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first king to issue gold coins in india | Coinage of India - Wikipedia
Coinage of India, issued by imperial dynasties and middle kingdoms, began anywhere between 6th century BCE to 1st millennium BCE and consisted mainly of copper and silver coins in its initial stage. Scholars remain divided over the origins of Indian coinage.
Cowry shells was first used in India as commodity money. In recent discoveries punched mark ' Mudras ' (Coins) of stone have been found in lost city of Dwaraka, which is said to have existed at least 5,000 years ago. The Indus Valley Civilization dates back between 2500 BCE and 1750 BCE. What is known, however, is that metal currency was minted in India well before the Mauryan Empire (322 -- 185 BCE), and as radio carbon dating indicates, before the 5th century BCE.
The practice of minted coins spread to the Indo - Gangetic Plain from West Asia. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in West Asia, were not disk - shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.
The tradition of Indian coinage was further influenced by the coming of Turkic and Mughal invaders in India. The East India Company introduced uniform coinage in the 19th century CE, and these coins were later imitated by the modern nation states of Republic of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Numismatics plays a valuable role in determining certain period of Indian history.
Punch - marked coins are a type of early Coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE.
The first coins in India were minted around the 6th century BCE by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo - Gangetic Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. The coins of this period were punch - marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. Several of these coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika, others, like Magadha, had several symbols. These coins were made of silver of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was gained by cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin.
They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, and Buddhist Jataka stories and lasted three centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE -- 300 CE).
The Mauryan Empire coins were punch marked with the royal standard to ascertain their authenticity. The Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, mentions minting of coins but also indicates that the violation of the Imperial Maurya standards by private enterprises may have been an offence. Kautilya also seemed to advocate a theory of bimetallism for coinage, which involved the use of two metals, copper and silver, under one government.
Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.
Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse.
Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th - 2nd century BCE.
Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207 - 194 BCE.
Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die - struck coins. Each individual coins was first cast by pouring a molten metal, usually copper or silver, into a cavity formed by two molds. These were then usually die - struck while still hot, first on just one side, and then later on the two sides. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this coin technology was introduced from the West, either from the Achaemenid Empire or from the neighboring Greco - Bactrian kingdom.
The Indo - Greek kings introduced Greek types, and among them the portrait head, into the Indian coinage, and their example was followed for eight centuries. Every coin has some mark of authority in it, this is what known as "types ''. It appears on every Greek and Roman coin. Demetrios was the first Bactrian king to strike square copper coins of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and in Kharoshthi on the reverse. Copper coins, square for the most part, are very numerous. The devices are almost entirely Greek, and must have been engraved by Greeks, or Indians trained in the Greek traditions. The rare gold staters and the splendid tetradrachms of Bactria disappear. The silver coins of the Indo - Greeks, as these later princes may conveniently be called, are the didrachm and the hemidrachm. With the exception of certain square hemidrachms of Apollodotos and Philoxenos, they are all round, are struck to the Persian (or Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both Greek and Kharoshthi characters.
Coinage of Indo - Greek kingdom began to increasingly influence coins from other regions of India by the 1st century BCE. By this time a large number of tribes, dynasties and kingdoms began issuing their coins; Prākrit legends began to appear. The extensive coinage of the Kushan empire (1st -- 3rd centuries CE) continued to influence the coinage of the Guptas (320 to 550 CE) and the later rulers of Kashmir.
During the early rise of Roman trade with India up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. Gold coins, used for this trade, was apparently being recycled by the Kushan empire for their own coinage. In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder complained about the vast sums of money leaving the Roman empire for India:
The trade was particularly focused around the regions of Gujarat, ruled by the Western Satraps, and the tip of the Indian peninsular in Southern India. Large hoards of Roman coins have been found and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of South India. The South Indian kings reissued Roman - like coinage in their own name, either producing their own copies or defacing real ones in order to signify their sovereignty.
During the Indo - Scythians period whose era begins from 200 BCE to 400 CE, a new kind of the coins of two dynasties were very popular in circulation in various parts of the then India and parts of central and northern South Asia (Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar). These dynasties were Saka and The Pahlavas. After the conquest of Bactria by the Sakas in 135 BCE there must have been considerable intercourse sometimes of a friendly, sometimes of a hostile character, between them and the Parthians, who occupied the neighboring territory.
Maues, whose coins are found only in the Punjab, was the first king of what may be called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not plentiful; the finest type is that with a "biga '' (two - horsed chariot) on the obverse, and this type belongs to a square Hemi drachm, the only square aka silver coin known. His most common copper coins, with an elephant 's head on the obverse and a "Caduceus '' (staff of the god Hermes) on the reverse are imitated from a round copper coin of Demetrius. On another copper square coin of Maues the king is represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both of the Saka and Pahlava coinage; it first appears in a slightly different form on coins of the Indo - Greek Hippostratos; the Gupta kings adopted it for their "horseman '' type, and it reappears in Medieval India on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms until the 14th century CE.
Kanishka 's copper coinage which came into the scene during 100 - 200 CE was of two types: one had the usual "standing king '' obverse, and on the rarer second type the king is sitting on a throne. At about the same time there was Huvishka 's copper coinage which was more varied; on the reverse, as on Kanishka 's copper, there was always one of the numerous deities; on the obverse the king was portrayed (1) riding on an elephant, or (2) reclining on a couch, or (3) seated cross-legged, or (4) seated with arms raised.
The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.
The splendid gold coinage of Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest examples of the purely Indian art that we possess. Their era starts from around 320 with Chandragupta I 's accession to the throne. Son of Chandragupta I - Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold only. There were seven different varieties of coins that appeared during his reign. Out of them the archer type is the most common and characteristic type of the Gupta dynasty coins, which were struck by at least eight succeeding kings and was a standard type in the kingdom.
The silver coinage of Guptas starts with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types. The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the King on it. The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory. The percentage of gold in Indian coins under the reign of Gupta rulers showed a steady financial decline over the centuries as it decreases from 90 % pure gold under Chandragupta I (319 - 335) to a mere 75 - 80 % under Skandagupta (467).
The coins of various Rajput princes 's ruling in Hindustan and Central India were usually of gold, copper or billon, very rarely silver. These coins had the familiar goddess of wealth, Lakshmi on the obverse. In these coins, the Goddess was shown with four arms than the usual two arms of the Gupta coins; the reverse carried the Nagari legend. The seated bull and horseman were almost invariable devices on Rajput copper and bullion coins.
Political orders in Medieval India were based on a relationship and association of power by which the supreme ruler, especially a monarch was able to influence the actions of the subjects.
In order for the relationship to work, it had to be expressed and communicated in the best possible way. In other words, power was by nature declarative from the point of view of its intelligibility and comprehensibility to the audience and required modes of communication to take effect by means of which sovereign power was articulated in the 16th century India.
An examination was done of a series of coins officially issued and circulated by the Mughal emperor Akbar (r 1556 - 1605) to illustrate and project a particular view of time, religion, and political supremacy being fundamental and co-existing in nature.
Coins constitute part of the evidence that project the transmission of religious and political ideas in the last quarter of the 16th century.
The word ' Alf ' refers to the millennium. The following are the extraordinary decisions, though bizarre, were taken by King Akbar.
The order was a major departure and extremely unconventional and eccentric from the norm of striking coins in medieval India. Till the advent of Alf, all gold and silver coins had been stuck with figure of the current hijri year.
Akbar 's courtier and critic, Abdul Badani, presents and explains in brevity the motive for these unconventional decisions while describing the events that took place in 990 hijri (1582 CE):
And having thus convinced himself that the thousand years from the prophethood of the apostle (B'isat I Paighambar) the duration for which Islam (lit. religion) would last was now over, and nothing prevented him from articulating the desires he so secretly held in his heart, and the space became empty of the theologians (ulema) and mystics (mashaikh) who had carried awe and dignity and no need was felt for them: he (Akbar) felt himself at liberty to refute the principles of Islam and to institute new regulations, obsolete and corrupt but considered precious by his pernicious beliefs. The first order, which was given to write the date Alf on coins (Dar Sikka tank half Navisand) and to write the Tarikh - i - Alfi (history of the millennium) from the demise (Rihlat) of the prophet (Badauni II: 301).
The evidence, both textual and numismatic, actually makes it clear that Akbar 's decisions to mint the Alf coins and commission the Tarikh - i - Alfi were based on a new communication and interpretation of the terminal dates of the Islamic millennium.
What the evidence does n't explain is the source of the idea as well as the reason for persisting with the same date on the imperial coinage even after the critical year had passed.
Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin of their son Samudragupta 380 CE.
Gold coin of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow, 300 CE.
Alf coin of king Akbar
Maratha Empire, Chhatrapati Shivaji, Gold hon, c. 1674 - 80 CE.
Silver Rupee coin of Rudra Simha of Ahom kingdom, 1696 CE.
Maratha Kingdom of Baroda, Sayaji Rao III, 1870 CE.
Gold coin of Raja Raja Chola I, 985 - 1014 CE.
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what component of connective tissue is designed for strength | Connective tissue - wikipedia
Connective tissue (CT) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. It develops from the mesoderm. Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body, including the nervous system. In the central nervous system, the three outer membranes (the meninges) that envelop the brain and spinal cord are composed of connective tissue. They support and protect the body. All connective tissue consists of three main components: fibers (elastic and collagenous fibers), ground substance and cells. Not all authorities include blood or lymph as connective tissue because they lack the fiber component. All are immersed in the body water.
The cells of connective tissue include fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells and leucocytes.
The term "connective tissue '' (in German, Bindegewebe) was introduced in 1830 by Johannes Peter Müller. The tissue was already recognized as a distinct class in the 18th century.
Connective tissue can be broadly subdivided into connective tissue proper, and special connective tissue. Connective tissue proper consists of loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue (which is further subdivided into dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues.) Loose and dense connective tissue are distinguished by the ratio of ground substance to fibrous tissue. Loose connective tissue has much more ground substance and a relative lack of fibrous tissue, while the reverse is true of dense connective tissue. Dense regular connective tissue, found in structures such as tendons and ligaments, is characterized by collagen fibers arranged in an orderly parallel fashion, giving it tensile strength in one direction. Dense irregular connective tissue provides strength in multiple directions by its dense bundles of fibers arranged in all directions.
Special connective tissue consists of reticular connective tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood. Other kinds of connective tissues include fibrous, elastic, and lymphoid connective tissues. Fibroareolar tissue is a mix of fibrous and areolar tissue. New vascularised connective tissue that forms in the process of wound healing is termed granulation tissue. Fibroblasts are the cells responsible for the production of some CT.
Type I collagen is present in many forms of connective tissue, and makes up about 25 % of the total protein content of the mammalian body.
Characteristics of CT:
Connective tissue has a wide variety of functions that depend on the types of cells and the different classes of fibers involved. Loose and dense irregular connective tissue, formed mainly by fibroblasts and collagen fibers, have an important role in providing a medium for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from capillaries to cells, and carbon dioxide and waste substances to diffuse from cells back into circulation. They also allow organs to resist stretching and tearing forces. Dense regular connective tissue, which forms organized structures, is a major functional component of tendons, ligaments and aponeuroses, and is also found in highly specialized organs such as the cornea. Elastic fibers, made from elastin and fibrillin, also provide resistance to stretch forces. They are found in the walls of large blood vessels and in certain ligaments, particularly in the ligamenta flava.
In hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues, reticular fibers made by reticular cells provide the stroma -- or structural support -- for the parenchyma -- or functional part -- of the organ.
Mesenchyme is a type of connective tissue found in developing organs of embryos that is capable of differentiation into all types of mature connective tissue. Another type of relatively undifferentiated connective tissue is mucous connective tissue, found inside the umbilical cord.
Various types of specialized tissues and cells are classified under the spectrum of connective tissue, and are as diverse as brown and white adipose tissue, blood, cartilage and bone. Cells of the immune system, such as macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells and eosinophils are found scattered in loose connective tissue, providing the ground for starting inflammatory and immune responses upon the detection of antigens.
There are many types of connective tissue disorders, such as:
For microscopic viewing, most of the connective tissue staining - techniques, colour tissue fibers in contrasting shades. Collagen may be differentially stained by any of the following:
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what type of cell in the human body encloses neurones | Neuron - wikipedia
A neuron, also known as a neurone (British spelling) and nerve cell, is an electrically excitable cell that receives, processes, and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. These signals between neurons occur via specialized connections called synapses. Neurons can connect to each other to form neural circuits. Neurons are the primary components of the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and of the peripheral nervous system, which comprises the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
There are many types of specialized neurons. Sensory neurons respond to one particular type of stimulus such as touch, sound, or light and all other stimuli affecting the cells of the sensory organs, and converts it into an electrical signal via transduction, which is then sent to the spinal cord or brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to control everything from muscle contractions to glandular output. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord in neural networks.
A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and an axon. The term neurite is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly in its undifferentiated stage. Dendrites are thin structures that arise from the cell body, often extending for hundreds of micrometers and branching multiple times, giving rise to a complex "dendritic tree ''. An axon (also called a nerve fiber) is a special cellular extension (process) that arises from the cell body at a site called the axon hillock and travels for a distance, as far as 1 meter in humans or even more in other species. Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and send out signals down the axon. Numerous axons are often bundled into fascicles that make up the nerves in the peripheral nervous system (like strands of wire make up cables). Bundles of axons in the central nervous system are called tracts. The cell body of a neuron frequently gives rise to multiple dendrites, but never to more than one axon, although the axon may branch hundreds of times before it terminates. At the majority of synapses, signals are sent from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. There are, however, many exceptions to these rules: for example, neurons can lack dendrites, or have no axon, and synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.
All neurons are electrically excitable, due to maintenance of voltage gradients across their membranes by means of metabolically driven ion pumps, which combine with ion channels embedded in the membrane to generate intracellular - versus - extracellular concentration differences of ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium. Changes in the cross-membrane voltage can alter the function of voltage - dependent ion channels. If the voltage changes by a large enough amount, an all - or - none electrochemical pulse called an action potential is generated and this change in cross-membrane potential travels rapidly along the cell 's axon, and activates synaptic connections with other cells when it arrives.
In most cases, neurons are generated by special types of stem cells during brain development and childhood. Neurons in the adult brain generally do not undergo cell division. Astrocytes are star - shaped glial cells that have also been observed to turn into neurons by virtue of the stem cell characteristic pluripotency. Neurogenesis largely ceases during adulthood in most areas of the brain. However, there is strong evidence for generation of substantial numbers of new neurons in two brain areas, the hippocampus and olfactory bulb.
A neuron is a specialized type of cell found in the bodies of all eumetozoans. Only sponges and a few other simpler animals lack neurons. The features that define a neuron are electrical excitability and the presence of synapses, which are complex membrane junctions that transmit signals to other cells. The body 's neurons, plus the glial cells that give them structural and metabolic support, together constitute the nervous system. In vertebrates, the majority of neurons belong to the central nervous system, but some reside in peripheral ganglia, and many sensory neurons are situated in sensory organs such as the retina and cochlea.
A typical neuron is divided into three parts: the soma or cell body, dendrites, and axon. The soma is usually compact; the axon and dendrites are filaments that extrude from it. Dendrites typically branch profusely, getting thinner with each branching, and extending their farthest branches a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock, and can extend for great distances, giving rise to hundreds of branches. Unlike dendrites, an axon usually maintains the same diameter as it extends. The soma may give rise to numerous dendrites, but never to more than one axon. Synaptic signals from other neurons are received by the soma and dendrites; signals to other neurons are transmitted by the axon. A typical synapse, then, is a contact between the axon of one neuron and a dendrite or soma of another. Synaptic signals may be excitatory or inhibitory. If the net excitation received by a neuron over a short period of time is large enough, the neuron generates a brief pulse called an action potential, which originates at the soma and propagates rapidly along the axon, activating synapses onto other neurons as it goes.
Many neurons fit the foregoing schema in every respect, but there are also exceptions to most parts of it. There are no neurons that lack a soma, but there are neurons that lack dendrites, and others that lack an axon. Furthermore, in addition to the typical axodendritic and axosomatic synapses, there are axoaxonic (axon - to - axon) and dendrodendritic (dendrite - to - dendrite) synapses.
The key to neural function is the synaptic signaling process, which is partly electrical and partly chemical. The electrical aspect depends on properties of the neuron 's membrane. Like all animal cells, the cell body of every neuron is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipid molecules with many types of protein structures embedded in it. A lipid bilayer is a powerful electrical insulator, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across the membrane and ion pumps that actively transport ions from one side of the membrane to the other. Most ion channels are permeable only to specific types of ions. Some ion channels are voltage gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by altering the voltage difference across the membrane. Others are chemically gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by interactions with chemicals that diffuse through the extracellular fluid. The interactions between ion channels and ion pumps produce a voltage difference across the membrane, typically a bit less than 1 / 10 of a volt at baseline. This voltage has two functions: first, it provides a power source for an assortment of voltage - dependent protein machinery that is embedded in the membrane; second, it provides a basis for electrical signal transmission between different parts of the membrane.
Neurons communicate by chemical and electrical synapses in a process known as neurotransmission, also called synaptic transmission. The fundamental process that triggers the release of neurotransmitters is the action potential, a propagating electrical signal that is generated by exploiting the electrically excitable membrane of the neuron. This is also known as a wave of depolarization.
Neurons are highly specialized for the processing and transmission of cellular signals. Given their diversity of functions performed in different parts of the nervous system, there is a wide variety in their shape, size, and electrochemical properties. For instance, the soma of a neuron can vary from 4 to 100 micrometers in diameter.
The accepted view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions to its various anatomical components; however, dendrites and axons often act in ways contrary to their so - called main function.
Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only about one micrometer thick, while some in the peripheral nervous system are much thicker. The soma is usually about 10 -- 25 micrometers in diameter and often is not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The longest axon of a human motor neuron can be over a meter long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes.
Sensory neurons can have axons that run from the toes to the posterior column of the spinal cord, over 1.5 meters in adults. Giraffes have single axons several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known about axonal function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5 -- 1 millimeters thick, several centimeters long).
Fully differentiated neurons are permanently postmitotic; however, research starting around 2002 shows that additional neurons throughout the brain can originate from neural stem cells through the process of neurogenesis. These are found throughout the brain, but are particularly concentrated in the subventricular zone and subgranular zone.
Numerous microscopic clumps called Nissl substance (or Nissl bodies) are seen when nerve cell bodies are stained with a basophilic ("base - loving '') dye. These structures consist of rough endoplasmic reticulum and associated ribosomal RNA. Named after German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Franz Nissl (1860 -- 1919), they are involved in protein synthesis and their prominence can be explained by the fact that nerve cells are very metabolically active. Basophilic dyes such as aniline or (weakly) haematoxylin highlight negatively charged components, and so bind to the phosphate backbone of the ribosomal RNA.
The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a brownish - black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of catecholamines), and lipofuscin (a yellowish - brown pigment), both of which accumulate with age. Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal function are actin and the tubulin of microtubules. Actin is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development. There the actin dynamics can be modulated via an interplay with microtubule.
There are different internal structural characteristics between axons and dendrites. Typical axons almost never contain ribosomes, except some in the initial segment. Dendrites contain granular endoplasmic reticulum or ribosomes, in diminishing amounts as the distance from the cell body increases.
Neurons exist in a number of different shapes and sizes and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further divided by where the cell body or soma is located. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by the myelin sheath. Around the cell body is a branching dendritic tree that receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching terminals (axon terminal) that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron.
Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as:
Furthermore, some unique neuronal types can be identified according to their location in the nervous system and distinct shape. Some examples are:
Afferent and efferent also refer generally to neurons that, respectively, bring information to or send information from the brain.
A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to chemical receptors. The effect upon the postsynaptic neuron is determined not by the presynaptic neuron or by the neurotransmitter, but by the type of receptor that is activated. A neurotransmitter can be thought of as a key, and a receptor as a lock: the same type of key can here be used to open many different types of locks. Receptors can be classified broadly as excitatory (causing an increase in firing rate), inhibitory (causing a decrease in firing rate), or modulatory (causing long - lasting effects not directly related to firing rate).
The two most common neurotransmitters in the brain, glutamate and GABA, have actions that are largely consistent. Glutamate acts on several different types of receptors, and have effects that are excitatory at ionotropic receptors and a modulatory effect at metabotropic receptors. Similarly, GABA acts on several different types of receptors, but all of them have effects (in adult animals, at least) that are inhibitory. Because of this consistency, it is common for neuroscientists to simplify the terminology by referring to cells that release glutamate as "excitatory neurons '', and cells that release GABA as "inhibitory neurons ''. Since over 90 % of the neurons in the brain release either glutamate or GABA, these labels encompass the great majority of neurons. There are also other types of neurons that have consistent effects on their targets, for example, "excitatory '' motor neurons in the spinal cord that release acetylcholine, and "inhibitory '' spinal neurons that release glycine.
The distinction between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is not absolute, however. Rather, it depends on the class of chemical receptors present on the postsynaptic neuron. In principle, a single neuron, releasing a single neurotransmitter, can have excitatory effects on some targets, inhibitory effects on others, and modulatory effects on others still. For example, photoreceptor cells in the retina constantly release the neurotransmitter glutamate in the absence of light. So - called OFF bipolar cells are, like most neurons, excited by the released glutamate. However, neighboring target neurons called ON bipolar cells are instead inhibited by glutamate, because they lack the typical ionotropic glutamate receptors and instead express a class of inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptors. When light is present, the photoreceptors cease releasing glutamate, which relieves the ON bipolar cells from inhibition, activating them; this simultaneously removes the excitation from the OFF bipolar cells, silencing them.
It is possible to identify the type of inhibitory effect a presynaptic neuron will have on a postsynaptic neuron, based on the proteins the presynaptic neuron expresses. Parvalbumin - expressing neurons typically dampen the output signal of the postsynaptic neuron in the visual cortex, whereas somatostatin - expressing neurons typically block dendritic inputs to the postsynaptic neuron.
Neurons have intrinsic electroresponsive properties like intrinsic transmembrane voltage oscillatory patterns. So neurons can be classified according to their electrophysiological characteristics:
Neurons communicate with one another via synapses, where the axon terminal or en passant bouton (a type of terminal located along the length of the axon) of one cell contacts another neuron 's dendrite, soma or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as Purkinje cells in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, have only one or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses. Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory and either increase or decrease activity in the target neuron, respectively. Some neurons also communicate via electrical synapses, which are direct, electrically conductive junctions between cells.
In a chemical synapse, the process of synaptic transmission is as follows: when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage - gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. High cytosolic calcium in the axon terminal also triggers mitochondrial calcium uptake, which, in turn, activates mitochondrial energy metabolism to produce ATP to support continuous neurotransmission.
An autapse is a synapse in which a neuron 's axon connects to its own dendrites.
The human brain has a huge number of synapses. Each of the 10 (one hundred billion) neurons has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. It has been estimated that the brain of a three - year - old child has about 10 synapses (1 quadrillion). This number declines with age, stabilizing by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 10 to 5 x 10 synapses (100 to 500 trillion).
In 1937, John Zachary Young suggested that the squid giant axon could be used to study neuronal electrical properties. Being larger than but similar in nature to human neurons, squid cells were easier to study. By inserting electrodes into the giant squid axons, accurate measurements were made of the membrane potential.
The cell membrane of the axon and soma contain voltage - gated ion channels that allow the neuron to generate and propagate an electrical signal (an action potential). These signals are generated and propagated by charge - carrying ions including sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), and calcium (Ca).
There are several stimuli that can activate a neuron leading to electrical activity, including pressure, stretch, chemical transmitters, and changes of the electric potential across the cell membrane. Stimuli cause specific ion - channels within the cell membrane to open, leading to a flow of ions through the cell membrane, changing the membrane potential.
