Mack, Ariana Greenblatt as Julia, and Ramón Rodríguez as Mack 's assistant. With Brooklynn Prince in undisclosed role. Shearmur, who died on January 19, 2018, will still have a producing credit along with Jolie and Brigham Taylor
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number of british ships of the line at the beginning of 1775 | List of ships of the line of the Royal Navy - Wikipedia
This is a list of ships of the line of the Royal Navy of England, and later (from 1707) of Great Britain, and the United Kingdom. The list starts from 1660, the year in which the Royal Navy came into being after the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, up until the emergence of the battleship around 1880, as defined by the Admiralty.
This list includes several earlier ships which were rebuilt for the Royal Navy in this period -- specifically the first rate Prince Royal (in 1663), the second rate Victory (in 1666), the third rate Montague (in 1675) and the fourth rates Bonaventure (in 1663) and Constant Warwick (in 1666). The process, which generally involved the dismantling in dry dock of the old ship and constructing it to a new design incorporating part of the materials from the old vessel, produced what were in effect substantially new ships with altered dimensions and sizes, and generally mounting a somewhat larger number of guns.
The above list excludes two smaller fourth rates not designed for the line of battle -- the galley - frigates Charles Galley and James Galley of 1676. It also excludes four fifth rates of 36 guns (the Falcon and Sweepstakes of 1666, the Nonsuch of 1668, and the Phoenix of 1671) which were re-classed as 42 - gun fourth rates some years after their original completion, but later reverted to being fifth rates.
This programme was approved by Parliament on 10 October 1690. While nominally it comprised seventeen third rates of 80 guns and ten fourth rates of 60 guns, funds for three third rates of 70 guns were provided at virtually the same date as the Programme, which should thus strictly speaking refer to Thirty Ships.
The 1706 Establishment established a desired set of principal dimensions for each group (i.e. size) of warship from the 40 - gun fifth rate up to the 90 - gun second rate (first rates and ships of less than 40 guns were not covered by the 1706 Establishment). As only the principal dimensions were specified, the design of individual ships remained with the Master Shipwright in each Dockyard; thus ships of the same number of guns built to this Establishment did not constitute a class in the modern sense of all being built to one design.
The seven Second rates of this Establishment were ordered as 96 - gun vessels under the ordnance specification of the 1703 Guns Establishment, but the subsequent 1716 Guns Establishment reduced this armament to 90 guns.
The ten three - decker third rates of this Establishment were ordered as 80 - gun vessels under the ordnance specification of the 1703 Guns Establishment, while the subsequent 1716 Guns Establishment retained this total (while making slight adjustments).
The first nineteen of the following vessels were ordered between 1706 and 1714 as 54 - gun vessels, armed under the 1703 Guns Establishment with a main battery of 12 - pounder guns. Under the 1716 Guns Establishment, the 54 - gun ship was superseded by a 50 - gun ship with a main battery of 18 - pounder guns. The last ten ships listed below were ordered from 1715 onwards which were established and armed to the 1716 Guns Establishment, and the existing 54 - gun ships were re-armed to this standard as each came into a dockyard for refitting and opportunity allowed.
These small two - decker warships were not ships of the line as they were not powerful enough to stand in the line of battle. They were informally described as frigates and are included in the article on that topic.
These small two - decker warships were not ships of the line as they were not powerful enough to stand in the line of battle. They were informally described as frigates and are included in the article on that topic.
These small two - decker warships were not ships of the line as they were not powerful enough to stand in the line of battle. They were informally described as frigates and are included in the article on that topic.
Two ships of 74 guns were ordered in January 1748 from Chatham and Woolwich Dockyards, but with the end of the War of Austrian Succession both were cancelled in 1748.
By or soon after the appointment of Baron George Anson as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1751, the system of establishments that covered the design of British warships was abandoned, and with the appointment of Thomas Slade and William Bately as joint holders of the post of Surveyor of the Navy in 1755, new principles governed the composition of the battle fleet. The Navy Board stopped building any further three - decker 80 - gun ships. Production of the 70 - gun and 60 - gun ships also ceased. Instead, new 74 - gun and 64 - gun ships replaced these classes. Although 50 - gun and 44 - gun two - deckers continued to be built for cruising duties, the Navy no longer considered the 50 - gun ships powerful enough to serve as ships of the line.
Note that from 1756 onwards the 50 - gun ships were no longer counted as ships of the line as the Navy no longer considered them powerful enough to stand in the line of battle.
Note the six Dutch ships above were 54 - gun ships, so the British Navy as classed them as Fourth rate two - deckers, and not as ships of the line.
Captain Sir William Symonds served as Surveyor of the Navy from 1832 to 1847. Captain Symonds was a naval officer and yacht designer, "who had risen to prominence by his success in competitive sailing trials between small warships. His selection implied a criticism of the dockyard - trained architects of the preceding 200 years ''. Symonds attempted a revolution in warship design. His ships were designed to be faster under sail, and have more room for the gunners to work the guns (improving ergonomics). To achieve this, his ships were larger, and used a different hull form to provide stability without needing large amounts of ballast. Unfortunately the Surveyor 's department was understaffed for the amount of work they were undertaking, and mistakes were made. Symonds ' designs had more stability than was desirable, with the result that they rolled excessively and therefore were poor gun platforms. Another problem with Symonds ' ships was that they were very sensitive to the distribution of weights on board ship, such as the stores carried and consumed on a voyage.
Symonds worked very closely with John Edye, an experienced and well - educated shipwright officer. Edye was responsible for the details of structure and construction. The ships that Symonds and Edye designed had far more iron in their structure than the previous generation of ships designed by Seppings.
Ships have been listed by class as in Lambert.
(Also: * Lavery, Brian (1984). The Ship of the Line, Vol. 1: The Development of the Battlefleet 1650 - 1850. I (1st ed.). Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. p. 224. ISBN 0 - 85177 - 252 - 8.)
For subsequent capital ships of the Royal Navy, please see List of pre-dreadnought battleships of the Royal Navy and List of dreadnought battleships of the Royal Navy.
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when does new episodes of boruto come out | Boruto: Naruto Next Generations - wikipedia
Boruto: Naruto Next Generations (Japanese: BORUTO - ボルト - NARUTO NEXT GENERATIONS) is a Japanese manga series written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto. Serialized in Shueisha 's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump, Boruto is a spin - off of and sequel to Masashi Kishimoto 's Naruto, and follows the exploits of Naruto Uzumaki 's son Boruto and his ninja team while following a path to follow once they grow up. An anime television series adaptation directed by Noriyuki Abe started airing on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2017. Unlike the manga that started as a retelling of the film Boruto: Naruto the Movie, the Boruto anime acts like a prequel, before Boruto and his friends became ninjas before the later arc.
Critical reception to the series has been largely positive with most critics liking the traits of the main characters, most notably Boruto who, while resembling his father Naruto, still has different reasons for making pranks and at the same time bonds with others. Pierrot 's anime prequel also earned praise for its use of both new and returning characters. Shueisha shipped a million units of the manga series as of January 2017.
Years later after the Fourth Great Ninja War, Naruto Uzumaki achieves his dream of becoming the Seventh Hokage, after he and Hinata Hyuga married, and now oversees a new generation in the Ninja World. They have two children: Boruto and Himawari. Boruto has become part of a ninja team led by Naruto 's protege Konohamaru Sarutobi, along with Sasuke Uchiha and Sakura Haruno 's daughter Sarada, and Orochimaru 's artificial son Mitsuki. Boruto meets Sasuke, when he returns to the village to warn Naruto of an impending threat. Boruto manages to convince Sasuke to teach him for the upcoming Chunin Exam. During the exam Momoshiki and Kinshiki Ōtsutsuki, the threat whom Sasuke spoke of, appear and abduct Naruto, so they can use Kurama, a creature sealed inside his body, to revitalize the dying Shinju from the dimension which they came from.
Boruto joins up with Sasuke and the Five Kages. When they travel to the other dimension in order to save Naruto, Momoshiki turns Kinshiki into a chakra fruit and he ingests it in order to become stronger than Naruto and others. Aided by Naruto and Sasuke, Boruto is able to defeat Momoshiki. Though dying, noting his killer 's untapped potential, Momoshiki lives long enough to have a private discussion with Boruto and warns him that he soon will face much tribulation later on in his life. As Sasuke interrogates a criminal who knows of Boruto 's mark, he reveals to Naruto and his underlings there is a group called "The Husk '' (殻, Kara) that are searching for people with marks.
A countdown website was used under the name of "Next Generation '' in order to promote the new manga. After its ending in December 2015, it was announced Boruto: Naruto Next Generations 's serialization. Masashi Kishimoto said that he wanted Boruto to surpass his own work. Artist Mikio Ikemoto has been working as an assistant for Kishimoto ever since Naruto 's early chapters whereas writer Ukyō Kodachi has been a writer for Gaara 's light novel, Gaara Hiden, and assisted Kishimoto in writing the script of the movie Boruto: Naruto the Movie.
Despite having a lighter tone than Naruto, the series begins by hinting at a dark future. While Kishimoto is not writing the series, he created multiple characters for the staff to use, thinking Boruto will become more interesting thanks to them. While not specifying whether Naruto or another important character will die, Kishimoto commented he finds this type of situation interesting due to the impact it could probably happen in the scenario and most notably Boruto, clarifying it would give the authors more freedom.
Written by Ukyō Kodachi and illustrated by Mikio Ikemoto, Boruto: Naruto Next Generations launched in the twenty - third issue of Shueisha 's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump on May 9, 2016. Original series creator Masashi Kishimoto is supervising the series illustrated by his former chief assistant and written by his co-writer of the Boruto: Naruto the Movie screenplay. A spin - off manga titled Boruto: Saikyo Dash Generations (BORUTO - ボルト - SAIKYO DASH GENERATIONS) has been written by Kenji Taira and serialized in Saikyō Jump since the May 2017 issue.
These chapters have yet to be published in a tankōbon volume. They were originally serialized in Japanese in issues of Weekly Shōnen Jump.
At the Naruto and Boruto stage event at Jump Festa on December 17, 2016, it was announced that the manga series would be receiving an anime project, which was later confirmed to be an anime television series adaptation that will feature an original story. The anime series, supervised by series creator Ukyō Kodachi, will be co-directed by Noriyuki Abe and Hiroyuki Yamashita, with series composition by Makoto Uezu, animation produced by Pierrot, character designs by Tetsuya Nishio and Hirofumi Suzuki, and music co-composed by Yasuharu Takanashi and - yaiba -. It premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2017. Viz Media has licensed the series in North America. From episodes 1 - 26 the first opening theme is "Baton Road '' by KANA - BOON. From episodes 27 - onwards the second opening theme is "OVER '' by Little Glee Monster. From episodes 1 -- 13, the first ending theme is "Dreamy Journey '' by The Peggies. From episodes 14 - 26, the second ending theme is "Sayonara Moon Town '' by Scenario Art. From episodes 27 - onwards, the third ending theme is "I Continue Walking '' by Melofloat.
A novel titled The New Konoha Ninja Flying In the Blue Sky! (青天 を 翔る 新た な 木の葉 たち! Se, iten o Kakeru Aratana Konoha - tachi!) was released on May 2, 2017. A second one was released on July 4, 2017 under the title of A Call From the Shadows! (影 から の 呼び声!, Kage Kara no Yobigoe!). The third novel Those Who Illuminate the Night of Shinobi! (忍 の 夜 を 照らす 者!, Shinobi no Yoru O Terasu Mono!), was released on September 4, 2017.
The manga has been generally well received in Japan, with the compilations appearing as topsellers multiple times. It also has one million copies in print as of January 2017. The manga 's first volume has also sold well in North America. Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network admitted Boruto appealed to her despite having never gotten into the Naruto manga. She praised how the writers managed to deal with the protagonist 's angst without coming across as "teen whining '' as well as how Sasuke Uchiha decides to train him. Amy McNulty found it appealing to fans of the original Naruto series, stating that while Mitsuki does not have a large role in the story, the sidestory helps to expand his origins. Nik Freeman, another writer from the same site, criticized Boruto 's lack of development when comparing him with his first introduction in the Naruto 's finale and there were multiple differences as to why both the young Naruto and Boruto vandalized their city. Nevertheless, Freeman also liked Mitsuki 's backstory as he did not feel it rehashed stories from the past. Reviewing, the first chapter online, Chris Beveridge from the Fandom Post was more negative, complaining more about the large focus between Naruto and Boruto 's poor relationship, the rehash elements of Boruto: Naruto the Movie and criticized the adaptation of Kishimoto 's artwork. Nevertheless, she praised the relationship between Naruto and Sasuke as well as the foreshadowing of an older Boruto fight. Melina Dargis from the same site reviewed the first volume, commenting she was looking forward to the development of the characters despite having already watched the Boruto movie and was also pleased by seeing Mitsuki 's role in his own sidestory. Leroy Douresseaux from Comic Book Bin recommended it to Naruto fans, explaining how the new authors managed to use the first volume to establish the protagonists ' personalities.