Thin neurons and axons require less metabolic expense to produce and carry action potentials, but thicker axons convey impulses more rapidly. To minimize metabolic expense while maintaining rapid conduction, many neurons have insulating sheaths of myelin around their axons. The sheaths are formed by glial cells: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables action potentials to travel faster than in unmyelinated axons of the same diameter, whilst using less energy. The myelin sheath in peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by unsheathed nodes of Ranvier, which contain a high density of voltage - gated ion channels. Multiple sclerosis is a neurological disorder that results from demyelination of axons in the central nervous system.
Some neurons do not generate action potentials, but instead generate a graded electrical signal, which in turn causes graded neurotransmitter release. Such nonspiking neurons tend to be sensory neurons or interneurons, because they can not carry signals long distances.
Neural coding is concerned with how sensory and other information is represented in the brain by neurons. The main goal of studying neural coding is to characterize the relationship between the stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal responses, and the relationships amongst the electrical activities of the neurons within the ensemble. It is thought that neurons can encode both digital and analog information.
The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all - or - none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation does not produce a stronger signal but can produce a higher frequency of firing. There are different types of receptor responses to stimuli, slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. These tonic receptors most often respond to increased intensity of stimulus by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where to get greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) there have to be more photons, as the photons ca n't become "stronger '' for a specific frequency.
There are a number of other receptor types that are called quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops with steady stimulus; examples include: skin when touched by an object causes the neurons to fire, but if the object maintains even pressure against the skin, the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their function.
The pacinian corpuscle is one such structure. It has concentric layers like an onion, which form around the axon terminal. When pressure is applied and the corpuscle is deformed, mechanical stimulus is transferred to the axon, which fires. If the pressure is steady, there is no more stimulus; thus, typically these neurons respond with a transient depolarization during the initial deformation and again when the pressure is removed, which causes the corpuscle to change shape again. Other types of adaptation are important in extending the function of a number of other neurons.
The neuron 's place as the primary functional unit of the nervous system was first recognized in the late 19th century through the work of the Spanish anatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal.
To make the structure of individual neurons visible, Ramón y Cajal improved a silver staining process that had been developed by Camillo Golgi. The improved process involves a technique called "double impregnation '' and is still in use today.
In 1888 Ramón y Cajal published a paper about the bird cerebellum. In this paper, he tells he could not find evidence for anastomis between axons and dendrites and calls each nervous element "an absolutely autonomous canton. '' This became known as the neuron doctrine, one of the central tenets of modern neuroscience.
In 1891 the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer wrote a highly influential review about the neuron doctrine in which he introduced the term neuron to describe the anatomical and physiological unit of the nervous system.
The silver impregnation stains are an extremely useful method for neuroanatomical investigations because, for reasons unknown, it stains a very small percentage of cells in a tissue, so one is able to see the complete micro structure of individual neurons without much overlap from other cells in the densely packed brain.
The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 19th century. It held that neurons are discrete cells (not connected in a meshwork), acting as metabolically distinct units.
Later discoveries yielded a few refinements to the simplest form of the doctrine. For example, glial cells, which are not considered neurons, play an essential role in information processing. Also, electrical synapses are more common than previously thought, meaning that there are direct, cytoplasmic connections between neurons. In fact, there are examples of neurons forming even tighter coupling: the squid giant axon arises from the fusion of multiple axons.
Ramón y Cajal also postulated the Law of Dynamic Polarization, which states that a neuron receives signals at its dendrites and cell body and transmits them, as action potentials, along the axon in one direction: away from the cell body. The Law of Dynamic Polarization has important exceptions; dendrites can serve as synaptic output sites of neurons and axons can receive synaptic inputs.
The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. In a human, there are an estimated 10 -- 20 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex and 55 -- 70 billion neurons in the cerebellum. By contrast, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans has just 302 neurons, making it an ideal model organism as scientists have been able to map all of its neurons. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, a common subject in biological experiments, has around 100,000 neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems.
Charcot -- Marie -- Tooth disease (CMT) is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves (neuropathy) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs but also in the hands and arms in the advanced stages of disease. Presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, with 36 in 100,000 affected.
Alzheimer 's disease (AD), also known simply as Alzheimer 's, is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining activities of daily living and neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes. The most striking early symptom is loss of short - term memory (amnesia), which usually manifests as minor forgetfulness that becomes steadily more pronounced with illness progression, with relative preservation of older memories. As the disorder progresses, cognitive (intellectual) impairment extends to the domains of language (aphasia), skilled movements (apraxia), and recognition (agnosia), and functions such as decision - making and planning become impaired.
Parkinson 's disease (PD), also known as Parkinson disease, is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer 's motor skills and speech. Parkinson 's disease belongs to a group of conditions called movement disorders. It is characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, a slowing of physical movement (bradykinesia), and in extreme cases, a loss of physical movement (akinesia). The primary symptoms are the results of decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia, normally caused by the insufficient formation and action of dopamine, which is produced in the dopaminergic neurons of the brain. Secondary symptoms may include high level cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems. PD is both chronic and progressive.
Myasthenia gravis is a neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and fatigability during simple activities. Weakness is typically caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the post-synaptic neuromuscular junction, inhibiting the stimulative effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Myasthenia is treated with immunosuppressants, cholinesterase inhibitors and, in selected cases, thymectomy.
Demyelination is the act of demyelinating, or the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves. When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers. This leads to certain neurodegenerative disorders like multiple sclerosis and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy.
Although most injury responses include a calcium influx signaling to promote resealing of severed parts, axonal injuries initially lead to acute axonal degeneration, which is rapid separation of the proximal and distal ends within 30 minutes of injury. Degeneration follows with swelling of the axolemma, and eventually leads to bead like formation. Granular disintegration of the axonal cytoskeleton and inner organelles occurs after axolemma degradation. Early changes include accumulation of mitochondria in the paranodal regions at the site of injury. Endoplasmic reticulum degrades and mitochondria swell up and eventually disintegrate. The disintegration is dependent on ubiquitin and calpain proteases (caused by influx of calcium ion), suggesting that axonal degeneration is an active process. Thus the axon undergoes complete fragmentation. The process takes about roughly 24 hrs in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), and longer in the CNS. The signaling pathways leading to axolemma degeneration are currently unknown.
It has been demonstrated that neurogenesis can sometimes occur in the adult vertebrate brain, a finding that led to controversy in 1999. Later studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process occurs only for a minority of cells, and a vast majority of neurons composing the neocortex were formed before birth and persist without replacement.
The body contains a variety of stem cell types that have the capacity to differentiate into neurons. A report in Nature suggested that researchers had found a way to transform human skin cells into working nerve cells using a process called transdifferentiation in which "cells are forced to adopt new identities ''.
It is often possible for peripheral axons to regrow if they are severed, but a neuron can not be functionally replaced by one of another type (Llinás ' law).
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what is the temperature in summer in australia | Climate of Australia - Wikipedia
Australia 's climate is governed largely by its size and by the hot, sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt. This moves north and south with the seasons. But it is variable, with frequent droughts lasting several seasons -- thought to be caused in part by the El Niño - Southern Oscillation. The climate varies widely due to its large geographical size, but by far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Only the south - east and south - west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate, varied between tropical rainforests, grasslands and desert.
Because Australia is a small continent, separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean, it is not subject to the movements of frigid polar air that sweep over the continents in the northern hemisphere during winter. Consequently, its winter is relatively mild, so that there are n't any great contrast between summer and winter temperatures that is present in the northern continents. Yet in many parts of the country, seasonal highs and lows can be considerable: temperatures have ranged from above 50 ° C (122 ° F) to well below 0 ° C (32 ° F). Nonetheless, minimum temperatures are moderated.
The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods. Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional tornado. Tropical cyclones, heat waves, bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated with the Southern Oscillation. Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape.
Climate change in Australia is a highly contentious issue. Temperatures in the country have risen following an increasing trend of global warming between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7 ° C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures in recent years. The late - 20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect. According to the Bureau of Meteorology, 80 % of the land has less than 600 mm (24 in) of rainfall per year and 50 % has even less than 300 mm (12 in). As a whole, Australia has a very low annual average rainfall of 419 mm (16 in).
Because of its elevation (650 m (2,130 ft)) and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences a continental climate, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra has relatively mild and wet summers, although hot days occur from time to time. Canberra has cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territory 's south - west are snow - covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm (25 in), with rainfall highest in spring and summer and lowest in winter.
The highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 ° C (109.0 ° F) at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was − 14.6 ° C (5.7 ° F) at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971.
Over half of New South Wales has an arid or semi-arid climate. However, the eastern portion has a temperate climate, ranging from humid subtropical to the Central Coast and most of Sydney, and oceanic to the south coast. The Snowy Mountains region in the south - east falls in the alpine climate or subpolar oceanic climate zone, with cool to cold weather all year around and snowfalls in the winter. Further inland, the climate gets semi-arid and a desert climate towards the western part of the state.
The weather in the southern half of the state is generally warm to hot in summer and cool in the winter. The seasons are more defined in the southern half of the state, especially as one moves inland, towards South West Slopes, Central West and the Riverina region. Rainfall usually peaks in the summer in most of parts of the state. Though, the Riverina region, which is in the southern - central part of the state, bordering Victoria, has drier summers and a winter rainfall peak.
The warmest region is the north - west part of the state, where summers are very hot, and winters cooler and drier. The weather in the northeast region of the state, or the North Coast, bordering Queensland, is hot and humid in the summer, with a rainfall peak, and mild in winter with more sunshine, and little seasonal temperature difference. The Northern Tablelands, which are also on the north coast, have relatively mild summers and cold winters, due to their high elevation on the Great Dividing Range.
The coldest region is the Snowy Mountains where the snow and frost continues for quite a long period during the winter months. The Blue Mountains, Southern Tablelands and Central Tablelands, which are situated on the Great Dividing Range, have mild to warm summers and cold winters, although not as severe as those in the Snowy Mountains. Furthermore, some areas situated in or around the range, such as Bathurst and Goulburn, among other places, have recorded freezing and / or near - freezing lows virtually in every month of the year, a feat that rarely occurs in many other places of similar latitude and altitude in the northern hemisphere.
The highest maximum temperature recorded was 49.8 ° C (121.6 ° F) at Menindee in the state 's west on 10 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was − 23.0 ° C (− 9.4 ° F) at Charlotte Pass on 29 June 1994 in the Snowy Mountains. This is also the lowest temperature recorded in the whole of Australia excluding Australian Antarctic Territory.
Rainfall varies throughout the state. The far north - west receives the least, less than 180 mm (7 in) annually, while the east receives between 600 to 1,200 mm (24 to 47 in) of rain.
The Northern Territory has two distinctive climate zones. The northern end, including Darwin, has a tropical savannah climate (Köppen Aw) with high humidity and two seasons, the wet (November to April) and dry season (May to October). During the dry season nearly every day is warm and sunny, and afternoon humidity averages around 30 %. There is very little rainfall between May and September. In the coolest months of June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as 14 ° C (57 ° F), but very rarely lower, and frost has never been recorded.
The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March (the Southern Hemisphere summer), when thunderstorms are common and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70 % during the wettest months. On average more than 1,570 mm (62 in) of rain falls in the north. Thunderstorms can produce spectacular lightning displays.
The central region is the desert centre of the country, which includes Alice Springs and Uluru, and is arid or semi-arid with little rain usually falling during the hottest months from October to March. Its seasons are more defined than the northern parts, with summers being very hot, where temperatures often exceed 35 ° C (95 ° F) on average and winters relatively cool with average minimum temperatures dipping as low as 5 ° C (41 ° F), with a few frosty nights. Central Australia receives less than 250 mm (10 in) of rain per year.
The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was 48.3 ° C (118.9 ° F) at Finke on 1 and 2 January 1960. The lowest minimum temperature was − 7.5 ° C (18.5 ° F) at Alice Springs on 12 July 1976.
Because of its size, there is significant variation in climate across the state. Low rainfall and hot summers are typical for the inland west, a monsoonal ' wet ' season in the far north, and warm subtropical conditions along the coastal strip. Inland and in southern ranges cooler temperatures are experienced, especially at nights. The climate of the coastal strip is influenced by warm ocean waters, keeping the region free from extremes of temperature and providing moisture for rainfall.
There are five predominant climatic zones in Queensland, based on temperature and humidity:
However, most of the Queensland populace experience two weather seasons: a winter period of rather warm temperatures and minimal rainfall and a sultry summer period of hot, sticky temperatures and higher levels of rainfall.
The highest maximum temperature observed in the state is 49.5 ° C (121.1 ° F) at Birdsville on 24 December 1972. The temperature of 53.1 ° C (127.6 ° F) at Cloncurry on 16 January 1889 is not considered official; the figure quoted from Birdsville is the next highest, so that record is considered as being official.
The lowest minimum temperature is − 10.6 ° C (12.9 ° F) at Stanthorpe on 23 June 1961 and at The Hermitage on 12 July 1965.
The majority of the state has the arid and semi-arid climates. The southern coastal parts of the state have a Mediterranean climate with mild wet winters and hot dry summers. The highest rainfall occurs along the southern coasts and the Mount Lofty Ranges (with an average annual rainfall of 1,200 millimetres (47 in) in the vicinity of Mount Lofty); the lowest rainfall occurs in the Lake Eyre basin where the average annual totals are less than 150 millimetres (6 in) and possibly even 100 millimetres (4 in). Most of the rain in the southern districts of the State fall during the winter months when the sub-tropical high - pressure belt is displaced to the north over the Australian continent.
South Australia 's mean temperature range is 29 ° C (84 ° F) in January and 15 ° C (59 ° F) in July. Daily temperatures in parts of the state in January and February can be up to 48 ° C (118 ° F). The highest maximum temperature was recorded as 50.7 ° C (123.3 ° F) at Oodnadatta on 2 January 1960, which is the highest official temperature recorded in Australia. The lowest minimum temperature was − 8.0 ° C (17.6 ° F) at Yongala on 20 July 1976.
Tasmania has a cool temperate climate with four seasons. Summer lasts from December to February when the average maximum sea temperature is 21 ° C (70 ° F) and inland areas around Launceston reach 24 ° C (75 ° F). Other inland areas are much cooler with Liawenee, located on the Central Plateau, one of the coldest places in Australia with temperatures in February ranging between 4 to 17 ° C (39 to 63 ° F). Autumn lasts between March and May and experiences changeable weather, where summer weather patterns gradually take on the shape of winter patterns.
The highest recorded maximum temperature in Tasmania was 42.2 ° C (108.0 ° F) at Scamander on 30 January 2009, during the 2009 south - eastern Australia heat wave. Tasmania 's lowest recorded minimum temperature was − 13 ° C (8.6 ° F) on 30 June 1983, at Butlers Gorge, Shannon and Tarraleah.
Victoria has a varied climate despite its small size. It ranges from semi-arid and hot in the north - west, to temperate and cool along the coast. Victoria 's main land feature, the Great Dividing Range, produces a cooler, mountain climate in the centre of the state.
Victoria 's southernmost position on the Australian mainland means it is cooler and wetter than other mainland states and territories. The coastal plain south of the Great Dividing Range has Victoria 's mildest climate. Air from the Southern Ocean helps reduce the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Melbourne and other large cities are located in this temperate region.
The Mallee and upper Wimmera are Victoria 's warmest regions with hot winds blowing from nearby deserts. Average temperatures top 30 ° C (86 ° F) during summer and 15 ° C (59 ° F) in winter. Victoria 's highest maximum temperature of 48.8 ° C (119.8 ° F) was recorded in Hopetoun on 7 February 2009, during the 2009 south - eastern Australia heat wave. A screen temperature of 50.7 ° C (123.3 ° F) was recorded on 7 January 1906 in Mildura.
The Victorian Alps in the north - east are the coldest part of Victoria. The Alps are part of the Great Dividing Range mountain system extending east - west through the centre of Victoria. Average temperatures are less than 9 ° C (48 ° F) in winter and below 0 ° C (32 ° F) in the highest parts of the ranges. The state 's lowest minimum temperature of − 11.7 ° C (10.9 ° F) was recorded at Omeo on 13 June 1965, and again at Falls Creek on 3 July 1970.
Victoria is the wettest Australian state after Tasmania. Rainfall in Victoria increases from north to south, with higher averages in areas of high altitude. Median annual rainfall exceeds 1,800 mm (71 in) in some parts of the north - east but is less than 250 mm (10 in) in the Mallee.
Rain is heaviest in the Otway Ranges and Gippsland in southern Victoria and in the mountainous north - east. Snow generally falls only in the mountains and hills in the centre of the state. Rain falls most frequently in winter, but summer precipitation is heavier. Rainfall is most reliable in Gippsland and the Western District, making them both leading farming areas. Victoria 's highest recorded daily rainfall was 375 millimetres (14.8 in) at Tanybryn in the Otway Ranges on 22 March 1983.
Most of Western Australia has a hot arid and semi-arid climate. However, the south - west corner of the state has a Mediterranean climate. The area was originally heavily forested, including large stands of the karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region of Western Australia is in the top nine terrestrial habitats for terrestrial biodiversity, with a higher proportion of endemic species than most other equivalent regions. Due to the offshore Leeuwin Current, the area numbers in the top six regions for marine biodiversity, containing the most southerly coral reefs in the world.
Average annual rainfall varies from 300 mm (12 in) at the edge of the Wheatbelt region to 1,400 mm (55 in) in the wettest areas near Northcliffe, the Southwestern most tip of Australia, but in the months of November to March, although rain still falls, evaporation exceeds rainfall and it is generally very dry. Plants must be adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. A major reduction in rainfall has been observed, with a greater number of rainfall events in the summer months. The central four fifths of the state is semi-arid or desert and is lightly inhabited with the only significant activity being mining. Annual rainfall averages about 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer months.
An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. The Kimberley has an extremely hot monsoonal climate with average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 mm (20 to 59 in), but there is a very long dry season of 7 months from April to November. Eighty - five per cent of the state 's runoff occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along the Ord River.
Australia 's tropical / subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of Western Australia a hot desert with aridity a marked feature of a greater part of the continent. These cold waters produce precious little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago.
Snowfall in the state is rare, and typically only in the Stirling Range near Albany, the southwestern-most point in WA, as it is the only mountain range far enough south and with sufficient elevation. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearby Porongurup Range. Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of south - western Australia. The most widespread low - level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in the Perth Hills, as far north as Wongan Hills and as far east as Salmon Gums. However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day.
The highest observed maximum temperature of 50.5 ° C (122.9 ° F) was recorded at Mardie Station on 19 February 1998. The lowest minimum temperature recorded was − 7.2 ° C (19.0 ° F) at Eyre Bird Observatory on 17 August 2008.
More than 80 % of the island has an annual rainfall of less than 600 mm (24 in); only Antarctica receives less rainfall than Australia. A place inland near Lake Eyre (in South Australia) would only receive 81 mm (3 in) of rain annually. Another place, Troudaninna Bore (29 ° 11 ′ 44 '' S 138 ° 59 ′ 28 '' E / 29.19556 ° S 138.99111 ° E / - 29.19556; 138.99111, altitude: 46 m) in South Australia, from 1893 to 1936, received, in average, 104.9 mm (4.13 inches) of precipitation. From one extreme to another, parts of the far North Queensland coast annually average over 4,000 mm (157 in), with the Australian annual record being 12,461 mm (491 in), set at the summit of Mount Bellenden Ker in 2000. There are four main factors that contribute to the dryness of the Australian landmass:
The average annual rainfall in the Australian desert is low, ranging from 81 to 250 mm (3 to 10 in) per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the region, with an average of 15 to 20 thunderstorms per annum. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 ° C (90 to 104 ° F). In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 ° C (64 to 73 ° F).
The southern parts of Australia get the usual westerly winds and rain - bearing cold fronts that come when the high pressure systems move towards northern Australia during winter. Cold snaps may bring frosts inland, though temperatures near the coast are mild or near mild all year round. Summers in southern Australia are generally dry and hot with coastal sea breezes. During a lengthy dry spell, hot and dry winds from the interior can cause bushfires in some southern and eastern states, though most commonly Victoria and New South Wales.
The tropical areas of northern Australia have a wet summer because of the monsoon. During "the wet '', typically October to April, humid north - westerly winds bring showers and thunderstorms. Occasionally, tropical cyclones can bring heavy rainfall to tropical coastal regions, which is also likely to reach further inland. After the monsoonal season, the dry season comes ("winter ''), which brings mostly clear skies and milder conditions.
Rainfall records tend to be concentrated along the east coast of Australia, particularly in tropical north Queensland. The highest 24 ‐ hour rainfall on record in Australia was 907.0 millimetres (35.7 in) in Crohamhurst on 3 February 1893. The highest monthly rainfall on record was 5,387.0 millimetres (212.1 in) recorded at Mount Bellenden Ker, Queensland in January 1979. The highest annual rainfall was 12,461.0 millimetres (490.6 in) recorded also at Mount Bellenden Ker in 2000. Additionally, the location which receives the highest average annual rainfall in Australia is Babinda in Queensland with an annual average of 4,279.4 millimetres (168.5 in).
Low rate of evaporation from this very cool body of water result in little evaporation occurring. Hence, rain clouds are sparsely formed and very rarely do they form long enough for a continuous period of rain to be recorded. Australia 's arid / semi-arid zone extends to this region. The absence of any significant mountain range or area of substantial height above sea level, results in very little rainfall caused by orographic uplift. In the east the Great Dividing Range limits rain moving into inland Australia.
Australia has a compact shape, and no significant bodies of water penetrate very far inland. This is important in as much as moist winds are prevented from penetrating inland, so keeping rainfall low.
In Australia, snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. There is a regular snow season in several areas which have seasonal ski tourism industries, such as Thredbo, Cabramurra, Mount Buller and Perisher Ski Resort, among others. Snow also falls with some regularity on the Great Dividing Range as far north as Stanthorpe, Queensland and in isolated parts of South Australia and Western Australia, but outside these areas, snow is an extremely rare occurrence. Snow has also fallen on Uluru and near Alice Springs on at least one occasion.
Snow at sea level is occasionally recorded on mainland Australia, but is more frequent in Tasmania where snowfalls at sea level can occur during the winter months. Snow has been recorded across most of Tasmania, though it is rare on the northern coast at sea level. Snow is rare in the southernmost capitals like Melbourne and Hobart, falling less than once every five years, and in the other capitals it is unknown (however snow has fallen in the hill suburbs of Perth and Adelaide). However, there are extensive, well - developed ski fields in the Great Dividing Range, a few hours ' drive from Melbourne and Sydney. Light snow generally falls every winter in Canberra, however, and other cities that may receive regular seasonal snowfalls include Orange, Oberon, Lithgow and Katoomba in New South Wales.
The occasional cold snap, caused by cold air drifting north from Antarctica, can cause significant snowfall in rural areas, as well as major cities such as Hobart, Melbourne 's outer mountain suburbs and Canberra. Such occasions are rare, but have occurred in 1958, 1965, 1986, 2005 and 2015, the 1965 event causing snow to fall as far north as Eungella, near Mackay in tropical Queensland. Extreme snow events have also produced snow as far north - west as Longreach in Queensland and in the ranges near Alice Springs, and also in lowland towns such as Dubbo and Wagga Wagga in New South Wales. The frequency and intensity of such events have been decreasing significantly over the past 40 years and the most northerly occurrence of snow in this time frame has been the Bunya Mountains in southern Queensland.
The tropical savannah zone of Northern Australia is warm to hot all year round. Summers are hot in most of the country with average January maximum temperatures exceeding 30 ° C over most areas of the mainland, except for those at high elevations though. Winters are warm in the north and cool in the south, with nightly frosts common in inland areas south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Only at the highly elevated areas do wintertime temperatures approach those found in much of Europe or North America, especially the southern parts.