The anime was popular with Japanese readers of Charapedia who voted it the ninth best anime show of Spring 2017. IGN writer Sam Stewart enjoyed the focus of the new generation of ninjas and their differences from the previous generation, praising the return of other characters like Toneri as well as famous "Eye Techniques ''. Crunchyroll 's Naruto expert and Brand Manager, Victoria Holden, joined once to discuss whether Next Generations could live up to the success of the old series while still reviewing previous episodes of the series. Stewart enjoyed the characterization of both Shikadai Nara and Metal Lee seeing their relationship and accidental fight as interesting to watch, and that Next Generations managed to improve itself with each episode. Beveridge enjoyed the series ' first episode, remarking he felt Boruto 's characterization was superior to the one from the manga. In a more comical article, Geek.com writer Tim Tomas compared Boruto with the series The Legend of Korra as, while sharing themes with its prequels, they were still different. Sarah Nelkin considered Boruto as a more lighthearted version of Naruto series but Amy McNulty from ANN acclaimed its 13th episode for the focus on a subplot that has been developing ever since its first episode and how the revelation of it made the series darker. Stewart agreed with McNulty, commenting on how the developers reached the climax of the anime 's first story arc as well as the characterization of the revealed villain which impressed the reviewer. Allega Frank from Polygon noted that during the start of both the manga and anime, multiple fans were worried in regards to a flashforward; in this sequence an older Boruto is facing an enemy named Kawaki who implies Naruto might be dead so his fate left them worried.
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who were the backup singers for elvis presley | The Jordanaires - Wikipedia
The Jordanaires were an American vocal quartet that formed as a gospel group in 1948. They are known for providing background vocals for Elvis Presley, in live appearances and recordings from 1956 to 1972. The group has also worked in the recording studio, on stage, and on television with many other country and rock and roll artists.
The history of the Jordanaires can be traced back to the early 1940s, and the original Foggy River Boys, which were made up of the Matthews brothers, all ordained ministers: Bill (b. LaFollette, Tennessee, 1923), Monty (b. Pulaski, Kentucky, 1927), Jack, and Matt. In 1948, Matt and Jack left to become full - time preachers and were replaced by Bob Hubbard (b. Chaffee, Missouri, 1928), also a minister, and bass singer Culley Holt (b. McAlester, Oklahoma, 1925), and pianist Bob Money. After three years Money was replaced as pianist by Gordon Stoker. At that time, they formed the new group as the Melodizing Matthews, in Springfield, Missouri, but soon changed the name to the Jordanaires, after Jordan Creek in Missouri.
This starting lineup lasted until 1949; at that time, Bob Hubbard was drafted and was replaced by Hoyt Hawkins. Later that year, Monty and Bill Matthews left. Hawkins switched to baritone, and new lead Neal Matthews was recruited. Don Bruce came in as a new first tenor; however, he was drafted the next year. The group narrowed to a quartet, with Stoker taking over as first tenor. They became members of the Grand Ole Opry in 1949. They recorded for Capitol Records in the early 1950s, and began providing vocal accompaniment behind solo singers in Nashville, Tennessee.
The lineup changed again in 1954, with Culley Holt leaving and new bass Hugh Jarrett coming in.
The quartet became well known in the southern gospel realm, and what made them stand out from other quartets of that time was how they would bring spirituals (such as "Dry Bones '') to a predominantly white audience. While continuing to turn out gospel albums of their own, the group become better known for the signature background harmonies they have provided on dozens of secular records.
Jarrett remained until 1958; at that time, he was replaced by Ray Walker.
On October 3, 1954, a teenage Elvis Presley made the drive from Memphis to Nashville to make his one and only performance on the Grand Ole Opry. Debuting his high - energy brand of rockabilly with "Blue Moon of Kentucky '' it was his first live performance on national radio broadcast. He had just recorded his first record at Sun studios, That 's All Right just a few weeks prior. An afternoon in 1955, the Jordanaires played a show in Memphis with Eddy Arnold to publicize their new syndicated TV series, Eddy Arnold Time (for the program the group used the name Gordonaires). They sang "Peace in the Valley '', and when the show was over, Elvis Presley, an emerging singer, talked with them and said, "If I ever get a recording contract with a major company, I want you guys to back me up. '' He was on Sun Records at that time.
On January 10, 1956, Presley recorded his first session for RCA with guitarist Scotty Moore, bassist Bill Black, and drummer D.J. Fontana. "I Got a Woman '', "Heartbreak Hotel '', and "Money Honey '' were recorded. Presley asked his new label RCA Victor if the Jordanaires could appear on the recordings. The next day Gordon Stoker was called by Chet Atkins to do a session with a new young singer named Elvis. RCA had also just signed the Speer Family. Atkins asked Stoker to sing with Ben and Brock Speer so he could use them. The recording session for "I 'm Counting on You '' and "I Was the One '' was the first session Presley did with vocal background. By April 1956, "Heartbreak Hotel '' was No. 1.
After having done several more recording sessions in New York with Moore, Black, and Fontana, Presley flew to Nashville on April 14, 1956, to record "I Want You, I Need You, I Love You ''. Stoker was called again, to sing a vocal trio with Ben and Brock Speer. After the session, Presley took Stoker aside and told him (not knowing, at the time, why all the Jordanaires were not there) that he had wanted the Jordanaires. This time, Stoker saw to it -- and Presley used the quartet on nearly every one of his recording sessions for the next 14 years. The quartet also appeared in some of Presley 's movies, and on many of his television appearances.
As Presley was about to start performing at the Hilton in Las Vegas, the Colonel 's office called for the Jordanaires to work with Presley in the shows. They had 35 recording sessions already booked for the dates he needed, so they could not go. They got in touch with the Imperials, who had done the background vocals for Presley 's album How Great Thou Art along with them, and the Imperials took the place of the Jordanaires.
The group appeared on all of Cline 's Decca sessions from her first in November 1960 to her last in February 1962, during which time they backed her on songs such as:
The lineup consisting of Gordon Stoker, first tenor and manager, Neal Matthews, second tenor and lead, Hoyt Hawkins, baritone, and Ray Walker, bass, would be the group 's most stable lineup, lasting throughout the 1960s and 1970s. In January 1978 the group performed a medley of Presley 's songs on the NBC TV special Nashville Remembers Elvis on His Birthday.
The group changed again in 1982, when Hoyt Hawkins died. His replacement was Duane West, formerly of Sonny James ' backup group, the Southern Gentlemen. In 1990, the group provided backing vocals for Presley 's former Sun Records labelmate Johnny Cash on his Mercury Records album Boom Chicka Boom. The group has also cooperated with Vikingarna.
The lineup remained constant for the rest of the decade, with West leaving due to an illness in 1999 and his death in 2002. His replacement was Louis Nunley, formerly of the Anita Kerr Singers.
Neal Matthews died on April 21, 2000. He was replaced by new lead Curtis Young.
Hugh Jarrett died at 78 on May 31, 2008, from injuries sustained in an auto accident in March.
Gordon Stoker died at 88 at his Brentwood, Tennessee, home on March 27, 2013, after a long illness. His son Alan confirmed that the Jordanaires were formally dissolved, per his father 's wishes.
The Jordanaires performed with many modern recording artists as well as recent sessions with country music legends.
Ryman Auditorium
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what impact did the bantu have on sub-saharan africa | Bantu expansion - wikipedia
The Bantu expansion is a major series of migrations of the original proto - Bantu language speaking group, who spread from an original nucleus around West Africa - Central Africa across much of sub-Sahara Africa. In the process, the Proto - Bantu - speaking settlers displaced or absorbed pre-existing hunter - gatherer and pastoralist groups that they encountered.
The primary evidence for this expansion is linguistic - the languages spoken across Sub-Equatorial Africa are remarkably similar to each other, suggesting the common cultural origin of their original speakers. The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the Niger -- Congo family, was located in the adjoining regions of Cameroon and Nigeria. However, attempts to trace the exact route of the expansion, to correlate it with archaeological evidence and genetic evidence, have not been conclusive; thus although the expansion is widely accepted as having taken place, many aspects of it remain in doubt or are highly contested.
The expansion is believed to have taken place in at least two waves, between about 3,000 and 2,000 years ago (approximately 1,000 BCE to 1 CE). Linguistic analysis suggests that the expansion proceeded in two directions: the first went across the Congo forest region (towards East Africa), and the second - and possibly others - went south along the African coast into Gabon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola, or inland along the many south - to - north flowing rivers of the Congo River system. The expansion reached South Africa, probably as early as 300 AD.
Initially archaeologists believed that they could find archaeological similarities in the ancient cultures of the region that the Bantu - speakers were held to have traversed; while linguists, classifying the languages and creating a genealogical table of relationships believed they could reconstruct material culture elements. They believed that the expansion was caused by the development of agriculture, the making of ceramics, and the use of iron, which permitted new ecological zones to be exploited. In 1966 Roland Oliver published an article presenting these correlations as a reasonable hypothesis.
The hypothesized Bantu expansion pushed out or assimilated the hunter - forager proto - Khoisan, who had formerly inhabited Southern Africa. In Eastern and Southern Africa, Bantu speakers may have adopted livestock husbandry from other unrelated Cushitic - and Nilotic - speaking peoples they encountered. Herding practices reached the far south several centuries before Bantu - speaking migrants did. Archaeological, linguistic, genetic, and environmental evidence all support the conclusion that the Bantu expansion was a significant human migration.
The Niger -- Congo family comprises a huge group of languages spread throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. The Benue -- Congo branch includes the Bantu languages, which are found throughout Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa.
A characteristic feature of most Niger -- Congo languages, including the Bantu languages, is their use of tone. They generally lack case inflection, but grammatical gender is characteristic, with some languages having two dozen genders (noun classes). The root of the verb tends to remain unchanged, with either particles or auxiliary verbs expressing tenses and moods. For example, in a number of languages the infinitival is the auxiliary designating the future.
A typical trait in the Niger - Kordofanian family as a group is the division of nouns. This has been juxtaposed with the gender system of the Indo - European languages.
Before the expansion of Bantu - speaking farmers, Central, Southern and Southeast Africa were populated by Pygmy foragers, Khoisan - speaking hunter - gatherers, Nilo - Saharan - speaking herders, and Cushitic - speaking pastoralists.
It is thought that Central African Pygmies and Bantus branched out from a common ancestral population c. 70,000 years ago. Many Batwa groups speak Bantu languages; however, a considerable portion of their vocabulary is not Bantu in origin. Much of this vocabulary is botanical, deals with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialised for the forest and is shared between western Batwa groups. It has been proposed that this is the remnant of an independent western Batwa (Mbenga or "Baaka '') language.
Before the Bantu expansion, Proto - Khoisan - speaking peoples inhabited Southern Africa. Their descendants have largely mixed with other peoples and adopted other languages. A few still live by foraging often supplemented by working for neighbouring farmers in the arid regions around the Kalahari desert, while a larger number of Nama continue their traditional subsistence by raising livestock in Namibia and adjacent South Africa.
Prior to the arrival of Bantus in Southeast Africa, Cushitic - speaking peoples had migrated into the region from the Ethiopian Highlands and other more northerly areas. The first waves consisted of Southern Cushitic speakers, who settled around Lake Turkana and parts of Tanzania beginning around 5,000 years ago. Many centuries later, around 1,000 AD, some Eastern Cushitic speakers also settled in northern and coastal Kenya.
In addition, Khoisan - speaking hunter - gatherers also inhabited Southeast Africa before the Bantu expansion.
Nilo - Saharan - speaking herder populations comprised a third group of the area 's pre-Bantu expansion inhabitants.
It seems likely that the expansion of the Bantu - speaking people from their core region in West Africa began around 1000 BC. Although early models posited that the early speakers were both iron - using and agricultural, archaeology has shown that they did not use iron until as late as 400 BC, though they were agricultural. The western branch, not necessarily linguistically distinct, according to Christopher Ehret, followed the coast and the major rivers of the Congo system southward, reaching central Angola by around 500 BC.
It is clear that there were human populations in the region at the time of the expansion, and pygmies are their purer descendants. However, mtDNA genetic research from Cabinda suggests that only haplogroups that originated in West Africa are found there today, and the distinctive L of the pre-Bantu population is missing, suggesting that there was a complete population replacement. In South Africa, however, a more complex intermixing could have taken place.