Temperatures in Australia have followed an increasing trend between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7 ° C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures. The observed warming has hastened in recent years. The late - 20th - century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect. Temperature differences between winter and summer are minor in the tropical region of Australia. However, they are greatest in the southern inland, with seasonal differences along the coast being moderated by the ocean 's proximity. In July, a more common latitudinal distribution of average maximums is apparent, ranging from 30 ° C near the north coast to below 3 ° C in the mountainous areas of the south - east.
Average minimum temperatures in all seasons are highest in northern Australia and near the coastal areas, and are lowest in the elevated areas of the south - east. The highest average January minimum temperatures (near 27 ° C) are found near the north - west coast, while in winter they exceed 20 ° C at some coastal locations in northern Australia and on the Torres Strait and Tiwi Islands. In the mountains of New South Wales, it is not unusual to have average low minimum temperatures dipping below 5 ° C in January and -- 5 ° C in July. Comparatively, most inland (non-mountainous) areas south of the tropics have average July minimum between 0 and 6 ° C.
In the desert, the dry air and clear skies give rather large ranges in temperature between day and night. Ranges of 15 ° C being typical and 20 ° C not quite unusual. Light nighttime frosts in winter occur over much of the southern half of the arid zone, where mean July minimum temperatures are mostly in the 3 to 6 ° C range. Moving north, frosts become increasingly rare, with mean July minimum being around 10 ° C on the northern boundary.
The highest maximums in Australia are recorded in two regions, the Pilbara and Gascoyne regions of north - western Western Australia and the area extending from south - western Queensland across South Australia into south - eastern Western Australia. Many locations in this region have recorded temperatures exceeding 48 ° C. In January, average maximum temperatures exceed 35 ° C over a large area of the interior and exceed 40 ° C over areas in the north - west. The highest summer maximums in the Pilbara and Gascoyne average at around 41 ° C (in some years daily maximums consecutively exceed 40 ° C for several weeks at a time).
The most powerful heatwave in the history of south - eastern Australia occurred in January 1939. Adelaide (46.1 ° C on the 12th), Melbourne (45.6 ° C on the 13th) and Sydney (45.3 ° C on the 14th) all had record - high temperatures during this period, as did many other central district areas in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. The record number of consecutive days in Melbourne over 40 ° C is five, with Brisbane and Sydney each having two. Heatwaves usually bring by oppressively warm nights, with Oodnadatta, SA recording an Australian record of nine nights above 30 ° C in February 2004. Another extreme event was a prolonged period of extensive heatwaves known as the Angry Summer in early 2013.
Marble Bar achieved 160 consecutive days above 37.8 ° C (100.0 ° F) in 1923 -- 24. Nyang had an average maximum of 44.8 ° C for the months of February 1998 and January 2005, an Australian record. At the other extreme, average January maximums are near 15 ° C on the highest peaks of the south - east ranges and near 20 ° C in much of Tasmania. In most of the desert region during summer, cool days are rare and usually associated with major rain events -- a rather exceptional example occurred in February 1949, when many areas failed to reach 20 ° C on one or more days, and the maximum at Boulia, western Queensland was at 14.4 ° C, which was 23 ° C below normal.
Many other locations in Australia, except those above 500 metres, have extreme maximums between 43 and 48 ° C. Most Tasmanian sites away from the north coast have had extreme maximums between 35 and 40 ° C. The lowest extreme maximums are found along the north coast of Tasmania (e.g. 29.5 ° C at Low Head) and at high elevations (27.0 ° C at Thredbo). While extreme high temperatures are more common inland than they are near the coast, notable extreme maximum have been observed near the coast; 50.5 ° C at Mardie, 49.1 ° C at Roebourne, Western Australia, 49.4 ° C at Whyalla and 47.9 ° C at Ceduna, South Australia.
At lower elevations, most inland places south of the tropics have extreme minimum between -- 3 and -- 7 ° C, and these low temperatures have also occurred in locations within a few kilometres of southern and eastern coasts, such as Sale, Victoria (-- 5.6 ° C), Bega, New South Wales (-- 8.1 ° C), Grove, Tasmania (-- 7.5 ° C) and Taree, New South Wales (-- 5.0 ° C). Many locations in this region have recorded -- 10 ° C or lower, including Gudgenby in the Australian Capital Territory (-- 14.6 ° C) and Woolbrook, New South Wales (-- 14.5 ° C). In the desert, the lowest extreme minimum occur at high elevations, especially around Alice Springs, where the temperature has fallen as low as - 7.5 ° C.
In the tropics, extreme minimum near or below 0 ° C have occurred at many places distant from the coast, as far north as Herberton, Queensland (-- 5.0 ° C). Some locations near tropical coasts, such as Mackay (-- 0.8 ° C), Townsville (0.1 ° C) and Kalumburu, Western Australia (0.3 ° C) have also recorded temperatures near 0 ° C. In contrast, some coastal locations, such as Darwin, have never fallen below 10 ° C, and Thursday Island, in the Torres Strait, has an extreme minimum of 16.1 ° C. The lowest maximum temperature on record in Australia was − 6.9 ° C (19.6 ° F), recorded on 9 July 1978 at Thredbo Ski Resort in New South Wales. The highest minimum temperature on record was 35.5 ° C (95.9 ° F), recorded on 24 January 1982 in Arkaroola, South Australia and again on 21 January 2003 in Wittenoom, Western Australia.
A list of extremes can be found in the tables below:
Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960)
Thredbo Ski Resort, New South Wales (24 January 2000)
Mardie, Western Australia (19 February 1998)
Perisher Ski Resort, New South Wales (17 February 1979)
Carnarvon, Western Australia (6 March 2007) / Roebourne, Western Australia (4 March 1998)
Kiandra, New South Wales (25 March 1964) / Bullocks Flat, New South Wales (31 March 1988)
Port Hedland, Western Australia (1 April 1948) / Marble Bar, Western Australia (2 April 1928)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (29 April 2009)
Bidyadanga, Western Australia (6 May 1990)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (24 May 2008)
Wyndham, Western Australia (2 June 1962)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (29 June 1994)
Wyndham, Western Australia (19 July 1996)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (20 July 2010)
Kalumburu, Western Australia (27 August 1970)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (14 August 1968)
Roebuck Bay, Western Australia (27 September 2003)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (20 September 1967)
Port Hedland, Western Australia (22 October 2002)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (29 October 2006)
Birdsville, Queensland (17 November 1990)
Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (26 November 1968)
Birdsville, Queensland (24 December 1972)
Thredbo Ski Resort, New South Wales (13 December 1976)
Climatic factors contribute to Australia 's high incidence of bushfires, particularly during the summer months. Low relative humidity, wind and lack of rain can cause a small fire, either man - made or caused naturally by lightning strikes, to spread rapidly over large distances. Low humidity, the heat of the sun and lack of water cause vegetation to dry out becoming a perfect fuel for the fire. High winds fan the flames, increasing their intensity and the speed and distance at which they can travel.
Many of the worst bushfires in eastern Australia, such as the 1983 Ash Wednesday fires, accompany El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events which tend to cause a warm, dry and windy climate. The worst bushfires in Australian history occurred on Black Saturday in February 2009. The human death toll of the disaster was 173, and over two thousand homes were lost.
Though Australia is generally dry and arid, a large portion of the country is in the tropics. Rainfall in these areas is extremely heavy. With some are areas recording world - record - breaking rain, such as the mountains which lie to the south west of Cairns. Through La Niña years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above - average rainfall usually creating damaging floods.
The 2010 -- 2011 La Niña system has broken many rainfall records in Australia, particularly in the states of Queensland and New South Wales, which have seen extensive flooding which has caused major damage to infrastructure and crops. The central east area of Queensland, an area the size of Germany and France combined, was under water in 2010 -- 11. The estimated damage bill could reach into the billions.
Some places that see heavy monthly (or yearly) rainfall include: Darwin, Cairns, Townsville, Rockhampton, Innisfail, Strahan, Queenstown, Thursday Island and Mount Read.
According to climate scientists, climate change is predicted by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) to have significant effects on the climate of and extreme weather events in Australia, increasing temperatures and the likelihood of heat waves. According to the Bureau of Meteorology, Australia 's annual mean temperature for 2009 was 0.90 ° C (1.62 ° F) above the 1961 -- 90 average, making it the nation 's second - warmest year since high - quality records began in 1910. Summer in both 2013 and 2014 continued this trend of record - breaking heat -- 2014 was Australia 's third - hottest year on record and 2013 broke national records.
In January 2013, the Bureau of Meteorology altered its weather forecasting chart 's temperature scale to include a range, coloured purple, between 52 ° C and 54 ° C.
Coastal communities face risks from sea level rise, albeit over a long period of time based on current estimates of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. The Gold Coast, being built on sand and with many canal developments, could be considered particularly at risk. Suburbs of Sydney like Drummoyne and Concord on rivers like the Parramatta River face risks of inundation of low - lying areas such as parks (such as Timbrell Park and Majors Bay Reserve) reclaimed from mudflats at the heads of bays, or massive expenses in rebuilding seawalls to higher levels.
Currently, there are several environmental movements and campaigners advocating for action on climate change. One such campaign is "The Big Switch '', Australia 's largest community climate change campaign.
New projections for Australia 's changing climate includes:
Drought in Australia is defined by rainfall over a three - month period being in the lowest ten per cent of amounts having been recorded for that region in the past. This definition takes into account that low rainfall is a relative term and rainfall deficiencies need to be compared to typical rainfall patterns including seasonal variations. Specifically drought in Australia is defined in relation to a rainfall deficiency of pastoral leases and is determined by decile analysis applied to a certain area.
Historical climatic records are now sufficiently reliable to profile climate variability taking into account expectations for regions. State Governments are responsible for declaring a region drought affected and the declaration will take into account factors other than rainfall.
Australia is affected by tropical cyclones which primarily occur between December and April but have developed in November and May, as well. Cyclones over mainland Australia occur on average five to six times each year. The region between Broome and Exmouth are most prone to cyclones. Tropical cyclones are known to bring destructive winds, heavy rain with flooding creating storm surges along the coast, causing inundation in low - lying areas. The strongest Australian region cyclone was Cyclone Monica in 2006 which had wind gusts in excess of 350 km / h (220 mph). Cyclones can also move inland, decaying to a rain depression, which dump heavy rain in these areas and causing flooding.
The worst cyclones of Australia have caused billions of dollars of damage and many deaths. Cyclone Tracy crossed directly over Darwin in 1974, seventy - one people were killed. Adjusted for inflation it was Australia 's most damaging cyclone. Cyclone Mahina in 1899 brought a storm surge to Far North Queensland reaching 13 metres (43 ft) high, causing 400 deaths and making it the worst natural disaster to befall Australia. Cyclone Larry struck North Queensland and passed over Innisfail in 2006 causing damages estimated at A $1.5 billion but no lives were lost. Cyclone Yasi caused severe flooding and had a total estimated cost of A $3.5 billion making it the second-most costliest cyclone to strike Australia.
Blizzards are not common in mainland Australia, but occur frequently in the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales and Victoria. When blizzards do occur, they can affect the Tasmanian Highlands and, particularly, Mount Wellington, which towers over the Tasmanian capital Hobart. Blizzards do not affect any major towns or cities, because there are no populated areas located in the mountains except for the ski resort towns of New South Wales and Victoria.
A dust storm or sandstorm, a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions, arises when a gust front passes or when the wind force exceeds the threshold value where loose sand and dust are removed from the dry surface. Particles are transported by saltation and suspension, causing soil erosion from one place and deposition in another.
The term sandstorm is used most often in the context of desert sandstorms, especially in the Sahara, when, in addition to fine particles obscuring visibility, a considerable amount of larger sand particles moves closer to the surface. The term dust storm is more likely to be used when finer particles are blown long distances, especially when the dust storm affects urban areas.
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marvin gaye got to give it up music | Got to Give it up - wikipedia
"Got to Give It Up '' is a song by American music artist Marvin Gaye. Written by the singer and produced by Art Stewart as a response to a request from Gaye 's record label that he perform disco music, it was released in March of 1977.
Upon its release, it topped three different Billboard charts and also became a worldwide success. Gaye sometimes used the song to open up his live concert shows. The song has been covered by several acts.
Throughout 1976, Marvin Gaye 's popularity was still at a high in America and abroad, but the singer struggled throughout the year due to pending lawsuits from former band mates. Divorce court proceedings between Gaye and first wife Anna Gordy had put a strain on him. Financial difficulties almost led to imprisonment for the singer when Gordy accused him of failing to pay child support payments for their only child, son Marvin Pentz Gaye III.
To relieve Gaye from his debt, his European concert promoter Jeffrey Kruger booked the singer on a lengthy European tour. Gaye began the tour in the United Kingdom where he had a strong fan base dating back to his early career in the 1960s, making his first stop in the country since 1964. His performances there were given rave reviews. One of the shows, filmed at London 's Palladium, was recorded for a live album, later released as Live at the London Palladium, in the spring of 1977. Around the same time, Gaye 's label Motown tried to get the artist to record in the current sound of the times, disco music. Gaye criticized the music, claiming it lacked substance and vowed against recording in the genre. His label mate Diana Ross had recorded her first disco song, "Love Hangover ''. The song 's producer Hal Davis debated over giving that song to either Ross or Gaye. After working over the song, he went with Ross, and it became her fourth solo number one hit. Motown struggled to get Gaye in the studio as Gaye focused on work on an album (which would later be released as Here, My Dear, dedicated to Gaye 's troubled first marriage). After months of holding off from recording anything resembling disco, the singer set upon writing a song parodying a disco setting.
The first recording session for "Got to Give It Up '', originally titled "Dancing Lady '', was on December 13, 1976. Influenced by the Johnnie Taylor hit, "Disco Lady '', Gaye was inspired to create his answer song to Taylor 's hit. To help set up a "disco '' atmosphere, Gaye hired Motown producer and engineer Art Stewart to oversee the song 's production. Gaye and Stewart brought in several musicians and Gaye 's friends, his brother Frankie and girlfriend Janis Hunter, to Gaye 's recording studio complex, Marvin 's Room. From December 14 to 17, 1976, Gaye performed the lead vocal track, instrumentation (which included Gaye, Fernando Harkness, Johnny McGhee, Frankie Beverly and Bugsy Wilcox and Funk Brother member Jack Ashford) and background vocals. In the song, Gaye added background vocals from his brother and his girlfriend. During the second half of the song, the song introduces vocal layered doo - wop styled scatting from Gaye and produced a funk - influenced vamp. Fernando Harkness performs a tenor saxophone solo in the second half of the song.
Gaye recorded his vocals on the first date of sessions, adding instrumentation on the following day, and then adding other effects in the latter two days, mixing it by January 1977. Influenced by the vocal chatter on his previous hit, "What 's Going On '', Gaye decided to create a party scene outside the recording studio where different voices are heard either greeting each other or partying. Gaye is also heard on the track greeting people and laughing while mingling in with the crowd. During the bridge, Gaye is heard yelling, "Say Don! Hey man, I did n't know you was in here! '' The "Don '' was later confirmed as Soul Train host Don Cornelius, who was one of Gaye 's close friends. Gaye overlapped the party sounds over and over, making a loop. In the second half of the song, Gaye sings mainly the initial title, "dancing lady '' over and over while a saxophone is playing a solo. All the background vocals on the second part of the song were from Gaye himself. Gaye also plays percussion, bass keyboards and RMI synthesisers in the final fade of the song. In the second half, he can be heard playing on a glass bottle halfway filled with grapefruit juice. L.T.D. guitarist Johnny McGhee added guitar. McGhee and Frankie Beverly were the only non-band mates featured on the song playing instruments. Beverly also added assorted percussion.
After the start of the song, which includes vocal chatter, the song kicks off with a standard drum beat: kick, snare and hi - hat while synthesizers are heard soon afterwards. After nearly a minute, Gaye 's vocals appear in a falsetto, which he sings in for most of the song. In the second half, after harmonizing in falsetto, Gaye 's tenor vocals take over.
The song 's story line focuses on a man who is a wallflower when he comes into a nightclub nervous to perform on the dance floor. But after a minute of this, the music takes over and his body starts to lose any inhibitions. Midway through he finally cuts loose before shouting the chant "non-stop express, party y'all; feel no distress, I 'm at my best -- let 's dance, let 's shout, gettin ' funky what it 's all about! '' proving the power of the dance can overtake any shyness. The dance is mainly focused on Gaye and a suitable female partner he seeks. In the second half, a funkier jazz arrangement is helped in guitar, bass and a tambourine. After this, he continues chanting until the song fades.
The record was released in March 1977 and eventually topped the US Billboard charts. The song held the number one position on the US Billboard Hot 100 for one week, from June 18 to 25, 1977. It replaced "Dreams '' by Fleetwood Mac, and was replaced by "Gonna Fly Now '' by Bill Conti. On the R&B Singles Charts it held the number one spot for five weeks from April 30 until June 17, 1977 (being interrupted twice at the number one position for one week by "Whodunit '' by Tavares for the week of May 21, 1977 and Stevie Wonder 's "Sir Duke '' for the week of May 28, 1977 respectively). On the disco charts the single was also a number one hit. Billboard ranked it as the No. 20 song of 1977.
It would also reach number - one on the dance chart in May. The single also found success outside the United States reaching number seven on the UK Singles Chart, his biggest charted hit as a solo artist since his version of "Abraham, Martin & John '' had peaked at number nine on the chart in 1970. Before, Gaye had modest success with two singles - "Save the Children '' (which was released as a double - A side with Gaye 's 1966 recording, "Little Darling (I Need You) '') in 1971 and "Let 's Get It On '' in 1973 (which peaked at number 31 on the UK chart). The single also found modest success in some countries, peaking at number 24 on the Dutch singles chart and number 31 on the New Zealand charts. The single 's success helped its parent album, Live at the London Palladium find substantial success on the Billboard 200, where it stayed at the top ten for several weeks. Sales of the album eventually reached two million.
Marvin lip - synched the song with a band on Soul Train soon after the song 's release. This video was edited to achieve a music video format.
Gaye 's song became an important influence and motivation for Michael Jackson, who was searching to write a potential hit after The Jacksons had struggled with previous offerings. Jackson later wrote, with brother Randy, "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground) '', adapting parts of Gaye 's chant, transforming it into "let 's dance, let 's shout, shake your body down to the ground ''. The song, "Do n't Stop ' til You Get Enough '', written solely by Jackson and recorded the same year as "Shake Your Body '', took even more of Gaye 's approach with "Got to Give It Up '', using percussive instruments and a continued funk guitar riff. Jackson sings most of the song in falsetto. Jackson 's producer Quincy Jones added in strings used during the instrumental intro and a synthesizer guitar during the song 's bridge. Much like the party chatter in "Got to Give It Up '', Jackson added in vocal chatter; however, the chatter would later be debated as two people having a verbal argument while the tape was recording (a woman could be heard hollering "I love your little ass anyway! ''). Jackson and Jones allowed the argument in the recording.
"Got to Give It Up '' has been featured in the films Menace II Society (1993), Boogie Nights (1997), Practical Magic (1998), Summer of Sam (1999), Charlie 's Angels (2000), Barbershop (2002), This Christmas (2007), Eat Pray Love (2010) and Paul (2011).
The song has also featured in the television shows The Wire, True Blood, and Scandal.
The 2013 hit single "Blurred Lines '' by Robin Thicke, Pharrell Williams and song co-writer T.I. was the subject of a lawsuit for allegedly copying "Got to Give It Up ''. Thicke originally told the public both he and Pharrell were in the recording studio and suddenly Thicke told Pharrell "Damn, we should make something like that, something with that groove '' and they wrote the song in less than an hour. However, Thicke later claimed this was all a lie and the song was entirely written by Pharrell. Thicke stated "I was high on Vicodin and alcohol when I showed up at the studio. '' On March 10, 2015, a federal jury found "Blurred Lines '' infringed on "Got to Give It Up '' and awarded nearly $7.4 million to Gaye 's children. Jurors found against Pharrell and Thicke, but held harmless the record company and T.I.
Aaliyah 's cover version of "Got to Give It Up '' features a rap from Slick Rick, samples Michael Jackson 's "Billie Jean '', "Champ '' by The Mohawks, an uncredited sample of "Got to Give It Up '' itself on the LP version (the video version is overdubbed with original acoustics) and was included on her 1996 album One in a Million. It was released as the second single in the UK. Aaliyah 's version of "Got to Give It Up '' failed to chart in the US when it was commercially released there in January 1997 (although it was not sent to radio stations for airplay, a 12 - inch vinyl single was released to record stores), but it was a minor hit in the UK, peaking at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart, it also peaked at number 38 on the Tokio Hot 100 charts in Japan. It reached number 34 in New Zealand. The single 's B - side, "No Days Go By '', was one of Aaliyah 's few self - compositions.
A new remix of Aaliyah 's "Got to Give It Up '' (without Slick Rick 's vocals) was included on her posthumous 2002 compilation album I Care 4 U. The video is a re-edit of the original, which was directed by Paul Hunter. The video was edited to both the album version with Slick Rick, and a remix, without Slick Rick 's vocals.
Tenor saxophonist Pharoah Sanders covered the song on his 1977 album Love Will Find a Way. Another saxophonist David Sanborn covered the song on his 1994 album Hearsay. Urban Knights, a contemporary jazz group led by legendary pianist Ramsey Lewis performed a cover of this song, which was included on their 2003 album Urban Knights V. A second known instrumental version is by saxophonist Kim Waters from his 2007 album You Are My Lady. The song has been featured in several films and soundtracks since its release including the soundtracks to films such as 54, Summer of Sam and The Nanny Diaries while it was featured on the films, Charlie 's Angels, How Stella Got Her Groove Back, Menace 2 Society and Barbershop. In the latter film, the song is played during a crucial part in the film when two rival barbers nearly come to blows, the song is played which not only cools tension but brings out other people in the neighborhood to step out and dance. Justin Timberlake performed the song live at the 2008 Fashion Rocks concert. Gaye 's daughter Nona recorded an unreleased version with Prince 's band, New Power Generation. Zhane performed this song on a tribute album of various artists titled Marvin Is 60. The song has been covered recently by Thom Yorke 's band Atoms for Peace during a live concert performance. In 2015 South African band Van Coke Kartel released their version of the song.
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can you get into canada without a passport or enhanced license | American entry into Canada by land - wikipedia
U.S. citizens and permanent residents entering Canada by land are required to possess the requisite documentation, and to meet other criteria before they are allowed entry into Canada. Consequently, travelers must also meet the requirements for re-entering the U.S. at the end of their visit.
Entry into Canada is solely determined by Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) officials in accordance with Canadian law. Visitors are required to have the necessary travel documentation and be in good health. If asked, they must satisfy an immigration officer of ties to their country of origin, such as a job, home, and family. They must also satisfy the officer that they will leave Canada at the end of their visit. Additionally, they must have sufficient money for their stay, and all items belonging to an individual, including the vehicle the individual may be traveling in, are subject to search by the CBSA.
Canadian law requires that all persons entering Canada must carry proof of both citizenship and identity. A valid U.S. passport or passport card is preferred, although a birth certificate, naturalization certificate, citizenship certificate, or another document proving U.S. nationality, together with a government - issued photo ID (such as a driver 's license) are acceptable to establish identity and nationality. However, the documents required to return to the United States can be more restrictive (for example, a birth certificate and photo ID are insufficient) -- see the section below on Return entry into the U.S.
An enhanced driver 's license (EDL), currently issued by the states of Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Vermont, and Washington, is specifically designed to meet the requirements of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI) to re-enter the United States via a land or water border. An EDL will also suffice as proof of identity and citizenship for American citizens entering Canada by road.
NEXUS is a joint U S. / Canadian program for pre-approved, low - risk travelers and requires an extensive background check and face to face interview with border officials of both nations. FAST (Free and Secure Trade) is the equivalent for international truck drivers. Membership in either program can expedite border clearance through the use of dedicated lanes.
United States permanent residents are required to show their Permanent Resident Card (green card). No passport or visa is required.