Further east, Bantu - speaking communities had reached the great Central African rainforest, and by 500 BC, pioneering groups had emerged into the savannas to the south, in what are now the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Zambia.
Another stream of migration, moving east by 3,000 years ago (1000 BC), was creating a major new population center near the Great Lakes of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively harsh farming conditions in areas further from water. Pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu - Natal in South Africa by AD 300 along the coast, and the modern Limpopo Province (formerly Northern Transvaal) by AD 500.
Between the 13th and 15th centuries, the relatively powerful Bantu - speaking states on a scale larger than local chiefdoms began to emerge, in the Great Lakes region, in the savanna south of the Central African rainforest, and on the Zambezi river where the Monomatapa kings built the famous Great Zimbabwe complex. Such processes of state - formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. They were probably due to denser population, which led to more specialised divisions of labour, including military power, while making outmigration more difficult. Other factors were increased trade among African communities and with European and Arab traders on the coasts, technological developments in economic activity, and new techniques in the political - spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health. Towards the northern parts of South Africa emerged groups of Tsonga and Venda tribes around the 1500s and 1600s.
By the time Great Zimbabwe had ceased being the capital of a large trading empire, speakers of Bantu languages were present throughout much of southern Africa. Two main groups developed: the Nguni (Xhosa, Zulu, Swazi) who occupied the eastern coastal plains and the Sotho -- Tswana who lived on the interior plateau.
In the late 18th and early 19th century, two major events occurred. The Trekboers were colonizing new areas of southern Africa, moving northeast from the Cape Colony, and they came into contact with the Xhosa, the Southern Nguni. At the same time major events were taking place further north in modern - day KwaZulu - Natal. At that time the area was populated by dozens of small clans, one of which was the Zulu, then a particularly small clan of no local distinction whatsoever. In 1816 Shaka acceded to the Zulu throne. Within a year he had conquered the neighboring clans, and had made the Zulu into the most important ally of the large Mtetwa clan, which was in competition with the Ndwandwe clan for domination of the northern part of modern - day KwaZulu - Natal.
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when did legos become popular in the us | Lego timeline - wikipedia
This article lists notable events and releases in the history of the Lego Group.
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barcelona vs real madrid who has more wins | El Clásico - wikipedia
El Clásico (Spanish pronunciation: (el ˈklasiko); Catalan: El Clàssic, pronounced (əɫ ˈkɫasik); "The Classic '') is the name given in football to any match between fierce rivals Real Madrid and FC Barcelona. Originally it referred only to those competitions held in the Spanish championship, but nowadays the term has been generalized, and tends to include every single match between the two clubs: UEFA Champions League, Copa del Rey, etc. Other than the UEFA Champions League Final, it is considered one of the biggest club football games in the world, and is among the most viewed annual sporting events. The match is known for its intensity.
The rivalry comes about as Madrid and Barcelona are the two largest cities in Spain, and they are sometimes identified with opposing political positions, with Real Madrid viewed as representing Spanish nationalism and Barcelona viewed as representing Catalan nationalism. The rivalry is regarded as one of the biggest in world sport. The two clubs are among the richest and most successful football clubs in the world; in 2014 Forbes ranked them the world 's two most valuable sports teams. Both clubs have a global fanbase; they are the world 's two most followed sports teams on social media.
Real Madrid leads the head to head results in competitive matches with 95 wins to Barcelona 's 91, while Barcelona leads in total matches with 111 wins to Real Madrid 's 99. Along with Athletic Bilbao, they are the only clubs in La Liga to have never been relegated.
The conflict between Real Madrid and Barcelona has long surpassed the sporting dimension, so that elections to the clubs ' presidencies are strongly politicized.
As early as the 1930s, Barcelona "had developed a reputation as a symbol of Catalan identity, opposed to the centralising tendencies of Madrid ''. In 1936, when Francisco Franco started the Coup d'état against the democratic Second Spanish Republic, the president of Barcelona, Josep Sunyol, member of the Republican Left of Catalonia and Deputy to The Cortes, was arrested and executed without trial by Franco 's troops (Sunyol was exercising his political activities, visiting Republican troops north of Madrid).
Barcelona was on top of the list of organizations to be purged by the National faction, just after communists, anarchists, and independentists. During the Franco dictatorship, most citizens of Barcelona were in strong opposition to the fascist - like régime. Phil Ball, the author of Morbo: The Story of Spanish Football, says about the match; "they hate each other with an intensity that can truly shock the outsider ''.
During the dictatorships of Miguel Primo de Rivera and of Francisco Franco, all regional languages and identities in Spain were frowned upon and restrained. In this period, Barcelona gained their motto Més que un club (English: More than a club) because of its alleged connection to Catalan nationalist as well as to progressive beliefs. During Franco 's regime, however, Barcelona was granted profit due to its good relationship with the dictator at management level, even giving two awards to him. The links between senior Real Madrid representatives and the Francoist regime were undeniable; for most of the Catalans, Real Madrid was regarded as "the establishment club '', despite the fact that presidents of both clubs like Josep Sunyol and Rafael Sánchez Guerra, suffered at the hands of Franco 's supporters in the Spanish Civil War.
The image for both clubs was further affected by the creation of Ultras groups, some of which became hooligans. In 1980, Ultras Sur was founded as a far - right - leaning Real Madrid ultras group, followed in 1981 by the foundation of the initially left - leaning and later on far - right, Barcelona ultras group Boixos Nois. Both groups became known for their violent acts, and one of the most conflictive factions of Barcelona supporters, the Casuals, became a full - fledged criminal organisation.
For many people, Barcelona is still considered as "the rebellious club '', or the alternative pole to "Real Madrid 's conservatism ''. According to polls released by CIS (Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas), Real Madrid is the favorite team of most of the Spanish residents, while Barcelona stands in the second position. In Catalonia, forces of all the political spectrum are overwhelmingly in favour of Barcelona. Nevertheless, the support of the blaugrana club goes far beyond from that region, earning its best results among young people, sustainers of a federal structure of Spain and citizens with left - wing ideology, in contrast with Real Madrid fans which politically tend to adopt right - wing views.