Children under 16 need only present proof of U.S. citizenship. Nevertheless, it is recommended that identification for children be carried anyway. Any person under 18 traveling alone requires a letter from a parent or guardian granting permission to travel to Canada. The letter must state the traveler 's name and the duration of the trip.
A divorced parent who has or shares custody of a child should carry a copy of the custody document. An adult who is not the parent or legal guardian of a child they are accompanying should have written permission from the parents or guardians to supervise the child. When traveling in a group of vehicles, parents or guardians should be in the same vehicle as their children when arriving at the border. CBSA personnel are looking for missing children and may question adults about children traveling with them.
Persons driving into Canada must have their vehicle 's registration document and proof of insurance.
A visa is not required for U.S. citizens to visit Canada for up to 180 days. Anyone seeking to enter Canada for any purpose besides a visit (e.g. to work, study or immigrate) must qualify for the appropriate entry status and can see the Canadian immigration website. The Canadian embassy or nearest consulate can be contacted for additional information.
Some persons are inadmissible -- they are not allowed to enter Canada.
As of 2011, if a person is denied entry and advised to re-enter the U.S., they are issued form IMM 1282B. This form indicates that the person is allowed to withdraw their application to enter Canada, and is allowed to leave Canada. Persons who have been denied entry and provided this form are advised by the CBSA to show this form to the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). There appears to be no legal precedent, however, for the traveler to voluntarily submit this form to the CBP, and doing so may cause the CBP to consider the traveler suspicious, and as a result they may subject the traveler to exhaustive questioning and search. Information about the denial of entry may nevertheless be automatically and immediately available to the CBP.
Individuals may be refused entry to or removed from Canada on the following grounds:
Persons can be denied entry into Canada on the basis of suspicion alone. In particular, the CBSA may deny entry to persons they doubt will be able to support themselves and their dependents, or whose willingness and means to return to the U.S. is in doubt. Certain documents, such as the following, can serve to reduce these doubts:
A single criminal conviction, no matter how minor or how long ago, is grounds for exclusion from Canada. With the exception of civil traffic violations such as speeding, and some municipal ordinance infractions (which are typically not handled through the legal system) such as parking violations or littering, persons with a conviction must either have received a pardon, applied for and been accepted for rehabilitation, met the requirement to be considered deemed rehabilitated, or if ineligible for rehabilitation or deemed rehabilitated status, apply for and receive a temporary resident permit (a special type of visa) to enter Canada.
Individuals with a criminal conviction that has been expunged are allowed entry into Canada. Since the criminal database might not be up - to - date, it is best to have paperwork of the expungement to guarantee entry. A letter from an attorney will suffice.
To be a candidate for rehabilitation, at least five years (or more depending on the severity of the offense) since the conclusion of any sentence imposed (imprisonment, probation, fine paid, suspension of driver 's license, etc...) must have elapsed. Due to differences between legal systems, an overturned conviction or dismissed charges does not automatically overcome inadmissibility, unless the offense itself occurred in Canada. However, applicants in either of these situations can use an abbreviated process and the five - year waiting period generally does not apply. In simple cases, such as a single misdemeanor conviction, the application can typically be reviewed and approved by a Canadian Embassy, High Counsel, or CIC office. For more complicated histories or in the case of a felony conviction, the application will need to be forwarded to Ottawa for approval. Processing time in either case can take several months to a year or more, so it is advisable to begin the process of applying for rehabilitation well in advance of any planned travel to Canada. Factors considered when determining whether to approve an application for rehabilitation or not include the nature of the offense, the time elapsed and one 's behavior since the offense was committed or since the sentence. Applicants are required to obtain clearances from law enforcement in the communities in which they have lived, and are strongly urged to submit documentation showing stability and reform such as records of employment and any education or treatment programs completed, as well as character references.
A person with a past conviction can also be "deemed rehabilitated '' by an immigration officer at the port of entry. Ten years must have elapsed since the conclusion of any sentence imposed and other criteria must be satisfied. Persons attempting to enter under the deemed rehabilitated system should also bring law enforcement clearances, documents showing a stable and reformed life, and character references, as the decision as to whether to admit someone as deemed rehabilitated is completely at the discretion of the border official and there is no recourse or right of appeal should deemed rehabilitated status be denied. It should be noted that anyone with a felony conviction (unless a pardon was granted) can not be deemed rehabilitated and must instead apply for rehabilitation or a temporary resident permit.
Temporary resident permits are a one - time authorization for someone who is otherwise criminally inadmissible to enter Canada. Permits are rarely granted without cause, typically only in extenuating circumstances (such as a documented family emergency), on significant humanitarian grounds (such as sponsoring an inadmissible spouse or child), or for reasons of Canadian national interest, or in circumstances where the reasons for criminal inadmissibility are negligible. TRP 's are usually issued with varying restrictions and can be revoked if deemed necessary. Temporary resident permits can, however, be obtained by an individual who has a criminal record if it can be proven that he has been rehabilitated and is able to demonstrate that the need for him to enter Canada outweighs any risk that he may cause to Canada.
If an individual is deemed inadmissible, members of his or her family may also be deemed inadmissible solely based on that fact.
In theory, a person is not inadmissible if they were convicted of a crime before the age of 18 and were tried as a young offender or through the juvenile justice system. If the person in question could have been tried as an adult (which is frequently the case in the US, where minors as young as 8 can be tried as an adult), regardless of whether they actually were or not, they are inadmissible.
Firearms are much more strictly controlled in Canada than in the U.S. Visitors bringing any firearms into Canada, or planning to borrow and use firearms while in Canada, are required to declare the firearms in writing using a Non-Resident Firearm Declaration form. Multiple firearms can be declared at the same time. Upon acceptance, this declaration serves as a temporary license and registration certificate for up to 60 days. The Non-Resident Firearm Declaration has a cost of $25 (Canadian). Visitors planning to borrow a firearm in Canada are required to obtain in advance a Temporary Firearms Borrowing License, the cost of which is $30 (Canadian), payable at the border. These forms are required to be signed before a CBSA officer at the border. Note that the forms are not available at the border itself. Details and downloadable forms are provided by the Canadian Firearms Program.
Canada has three classes of firearms: non-restricted, restricted, and prohibited. Non-restricted firearms include most ordinary hunting rifles and shotguns. These can be brought temporarily into Canada for sporting or hunting use during hunting season, use in competitions, in - transit movement through Canada, or personal protection against wildlife in remote areas of Canada. Any person wishing to bring a hunting rifle into Canada is required to be at least 18 years old, and the firearm must be properly stored for transport. Restricted firearms are primarily handguns. A restricted firearm may be brought into Canada, but an Authorization to Transport permit must be obtained in advance from a Chief Firearms Officer. Prohibited firearms include fully automatic, converted automatics and assault - type weapons. Prohibited firearms are not allowed into Canada. A comprehensive guide on importation of firearms and weapons is published by the CBSA.
It is recommended that the Canadian embassy or a consulate, or the Canadian Firearms Program be contacted for detailed information and instructions on temporarily importing firearms in advance of any travel. In all cases, travelers are required to declare to Canadian authorities any firearms and weapons in their possession when entering Canada. If a traveler is denied permission to bring in the firearm, there may be facilities near border crossings where firearms may be stored, pending the traveler 's return to the U.S. Canadian law requires that officials confiscate firearms and weapons from those crossing the border that deny having them in their possession. Confiscated firearms and weapons are never returned. Possession of an undeclared firearm can result in a five - year prison sentence.
Food, plants, animals and related products are required to be declared when entering Canada using a declaration form. Once declared, a CBSA officer will ask questions about these items, such as their country of origin or intended use. The items may be inspected. Non-allowable items are either seized, disposed of, or ordered removed from Canada.
A failure to declare can lead to confiscation of products, fines of up to $400 (Canadian) per undeclared item, as well as prosecution. Persons wishing to dispose product needing declaration can do so in product disposal bins.
Electronic media of travelers entering Canada can be randomly checked. Computers are subject to search without a warrant at the border, and illegal content can result in the seizure of the computer as well as detention, arrest and prosecution of the bearer.
Certain weapons that may be legal to possess in the U.S. are prohibited weapons in Canada, most notably pepper spray, mace and Tasers. Under the Canadian Criminal Code, a person can face a maximum of five years in prison for unauthorized possession and five years for unauthorized importation of an illegal weapon. If, however, it can be proven that the person, despite knowing that its importation or possession is illegal, imports or possess a prohibited weapon, the maximum penalty increases to ten years imprisonment.
Canadian law prohibits the unlawful importation or trafficking of controlled substances and narcotics. A number of travelers, including Americans, have been arrested for attempting to smuggle khat, an herbal stimulant from East Africa, into Canada. Smugglers risk substantial fines, a permanent bar from Canada, and imprisonment.
It is recommended that prescription medicines be in their original prescription container. Suspicious looking or unidentifiable pills found during a search can be tested for narcotics. Entry into Canada can be delayed until the tests have completed. Moreover, their discovery can lead to being denied entry even if the tests passed.
A person or organization may disagree with the CBSA about an assessment or decision made by the CBSA. If at the border, the Border Services Officer (BSO) or superintendent can be consulted. To address disagreements afterwards, a CBSA office can be contacted.
Persons who believe that they have not received their full entitlements under Canadian law, and have been unable to reach an agreement with the CBSA on a duty or penalty matter, have the right to a formal review of their file. A formal review is conducted by appeals representatives who were not involved in the original decision, and is impartial. Appeals staff are trained to review the client 's and the CBSA 's facts and reasons.
The role of the appeals representative who reviews a case is to carry out a complete, professional, and impartial review. This representative reviews the case by interpreting acts administered by the CBSA and reviewing CBSA policies, considering the appellant 's point of view; and when necessary, asking for a technical opinion from CBSA experts or seeking legal advice from the Canadian Department of Justice.
The representative who reviews the case will not have been involved in the original assessment, determination, or ruling of a duty, penalty or other matter. The appellant can discuss the case with an appeals representative, and has the right to obtain certain documents related to the case.
The CBSA does not charge for a review. If a person is not satisfied with the review, a further appeal can be made to the appropriate court or, to the Canadian International Trade Tribunal for relevant matters.
A business visitor is someone who comes to Canada to engage in international business activities without directly entering the Canadian labor market. Such visitors may be in Canada for business meetings or site visits (to observe only), but not to work. Business visitors are required to prove that their main source of income and their main place of business are outside Canada.
A visa is not required for a business visitor who is an American citizen. All business visitors are required to have a passport valid until the end of their stay, a letter of support from their parent company, a letter of invitation from the Canadian host business, a copy of any contracts or bills to support the visit, 24 - hour contact details of the business host in Canada, and proof of enough money for both the stay in Canada and the return home. Business visitors do not need a temporary work permit unless they plan on doing executive, managerial, technical or production work.
Beginning June 1, 2009, U.S. citizens aged 16 and older traveling into the U.S. from Canada by land or sea (including ferries) have had to present documents denoting citizenship and identity, which include a valid U.S. passport, U.S. passport card, Trusted Traveler Program card (NEXUS, SENTRI, Global Entry or FAST), an Enhanced Driver 's License, U.S. Military identification card when traveling on official orders, U.S. Merchant Mariner document when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business, Form I - 872 American Indian Card, or (when available) Enhanced Tribal Card. Children under age 16 (or under 19, if traveling with a school, religious group, or other youth group) need only to present a birth certificate issued by an appropriate state or local authority, or a Naturalization Certificate. Persons who do not present acceptable documents may be delayed as U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers at the port of entry attempt to verify identity and citizenship.
The U.S. Customs and Border Protection has the authority from the U.S. Congress to conduct searches of persons and their baggage, cargo, and means of transportation entering the United States. Persons unhappy with their treatment can ask to have a supervisor listen to their comments, or can make a complaint online.
Persons whose vehicles are searched can be asked to leave their phones in the car. There exists the potential of data on a phone or laptop being collected, rapidly copied and searched. Contrary to Fourth Amendment protections, persons including U.S. citizens can be detained until they unlock their device so it can be searched. It is recommended that an alternative phone be used and that it be reset before entering the country.
Certain items such as monetary instruments over U.S. $10,000, hunting trophies, and firearms require a declaration. Prescription medicines are required to be in their original prescription container. Prohibited items include absinthe, biological materials, Cuban cigars and other products of Cuba, endangered species and products thereof; explosives, including fireworks; some fruits, vegetables, and meats; narcotics and paraphernalia, pornographic materials, seditious or treasonable matter, and switchblade knives (except by one - armed persons). Pets must be accompanied with a valid rabies vaccination certificate.
Wait times for vehicles at popular border crossings can sometimes be excessive on either side of the border. It is recommended that the estimated wait time be checked in advance of travel. These are provided by both the CBSA and the CBP.
Both the U.S. and Canadian governments urge frequent travelers to join the NEXUS trusted traveler program. NEXUS members receive a card that allows expedited border crossings for both private and commercial travelers through both U.S. and Canada border controls quickly.
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according to the doctrine of virtual representation the house of commons | Virtual representation - wikipedia
Virtual representation refers to the idea that the members of Parliament, including the Lords and the Crown - in - Parliament, reserved the right to speak for the interests of all British subjects, rather than for the interests of only the district that elected them or for the regions in which they held peerages and spiritual sway. Virtual representation was the British response to the First Continental Congress in the American colonies. The Second Continental Congress asked for representation in Parliament in the Suffolk Resolves, also known as the first Olive Branch Petition. Parliament claimed that their members had the well being of the colonists in mind. The Colonies rejected this premise.
In the early stages of the American Revolution, colonists in the Thirteen Colonies rejected legislation imposed upon them by the Parliament of Great Britain because the colonies were not represented in Parliament. According to the British constitution, colonists argued, taxes could be levied on British subjects only with their consent. Because the colonists were represented only in their provincial assemblies, they said, only those legislatures could levy taxes in the colonies. This concept was famously expressed as "No taxation without representation. ''
In The Constitutional Origins of the American Revolution, Jack P. Greene writes that during "the winter of 1764 - 5, in the months preceding the final passage of the Stamp Act, '' George Grenville and his lieutenant, Thomas Whately, attempted to explicitly articulate "a theoretical justification for the exertion of parliamentary authority '' in the area of colonial taxation. Grenville and Whately 's theory, known as "virtual representation, '' alleged that "the colonists, like those individuals and groups who resided in Britain but had no voice in elections, were nonetheless virtually represented in Parliament. '' George Grenville defended all the taxes by arguing that the colonists were virtually represented in Parliament, a position that had critics on both sides of the British Empire. However, Parliament rejected the criticism that virtual representation was constitutionally invalid as a whole, and passed the Declaratory Act in 1766, asserting the right of Parliament to legislate for the colonies "all cases whatsoever. ''
The idea of virtual representation "found little support on either side of the Atlantic '' as a means of solving the constitutional controversy between colonists and Britons. William Pitt, a defender of colonial rights, ridiculed virtual representation, calling it "the most contemptible idea that ever entered into the head of a man; it does not deserve serious refutation. '' Pitt said to the House of Commons in 1766,
It is my opinion, that this kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies... The taxes are a voluntary gift and grant of the Commons alone... When, therefore, in this House we give and grant, we give and grant what is our own. But in an American tax, what do we do? "We, your majesty 's Commons for Great Britain, give and grant to your majesty '' -- what? Our own property! No! "We give and grant to your majesty '' the property of your majesty 's Commons of America! It is an absurdity in terms... There is an idea in some that the colonies are virtually represented in the House. I would fain know by whom an American is represented here. Is he represented by any knight of the shire, in any county in this kingdom? Would to God that respectable representation was augmented to a greater number! Or will you tell him that he is represented by any representative of a borough? -- a borough which, perhaps, its own representatives never saw! This is what is called the rotten part of the Constitution. It can not continue a century. If it does not drop, it must be amputated.
Pitt then stated to Parliament that, "I myself would have cited the two cases of Chester and Durham... to show that, even under former arbitrary reigns, Parliaments were ashamed of taxing a people without their consent, and allowed them representatives... (A) higher example (might be found) in Wales -- Wales that never was taxed by Parliament till it was incorporated. Pitt pointed out that, unlike the "India company, merchants, stockholders, (and) manufacturers '' who "have it in their option to be actually represented... have connections with those that elect, and... have influence over them, '' the colonists had no such option, connections or influence.
Benjamin Franklin told the House of Commons that, "I know that whenever the subject (of Parliamentary taxation) has occurred in conversation where I have been present, it has appeared to be the opinion of every one that we could not be taxed by a Parliament wherein we were not represented... An external tax is a duty laid on commodities imported; that duty is added to the first cost and other charges on the commodity, and, when it is offered for sale, makes a part of the price. If the people do not like it at that price, they refuse it; they are not obliged to pay it. But an internal tax is forced from the people without their consent if not laid by their own representatives. The Stamp Act says we shall have no commerce, make no exchange of property with each other, neither purchase nor grant, nor recover debts; we shall neither marry nor make our wills, unless we pay such and such sums; and thus it is intended to extort our money from us or ruin us by the consequence of refusing to pay it. '' James Otis Jr. reasoned that the legal liberties of British subjects meant that Parliament should, or could, only tax the colonists if they were actually represented in Westminster.
At the time of the American Revolution, only England and Wales and Scotland were directly represented in the Parliament of Great Britain among the many parts of the British Empire. The colonial electorate perhaps consisted of 10 % to 20 % of the total population, or 75 % of adult males. In Britain, by contrast, representation was highly limited due to unequally distributed voting constituencies and property requirements; only 3 % of the population, or between 17 % to 23 % of males, could vote and they were often controlled by local gentry.
As virtual representation was founded on "a defect in the Constitution of England, '' namely, the "Want of a Full Representation of all the People of England, '' it was, therefore, a pernicious notion that had been fabricated for the sole purpose of arguing the colonists "out of their civil Rights. '' The colonists, and some Britons, consequently condemned the idea of virtual representation as "a sham. '' Moreover, the poor state of representation in Britain "was no excuse for taxing the colonists without their consent. ''
Daniel Dulaney Jr. of Maryland, likewise observed that attempting to tax subjects on the inequitable basis of ' virtual ' representation was unsound because,
The situation of the non-electors in England -- their capacity to become electors -- their inseparable connection with those who are electors, and their representatives -- their security against oppression resulting from this connection, and the necessity of imagining a double or virtual representation, to avoid iniquity and absurdity, have been explained -- the inhabitants of the colonies are, as such, incapable of being electors, the privilege of election being exerciseable only in person, and therefore if every inhabitant of America had the requisite freehold, not one could vote, but upon the supposition of his ceasing to be an inhabitant of America, and becoming a resident of Great - Britain, a supposition which would be impertinent, because it shifts the question -- should the colonies not be taxed by parliamentary impositions, their respective legislatures have a regular, adequate, and constitutional authority to tax them, and, therefore, there would not necessarily be an iniquitous and absurd exemption, from their not being represented by the House of Commons. There is not that intimate and inseparable relation between the electors of Great - Britain, and the inhabitants of the colonies, which must inevitably involve both in the same taxation; on the contrary, not a single actual elector in England might be immediately affected by a taxation in America, imposed by a statute which would have a general operation and effect, upon the properties of the inhabitants of the colonies. The latter might be oppressed in a thousand shapes, without any sympathy, or exciting any alarm in the former. Moreover, even acts, oppressive and injurious to the colonies in an extreme degree, might become popular in England, from the promise or expectation, that the very measures which depressed the colonies, would give ease to the inhabitants of Great - Britain.
Dulany Jr. also wrote that, "the Impropriety of a Taxation by the British Parliament... (is proven by) the Fact, that not one inhabitant in any Colony is, or can be actually or virtually represented by the British House of Commons. '' Dulany Jr. denied that Parliament had a right "to impose an internal Tax upon the Colonies, without their consent for the single Purpose of Revenue. ''
In 1764, the Massachusetts politician James Otis Jr. said that,
When the parliament shall think fit to allow the colonists a representation in the house of commons, the equity of their taxing the colonies, will be as clear as their power is at present of doing it without, if they please... But if it was thought hard that charter privileges should be taken away by act of parliament, is it not much harder to be in part, or in whole, disfranchised of rights, that have been always thought inherent to a British subject, namely, to be free from all taxes, but what he consents to in person, or by his representative? This right, if it could be traced no higher than Magna Charta, is part of the common law, part of a British subjects birthright, and as inherent and perpetual, as the duty of allegiance; both which have been brought to these colonies, and have been hitherto held sacred and inviolable, and I hope and trust ever will. It is humbly conceived, that the British colonists (except only the conquered, if any) are, by Magna Charta, as well entitled to have a voice in their taxes, as the subjects within the realm. Are we not as really deprived of that right, by the parliament assessing us before we are represented in the house of commons, as if the King should do it by his prerogative? Can it be said with any colour of truth or justice, that we are represented in parliament?
In 1765 Otis Jr. attended the Continental Congress, otherwise known as the Stamp Act Congress, along with other colonial delegates. The resolutions of the Congress stated that the Stamp Act had "a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists '' and that "the only Representatives of the People of these Colonies, are Persons chosen therein by themselves, and that no Taxes ever have been, or can be Constitutionally imposed on them, but by their respective Legislature. '' Furthermore, it was declared that, "it is unreasonable and inconsistent with the Principles and Spirit of the British Constitution, for the People of Great - Britain, to grant to his Majesty the Property of the Colonists. ''
Sebastian Galiani and Gustavo Torrens propose virtual representation imposed a commitment problem on British colonial elites, which led to the American Revolutionary War. They suggest the call for "No taxation without representation '' and subsequent inclusion of American representatives within British Parliament would have encouraged coalition building between Americans and the British democratic opposition, disrupting the power of the incumbent landed gentry. Through game theoretic models, Galiani and Torrens show that, once in Parliament, Americans could not feasibly commit to political alliances independent of British democrats. As mounting pressure for democratic reform would pose a threat to the British political order, Galiani and Torrens argue British elites would incur greater losses to their domestic clout from American representation than forfeiting a colony. The implications of forfeiting virtual representation forced the British to decide between maintaining the status quo of American colonialism, which was infeasible, and engaging in war.
Cannon argues that for 18th and 19th century Britain:
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when do they do the seventh inning stretch | Seventh - inning stretch - wikipedia
In baseball in the United States and Canada, the seventh - inning stretch is a tradition that takes place between the halves of the seventh inning of a game -- in the middle of the seventh inning. Fans generally stand up and stretch out their arms and legs and sometimes walk around. It is a popular time to get a late - game snack or an alcoholic beverage as well, as vendors end alcohol sales after the last out of the seventh inning. The stretch also serves as a short break for the players. Most ballparks in professional baseball mark this point of the game by playing the crowd sing - along song "Take Me Out to the Ball Game ''. Since the September 11 attacks, many American ballparks complement or replace the song with the playing of "God Bless America. '' If a game goes into a fifth extra inning, a similar "fourteenth - inning stretch '' is celebrated (as well as a possible "twenty - first inning stretch '' or "twenty - eighth inning stretch ''). In softball games, amateur games scheduled for only seven innings, or in minor - league doubleheaders, a "fifth - inning stretch '' may be substituted.
The origin of the seventh - inning stretch is much disputed, and it is difficult to certify any definite history.
One claimant is Brother Jasper (Brennan) of Mary, F.S.C., the man credited with bringing baseball to Manhattan College in New York City. Being the Prefect of Discipline as well as the coach of the team, it fell to Brother Jasper to supervise the student fans at every home game. On one particularly hot and muggy day in June 1882, during the seventh inning against a semi-pro team called the Metropolitans, the Prefect noticed his charges becoming restless. To break the tension, he called a timeout in the game and instructed everyone in the bleachers to stand up and unwind. It worked so well he began calling for a seventh - inning rest period at every game. The Manhattan College custom spread to the major leagues after the New York Giants were charmed by it at an exhibition game.
In June 1869 the New York Herald published a report on a game between the Cincinnati Red Stockings and the Brooklyn Eagles (home team): "At the close of the long second inning, the laughable stand up and stretch was indulged in all round the field. ''
Whether a stretch was observed nationwide is not known, but later in 1869 the Cincinnati Commercial reported on a game that was played on the West Coast between the Red Stockings and the Eagle Club of San Francisco: "One thing noticeable in this game was a ten minutes ' intermission at the end of the sixth inning -- a dodge to advertise and have the crowd patronize the bar. ''
However, a letter written in 1869 by Harry Wright (1835 -- 1895), manager of the Cincinnati Red Stockings documented something very similar to a seventh - inning stretch, making the following observation about the Cincinnati fans ' ballpark behavior: "The spectators all arise between halves of the seventh inning, extend their legs and arms and sometimes walk about. In so doing they enjoy the relief afforded by relaxation from a long posture upon hard benches. '' Another tale holds that the stretch was invented by a manager stalling for time to warm up a relief pitcher.
On October 18, 1889 Game 1 of the 1889 World Series saw a seventh - inning stretch after somebody yelled "stretch for luck ''.
A popular story for the origin of the seventh - inning stretch is that on April 14, 1910, on opening day, 6 ft 2 in (188 cm), 350 - pound (160 kg), President William Howard Taft was sore from prolonged sitting at a game between the Washington Senators and the Philadelphia Athletics and stood up to stretch, causing the crowd to feel obligated to join their president in his gestures. This story is set at a far later date than the others, however, so he may only have given the presidential seal of approval to a longstanding tradition; the story that his physical problems forced him to stand up contradict this, but he might have just been waiting for the proper accepted time to relieve his pain; either way, he gave national publicity to the practice...
As to the name, there appears to be no written record of the name "seventh - inning stretch '' before 1920, which since at least the late 1870s was called the Lucky Seventh, indicating that the 7th inning was settled on for superstitious reasons.
In modern baseball, standing up and singing "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' during the seventh - inning stretch is a popular tradition. It was first played at a ballpark at a high school in Los Angeles, California in 1934. The lyrics for the 1908 Tin Pan Alley standard were written by vaudeville star Jack Norworth (1879 -- 1959), who had ironically never attended an actual baseball game prior to writing the song, and only attended his first Major League game in 1940.
There is no certain date when the tradition began, but the practice gained exceptional notoriety from broadcaster Harry Caray. Caray would sing the song to himself in the broadcast booth during the stretch while a play - by - play announcer for the Chicago White Sox. After hearing him sing one day, White Sox owner Bill Veeck Jr., the famed baseball promoter, had Caray 's microphone turned on so that the ballpark could hear him sing. When Caray moved into the Chicago Cubs broadcast booth, he continued the practice, sparking what has become a Cubs tradition by regularly leading the crowd in singing the song in every seventh - inning stretch. Since his death, the Cubs have invited various celebrities to lead the crowd during the stretch, including James Belushi, John Cusack, Mike Ditka, Michael J. Fox, Bill Murray, Dan Patrick, Ozzy Osbourne, Eddie Vedder, Mr. T and Billy Corgan.
Many teams will also play a local traditional song either before or after "Take Me Out to the Ballgame ''. Since the 1970s, the Baltimore Orioles have often played the raucous John Denver song "Thank God I 'm a Country Boy '' at the conclusion of "Take Me Out to the Ball Game ''. During the bridge of the song, in which Denver holds a long note, fans yell "Ooooooooh! '' (since the name Orioles is often shortened to "O 's ''.) The Atlanta Braves also play this song after "Take Me Out To The Ball Game ''.
Jane Jarvis, the organist at the New York Mets ' home Shea Stadium from 1964 to 1979, played the "Mexican Hat Dance '' during the stretch. After the Mets switched to recorded music, "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' became standard. In recent decades, the Lou Monte tune "Lazy Mary '' has followed it, continuing to play it at Citi Field.
When the St. Louis Cardinals were owned by Anheuser - Busch, Busch Memorial Stadium organist Ernie Hays played "Here Comes the King '', a commonly recognized jingle for Budweiser beer, during the stretch. On Opening Day, during playoff games and on "big nights '' such as games against the Chicago Cubs, a team of Budweiser 's mascot Clydesdale horses would also make a circuit of the warning track. Since Anheuser - Busch 's sale of the Cardinals in 1996, "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' has been played in the middle of 7th inning, with "Here Comes The King '' at the top of the 8th. Often, "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' is followed by an instrumental rendition of "Meet Me in St. Louis, Louis ''. The Clydesdales still appear on Opening Day and during the playoffs.
The Toronto Blue Jays take the term "seventh - inning stretch '' literally, as Health Canada officials lead fans at Rogers Centre in stretching exercises while the club 's song "OK Blue Jays '' plays before "Take Me Out to the Ball Game ''.
The Miami Marlins, attempting to mimic the Blue Jays ' exercising song in their inaugural year of 1993, created a group of dancers, some former University of Miami Sunsations or Miami Heat dancers, and called the group "The Seventh Inning Stretchers ''. At the first game this group came onto the field at the top of the 7th inning, and the crowd was encouraged to stand and stretch, and do a choreographed dance to Gloria Estefan 's song "Get on Your Feet ''. The crowd, thinking it was the actual 7th inning stretch, booed loudly. The group appeared at the 2nd game the following evening, but was booed again and was never seen following that game.
After the Tampa Bay Devil Rays ' 1998 home opener, they played the popular Jimmy Buffett song "Fins '' after the 6th inning, rather than the 7th inning stretch. The grounds crew sent on the field after the 6th inning wore tropical clothing, and everyone in the park formed their arms into fins for the "Fins to the left, fins to the right '' portions of the song. This tradition was dropped several years later.
The Texas Rangers initially played only "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' during the 7th inning stretch. When the team moved to their new facility in 1994, The Ballpark in Arlington (now The Globe Life Park in Arlington), "Take Me Out To The Ballgame '' was added to 7th inning stretch, followed by "Cotton - Eyed Joe ''. Somewhat unusual for a 7th inning stretch song, the version of "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' played is an instrumental, by Al Dean from the album "Plays For Urban Cowboys ''. Rather than singing along, the crowd claps along and stomps their feet to the tune.
The Minnesota Twins play "Little Red Corvette '' by Prince, due to the tradition that rookies and newly traded players know the lyrics to the song.
Other clubs that traditionally play songs after "Take Me Out To The Ballgame '' include; Cincinnati Reds ("Cincinnati Ohio '' -- Connie Smith), Milwaukee Brewers ("The Beer Barrel Polka '' -- in reference to the city 's beermaking heritage), Houston Astros ("Deep in the Heart of Texas ''), Los Angeles Angels ("Build Me Up Buttercup ''), Seattle Mariners ("Louie Louie '' by The Kingsmen), the Colorado Rockies (a cover version of "Hey! Baby ''), and the Washington Nationals ("Take on Me '' by A-ha, a song that became popular with Nationals fans during the 2012 season when Michael Morse used it as his walk - up music).
While all thirty Major League franchises currently sing the traditional "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' in the seventh inning, several other teams will sing their local favorite between the top and bottom of the eighth inning. Boston Red Sox fans at Fenway Park, for example, sing along to Neil Diamond 's recording of "Sweet Caroline ''. A notable occurrence happened in June 2011 when during the playing of the song, the city 's NHL franchise, the Boston Bruins, captured the Stanley Cup following a 7 - game series against the Vancouver Canucks, and many fans cheered after the announcement was made. Following the Boston Marathon bombing, several teams (including Boston 's archrival, the New York Yankees) temporarily played "Sweet Caroline '' in the middle of the eighth inning as well, or at other times during the game, as a means of showing solidarity with the City of Boston. The New York Mets have previously used "Sweet Caroline '' but have since dropped it. After experimenting with it during select games during the 2014 season, the Mets began to implement Billy Joel 's "Piano Man '' as a full - time sing along... Similarly, starting in 2008, the Kansas City Royals began to play "Friends in Low Places '' by celebrity supporter and one - time spring training invitee Garth Brooks during the middle of the 8th.
The Los Angeles Dodgers also hold an 8th inning tradition, with fans singing Journey 's "Do n't Stop Believin ' ''. The practice came under controversy when the song 's author, Steve Perry, a Bay Area native and San Francisco Giants fan, asked the Dodgers to stop the tradition. The team refused and continue to play the song through the 2013 season. The Minnesota Twins, who played the same song, ended the tradition upon moving to Target Field in 2010.
The Journey song "Lights '' is frequently played at San Francisco Giants baseball games (including a version led by Perry himself in the middle of the 8th inning during Game 2 of the 2010 World Series) and the cross-bay Oakland Athletics after - game fireworks starts.
The Detroit Tigers also play the beginning of "Do n't Stop Believing '' in the eighth inning, showing the lyrics on the big screen. Fan will sing along, especially the line, "born and raised in South Detroit. ''. Of course, there is no area called South Detroit by Detroiters, as Downtown Detroit is considered geographically south (and, therefore, South Detroit would actually be in Windsor, Ontario, Canada).
The Washington Nationals play A-ha 's "Take on Me '' during the middle of the eighth inning.
The Oakland Athletics play Bay Area native MC Hammer 's "2 Legit 2 Quit '' during the middle of the eighth.
The Cleveland Indians play "Hang on Sloopy '' in honor of Ohio State University during the middle of the 8th, and fans spell out O-H-I-O at the appropriate times within the song.
The San Diego Padres play "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' during the middle of the 8th.
The New York Yankees play "Cotton Eyed Joe '' in the 8th inning.
The Toronto Blue Jays play "Hooked on a Feeling '' in the 8th inning.
Following the September 11 attacks, "God Bless America '' became common during the seventh - inning stretch, sometimes in addition to "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' and sometimes replacing it entirely. Some stadiums play "God Bless America '' only on Sundays. At Yankee Stadium the song is now played at every game, in addition to "Take Me Out to the Ball Game ''.
Since 2002, "God Bless America '' has been performed at all Major League Baseball All - Star Games and playoff games in the United States, often with a celebrity recording artist or a member of the United States Armed Forces ("Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' is sometimes done afterwards with a recording of Harry Caray), as well as Opening Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, and September 11.
During the deciding Game 5 of the 2011 National League Division Series, Lauren Hart (daughter of Hockey Hall of Fame broadcaster Gene Hart) appeared at Citizens Bank Park to sing "God Bless America '' during the seventh - inning stretch; before this she had become a fixture at NHL Philadelphia Flyers games singing that song in duet with Kate Smith (the artist best known for the song) as the Flyers ' good - luck charm before important games, and it was hoped that she would bring luck to the Philadelphia Phillies as well.
Between the top and bottom of the 6th inning, the New York Yankees play The YMCA Song while the grounds crew come out and clean the infield. In the chorus, the grounds crew drop their tools and do the "YMCA '' dance with their arms. The middle of the 6th inning at Milwaukee Brewers games is time for the Sausage Race, when people running in costumes for the bratwurst, Polish sausage, Italian sausage, hot dog and chorizo get up to 45,000 fans on their feet as they race around the clay dirt near the dugouts of Miller Park. Other teams hold similar races. The Pittsburgh Pirates hold the "Great Pittsburgh Pierogi Race N'At '' (also called the Great Pierogi Race) during the sixth inning at home games, where people dressed as cartoon cheese, saurkraut, jalapeno, potato, onion, and bacon pierogies run around the warning track at PNC Park. This race is often combined with visiting mascots such as the Brewers ' sausages or the Nationals ' presidents.
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what does the ark of the lord represent | Ark of the Covenant - wikipedia
The Ark of the Covenant (Hebrew: אָרוֹן הַבְּרִית, Modern: Arōn Ha'brēt, Tiberian: ʾĀrôn Habbərîṯ), also known as the Ark of the Testimony, is a gold - covered wooden chest with lid cover described in the Book of Exodus as containing the two stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. According to various texts within the Hebrew Bible, it also contained Aaron 's rod and a pot of manna. Hebrews 9: 4 describes: "The ark of the covenant (was) covered on all sides with gold, in which was a golden jar holding the manna, and Aaron 's rod which budded, and the tables of the covenant. ''
The biblical account relates that, approximately one year after the Israelites ' exodus from Egypt, the Ark was created according to the pattern given to Moses by God when the Israelites were encamped at the foot of biblical Mount Sinai. Thereafter, the gold - plated acacia chest was carried by its staves while en route by the Levites approximately 2,000 cubits (approximately 800 meters or 2,600 feet) in advance of the people when on the march or before the Israelite army, the host of fighting men. When carried, the Ark was always hidden under a large veil made of skins and blue cloth, always carefully concealed, even from the eyes of the priests and the Levites who carried it. God was said to have spoken with Moses "from between the two cherubim '' on the Ark 's cover. When at rest the tabernacle was set up and the holy Ark was placed in it under the veil of the covering, the staves of it crossing the middle side bars to hold it up off the ground.
According to the Book of Exodus, God instructed Moses on Mount Sinai during his 40 - day stay upon the mountain within the thick cloud and darkness where God was and he was shown the pattern for the tabernacle and furnishings of the Ark to be made of shittim wood to house the Tablets of Stone. Moses instructed Bezalel and Oholiab to construct the Ark. In Deuteronomy, however, the Ark is said to have been built specifically by Moses himself without reference of Bezalel or Oholiab.
The Book of Exodus gives detailed instructions on how the Ark is to be constructed. It is to be 21⁄2 cubits in length, 11⁄2 in breadth, and 11⁄2 in height (approximately 131 × 79 × 79 cm or 52 × 31 × 31 in). Then it is to be gilded entirely with gold, and a crown or molding of gold is to be put around it. Four rings of gold are to be attached to its four corners, two on each side -- and through these rings staves of shittim - wood overlaid with gold for carrying the Ark are to be inserted; and these are not to be removed. A golden lid, the kapporet (traditionally "mercy seat '' in Christian translations) which is covered with 2 golden cherubim, is to be placed above the Ark. Missing from the account are instructions concerning the thickness of the mercy seat and details about the cherubim other than that the cover be beaten out the ends of the Ark and that they form the space where God will appear. The Ark is finally to be placed under the veil of the covering.
The biblical account continues that, after its creation by Moses, the Ark was carried by the Israelites during their 40 years of wandering in the desert. Whenever the Israelites camped, the Ark was placed in a separate room in a sacred tent, called the Tabernacle.
When the Israelites, led by Joshua toward the Promised Land, arrived at the banks of the Jordan river, the Ark was carried in the lead preceding the people and was the signal for their advance. During the crossing, the river grew dry as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the Ark touched its waters, and remained so until the priests -- with the Ark -- left the river after the people had passed over. As memorials, twelve stones were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood.
In the Battle of Jericho, the Ark was carried round the city once a day for seven days, preceded by the armed men and seven priests sounding seven trumpets of rams ' horns. On the seventh day, the seven priests sounding the seven trumpets of rams ' horns before the Ark compassed the city seven times and, with a great shout, Jericho 's wall fell down flat and the people took the city. After the defeat at Ai, Joshua lamented before the Ark. When Joshua read the Law to the people between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, they stood on each side of the Ark. We next hear of the Ark in Bethel where it was being cared for by the priest Phineas the grandson of Aaron (where ' Bethel ' is translated ' the House of God ' in the King James Version). According to this verse it was consulted by the people of Israel when they were planning to attack the Benjaminites at the battle of Gibeah. Later, however, the Ark was kept at Shiloh, another religious centre some 16 km (10 mi) north of Bethel, at the time of the prophet Samuel 's apprenticeship, where it was cared for by Hophni and Phinehas, two sons of Eli.
A few years later the elders of Israel decided to take the Ark out onto the battlefield to assist them against the Philistines, after being defeated at the battle of Eben - Ezer. They were, however, heavily defeated with the loss of 30,000 men. The Ark was captured by the Philistines and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. The news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger "with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head. '' The old priest, Eli, fell dead when he heard it; and his daughter - in - law, bearing a son at the time the news of the capture of the Ark was received, named him Ichabod -- explained as "The glory has departed Israel '' in reference to the loss of the Ark. The mother of the child Ichabod died at his birth.
The Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune befell them. At Ashdod it was placed in the temple of Dagon. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with tumors; a plague of mice was sent over the land. The affliction of boils was also visited upon the people of Gath and of Ekron, whither the Ark was successively removed.
After the Ark had been among them for seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the tumors and mice wherewith they had been afflicted. The Ark was set up in the field of Joshua the Beth - shemite, and the Beth - shemites offered sacrifices and burnt offerings. Out of curiosity the men of Beth - shemesh gazed at the Ark; and as a punishment, seventy of them (fifty thousand and seventy in some translations) were smitten by the Lord. The Bethshemites sent to Kirjath - jearim, or Baal - Judah, to have the Ark removed; and it was taken to the house of Abinadab, whose son Eleazar was sanctified to keep it. Kirjath - jearim remained the abode of the Ark for twenty years. Under Saul, the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too impatient to consult it before engaging in battle. In 1 Chronicles 13: 3 it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consulting the Ark in the days of Saul.
At the beginning of his reign over the United Monarchy, King David removed the Ark from Kirjath - jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to Zion, Uzzah, one of the drivers of the cart that carried the Ark, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was struck dead by God for touching it. The place was subsequently named "Perez - Uzzah '', literally "Outburst Against Uzzah '', as a result. David, in fear, carried the Ark aside into the house of Obed - edom the Gittite, instead of carrying it on to Zion, and there it stayed three months.
On hearing that God had blessed Obed - edom because of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, "girded with a linen ephod... danced before the Lord with all his might '' and in the sight of all the public gathered in Jerusalem -- a performance that caused him to be scornfully rebuked by his first wife, Saul 's daughter Michal. In Zion, David put the Ark in the tabernacle he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household.
The Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark. David 's plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped at the advice of God. The Ark was with the army during the siege of Rabbah; and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time of Absalom 's conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ordered Zadok the priest to return it to Jerusalem.
When Abiathar was dismissed from the priesthood by King Solomon for having taken part in Adonijah 's conspiracy against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark. Solomon worshipped before the Ark after his dream in which God promised him wisdom.
During the construction of Solomon 's Temple, a special inner room, named Kodesh Hakodashim (Eng. Holy of Holies), was prepared to receive and house the Ark; and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark -- containing the original tablets of the Ten Commandments -- was placed therein. When the priests emerged from the holy place after placing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, "for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord ''.
When Solomon married Pharaoh 's daughter, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, as Zion was consecrated because of its containing the Ark. King Josiah also had the Ark returned to the Temple, from which it appears to have been removed by one of his predecessors (cf. 2 Chron. 33 - 34 and 2 Kings 21 - 23).
In 587 BC, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and Solomon 's Temple. There is no record of what became of the Ark in the Books of Kings and Chronicles. An ancient Greek version of the biblical third Book of Ezra, 1 Esdras, suggests that Babylonians took away the vessels of the ark of God, but does not mention taking away the Ark:
And they took all the holy vessels of the Lord, both great and small, with the vessels of the ark of God, and the king 's treasures, and carried them away into Babylon
In Rabbinic literature, the final disposition of the Ark is disputed. Some rabbis hold that it must have been carried off to Babylon, while others hold that it must have been hidden lest it be carried off into Babylon and never brought back. A late 2nd - century rabbinic work known as the Tosefta states the opinions of these rabbis that Josiah, the king of Judah, stored away the Ark, along with the jar of manna, and a jar containing the holy anointing oil, the rod of Aaron which budded and a chest given to Israel by the Philistines. This was said to have been done in order to prevent their being carried off into Babylon as had already happened to the other vessels. Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Shimon, in the same rabbinic work, state that the Ark was, in fact, taken into Babylon. Rabbi Yehudah, dissenting, says that the Ark was stored away in its own place, meaning, somewhere on the Temple Mount.
The Ark is first mentioned in the Book of Exodus, and then numerous times in Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, I Samuel, II Samuel, I Kings, I Chronicles, II Chronicles, Psalms and Jeremiah.
In the Book of Jeremiah, it is referenced by Jeremiah, who, speaking in the days of Josiah, prophesied a future time, possibly the end of days, when the Ark will no longer be talked about or be made again:
And it shall be that when you multiply and become fruitful in the land, in those days -- the word of the LORD -- they will no longer say, ' The Ark of the Covenant of the LORD ' and it will not come to mind; they will not mention it, and will not recall it, and it will not be used any more.
Rashi comments on this verse that "The entire people will be so imbued with the spirit of sanctity that God 's Presence will rest upon them collectively, as if the congregation itself was the Ark of the Covenant. ''
According to Second Maccabees, at the beginning of chapter 2:
The records show that it was the prophet Jeremiah who... prompted by a divine message... gave orders that the Tent of Meeting and the ark should go with him. Then he went away to the mountain from the top of which Moses saw God 's promised land. When he reached the mountain, Jeremiah found a cave - dwelling; he carried the tent, the ark, and the incense - altar into it, then blocked up the entrance. Some of his companions came to mark out the way, but were unable to find it. When Jeremiah learnt of this he reprimanded them. "The place shall remain unknown '', he said, "until God finally gathers his people together and shows mercy to them. The Lord will bring these things to light again, and the glory of the Lord will appear with the cloud, as it was seen both in the time of Moses and when Solomon prayed that the shrine might be worthily consecrated. ''
The "mountain from the top of which Moses saw God 's promised land '' would be Mount Nebo, located in what is now Jordan.
In the New Testament, the Ark is mentioned in the Letter to the Hebrews and the Revelation to St. John. Hebrews 9: 4 states that the Ark contained "the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron 's rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant. '' Revelation 11: 19 says the prophet saw God 's temple in heaven opened, "and the ark of his covenant was seen within his temple. ''
Catholic scholars connect this verse with the Woman of the Apocalypse in Revelation 12: 1, which immediately follows, and say that the Blessed Virgin Mary is identified as the "Ark of the New Covenant. '' Carrying the saviour of mankind within her, she herself became the Holy of Holies. This is the interpretation given in the third century by Gregory Thaumaturgus, and in the fourth century by Saint Ambrose, Saint Ephraem of Syria and Saint Augustine. The Catholic Church teaches this in the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Mary, in whom the Lord himself has just made his dwelling, is the daughter of Zion in person, the Ark of the Covenant, the place where the glory of the Lord dwells. She is ' the dwelling of God... with men ''
In the Gospel of Luke, the author 's accounts of the Annunciation and Visitation are constructed using eight points of literary parallelism to compare Mary to the Ark.
Saint Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, is credited with writing about the connections between the Ark and the Virgin Mary: "O noble Virgin, truly you are greater than any other greatness. For who is your equal in greatness, O dwelling place of God the Word? To whom among all creatures shall I compare you, O Virgin? You are greater than them all O (Ark of the) Covenant, clothed with purity instead of gold! You are the Ark in which is found the golden vessel containing the true manna, that is, the flesh in which Divinity resides '' (Homily of the Papyrus of Turin).
Chapter 2 (Sura 2) of the Quran (Verse 248), is believed to refer to the Ark:
And their prophet said to them, "Indeed, a sign of his kingship is that the chest (tābūt) will come to you in which is assurance (sakīnatun) from your Lord and a remnant of what the family of Moses (Mūsā) and the family of Aaron (Hārūn) had left, carried by the angels. Indeed in that is a sign for you, if you are believers. ''
The Arabic word sakīna (variously translated "peace of reassurance '' or "spirit of tranquility '') is related to the post-Biblical Hebrew shekhinah, meaning "dwelling or presence of God ''.
The Islamic scholar Al Baidawi mentioned that the sakina could be Tawrat, the Books of Moses. According to Al - Jalalan, the relics in the Ark were the fragments of the two tablets, rods, robes, shoes, mitres of Moses and the vase of manna. Al - Tha'alibi, in Qisas Al - Anbiya (The Stories of the Prophets), has given an earlier and later history of the Ark.
According to Uri Rubin the Ark of the Covenant has a religious basis in Islam, and Islam gives it special significance.
Since its disappearance from the Biblical narrative, there has been a number of claims of having discovered or of having possession of the Ark, and several possible places have been suggested for its location.