On 13 June 1943, Real Madrid beat Barcelona 11 -- 1 at home in the second leg of a semi-final of the Copa del Generalísimo, the Copa del Rey having been renamed in honour of General Franco. The first leg, played at Barcelona 's Les Corts stadium in Catalonia, had ended with Barcelona winning 3 -- 0. Madrid complained about all the three goals that referee Fombona Fernández had allowed for Barcelona, with the home supporters also whistling Madrid throughout, whom they accused of employing roughhouse tactics, and Fombona for allowing them to. A campaign began in Madrid. Barcelona player Josep Valle recalled: "The press officer at the DND and ABC newspaper wrote all sorts of scurrilous lies, really terrible things, winding up the Madrid fans like never before ''. While former Real Madrid goalkeeper Eduardo Teus, who admitted that Madrid had "above all played hard '', wrote in a newspaper: "the ground itself made Madrid concede two of the three goals, goals that were totally unfair ''.
Barcelona fans were banned from traveling to Madrid. Real Madrid released a statement after the match which former club president (1985 -- 1995) Ramón Mendoza explained, "The message got through that those fans who wanted to could go to El Club bar on Calle de la Victoria where Madrid 's social center was. There, they were given a whistle. Others had whistles handed to them with their tickets. '' The day of the second leg, the Barcelona team were insulted and stones were thrown at their bus as soon as they left their hotel. Barcelona 's striker Mariano Gonzalvo said of the incedent, "Five minutes before the game had started, our penalty area was already full of coins. '' Barcelona goalkeeper Lluis Miró rarely approached his line -- when he did, he was armed with stones. As Francisco Calvet told the story, "They were shouting: Reds! Separatists!... a bottle just missed Sospedra that would have killed him if it had hit him. It was all set up. '' Down in the Barcelona dugout, Ángel Mur who watched events unfold, stated, "When I took up my place on the bench, a policeman came up to me and said ' Today you 're going to lose '... another armed police lieutenant spent the whole game calling me a Catalan dog and a red separatist. When I got up to treat an injured player, he grabbed me and told me to sit back down again. At which point, Piñeyro intervened. '' The policeman told the Barcelona president to shut up or he would be arrested. Piñeyro was assaulted by Madrid fans.
Real Madrid went 2 -- 0 up within half an hour. The third goal brought with it a sending off for Barcelona 's Benito García after he made what Calvet claimed was a "completely normal tackle ''. Madrid 's José Llopis Corona recalled, "At which point, they got a bit demoralized, '' while Mur countered, "at which point, we thought: ' go on then, score as many as you want '. '' Madrid scored in minutes 31 ', 33 ', 35 ', 39 ', 43 ' and 44 ', as well as two goals ruled out for offside, made it 8 -- 0. Basilo de la Morena had been caught out by the speed of the goals. At half - time, Barcelona 's players decided that they were not going out for the second half. According to an interview Valle and Calvet gave to La Vanguardia in May 2000, a colonel appeared in the dressing room and said, "Go back out on to the pitch or you 're all going to jail. '' Calvet later added an important detail when he told the story to his biographer Guillem Gómez, noting that when he questioned why there were not more police on duty given the atmosphere, he was told, "Shut up, obey, go out there and play... and lose!. '' Juan Antonio Samaranch, former Spanish minister of sports and International Olympic Committee (IOC) president, wrote, "Barcelona did not exist and the same would have happened to any team. In that atmosphere and with a referee who wanted to avoid any complications, it was humanly impossible to play... If the azulgranas had played badly, really badly, the scoreboard would still not have reached that astronomical figure. The point is that they did not play at all. '' Both clubs were fined 2,500 pesetas by the Royal Spanish Football Federation and, although Barcelona appealed, it made no difference. Piñeyro resigned in protest, complaining of "a campaign that the press has run against Barcelona for a week and which culminated in the shameful day at Chamartín ''.
The match report in the newspaper La Prensa described Barcelona 's only goal as a "reminder that there was a team there who knew how to play football and that if they did not do so that afternoon, it was not exactly their fault ''. Another newspaper called the scoreline "as absurd as it was abnormal ''. According to football writer Sid Lowe, "There have been relatively few mentions of the game (since) and it is not a result that has been particularly celebrated in Madrid. Indeed, the 11 -- 1 occupies a far more prominent place in Barcelona 's history. This was the game that first formed the identification of Madrid as the team of the dictatorship and Barcelona as its victims. '' Fernando Argila, Barcelona 's reserve goalkeeper from the game, said, "There was no rivalry. Not, at least, until that game. ''
The rivalry was intensified during the 1950s when the clubs disputed the signing of Alfredo Di Stéfano. Di Stéfano had impressed both Barcelona and Real Madrid while playing for Los Millionarios in Bogotá, Colombia, during a players ' strike in his native Argentina. Both Real Madrid and Barcelona attempted to sign him and, due to confusion that emerged from Di Stéfano moving to Millonarios from River Plate following the strike, both clubs claimed to own his registration. After intervention from FIFA representative Muñoz Calero, it was decided that both Barcelona and Real Madrid had to share the player in alternate seasons. Barcelona 's humiliated president was forced to resign by the Barcelona board, with the interim board cancelling Di Stéfano 's contract. This ended the long struggle for Di Stéfano, as he moved definitively to Real Madrid.
Di Stéfano became integral in the subsequent success achieved by Real Madrid, scoring twice in his first game against Barcelona. With him, Real Madrid won the initial five European Champions Cup competitions. The 1960s saw the rivalry reach the European stage when they met twice at the European Cup, Real Madrid winning in 1960 and Barcelona winning in 1961.
On 5 July 1968, Barcelona beat Real Madrid 1 -- 0 in the Copa del Generalísimo final at the Santiago Bernabéu. Angry about the refereeing, Real Madrid supporters began throwing glass bottles at the referee and at Barcelona players in the last minutes of the match. Antonio Rigo, referee of the final, was accused of being favourable towards Barcelona. He said of the incident, "After the final of 1968, I became more ' antimadridista ', rather than a fan of Barcelona. But for a reason, I noticed that Madrid 's ' hand ' reached far and harmed me... Barça never offered me anything, not even a badge. However, Antonio Calderón, I think he was Real Madrid 's manager, came to my room in the dugout before the game, and said ' I want to give you a good gift '. It was Madrid 's custom of giving a golden watch. I guess it was conditioned on the victory of his team because I am still waiting for that gift. '' Regarding the moments of two not - given penalties, he said, "I did n't see a penalty in Amancio, and Serena stumbled. Serena wanted to deceive me falling when he entered 7mm in the area. '' General Franco handed Barcelona the cup with the pitch full of bottles, hence the name.