2 Maccabees 2: 4 - 10, written around 100 BC, says that the prophet Jeremiah, "being warned by God '' before the Babylonian invasion, took the Ark, the Tabernacle, and the Altar of Incense, and buried them in a cave on Mount Nebo, informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown "until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy. '' Mount Nebo is also described in the Bible (Deuteronomy 34) as the site from which Moses views the Promised Land, and apparently also is his final burial place. Mount Nebo is approximately 47 km (29 miles) slightly south of due east from Jerusalem, near the east bank of the Jordan River.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims to possess the Ark of the Covenant, or Tabot, in Axum. The object is currently kept under guard in a treasury near the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion. Replicas of the Axum tabot are kept in every Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo church, each with its own dedication to a particular saint; the most popular of these include Mary, George and Michael.
The Kebra Nagast was composed to legitimise the Solomonic dynasty, which ruled the Ethiopian Empire following its establishment in 1270. It narrates how the real Ark of the Covenant was brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I with divine assistance, while a forgery was left in the Temple in Jerusalem. Although the Kebra Nagast is the best - known account of this belief, it predates the document. Abu al - Makarim, writing in the last quarter of the twelfth century, makes one early reference to this belief that they possessed the Ark. "The Abyssinians possess also the Ark of the Covenant '', he wrote, and, after a description of the object, describes how the liturgy is celebrated upon the Ark four times a year, "on the feast of the great nativity, on the feast of the glorious Baptism, on the feast of the holy Resurrection, and on the feast of the illuminating Cross. ''
In his 1992 book The Sign and the Seal, British writer Graham Hancock suggests, contrary to the Kebra Nagast, that the ark spent several years in Egypt before it came to Ethiopia via the Nile River, where it was kept in the islands of Lake Tana for about four hundred years and finally taken to Axum. Archaeologist John Holladay of the University of Toronto called Hancock 's theory "garbage and hogwash, '' while Edward Ullendorff, a former Professor of Ethiopian Studies at the University of London, said he "wasted a lot of time reading it. ''
On 25 June 2009, the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia, Abune Paulos, said he would announce to the world the next day the unveiling of the Ark of the Covenant, which he said had been kept safe and secure in a church in Axum, Ethiopia. The following day, on 26 June 2009, the patriarch announced that he would not unveil the Ark after all, but that instead he could attest to its current status.
The Lemba people of South Africa and Zimbabwe have claimed that their ancestors carried the Ark south, calling it the ngoma lungundu or "voice of God '', eventually hiding it in a deep cave in the Dumghe mountains, their spiritual home.
On 14 April 2008, in a UK Channel 4 documentary, Tudor Parfitt, taking a literalist approach to the Biblical story, described his research into this claim. He says that the object described by the Lemba has attributes similar to the Ark. It was of similar size, was carried on poles by priests, was not allowed to touch the ground, was revered as a voice of their God, and was used as a weapon of great power, sweeping enemies aside.
In his book The Lost Ark of the Covenant (2008), Parfitt also suggests that the Ark was taken to Arabia following the events depicted in the Second Book of Maccabees, and cites Arabic sources which maintain it was brought in distant times to Yemen. One Lemba clan, the Buba, which was supposed to have brought the Ark to Africa, have a genetic signature called the Cohen Modal Haplotype. This suggests a male Semitic link to the Levant. Lemba tradition maintains that the Ark spent some time in Sena in Yemen. Later, it was taken across the sea to East Africa and may have been taken inland at the time of the Great Zimbabwe civilization. According to their oral traditions, some time after the arrival of the Lemba with the Ark, it self - destructed. Using a core from the original, the Lemba priests constructed a new one. This replica was discovered in a cave by a Swedish German missionary named Harald von Sicard in the 1940s and eventually found its way to the Museum of Human Science in Harare. Parfitt had this artifact radio - carbon dated to about 1350, which coincided with the sudden end of the Great Zimbabwe civilization.
French author Louis Charpentier claimed that the Ark was taken to the Chartres Cathedral by the Knights Templar.
One author has theorised that the Ark was taken from Jerusalem to the village of Rennes - le - Château in Southern France. Karen Ralls has cited Freemason Patrick Byrne, who believes the Ark was moved from Rennes - le - Château at the outbreak of World War I to the United States.
The Ark of the Covenant was said to have been kept in the Basilica of St. John Lateran, surviving the pillages of Rome by Genseric and Alaric I but lost when the basilica burned.
"Rabbi Eliezer ben José stated that he saw in Rome the mercy - seat of the temple. There was a bloodstain on it. On inquiry he was told that it was a stain from the blood which the high priest sprinkled thereon on the Day of Atonement. ''
In 2003, author Graham Phillips hypothetically concluded that the Ark was taken to Mount Sinai in the Valley of Edom by the Maccabees. Phillips claims it remained there until the 1180s, when Ralph de Sudeley, the leader of the Templars found the Maccabean treasure at Jebel al - Madhbah, and returned home to his estate at Herdewyke in Warwickshire, England taking the treasure with him.
During the turn of the 20th century British Israelites carried out some excavations of the Hill of Tara in Ireland looking for the Ark of the Covenant -- the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland campaigned successfully to have them stopped before they destroyed the hill.
In 1922 in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt, the royal tomb of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun (KV62) was opened by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon. Among the artifacts was a processional ark, listed as Shrine 261, the Anubis Shrine. Almost immediately after publication of the photographs of this sensational archaeological find, some claimed that the Anubis Shrine could be the Ark of the Covenant. John M. Lundquist, author of The Temple of Jerusalem: Past, Present, and Future (2008), discounts this idea. The Anubis Shrine measures 95 centimetres (37 in) long, 37 centimetres (15 in) wide, and 54.3 centimetres (21.4 in) high in the shape of a pylon. The Biblical Ark of the Covenant is approximately 133 centimetres (52 in) long, 80 centimetres (31 in) wide, and 80 centimetres (31 in) high in the shape of a rectangular chest.
Lundquist observes that the Anubis Shrine is not strictly analogous to the Ark of the Covenant; it can only be said that it is "ark - like '', constructed of wood, gessoed and gilded, stored within a sacred tomb, "guarding '' the treasury of the tomb (and not the primary focus of that environment), that it contains compartments within it that store and hold sacred objects, that it has a figure of Anubis on its lid, and that it was carried by two staves permanently inserted into rings at its base and borne by eight priests in the funerary procession to Tutankhamun 's tomb. Its value is the insight it provides to the ancient culture of Egypt.
The Ark of the Covenant is the main plot device in Steven Spielberg 's 1981 adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark, which depicts it as located by Indiana Jones in the Egyptian city of Tanis in 1936. It is mentioned briefly in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) and appears in a cameo in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008).
In the Danish family film The Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar from 2006, the main part of the treasure found in the end is the Ark of the Covenant. The power of the Ark comes from static electricity stored in separated metal plates like a giant Leyden jar.
It appears in the video game Assassin 's Creed (2007), where Robert de Sablé found a "Piece of the Eden '' and Altaïr Ibn - La'Ahad planned to stop him, but he could n't. It 's also mentioned in Assassin 's Creed Chronicles: China (2015) and in the film Assassin 's Creed (2016).
Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day) (Hebrew: יום העלייה ) is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of the Hebrew month of Nisan to commemorate the Israelites crossing the Jordan River into the Land of Israel while carrying the Ark of the Covenant.
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when did the dieppe raid start and end | Dieppe raid - wikipedia
Infantry
2nd Canadian Infantry Division
No. 3 Commando No. 4 Commando * No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando (part) 50 U.S. Army Rangers, attached to No. 4 Commando 15 commandos attached to No. 10 Commando.
Royal Navy 237 ships and landing barges including eight destroyers 30 RN Commando 40 Commando RM
Royal Air Force 74 Squadrons
The Dieppe Raid, also known as the Battle of Dieppe, Operation Rutter during planning stages, and by its final official code - name Operation Jubilee, was an Allied attack on the German - occupied port of Dieppe during the Second World War. The raid took place on the northern coast of France on 19 August 1942. The assault began at 5: 00 a.m., and by 10: 50 a.m. the Allied commanders were forced to call a retreat. Over 6,000 infantrymen, predominantly Canadian, were supported by The Calgary Regiment of the 1st Canadian Tank Brigade and a strong force of Royal Navy and smaller Royal Air Force landing contingents. It involved 5,000 Canadians, 1,000 British troops, and 50 United States Army Rangers.
Objectives included seizing and holding a major port for a short period, both to prove that it was possible and to gather intelligence. Upon retreat, the Allies also wanted to destroy coastal defences, port structures and all strategic buildings. The raid had the added objectives of boosting morale and demonstrating the firm commitment of the United Kingdom to open a western front in Europe.
Virtually none of these objectives were met. Allied fire support was grossly inadequate and the raiding force was largely trapped on the beach by obstacles and German fire. Less than 10 hours after the first landings, the last Allied troops had all been either killed, evacuated, or left behind to be captured by the Germans. Instead of a demonstration of resolve, the bloody fiasco showed the world that the Allies could not hope to invade France for a long time. Some intelligence successes were achieved, including electronic intelligence.
Of the 6,086 men who made it ashore, 3,623 (almost 60 %) were either killed, wounded or captured. The Royal Air Force failed to lure the Luftwaffe into open battle, and lost 106 aircraft (at least 32 to anti-aircraft fire or accidents), compared to 48 lost by the Luftwaffe. The Royal Navy lost 33 landing craft and one destroyer. The events at Dieppe influenced preparations for the North African (Operation Torch) and Normandy landings (Operation Overlord).
In the immediate aftermath of the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Forces from Dunkirk in May 1940, the British started on the development of a substantial raiding force under the umbrella of Combined Operations Headquarters. This was accompanied by development of techniques and equipment for amphibious warfare.
In late 1941 a scheme was put forward for the landing of 12 divisions around Le Havre based on a withdrawal of German troops to counter Soviet success in the east. From this came a proposed test of the scheme in the form of Operation Rutter. Rutter was to test the feasibility of capturing a port in the face of opposition, the investigation of the problems of operating the invasion fleet, and testing equipment and techniques of the assault.
After its victory in the Battle of Britain in 1940 and the Luftwaffe having switched to night bombing in the fall of 1940, the day fighters of the Royal Air Force 's Fighter Command were "a force without a mission ''. Without anything else to do, the day fighters of RAF Fighter Command were in the spring of 1941 deployed on a series of search - and - destroy missions of flying over France to engage the Luftwaffe in combat. When these missions involved two or three fighters, they were known as rhubarbs, and rodeos if they involved more than three aircraft. In the second half of 1941, the aerial offensive over France was greatly stepped up, leading to the losses of 411 British and Canadian aircraft in the rhubarb and rodeo attacks. In response, in the spring of 1942 the Luftwaffe deployed the new Focke - Wulf Fw 190 fighter to its airfields in France. The Fw 190 fighters were greatly superior to the Supermarine Spitfires and Hawker Hurricanes used by the British and Canadian pilots, and Allied losses over France climbed rapidly. However, the RAF was convinced it was winning the air war, believing their losses of 259 Spitfires over France in the first six months of 1942 were justified by the reported destruction of 197 German aircraft in the same period (the Luftwaffe actually lost 59 aircraft). A major problem for the RAF was that the Luftwaffe fighters declined to engage in combat over the French coast and instead operated inland, forcing the Spitfires to fly deep into France to engage in combat and thereby using up their fuel, placing the British aircraft at a distinct disadvantage when they finally encountered the Luftwaffe. Thanks to intelligence provided by Ultra, the British knew that if any Allied force attempted to seize a port in France, the Germans would assume it to be the beginning of an invasion and that the Luftwaffe was to mount an all - out effort against the Allied forces in the port, whenever it might be. Armed with this knowledge, Fighter Command pressed very strongly in the spring and summer of 1942 for a raid to temporarily seize a French port in order to provoke the Luftwaffe into committing most of its fighters in France to a battle along the French coast that would favour the RAF. It was largely because of pressure from the RAF to fight the "greatest air battle '' over the French coast that Operation Rutter / Jubilee went ahead.
Dieppe, a coastal town in the Seine - Inférieure department of France, is built along a long cliff that overlooks the English Channel. The River Scie is on the western end of the town and the River Arques flows through the town and into a medium - sized harbour. In 1942, the Germans had demolished some seafront buildings to aid in coastal defence and had set up two large artillery batteries at Berneval - le - Grand and Varengeville - sur - Mer. One important consideration for the planners was that Dieppe was within range of the Royal Air Force 's fighter aircraft.
There was also intense pressure from the Soviet government to open up a second front in Western Europe. By early 1942, the Wehrmacht 's Operation Barbarossa had clearly failed to destroy the Soviet Union. However, the Germans in a much less ambitious summer offensive launched in June were deep into southern Soviet territory, pushing toward Stalingrad. Joseph Stalin himself repeatedly demanded that the Allies create a second front in France to force the Germans to move at least 40 divisions away from the Eastern Front to remove some of the pressure on the Red Army.
The objective of the raid was discussed by Winston Churchill in his war memoirs:
I thought it most important that a large - scale operation should take place this summer, and military opinion seemed unanimous that until an operation on that scale was undertaken, no responsible general would take the responsibility of planning the main invasion...
In discussion with Admiral Mountbatten it became clear that time did not permit a new large - scale operation to be mounted during the summer (after Rutter had been cancelled), but that Dieppe could be remounted (with the new code - name "Jubilee '') within a month, provided extraordinary steps were taken to ensure secrecy. For this reason no records were kept but, after the Canadian authorities and the Chiefs of Staff had given their approval, I personally went through the plans with the C.I.G.S., Admiral Mountbatten, and the Naval Force Commander, Captain J. Hughes - Hallett.
The Dieppe raid was a major operation planned by Vice-Admiral Lord Mountbatten of Combined Operations Headquarters, involving an attacking force of about 5,000 Canadians, 1,000 British troops and 50 United States Army Rangers. Bernard Montgomery had taken part in the initial planning for the raid, but had suggested that the operation be abandoned.
Originally conceived in April 1942 by Combined Operations Headquarters and code named Operation Rutter, the Allies planned to conduct a major division - sized raid on a German - held port on the French Channel coast and to hold it for the duration of at least two tides, and to destroy enemy facilities and defences before withdrawing. This plan was approved by the chiefs of staff in May 1942. It included British parachute units attacking German artillery batteries on the headlands on either side of the Canadians making a frontal assault from the sea. The parachute operation was later cancelled and instead No. 3 Commando and No. 4 Commando landed by sea and attacked the artillery batteries.
Under pressure from the Canadian government to ensure that Canadian troops saw some action, the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division, commanded by Major General John Hamilton Roberts, was selected for the main force. The troops were drawn from Combined Operations and South - Eastern Command, under Lieutenant General Bernard Law Montgomery. The plan called for a frontal assault, without any heavy preliminary air bombardment. The absence of a sufficient bombardment was one of the main reasons for the operation 's failure, and various reasons have been given to explain why one was specifically excluded. British and Canadian officials supposedly withheld the use of air and naval bombardments in an attempt to limit casualties of French civilians in the port - city core. The planners of the Dieppe Raid feared that unjustifiable civilian losses would anger and further alienate the Vichy government; an unattractive option considering the intent of Operation Torch not three months later. Maj. Gen. Roberts, the military force commander, is also said to have argued that a bombardment would make the town streets impassable, and thus hinder the assault after it had broken out of the beaches. The Canadian officers planning the assault believed that the combination of speed, surprise and the sheer shock caused by having tanks come ashore with the infantry would be enough to carry the day. General C. Churchill Mann, who was regarded as the most able staff officer in the Canadian Army, wrote that the entire concept of landing tanks onto the shoreline of France "is almost a fantastic conception '', and that what would be gained via "surprise '' and the "terrific moral effects on the Germans and the French '' would be more than enough to ensure the success of Operation Rutter, as the raid was then code - named.
The Dieppe landings were planned on six beaches: four in front of the town itself, and two to the eastern and western flanks respectively. From east to west, the beaches were codenamed Yellow, Blue, Red, White, Green and Orange. No. 3 Commando would land on Yellow beach, the Royal Regiment of Canada on Blue. The main landings would take place on Red and White beaches by the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry, the Essex Scottish Regiment, Les Fusiliers Mont - Royal, A Commando Royal Marines and the armour. The South Saskatchewan Regiment and the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada would land on Green beach, and No. 4 Commando on Orange.
Armoured support was provided by the 14th Army Tank Regiment (The Calgary Regiment (Tank)) with 58 of the new Churchill tanks, to be delivered using the new landing craft tank (LCT). The tanks had a mixture of armament with QF 2 pounder gun -- armed tanks fitted with a close support howitzer in the hull operating alongside QF 6 pounder -- armed tanks. In addition, three of the Churchills were equipped with flame - thrower equipment and all had adaptations enabling them to operate in the shallow water near the beach.
The Royal Navy supplied 237 ships and landing craft. However, pre-landing naval gunfire support was limited, consisting of six Hunt - class destroyers with 4 in (100 mm) guns. This was because of the reluctance of First Sea Lord Sir Dudley Pound to risk capital ships in an area he believed vulnerable to attacks by German aircraft. Mountbatten asked Pound to send a battleship in to provide fire support for the Dieppe raid, but Pound was mindful that Japanese aircraft had sunk the battlecruiser HMS Repulse and the battleship HMS Prince of Wales off Malaya in December 1941, and he would not risk sending capital ships into waters where the Allies did not have absolute air superiority. The Royal Air Force provided 74 squadrons of aircraft, of which 66 were fighter squadrons.
Intelligence on the area was sparse: there were dug - in German gun positions on the cliffs, but these had not been detected or spotted by air reconnaissance photographers. The planners had assessed the beach gradient and its suitability for tanks only by scanning holiday snapshots, which led to an underestimation of the German strength and of the terrain. The outline plan for Operation Rutter (which, although never executed, became the basis for Operation Jubilee) stated that, "intelligence reports indicate that Dieppe is not heavily defended and that the beaches in the vicinity are suitable for landing infantry, and armoured fighting vehicles at some ''.
The German forces at Dieppe were on high alert, having been warned by French double agents that the British were showing interest in the area. They had also detected increased radio traffic and landing craft being concentrated in the southern British coastal ports.
Dieppe and the flanking cliffs were well defended; the 1,500 - strong garrison from the 302nd Static Infantry Division comprised the 570th, 571st and 572nd Infantry Regiments, each of two battalions, the 302nd Artillery Regiment, the 302nd Reconnaissance Battalion, the 302nd Anti-tank Battalion, the 302nd Engineer Battalion and 302nd Signal Battalion. They were deployed along the beaches of Dieppe and the neighbouring towns, covering all the likely landing places.
The city and port were protected by a concentration of heavy weapons on the main approach (particularly in the myriad cliff caves), and with a reserve at the rear. The defenders were stationed not only in the towns themselves, but also between the towns in open areas and highlands that overlooked the beaches. Elements of the 571st Infantry Regiment defended the Dieppe radar station near Pourville and the artillery battery over the Scie river at Varengeville. To the east the 570th Infantry Regiment were deployed near the artillery battery at Berneval - le - Grand.
The Luftwaffe forces were Jagdgeschwader 2 (JG2) and Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG26), with 200 fighters, mostly the Fw 190 and about 100 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG2), Kampfgeschwader 45 (KG45), and Kampfgeschwader 77 (KG77), mostly Dornier 217s.
The Allied fleet left the south coast of England on the night of 18 August 1942, with the Canadians leaving from the Port of Newhaven. The fleet of eight destroyers and accompanying motor gun boats to escort the landing craft and motor launches were preceded by minesweepers that cleared paths through the English Channel for them.
The initial landings began at 04: 50 on 19 August, with attacks on the two artillery batteries on the flanks of the main landing area. These included Varengeville -- Sainte - Marguerite - sur - Mer by No. 4 Commando, Pourville by the South Saskatchewan Regiment and the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada, Puys by the Royal Regiment of Canada, and Berneval by No. 3 Commando. On their way in, the landing craft and escorts heading towards Puys and Berneval ran into and exchanged fire with a small German convoy at 03: 48. The Allied destroyers HMS Brocklesby and ORP Ślązak noticed the engagement, but their commanders incorrectly assumed that the landing craft had come under fire from the shore batteries and did not come to their rescue.
The mission for Lieutenant Colonel John Durnford - Slater and No. 3 Commando was to conduct two landings 8 miles (13 km) east of Dieppe to silence the "Goebbels '' coastal battery near Berneval. The battery could fire upon the landing at Dieppe 4 miles (6.4 km) to the west. The three 170 mm (6.7 in) and four 105 mm (4.1 in) guns of 2 / 770 Batterie had to be out of action by the time the main force approached the main beach.
The craft carrying No. 3 Commando, approaching the coast to the east, were not warned of the approach of a German coastal convoy that had been located by British "Chain Home '' radar stations at 21: 30. German S - boats escorting a German tanker torpedoed some of the LCP landing craft and disabled the escorting Steam Gun Boat 5. Subsequently, Motor Launch 346 and Landing Craft Flak 1 combined to drive off the German boats but the group was dispersed, with some losses, and the enemy 's coastal defences were alerted. The commandos from six craft who did land on Yellow I were beaten back and, unable to safely retreat or join the main force, had to surrender. Only 18 commandos got ashore on Yellow II beach. They reached the perimeter of the battery via Berneval, after it was attacked by Hurribombers, and engaged their target with small arms fire. Although unable to destroy the guns, their sniping for a time managed to distract the battery to such good effect that the gunners fired wildly and there was no known instance of this battery sinking any of the assault convoy ships off Dieppe. The commandos were eventually forced to withdraw in the face of superior enemy forces.
The mission for Lieutenant Colonel Lord Lovat and No. 4 Commando (including 50 United States Army Rangers) was to conduct two landings 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Dieppe to neutralize the coastal battery Hess at Blancmesnil - Sainte - Marguerite near Varengeville. Landing on the right flank in force, they climbed the steep slope and attacked and neutralized their target, the artillery battery of six 150 mm guns. This was the only success of Operation Jubilee. The commando then withdrew at 07: 30 as planned. Most of No. 4 safely returned to England. This portion of the raid was considered a model for future amphibious Royal Marine Commando assaults as part of major landing operations. Lord Lovat was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his part in the raid, and Captain Patrick Porteous No. 4 Commando, was awarded the Victoria Cross.
The naval engagement between the small German convoy and the craft carrying No. 3 Commando had alerted the German defenders at Blue beach. The landing near Puys by the Royal Regiment of Canada plus three platoons from the Black Watch of Canada and an artillery detachment were tasked to neutralize machine gun and artillery batteries protecting this Dieppe beach. They were delayed by 20 minutes and the smoke screens that should have hidden their assault had already lifted. The advantages of surprise and darkness were thus lost, while the Germans had manned their defensive positions in preparation for the landings. The well - fortified German forces held the Canadian forces that did land on the beach. As soon as they reached the shore, the Canadians found themselves pinned against the seawall, unable to advance. The Royal Regiment of Canada was annihilated. Of the 556 men in the regiment, 200 were killed and 264 captured.
On Green beach at the same time that No. 4 Commando had landed, the South Saskatchewan Regiment 's 1st Battalion was headed towards Pourville. They beached at 04: 52 without having been detected. The battalion managed to leave their landing craft before the Germans could open fire. However, on the way in, some of the landing craft had drifted off course and most of the battalion found themselves west of the River Scie rather than east of it. Because they had been landed in the wrong place, the battalion, whose objective was the hills east of the village, had to enter Pourville to cross the river by the only bridge. Before the Saskatchewans managed to reach the bridge, the Germans had positioned machine guns and anti-tank guns there which stopped their advance. With the battalion 's dead and wounded piling up on the bridge, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Cecil Ingersoll Merritt, the commanding officer, attempted to give the attack impetus by repeatedly and openly crossing the bridge, in order to demonstrate that it was feasible to do so. However, despite the assault resuming, the South Saskatchewans and the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada, who had landed beside them, were unable to reach their target. While the Camerons did manage to penetrate further inland than any other troops that day, they were also soon forced back as German reinforcements rushed to the scene. Both battalions suffered more losses as they withdrew; only 341 men were able to reach the landing craft and embark, and the rest were left to surrender. For his part in the battle, Lieutenant Colonel Merritt was awarded the Victoria Cross.
One of the objectives of the Dieppe Raid was to discover the importance and performance capability of a German radar station on the cliff - top to the east of the town of Pourville. To achieve this, RAF Flight Sergeant Jack Nissenthall, a radar specialist, was attached to the South Saskatchewan Regiment landing at Green Beach. He was to attempt to enter the radar station and learn its secrets, accompanied by a small unit of 11 men of the Saskatchewans as bodyguards. Nissenthall volunteered for the mission fully aware that, due to the highly sensitive nature of his knowledge of Allied radar technology, his Saskatchewan bodyguard unit were under orders to kill him if necessary to prevent him being captured. He also carried a cyanide pill as a last resort.
After the war, Lord Mountbatten claimed to author James Leasor, when being interviewed during research for the book Green Beach, that "If I had been aware of the orders given to the escort to shoot him rather than let him be captured, I would have cancelled them immediately. '' Nissenthall and his bodyguards failed to enter the radar station due to strong defences, but Nissenthall was able to crawl up to the rear of the station under enemy fire and cut all telephone wires leading to it. This forced the crew inside to resort to radio transmissions to talk to their commanders, transmissions which were intercepted by listening posts on the south coast of England. The Allies were able to learn a great deal about the location and density of German radar stations along the channel coast thanks to this one single act, which helped to convince Allied commanders of the importance of developing radar jamming technology. Of this small unit, only Nissenthall and one other returned safely to England. After the war Jack Nissenthall shortened his surname to Nissen.
Preparing the ground for the main landings, four destroyers were bombarding the coast as landing craft approached. At 05: 15, they were joined by five RAF Hurricane squadrons who bombed the coastal defences and set a smoke screen to protect the assault troops. Between 3: 30am and 3: 40am, 30 minutes after the initial landings, the main frontal assault by the Essex Scottish and the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry started. Their infantry were meant to be supported by Churchill tanks of the 14th Army Tank Regiment landing at the same time, but the tanks arrived on the beach late. As a result, the two infantry battalions had to attack without armour support. They were met with heavy machine gun fire from emplacements dug into the overlooking cliffs. Unable to clear the obstacles and scale the seawall, they suffered heavy losses. Captain Denis Whitaker of the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry recalled a scene of absolute carnage and confusion, with soldiers being cut down by German fire all along the sea wall while his commanding officer, Colonel Bob Labatt, desperately tried to use a broken radio to contact General Roberts while ignoring his men. When the tanks eventually arrived only 29 were landed. Two of those sank in deep water, and 12 more became bogged down in the soft shingle beach. Only 15 of the tanks made it up to and across the seawall. Once they crossed the seawall, they were confronted by a series of tank obstacles that prevented their entry into the town. Blocked from going further, they were forced to return to the beach where they provided fire support for the now retreating infantry. None of the tanks managed to return to England. All the crews that landed were either killed or captured.
Unaware of the situation on the beaches because of a smoke screen laid by the supporting destroyers, Major General Roberts sent in the two reserve units: the Fusiliers Mont - Royal and the Royal Marines. At 07: 00 the Fusiliers under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Dollard Ménard in 26 landing craft sailed towards their beach. They were heavily engaged by the Germans, who hit them with heavy machine gun, mortar and grenade fire, and destroyed them; only a few men managed to reach the town. Those men were then sent in towards the centre of Dieppe and became pinned down under the cliffs and Roberts ordered the Royal Marines to land in order to support them. Not being prepared to support the Fusiliers, the Royal Marines had to transfer from their gunboats and motor boat transports onto landing craft. The Royal Marine landing craft were heavily engaged on their way in with many destroyed or disabled. Those Royal Marines that did reach the shore were either killed or captured. As he became aware of the situation the Royal Marine commanding officer Lieutenant Colonel Phillipps, stood up on the stern of his landing craft and signalled for the rest of his men to turn back. He was killed a few moments later.
During the raid, a mortar platoon from the Calgary Highlanders commanded by Lieutenant F.J. Reynolds was attached to the landing force, but stayed offshore after the tanks on board (code - named Bert and Bill) landed. Sergeants Lyster and Pittaway were Mentioned in Despatches for their part in shooting down two German aircraft, and one officer of the battalion was killed while ashore with a brigade headquarters.
At 9: 40, under heavy fire, the withdrawal from the main landing beaches began and was completed by 14: 00.
The Allied air operations supporting Operation Jubilee resulted in some of the fiercest air battles since 1940. The RAF 's main objectives were to throw a protective umbrella over the amphibious force and beach heads and also to force the Luftwaffe forces into a battle of attrition on the Allies ' own terms. Some 48 fighter squadrons of Spitfires were committed, with eight squadrons of Hurricane fighter - bombers, four squadrons of reconnaissance Mustang Mk Is and seven squadrons of No. 2 Group light bombers involved. Opposing these forces were some 120 operational fighters of Jagdgeschwader 2 and 26 (JG 2 and JG 26), the Dornier Do 217s of Kampfgeschwader 2 and various anti-shipping bomber elements of III. / KG 53, II. / Kampfgeschwader 40 (KG 40) and I. / KG 77.
Although initially slow to respond to the raid, the German fighters soon made their presence felt over the port as the day wore on. While the Allied fighters were moderately successful in protecting the ground and sea forces from aerial bombing, they were hampered by operating far from their home bases. The Spitfires in particular were at the edge of their ranges, with some only being able to spend five minutes over the combat area. The raid on Dieppe saw the baptism by fire of the new Spitfire Mark IX, the only British fighter equal to the FW 190. Six squadrons (four British, two Canadian) flew the Mark IX at Dieppe. During the battle, Fighter Command flew 2,500 sorties over Dieppe, and achieved a narrow victory over the Luftwaffe. The intense air fighting prevented the Luftwaffe from making major attacks on either the landing or the evacuation of the Allied forces, who consequently did not suffer very much from attacks from the air. However, in achieving the goal of the "greatest air battle '' that would cripple the Luftwaffe over France, Operation Jubilee was less successful. During the air battles over Dieppe, the Royal Air Force lost 91 aircraft shot down and 64 pilots (17 taken prisoner, the rest all killed) while the Royal Canadian Air Force lost 14 aircraft and nine pilots. Additionally, the British lost six bombers over Dieppe. The Luftwaffe lost 48 aircraft, another 24 seriously damaged with 13 pilots killed and seven wounded. However, RAF intelligence at the time claimed that the Allies had shot down 96 German aircraft, thus winning a major victory. In reality, the Luftwaffe in France was back to full strength within days of the raid. In an assessment, Copp wrote that Dieppe failed to register the knock - out blow against the Luftwaffe that the RAF was seeking. But Copp further noted that even though the Allies continued to lose on average two aircraft for every 1 German aircraft destroyed for the rest of 1942, the superior economic productivity of the aircraft industries of the United States, Britain and Canada combined with the better pilot training programme of the Allies led to the Luftwaffe gradually losing the war of attrition in the skies above France. Copp concluded that: "The battle for air superiority was won (on) many fronts by continuous effort and August 19, 1942 was part of that achievement ''.
Research undertaken over a 15 - year period by military historian David O'Keefe uncovered 100,000 pages of classified British military archival files that documented a "pinch '' mission overseen by Ian Fleming (best known later as author of the James Bond novels), coinciding with the Dieppe Raid. No. 30 Commandos were sent into Dieppe to steal one of the new German 4 - rotor Enigma code machines, plus associated code books and rotor setting sheets. The Naval Intelligence Division (NID) planned the "pinch '' raid with the intention to pass such items to cryptanalysts at Bletchley Park to assist with the Ultra project. O'Keefe alleges the presence of other troops landing at Dieppe was to provide support and create a distraction for the commando units attempting to reach the German admiralty headquarters and capture the Enigma machine, and the whole premise of the Dieppe Raid was in fact ' cover ' for the actual Enigma target.
Of the nearly 5,000 - strong Canadian contingent, 3,367 were killed, wounded or taken prisoner, an exceptional casualty rate of 68 %. The 1,000 British Commandos lost 247 men. The Royal Navy lost one destroyer (HMS Berkeley) and 33 landing craft, suffering 550 dead and wounded. The RAF lost 106 aircraft to the 48 lost by the Luftwaffe. The German Army had suffered 591 casualties. Of the 50 US Army Rangers serving with different Commando units, six were killed, seven wounded, and four captured.
While the Canadian contingent fought bravely in the face of a determined enemy, it was ultimately circumstances outside their control which sealed their fate. Despite criticism concerning the inexperience of the Canadian regiment that was engaged in battle, scholars have noted that even seasoned professionals would have been hard - pressed under the deplorable conditions brought about by their superiors. The commanding officers who designed the raid on Dieppe had not envisaged such losses. This was, after all, one of the first attempts by the Western Allies on a German - held port city. As a consequence, planning from the highest ranks in preparation for the raid was minimal. Critical strategic and tactical errors were made which resulted in scores of Allied (particularly Canadian) deaths.
The losses at Dieppe were claimed to be a necessary evil. Mountbatten later justified the raid by arguing that lessons learned at Dieppe in 1942 were put to good use later in the war. He later claimed, "I have no doubt that the Battle of Normandy was won on the beaches of Dieppe. For every man who died in Dieppe, at least 10 more must have been spared in Normandy in 1944. '' In direct response to the raid on Dieppe, Winston Churchill remarked that, "My Impression of ' Jubilee ' is that the results fully justified the heavy cost '' and that it "was a Canadian contribution of the greatest significance to final victory. ''
To others, especially Canadians, it was a major disaster. The exception was the success gained by the battle - hardened British commandos against the coast artillery batteries near Varengeville and Berneval. Of the nearly 5,000 Canadian soldiers, more than 900 were killed (about 18 percent) and 1,874 taken prisoner (37 %).
The amphibious assaults in North Africa followed three months after the Dieppe Raid, and the successful Normandy landings took place two years later.
Dieppe was in many ways a victory for German propaganda. The Third Reich largely described the Dieppe raid as a military joke, noting the amount of time needed to design such an attack, combined with the incredible losses suffered by the Allies, pointed only to incompetence. The propaganda value of German material regarding the raid was enhanced by the fact that British official information was slow in being published. This meant that Allied media were forced to carry announcements from German sources. These attempts were made to rally the morale of the German people despite the growing intensity of the Allied strategic bombing campaign on German cities, and large daily casualties on the Eastern Front. Marshal Philippe Pétain of France wrote Adolf Hitler a public letter congratulating him on the Wehrmacht 's recent victory in repulsing this latest act of "British aggression '' against France as Pétain dubbed the Dieppe raid. Pétain 's only regret was that French forces had played no role in halting the attack and he suggested that staff talks begin between Germany and Vichy France to allow the French to play their part in defending their homeland. Hitler had no interest in allowing the return of French forces to the Atlantic coast where they had been barred ever since the armistice of 22 June 1940, so nothing came of Pétain 's suggestion of Franco - German staff talks against the Allies, but his letter was given much media attention in both Germany and France as a sign of how the French people allegedly appreciated Germany 's efforts to defend them from les Anglo - Saxons. Pétain 's letter was later to become a prime exhibit for the prosecution at his trial for high treason in 1945. The Marshal claimed that his letter was a forgery, a claim that historians overwhelmingly reject.
While Fighter Command claimed to have inflicted heavy casualties on the Luftwaffe the ultimate balance sheet showed Allied aircraft losses as being serious. Final figures are disputed; one source indicates that losses amounted to 106 from enemy action: 88 fighters (including 44 Spitfires) 10 reconnaissance aircraft and eight bombers, and that 14 other RAF aircraft were struck off from other causes such as accidents. Other sources suggest that as many as 28 bombers were lost, and that the overall figure for destroyed and damaged Spitfires was 70. Against this, 48 Luftwaffe aircraft were lost. Included in that total were 28 bombers, half of them Dornier Do 217s from KG2. One of the two Jagdgeschwader, JG 2, lost 14 Fw 190s and eight pilots killed. JG 26 lost six Fw 190s with their pilots.
Brigadier William Wallace Southam brought ashore his copy of the assault plan, classified as a secret document. Although he attempted to bury it under the pebbles at the time of his surrender, he was spotted and the plan retrieved by the Germans. The plan, later criticised for its size and needless complexity, contained orders to shackle prisoners. The Germans later also received reports of the bodies of German prisoners with their hands tied washing ashore after the Canadian withdrawal. When this was brought to Adolf Hitler 's attention, he ordered the shackling of Canadian prisoners, which led to a reciprocating order by British and Canadian authorities for German prisoners being held in Canada. Though the Canadians were opposed to the plan, which they considered a danger to Canadian POWs in German hands, they reluctantly implemented it to maintain unity with the British. Nevertheless, as the Canadians expected, the shackling order led directly to trouble and the only known uprising at a Canadian prisoner of war camp during World War II, the so - called "Battle of Bowmanville ''. Subsequent to this event, the Canadian and German orders both eventually lost momentum in prisoner - of - war camps and were eventually abandoned after intercession by the International Red Cross in October 1942. The supposed Anglo - Canadian atrocities committed against German POWs at Dieppe was one of the excuses Hitler gave for the Commando Order of October 1942, calling for all Allied commandos captured by German forces to be executed. Adolf Hitler decided to reward the town for not helping in the raid by freeing French POWs originating and living pre-war in Dieppe in their custody, and on September 12, a train carrying approximately 1,500 French POWs arrived at Dieppe. In addition, as a reward for what he called the town residents ' "perfect discipline and calm '', Hitler gave the town a gift of 10 million francs, to be used to repair damage caused during the failed raid.
The scale of failure of the operation has led to a discussion around whether the Germans knew of the raid in advance. In some ways, this would be unsurprising; security in the area from which the operation was launched was poor, and ' a good deal could be deduced simply by shrewd observation and careful attention to careless talk '. Additionally, since June 1942, the BBC had been broadcasting warnings to French civilians of a "likely '' action, urging them to quickly evacuate the Atlantic coastal districts of occupied France. Indeed, on the day of the raid itself, the BBC announced it, albeit at 0800, after the landings themselves had taken place.
First - hand accounts and memoirs of many Canadian veterans who documented their experiences on the shores of Dieppe remark about the preparedness of the German defences as if they knew of the raid ahead of time, citing the fact that, for example, upon touching down on the Dieppe shore, the landing ships were immediately shelled with the utmost precision as troops began disembarking. The volume and tone of these accounts meant that a Canadian government report at the end of 1942 concluded that ' The Germans seem to have had ample warning of the raid and to have made thorough preparations for dealing with it. ' Commanding officer Lt Colonel Labatt testified to having seen markers on the beach used for mortar practice, which appeared to have been recently placed.
The belief that the Germans had received accurate and detailed warning of the attacks has been strengthened by subsequent accounts of both German and Allied POWs. Major C.E. Page, while interrogating a German soldier, found out that four machine - gun battalions were brought in "specifically '' in anticipation of a raid. There are numerous accounts of interrogated German prisoners, German captors, and French citizens who all conveyed to Canadians that the Germans had been preparing for the anticipated Allied landings for weeks.
However, there is a view that while it is likely that the Germans were expecting an attack somewhere on the French shoreline, evidence of expectation of an attack at Dieppe in particular, at that particular time, is less conclusive. Proponents of this view point out that elements of the Canadian forces, such as at Green beach, landed without trouble. Lt Col Merrit has been quoted as saying ' How could the Germans have known if we got in on our beach against defences which were unmanned? ' No 4 Commando 's troops also reported that they achieved surprise against the gun batteries they were tasked with destroying. Under this view, the statements by German POWs that the raid was fully expected are explained as being propaganda.
On 17 August 1942, the clue "French port (6) '' appeared in the Daily Telegraph crossword (compiled by Leonard Dawe), followed by the solution, "Dieppe '' the next day; on 19 August, the raid on Dieppe took place. The War Office suspected that the crossword had been used to pass intelligence to the enemy and called upon Lord Tweedsmuir, then a senior intelligence officer attached to the Canadian Army, to investigate the crossword. Tweedsmuir, the son of John Buchan the author and Governor General of Canada, later commented: "We noticed that the crossword contained the word ' Dieppe ', and there was an immediate and exhaustive inquiry which also involved MI5. But in the end it was concluded that it was just a remarkable coincidence -- a complete fluke. ''
A similar crossword coincidence occurred in May 1944, prior to D - Day. Multiple terms associated with Operation Overlord (including the word "Overlord '' itself) appeared in the Daily Telegraph crossword (also written by Dawe), and after another investigation by MI5 this was concluded to be a remarkable coincidence as well. Further to this, a former student identified that Dawe frequently requested words from his students, many of whom were children in the same area as US military personnel.
The capture of a copy of the Dieppe plan by the Germans allowed them to carry out a thorough analysis of the operation. Senior German officers were unimpressed; Gen. Conrad Haase considered it "incomprehensible '' that a single division was expected to be able to overrun a German regiment that was supported by artillery. He added that, "the strength of naval and air forces was entirely insufficient to suppress the defenders during the landings ''. Gen. Kuntzen believed it "inconceivable '' that the Pourville landings were not reinforced with tanks.
The Germans were also unimpressed by the specifications of Churchill tanks left behind after the withdrawal. One report assessed that, "in its present form the Churchill is easy to fight ''. Its gun was described as "poor and obsolete '', and the armour was compared unfavourably with that used in German and Soviet tanks.
The Germans recognised that the Allies were certain to learn some lessons from the operation, with Von Rundstedt observing that, "Just as we are going to evaluate these experiences for the future so is the assaulting force... perhaps even more so as it has gained the experience dearly. He will not do it like this a second time! ''
The lessons learned at Dieppe essentially became the textbook of "what not to do '' in future amphibious operations, and laid the framework for the Normandy landings two years later. Most notably, Dieppe highlighted:
As a consequence of the lessons learned at Dieppe, the British developed a whole range of specialist armoured vehicles which allowed their engineers to perform many of their tasks protected by armour, most famously Hobart 's Funnies. The operation showed major deficiencies in RAF ground support techniques, and this led to the creation of a fully integrated Tactical Air Force to support major ground offensives. Because the treads of most of the Churchill tanks were caught up in the shingle beaches of Dieppe, the Allies started a new policy of learning what were the exact elements of every beach they intended to land upon, and devising appropriate vehicles for said beaches.
Another effect of the raid was change in the Allies ' previously held belief that seizure of a major port would be essential in the creation of a second front. Their revised view was that the amount of damage that would be done to a port by the necessary bombardment to take it, would almost certainly render it useless as a port afterwards. As a result, the decision was taken to construct prefabricated harbours, codenamed "Mulberry '', and tow them to lightly defended beaches as part of a large - scale invasion.
Allied dead were initially buried in a mass grave, but the bodies were subsequently disinterred and reburied at Vertus Wood on the edge of the town. The present Dieppe Canadian War Cemetery headstones have been placed back - to - back in double rows, the norm for a German war cemetery, but unusual for Commonwealth War Graves Commission sites. When the Allies liberated Dieppe as part of Operation Fusilade in 1944, the grave markers were replaced but the layout was left unchanged to avoid disturbing the remains.
Three Victoria Crosses were awarded for the operation: to Captain Patrick Porteous, No. 4 Commando; the Reverend John Weir Foote, padre to Royal Hamilton Light Infantry; and Lieutenant Colonel Charles Merritt of the South Saskatchewan Regiment. Porteous was severely wounded; both Foote and Merritt became prisoners of war. Despite the failure of the operation, Major General Roberts was awarded the Distinguished Service Order.
Coordinates: 49 ° 56 ′ 00 '' N 1 ° 05 ′ 00 '' E / 49.9333 ° N 1.0833 ° E / 49.9333; 1.0833
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from the mixed up files of mrs. basil e. frankweiler metropolitan museum | From the Mixed - up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler - wikipedia
From the Mixed - Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler is a novel by E. L. Konigsburg. It was published by Atheneum in 1967, the second book published from two manuscripts the new writer had submitted to editor Jean E. Karl.
Mixed - Up Files won the annual Newbery Medal for excellence in American children 's literature in 1968, and Konigsburg 's first - published book Jennifer, Hecate, Macbeth, William McKinley, and Me, Elizabeth was one of the runners - up in the same year, the only double honor in Newbery history (from 1922). Anita Silvey covered Mixed ‐ Up Files as one of the 100 Best Books for Children in 2005. Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association named it one of "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children ''. In 2012 it was ranked number seven among all - time children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal.
The prologue is a letter from Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler, addressed "To my lawyer, Saxonberg '', accompanied by a drawing of her writing at her office desk. It serves as the cover letter for the 158 - page narrative, and provides background for changes to her last will and testament.
Twelve - year - old Claudia Kincaid decides to run away from her home in suburban Connecticut, because she thinks her parents do not appreciate her and she does n't like it. She takes refuge in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (the Met) in New York City, with her brother Jamie. She chooses Jamie as her companion partly because he has saved all his money. With the help of an unused adult train fare card that she found in a wastebasket, Claudia finds a way to get to the museum for free using the commuter train and a very long walk.
Early chapters depict Claudia and Jamie settling in at the Met: hiding in the bathroom at closing time, as security staff check to see that all the patrons have departed; blending in with school groups on tour; bathing in the fountain, and using "wishing coins '' for money; and sleeping in Irwin Untermyer 's antique bed.
A new exhibit draws sensational crowds and fascinates the children: the marble statue of an angel, the sculptor unknown but suspected to be Michelangelo. It was purchased at auction, for only a few hundred dollars, from Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler, a collector who recently closed her showcase Manhattan residence. The children research it on site and at the Donnell Library, and give their conclusion to the museum staff anonymously.
After learning they have been naive, the children spend the last of their money on travel to Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler 's home in Connecticut. She recognizes them as runaways but sets them briefly to the task of researching the angel from files in her long bank of cabinets. Despite the idiosyncratic organization of her files, they do discover the angel 's secret -- Mrs. Frankweiler has purposefully "given away '' a virtually priceless Michelangelo to the Met. In exchange for a full account of their adventure, she will leave the crucial file to them in her will, and send them home in her Rolls - Royce. Claudia learns her deep motive for persisting in the crazy search: she wanted a secret of her own to treasure and keep. Mrs. Frankweiler may get "grandchildren '' who delight her. Her lawyer gets a luncheon date at the Met, to revise her will.
The Kincaids live in Greenwich, Connecticut. Mrs. Frankweiler lives on a "country estate '' in Farmington, Connecticut, closer to Hartford.
When Konigsburg submitted Mixed ‐ Up Files to Jean Karl at Atheneum in 1966, she was an unpublished mother of three children living in the suburbs of New York City.
One inspiration for the novel was a page - one story in the New York Times on October 26, 1965. Konigsburg recalled years later that the Metropolitan Museum had purchased for only $225 a plaster and stucco statue from the time of the Italian Renaissance. "They knew they had an enormous bargain. ''
Another inspiration was complaints by Konigsburg 's children in Yellowstone National Park, about a picnic with many amenities of home. She inferred that if they ever ran away "(t) hey would certainly never consider any place less elegant than the Metropolitan Museum of Art ''.
The author 's two younger children Laurie and Ross (who turned eleven and nine in 1967) posed for the illustrations of Claudia and Jamie. Anita Brigham, a neighbor in their Port Chester, New York, apartment house posed as Mrs. Frankweiler.