In 2000, Real Madrid 's then - presidential candidate, Florentino Pérez, offered Barcelona 's vice-captain Luís Figo $2.4 million just to sign an agreement binding him to Madrid if he won the elections. If the player broke the deal, he would have to pay Pérez $30 million in compensation. When his agent confirmed the deal, Figo denied everything, insisting, "I 'll stay at Barcelona whether Pérez wins or loses. '' He accused the presidential candidate of "lying '' and "fantasizing ''. He told Barcelona teammates Luis Enrique and Pep Guardiola he was not leaving and they conveyed the message to the Barcelona squad.
On 9 July, Sport ran an interview in which he said, "I want to send a message of calm to Barcelona 's fans, for whom I always have and always will feel great affection. I want to assure them that Luís Figo will, with absolute certainty, be at the Camp Nou on the 24th to start the new season... I 've not signed a pre-contract with a presidential candidate at Real Madrid. No. I 'm not so mad as to do a thing like that. ''
The only way Barcelona could prevent Figo 's transfer to Real Madrid was to pay the penalty clause, $30 million. That would have effectively meant paying the fifth highest transfer fee in history to sign their own player. Barcelona 's new president, Joan Gaspart, called the media and told them, "Today, Figo gave me the impression that he wanted to do two things: get richer and stay at Barça. '' Only one of them happened. The following day, 24 July, Figo was presented in Madrid and handed his new shirt by Alfredo Di Stéfano. His buyout clause was set at $180 million. Gaspart later admitted, "Figo 's move destroyed us. ''
On his return to Barcelona in a Real Madrid shirt, banners with "Judas '', "Scum '' and "Mercenary '' were hung around the stadium. Thousands of fake 10,000 peseta notes had been printed and emblazoned with his image, were among the missiles of oranges, bottles, cigarette lighters, even a couple of mobile phones were thrown at him. In his third season with Real Madrid, the 2002 Clásico at Camp Nou produced one of the defining images of the rivalry. Figo was mercilessly taunted throughout; missiles of coins, a knife, a whisky bottle, were raining down from the stands, mostly from areas populated by the Boixos Nois where he had been taking a corner. Among the debris was a pig 's head.
During the last three decades, the rivalry has been augmented by the modern Spanish tradition of the Pasillo, where one team is given the guard of honor by the other team, once the former clinches the La Liga trophy before El Clásico takes place. This has happened in three occasions. First, during El Clásico that took place on 30 April 1988, where Real Madrid won the championship on the previous round. Then, three years later, when Barcelona won the championship two rounds before El Clásico on 8 June 1991. The last pasillo, and most recent, took place on 7 May 2008, and this time Real Madrid had won the championship.
The two teams met again in the UEFA Champions League semi-final in 2002, with Real Madrid winning 2 -- 0 in Barcelona and a 1 -- 1 draw in Madrid. The match was dubbed by Spanish media as the "Match of the Century ''.
While El Clásico is regarded as one of the fiercest rivalries in world football, there have been rare moments when fans have shown praise for a player on the opposing team. In 1980, Laurie Cunningham was the first Real Madrid player to receive applause from Barcelona fans at Camp Nou; after excelling during the match, and with Madrid winning 2 -- 0, Cunningham left the field to a standing ovation from the locals. On 26 June 1983, during the second leg of the Copa de la Liga final at the Santiago Bernabéu in Madrid, having dribbled past the Real Madrid goalkeeper, Barcelona star Diego Maradona ran towards an empty goal before stopping just as the Madrid defender came sliding in an attempt to block the shot and crashed into the post, before Maradona slotted the ball into the net. The manner of Maradona 's goal led to many Madrid fans inside the stadium start applauding. In November 2005, Ronaldinho became the second Barcelona player to receive a standing ovation from Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu. After dribbling through the Madrid defence twice to score two goals in a 3 -- 0 win, Madrid fans paid homage to his performance with applause. On 21 November 2015, Andrés Iniesta became the third Barcelona player to receive applause from Real Madrid fans while he was substituted during a 4 -- 0 away win, with Iniesta scoring Barça 's third.
A 2007 survey by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas showed that 32 % of the Spanish population supported Real Madrid, while 25 % supported Barcelona. In third place came Valencia, with 5 %. According to a poll performed by Ikerfel in 2011, Barcelona is the most popular team in Spain with 44 % of preferences, while Real Madrid is second with 37 %. Atlético Madrid, Valencia and Athletic Bilbao complete the top five. Both clubs have a global fanbase and are the world 's two most followed sports teams on social media -- on Facebook, as of March 2016, Barcelona has 91 million fans, Real Madrid has 87 million fans.
The rivalry intensified in 2011 where, due to the final of the Copa Del Rey and the meeting of the two in the UEFA Champions League, Barcelona and Real Madrid were scheduled to meet each other four times in 18 days. Several accusations of unsportsmanlike behaviour from both teams and a war of words erupted throughout the fixtures which included four red cards. Spain national team coach Vicente del Bosque stated that he was "concerned '' that due to the rising hatred between the two clubs, that this could cause friction in the Spain team.
In recent years, the rivalry has been "encapsulated '' by the rivalry between Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi. Following the star signings of Neymar and Luis Suárez to Barcelona, and Gareth Bale and Karim Benzema to Madrid, the rivalry has been expanded to a battle of the clubs attacking trios, "BBC '' (Bale, Benzema, Cristiano) against "MSN '' (Messi, Suárez, Neymar).
The rivalry reflected in El Clásico matches comes about as Real Madrid and Barcelona are the most successful football clubs in Spain. As seen below, Barcelona leads Real Madrid 90 -- 87 in terms of official overall trophies. While the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is recognised as the predecessor to the UEFA Cup, it was not organised by UEFA. Consequently, UEFA does not consider clubs ' records in the Fairs Cup to be part of their European record. However, FIFA does view the competition as a major honour.
Note: FC Barcelona won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup three times, but it does n't count towards their UEFA European Record.
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missions of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints | List of missions of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints - wikipedia
These are the names of the missions of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church). Most missions are named after the location of the mission headquarters, usually a specific city. The geographical area a mission actually covers is often much larger than the name may indicate; most areas of the world are within the jurisdiction of a mission of the church.
In the list below, if the name of the mission does not include a specific city, the city where the mission headquarters is located is included in parentheses.
On February 1, 2018, the LDS Church announced boundary changes that would close 19 missions and open 5 new ones. With these changes, which were effective July 1, 2018, the church has 407 missions.
(34 missions)
(22 missions)
(35 Missions)
(7 missions)
(26 missions)
(35 missions)
(32 missions)
(17 missions)
(22 Missions)
(60 missions)
(117 missions)
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who developed the assembly-line method of production for automobiles | Assembly line - wikipedia
An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.
Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.
Assembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of workers, tools or machines, and parts. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible. All parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as fork lifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by machines such as overhead cranes or fork lifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation.
According to Henry Ford:
The principles of assembly are these:
Consider the assembly of a car: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these steps can be done at a time. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time. If engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes.
In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously. When one station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the same time, each one at a different stage of its assembly.
After finishing its work on the first car, the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car 's engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood station; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station.
Assuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another, the longest stage on the assembly line determines the throughput (20 minutes for the engine installation) so a car can be produced every 20 minutes, once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced.
Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut - and - try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together (craft production).
Division of labor was practiced in China where state run monopolies mass - produced metal agricultural implements, china, armor, and weapons centuries before it appeared in Europe on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book The Wealth of Nations (published in 1776).
The Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed. At the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century, the Venetian Arsenal employed some 16,000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day, and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly built galley with standardized parts on an assembly - line basis. Although the Venice Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then.
The Industrial Revolution led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches, horse - drawn vehicles, railway locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named.
The automatic flour mill built by Oliver Evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by Roe (1916). Evans 's mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, screw conveyors, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries.
Probably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the Portsmouth Block Mills, built between 1801 and 1803. Marc Isambard Brunel (father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel), with the help of Henry Maudslay and others, designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging blocks used by the Royal Navy. This factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at HM Dockyard in Portsmouth, and still containing some of the original machinery.
One of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout, designed for easy material handling, was the Bridgewater Foundry. The factory grounds were bordered by the Bridgewater Canal and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings. Cranes were used for lifting the heavy work, which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons. The work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly.
The first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of Richard Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works in Leiston in the English county of Suffolk for the manufacture of portable steam engines. The assembly line area was called ' The Long Shop ' on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853. The boiler was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line, and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added. From the upper level, where other parts were made, the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be completed.
During the early 19th century, the development of machine tools such as the screw - cutting lathe, metal planer, and milling machine, and of toolpath control via jigs and fixtures, provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality.
Steam powered conveyor lifts began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century. Hounshell (1984) shows a c. 1885 sketch of an electric powered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory.
The meatpacking industry of Chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or dis - assembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867. Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company.
According to Domm, the implementation of mass production of an automobile via an assembly line may be credited to Ransom Olds, who used it to build the first mass - produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. Olds patented the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901.
At Ford Motor Company, the assembly line concept appears to have been introduced by William "Pa '' Klann upon his return from visiting Swift & Company 's slaughterhouse in Chicago and viewing what was referred to as the "disassembly line '', where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over without himself moving caught his attention. He reported the idea to Peter E. Martin, soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to Henry Ford, but Pa Klann 's slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. Ford was appreciative, having visited the highly automated 40 - acre Sears mail order handling facility around 1906. At Ford, the process was an evolution by trial and error of a team consisting primarily of Peter E. Martin, the factory superintendent; Charles E. Sorensen, Martin 's assistant; Clarence W. Avery; C. Harold Wills, draftsman and toolmaker; Charles Ebender; and József Galamb. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that Walter Flanders had been doing at Ford up to 1908.
The moving assembly line was developed for the Ford Model T and began operation on October 7, 1913, at the Highland Park Ford Plant, and continued to evolve after that, using time and motion study. The assembly line, driven by conveyor belts, reduced production time for a Model T to just 93 minutes by dividing the process into 45 steps. Producing cars quicker than paint of the day could dry, it had an immense influence on the world.
In 1922 Ford (through his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line:
I believe that this was the first moving line ever installed. The idea came in a general way from the overhead trolley that the Chicago packers use in dressing beef.
Charles E. Sorensen, in his 1956 memoir My Forty Years with Ford, presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual "inventors '' as a gradual, logical development of industrial engineering:
What was worked out at Ford was the practice of moving the work from one worker to another until it became a complete unit, then arranging the flow of these units at the right time and the right place to a moving final assembly line from which came a finished product. Regardless of earlier uses of some of these principles, the direct line of succession of mass production and its intensification into automation stems directly from what we worked out at Ford Motor Company between 1908 and 1913. Henry Ford is generally regarded as the father of mass production. He was not. He was the sponsor of it.
As a result of these developments in method, Ford 's cars came off the line in three - minute intervals, or six feet per minute. This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man - hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower. It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast - drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926.
The assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into American society. Decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the Model T to fall within the budget of the American middle class. In 1908, the price of a Model T was around $825, and by 1912 it had decreased to around $575. This price reduction is comparable to a reduction from $15,000 to $10,000 in dollar terms from the year 2000. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months ' pay.
Ford 's complex safety procedures -- especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about -- dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism '', and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take - off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.
In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany and Ford Japan 1925; in 1919, Vulcan (Southport, Lancashire) was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared.
The massive demand for military hardware in World War II prompted assembly - line techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production. Thousands of Liberty Ships were built making extensive use of prefabrication, enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days. After having produced fewer than 3,000 planes for the United States Military in 1939, American aircraft manufacturers built over 300,000 planes in World War II. Vultee pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing. Other companies quickly followed. As William S. Knudsen (having worked at Ford, GM and the National Defense Advisory Commission) observed, "We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible. ''
In his 1922 autobiography, Henry Ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including:
The gains in productivity allowed Ford to increase worker pay from $1.50 per day to $5.00 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line. Ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the Model T price. These goals appear altruistic; however, it has been argued that they were implemented by Ford in order to reduce high employee turnover: when the assembly line was introduced in 1913, it was discovered that "every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel, it was necessary to hire 963 '' in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired.
Sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.
One of capitalism 's most famous critics, Karl Marx, expressed in his Entfremdung theory the belief that in order to achieve job satisfaction workers need to see themselves in the objects they have created, that products should be "mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature. '' Marx viewed labour as a chance for us to externalize facets of our personality. Marxists argue that specialization makes it very difficult for any worker to feel they may be contributing to the real needs of humanity. The repetitive nature of specialized tasks causes, they say, a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day, who they really are, and what they would ideally be able to contribute to society. Marx also argued that specialised jobs are insecure, since the worker is expendable as soon as costs rise and technology can replace more expensive human labour.
Since workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. Industrial noise also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. Charles Piaget, a skilled worker at the LIP factory, recalled that beside being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move. Industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma.
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