The character of Mrs. Frankweiler was based on Headmistress Olga Pratt at Bartram 's School for Girls in Jacksonville, Florida, where Konigsburg once taught chemistry. "Miss Pratt was not wealthy, but she was a matter - of - fact person. Kind, but firm. ''
On February 21, 2014, family and friends of E.L. Konigsburg gathered in a private space at the Metropolitan Museum of Art to pay tribute to the author, who died on April 19, 2013 at age 83. One of the speakers was Paul Konigsburg, the author 's son. He told a story.
During the mid-1960s, (Konigsburg) would drop off (her young son) Paul and his siblings, Laurie and Ross, at the museum, while (Konigsburg) attended her own art classes. By the time the children made their routine visits to the knights in armor, the mummy, and the Impressionists (at Laurie 's request), Konigsburg 's class would be finished and she would return to explore the museum with them.
On one such occasion, Paul recalled, his mother spotted a single piece of popcorn on the floor next to an ornate piece of royal furniture, which was completely blocked off from public access. He remembers his mother wondering aloud, where did that popcorn come from? And it was that moment, "burned into shrapnel memory '', that he believes formed the kernel of the story that would become From the Mixed - Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler. She was "a very special lady '', he said, whose passion for art drew her to this "very special place ''.
There were three adaptations before 1998, all under the original title.
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where do you find tracheids and vessels how do they help the plant | Tracheid - wikipedia
Tracheids are elongated cells in the xylem of vascular plants that serve in the transport of water and mineral salts. Tracheids are one of two types of tracheary elements, vessel elements being the other. Tracheids, unlike vessel elements, do not have perforation plates.
All tracheary elements develop a thick lignified cell wall, and at maturity the protoplast has broken down and disappeared. The presence of tracheary elements is the defining characteristic of vascular plants to differentiate them from non-vascular plants. The two major functions that tracheids may fulfill are contributing to the transport system and providing structural support. The secondary walls have thickenings in various forms -- as annular rings; as continuous helices (called helical or spiral); as a network (called reticulate); as transverse nets (called scalariform); or, as extensive thickenings except in the region of pits (called pitted).
Tracheids provide most of the structural support in softwoods, where they are the major cell type.
Because tracheids have a much higher surface to volume ratio compared to vessel elements, they serve to hold water against gravity (by adhesion) when transpiration is not occurring. This is likely one mechanism that helps plants prevent air embolisms.
The term "tracheid '' was introduced by Carl Sanio in 1863, originally as Tracheide, in German.
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how many foster homes are there in the united states | Foster care in the United States - wikipedia
Foster care is the term used for a system in which a minor who has been made a ward is placed in an institution, group home (residential child care community, residential treatment center,...), or private home of a state certified caregiver referred to as a "foster parent ''. The placement of the child is usually arranged through the government or a social - service agency. The institution, group home or foster parent is provided compensation for expenses.
The state via the family court and child protection agency stand in loco parentis to the minor, making all legal decisions while the foster parent is responsible for the day - to - day care of said minor. The foster parent is remunerated by the state for their services.
In the United States, foster home licensing requirements vary from state to state, but are generally overseen by each state 's Department of Child Protective Services or Human Services. In some states, counties have this responsibility. Each state 's services are monitored by the federal Department of Health and Human Services through reviews such as Child and Family Services Reviews, Title IV - E Foster Care Eligibility Reviews, Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System and Statewide Automated Child Welfare Information System Assessment Reviews.
The foster parent licensing process is often similar to the process to become licensed to adopt. It requires preparation classes as well as an application process. The application varies but may include: a minimum age, verification that your income allows you to meet your expenses, a criminal record check at local, state and federal levels including finger printing and no prior record of child abuse or neglect; a reference from a doctor to ensure that all household members are free from diseases that a child could catch and in sufficient health to parent a child and; letters of reference from an employer and others who know them.
Another option for placements are Residential Child Care Communities or, in case of severe behavioral or mental challenges, Residential Treatment Centers (RTCs). The focus of treatment in such facilities is often to prepare the child for a return to a foster home, to an adoptive home, or to the birth parents when applicable, however, some children also stay in long - term care. The effectiveness of these facilities is often questioned, but considerable benefits of these types of care have been found as well.
There are some children in foster care who are difficult to place in permanent homes through the normal adoption process. These children are often said to require "special - needs adoption. '' In this context, "special needs '' can include situations where children have specific chronic medical problems, mental health issues, behavioral problems, and learning disabilities. In some cases, sibling groups, and older children qualify as "special needs. '' Governments offer a variety of incentives and services to facilitate this class of adoptions.
Length of time spent in foster care for children exiting care in 2010.
In 2010, there were 408,425 children in foster care in the United States. 48 % were in nonrelative foster homes, 26 % were in relative foster homes, 9 % in institutions, 6 % in group homes, 5 % on trial home visits (where the child returns home while under state supervision), 4 % in preadoptive homes, 2 % had run away, and 1 % in supervised independent living. Of 254,114 who exited foster care in 2010, 51 % were reunited with parents or caretakers, 21 % were adopted, 11 % were emancipated (as minors or by aging out), 8 % went to live with another relative, 6 % went to live with a guardian, and 3 % had other outcomes. Of these children, the median length of time spent in foster care was 13.5 months. 13 % were in care for less than 1 month, 33 % for 1 to 11 months, 24 % for 12 to 23 months, 12 % for 24 to 35 months, 10 % for 3 to 4 years, and 7 % for 5 years or more.
California has the largest population of foster care youth in the nation, with 55,218 children in the system as of 2012. This is over twice as many as the 20,529 foster children in New York, the state with the second largest population of foster youth, had by the end of 2012. Over 30 percent of California foster youth reside in Los Angeles County, amounting to 18,523 children. Children can be removed from their homes and placed into the foster care system for a variety of reasons, but, in California, 81.2 percent of children were removed because of neglect. Even after being placed in the foster care system, however, these children might not find the kind of care or stability they need. Girls in foster care have been shown to have marginally higher rates of teenage pregnancy than the general population of California. Children in foster care also have to face disproportionately high rates of mental illnesses as some studies have shown that as much as 47.9 percent of foster care youth showed signs of serious emotional or behavioral issues. After "aging out '' of the system at age 18, research has shown that previous foster youth still face difficult instability in their lives. As much as 30 percent of previous foster children are diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. Only about 50 percent graduate from high school and less than 10 percent graduate from college. A study focused on foster care alumni in Los Angeles County showed that about 65 percent leave foster care without a place to live and 25 percent are incarcerated by age 20. Despite these difficulties, California is working toward easing the transition for foster youth through programs and legislation like the California Fostering Connections to Success Act of 2010, which expanded upon similar federal legislation and increased the age limit for receiving foster care benefits.
A law passed by Congress in 1961 allowed AFDC (welfare) payments to pay for foster care which was previously made only to children in their own homes. This made aided funding foster care for states and localities, facilitating rapid growth. In some cases, the state of Texas paid mental treatment centers as much as $101,105 a year per child. Observers of the growth trend note that a county will only continue to receive funding while it keeps the child in its care. This may create a "perverse financial incentive '' to place and retain children in foster care rather than leave them with their parents, and incentives are sometimes set up for maximum intervention.
Findings of a grand jury investigation in Santa Clara, California:
The Grand Jury heard from staff members of the DFCS and others outside the department that the department puts too much money into "back - end services, '' i.e., therapists and attorneys, and not enough money into "front - end '' or basic services. The county does not receive as much in federal funds for "front - end '' services, which could help solve the problems causing family inadequacies, as it receives for out - of - home placements or foster care services. In other words, the Agency benefits, financially, from placing children in foster homes.
In 1997, the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) was passed. This reduced the time children are allowed to remain in foster care before being available for adoption. The new law requires state child welfare agencies to identify cases where "aggravated circumstances '' make permanent separation of child from the birth family the best option for the safety and well - being of the child. One of the main components of ASFA is the imposition of stricter time limits on reunification efforts. Proponents of ASFA claimed that before the law was passed, the lack of such legislation was the reason it was common for children to languish in care for years with no permanent living situation identified.
Opponents of ASFA argued that the real reason children languished in foster care was that too many were taken needlessly from their parents in the first place. Since ASFA did not address this, opponents said, it would not accomplish its goals, and would only slow a decline in the foster care population that should have occurred anyway because of a decline in reported child abuse.
Ten years after ASFA became law, the number of children in foster care on any given day was about 7,000 fewer than before ASFA was passed.
The Foster Care Independence Act of 1999, helps foster youth who are aging out of care to achieve self - sufficiency. The U.S. government has also funded the Education and Training Voucher Program in recent years in order to help youth who age out of care to obtain college or vocational training at a free or reduced cost. Chafee and ETV money is administered by each state as they see fit.
The Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008 is the most recent piece of major federal legislation addressing the foster care system. This bill extended various benefits and funding for foster children between the age of 18 and 21 and for Indian children in tribal areas. The legislation also strengthens requirements for states in their treatment of siblings and introduces mechanisms to provide financial incentives for guardianship and adoption.
In May 2007, the United States 9th Circuit Court of Appeals found in ROGERS v. COUNTY OF SAN JOAQUIN, No. 05 - 16071 that a CPS social worker who removed children from their natural parents into foster care without obtaining judicial authorization, was acting without due process and without exigency (emergency conditions) violated the 14th Amendment and Title 42 United States Code Section 1983. The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that a state may not make a law that abridges "... the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States '' and no state may "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. '' Title 42 United States Code Section 1983 states that citizens can sue in federal courts any person that acting under a color of law to deprive the citizens of their civil rights under the pretext of a regulation of a state.
In case of Santosky v. Kramer, 455 US 745, Supreme Court reviewed a case when Department of Social Services removed two younger children from their natural parents only because the parents had been previously found negligent toward their oldest daughter. When the third child was only three days old, DSS transferred him to a foster home on the ground that immediate removal was necessary to avoid imminent danger to his life or health. The Supreme Court vacated previous judgment and stated: "Before a State may sever completely and irrevocably the rights of parents in their natural child, due process requires that the State support its allegations by at least clear and convincing evidence. <... > But until the State proves parental unfitness, the child and his parents share a vital interest in preventing erroneous termination of their natural relationship ''.
Also District of Columbia Court of Appeals conclude that the lower trial court erred in rejecting the relative custodial arrangement selected by the natural mother who tried to preserve her relationship with the child. The previous judgment granting the foster mother 's adoption petition was reversed, and the case remanded to the trial court to vacate the orders granting adoption and denying custody, and to enter an order granting custody to the child 's relative.
In 2007 Deanna Fogarty - Hardwick obtained a jury verdict against Orange County (California) and two of its social workers for violating her Fourteenth Amendment rights to familial association by unlawfully placing her kids in foster care. The $4.9 million verdict grew to a $9.5 million judgment as the County lost each of its successive appeals. The case finally ended in 2011 when the United States Supreme Court denied Orange County 's request to overturn the verdict.
In 2010, an ex-foster child was awarded $30 million by jury trial in California (Santa Clara County) for sexual abuse damages that happened to him in his foster home from 1995 to 1999; he was represented by Stephen John Estey. The foster parent, John Jackson, was licensed by the state, despite the fact that he abused his own wife and son, overdosed on drugs and was arrested for drunken driving. In 2006, Jackson was convicted in Santa Clara County of nine counts of lewd or lascivious acts on a child by force, violence, duress, menace and fear, and seven counts of lewd or lascivious acts on a child under 14, according to the Santa Clara County District Attorney 's Office. The sex acts that he forced the children in his foster care to perform sent him to prison for 220 years. Later in 2010, Giarretto Institute, the private foster family agency responsible for licensing and monitoring Jackson 's foster home and others, was also found to be negligent and liable for 75 percent of the abuse that was inflicted on the victim, and Jackson himself was liable for the rest.
In 2009, Oregon Department of Human Services agreed to pay $2 million into a fund for the future care of twins who were allegedly abused by their foster parents; this was the largest such settlement in the agency 's history. According to the civil rights suit filed on request of the twins ' adoptive mother in December 2007 in U.S. Federal Court, the children were kept in makeshift cages -- cribs covered with chicken wire secured by duct tape -- in a darkened bedroom known as "the dungeon. '' The brother and sister often went without food, water or human touch. The boy, who had a shunt put into his head at birth to drain fluid, did not receive medical attention, so when police rescued the twins he was nearly comatose. The same foster family previously took into their care hundreds of other children over nearly four decades. DHS said the foster parents deceived child welfare workers during the checkup visits.
Several lawsuits were brought in 2008 against the Florida Department of Children & Families (DCF), accusing it of mishandling reports that Thomas Ferrara, 79, a foster parent, was molesting young girls. The suits claimed that even though there were records of sexual misconduct allegations against Ferrara in 1992, 1996, and 1999, the DCF continued to place foster children with Ferrara and his then - wife until 2000. Ferrara was arrested in 2001, after a 9 - year - old girl told detectives he regularly molested her over two years and threatened to hurt her mother if she told anyone. Records show that Ferrara had as many as 400 children go through his home during his 16 years as a licensed foster parent (from 1984 to 2000). Officials stated that the lawsuits over Ferrara ended up costing the DCF almost $2.26 million. Similarly, in 2007 Florida 's DCF paid $1.2 million to settle a lawsuit that alleged DCF ignored complaints that another mentally disabled Immokalee girl was being raped by her foster father, Bonifacio Velazquez, until the 15 - year - old gave birth to a child.
In a class action lawsuit Charlie and Nadine H. v. McGreevey was filed in federal court by "Children 's Rights '' New York organization on behalf of children in the custody of the New Jersey Division of Youth and Family Services (DYFS). The complaint alleged violations of the children 's constitutional rights and their rights under Title IV - E of the Social Security Act, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, Early Periodic Screening Diagnosis and Treatment, 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act, and the Multiethnic Placement Act (MEPA). In July 2002, the federal court granted plaintiffs ' experts access to 500 children 's case files, allowing plaintiffs to collect information concerning harm to children in foster care through a case record review. These files revealed numerous cases in which foster children were abused, and DYFS failed to take proper action. On June 9, 2004, the child welfare panel appointed by the parties approved the NJ State 's Reform Plan. The court accepted the plan on June 17, 2004. The same organization also filed similar lawsuits against several other states in recent years that caused some of the states to start child welfare reforms.
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lebron james most 3 pointers in a game | List of career achievements by LeBron James - wikipedia
This page details the records, statistics, and other achievements pertaining to LeBron James.
Only player to lead a both teams in an NBA Finals Game in Points, Assists, Rebounds, Blocks & Steals
James owns numerous NBA "youngest player '' records. He is the youngest
Notes: Beginning in 2006 the NBA introduced age requirement restrictions. Prospective high school players must now wait at least a year before entering the NBA, making these records more difficult to break.
Highest average, points per game, career: 28.9
Points, game: 49, vs. Orlando, May 20, 2009
Points, half: 28, first half, at Boston Celtics, May 7, 2010
Points, quarter: 23, first quarter, at Boston Celtics, May 7, 2010
Points, overtime: 10, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 26 - 0000 May 26, 2009
Consecutive points, game: 25, from 2: 16 of fourth quarter to end of game (second overtime), at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Games scoring 40 or more points, career: 14
Field goals made, game: 20, vs. Orlando Magic, May 20, 2009
Field goals made, half: 11, twice
Field goals made, quarter: 8, first quarter, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 07 - 0000 May 7, 2010
Field goals made, overtime: 4, second overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Field goal attempts, game: 33, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007 (2 OT)
Field goal attempts, half: 17, first half, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002006 - 05 - 17 - 0000 May 17, 2006
Three - point field goals made, game: 7, at Washington Wizards, 000000002006 - 04 - 30 - 0000 April 30, 2006
Three - point field goals made, half: 5, first half, at Washington Wizards, April 30, 2006
Three - point field goals made, overtime: 1, second overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 9, second half, at Boston Celtics, 000000002008 - 05 - 18 - 0000 May 18, 2008
Free throws made, game: 18, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 24 - 0000 May 24, 2009
Free throws made, quarter: 10, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000002006 - 05 - 19 - 0000 May 19, 2006
Free throws made, overtime: 5, first overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Free throw attempts, game: 24, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 24 - 0000 May 24, 2009
Free throw attempts, half: 16, second half, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 24 - 0000 May 24, 2009
Free throw attempts, quarter: 12, twice
Free throw attempts, overtime: 6, first overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Rebounds, half: 13, second half, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 13 - 0000 May 13, 2010
Defensive rebounds, game: 16, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 13 - 0000 May 13, 2010
Defensive rebounds, half: 12, second half, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 13 - 0000 May 13, 2010
Turnovers, game: 8, (2 games)
Career records cited from Basketball Reference 's Miami Heat Career Leaders page unless noted otherwise.
Points, quarter: 25 twice,
Field goals made, game: 22, vs. Charlotte Bobcats, March 3, 2014
Field goals made, first half: 12, at Orlando Magic, 000000002011 - 02 - 03 - 0000 February 3, 2011
Field goals made, quarter: 10, third quarter, at Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000002010 - 12 - 02 - 0000 December 2, 2010
Turnovers, quarter: 5, first quarter, at Philadelphia 76ers, 000000002010 - 10 - 27 - 0000 October 27, 2010
Triple - doubles, career: 13 (five in playoffs)
Triple - doubles, season: 4, twice
Points, game: 49, at Brooklyn Nets, May 12, 2014
Minutes played, game, 50: 17 at Boston Celtics, May 9, 2011
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when did massachusetts change the drinking age to 21 | U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by State - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. The history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18 '', not "21 ''). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states ' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. A lot of states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973. Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.
From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities. In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10 % of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age, while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)
94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx
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what was the purpose for the bay of pigs invasion | Bay of Pigs invasion - wikipedia
The Bay of Pigs Invasion (Spanish: Invasión de Playa Girón or Invasión de Bahía de Cochinos or Batalla de Girón) was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) - sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military group (made up of mostly Cuban exiles who traveled to the United States after Castro 's takeover, but also of some US military personnel), trained and funded by the CIA, Brigade 2506 fronted the armed wing of the Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF) and intended to overthrow the increasingly communist government of Fidel Castro. Launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua, the invading force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Castro.
The coup of 1952 led by General Fulgencio Batista, an ally of the United States, against President Carlos Prio, forced Prio into exile to Miami, Florida. Prio 's exile was the reason for the 26th July Movement led by Castro. The movement, which did not succeed until after the Cuban Revolution of 31 December 1958, severed the country 's formerly strong links with the US after nationalizing American economic assets (banks, oil refineries, sugar and coffee plantations, along with other American owned businesses).
It was after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, that Castro forged strong economic links with the Soviet Union, with which, at the time, the United States was engaged in the Cold War. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was very concerned at the direction Castro 's government was taking, and in March 1960 he allocated $13.1 million to the CIA to plan Castro 's overthrow (though the plan was put off for Kennedy to decide). The CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Guatemala. Eisenhower 's successor, John F. Kennedy, approved the final invasion plan on 4 April 1961.
Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five infantry battalions and one paratrooper battalion, assembled in Guatemala before setting out for Cuba by boat on 13 April 1961. Two days later, on 15 April, eight CIA - supplied B - 26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields and then returned to the US. On the night of 16 April, the main invasion landed at a beach named Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs. It initially overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia. The Cuban Army 's counter-offensive was led by José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. As the US involvement became apparent to the world, and with the initiative turning against the invasion, Kennedy decided against providing further air cover. As a result, the operation only had half the forces the CIA had deemed necessary. The original plan devised during Eisenhower 's presidency had required both air and naval support. On 20 April, the invaders surrendered after only three days, with the majority being publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons.
The failed invasion helped to strengthen the position of Castro 's leadership, made him a national hero, and entrenched the rocky relationship between the former allies. It also strengthened the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy; Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Cuban forces under Castro 's leadership clashed directly with US forces during the Invasion of Grenada over 20 years later.
Since the middle of the 18th century Cuba had been the crown jewel of the Spanish colonial empire. In the late 19th century, Cuban nationalist revolutionaries rebelled against Spanish dominance, resulting in three liberation wars: the Ten Years ' War (1868 -- 1878), the Little War (1879 -- 1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895 -- 1898). The United States government proclaimed war on the Spanish Empire, resulting in the Spanish -- American War (1898). The US subsequently invaded the island, and forced the Spanish army out. On 20 May 1902, a new independent government proclaimed the foundation of the Republic of Cuba, with US Military governor Leonard Wood handing over control to President Tomás Estrada Palma, a Cuban - born US citizen. Subsequently, large numbers of US settlers and businessmen arrived in Cuba, and by 1905, 60 % of rural properties were owned by non-Cuban North Americans. Between 1906 and 1909, 5,000 US Marines were stationed across the island, and returned in 1912, 1917 and 1921 to intervene in internal affairs, sometimes at the behest of the Cuban government.
-- Earl E.T. Smith, former American Ambassador to Cuba, during 1960 testimony to the US Senate
In March 1952, a Cuban general and politician, Fulgencio Batista, seized power on the island, proclaimed himself president and deposed the discredited president Carlos Prío Socarrás of the Partido Auténtico. Batista canceled the planned presidential elections, and described his new system as "disciplined democracy ''. Although Batista gained some popular support, many Cubans saw it as the establishment of a one - man dictatorship. Many opponents of the Batista regime took to armed rebellion in an attempt to oust the government, sparking the Cuban Revolution. One of these groups was the National Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacional Revolucionario -- MNR), a militant organization containing largely middle class members that had been founded by the Professor of Philosophy Rafael García Bárcena. Another was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil (DRE), which had been founded by the Federation of University Students (FEU) President José Antonio Echevarría (1932 -- 1957). However, the best known of these anti-Batista groups was the "26th of July Movement '' (MR - 26 - 7), founded by a lawyer named Fidel Castro. With Castro as the MR - 26 - 7 's head, the organization was based upon a clandestine cell system, with each cell containing ten members, none of whom knew the whereabouts or activities of the other cells.
Between December 1956 and 1959, Castro led a guerrilla army against the forces of Batista from his base camp in the Sierra Maestra mountains. Batista 's repression of revolutionaries had earned him widespread unpopularity, and by 1958 his armies were in retreat. On 31 December 1958, Batista resigned and fled into exile, taking with him an amassed fortune of more than US $ 300,000,000. The presidency fell to Castro 's chosen candidate, the lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó, while members of the MR - 26 - 7 took control of most positions in the cabinet. On 16 February 1959, Castro himself took on the role of Prime Minister. Dismissing the need for elections, Castro proclaimed the new administration an example of direct democracy, in which the Cuban populace could assemble en masse at demonstrations and express their democratic will to him personally. Critics instead condemned the new regime as un-democratic.
Soon after the success of the Cuban Revolution, militant counter-revolutionary groups developed in an attempt to overthrow the new regime. Undertaking armed attacks against government forces, some set up guerrilla bases in Cuba 's mountainous regions, leading to the six - year Escambray Rebellion. These dissidents were funded and armed by various foreign sources, including the exiled Cuban community, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and Rafael Trujillo 's regime in the Dominican Republic. No quarter was given during the suppression of the resistance in the Escambray Mountains, where former rebels from the war against Batista took different sides. On 3 April 1961, a bomb attack on militia barracks in Bayamo killed four militia, and wounded eight more. On 6 April, the Hershey Sugar factory in Matanzas was destroyed by sabotage. On 14 April 1961, guerrillas led by Agapito Rivera fought Cuban government forces near Las Cruces, Montembo, Las Villas, where several government troops were killed and others wounded. Also on 14 April 1961, a Cubana airliner was hijacked and flown to Jacksonville, Florida; resultant confusion then helped the staged ' defection ' of a B - 26 and pilot at Miami on 15 April.
Castro 's government began a crackdown on this opposition movement, arresting hundreds of dissidents. Though it rejected the physical torture Batista 's regime had used, Castro 's government sanctioned psychological torture, subjecting some prisoners to solitary confinement, rough treatment, hunger, and threatening behavior. After conservative editors and journalists began expressing hostility towards the government following its left - ward turn, the pro-Castro printers ' trade union began to harass and disrupt editorial staff actions. In January 1960, the government proclaimed that each newspaper was obliged to publish a "clarification '' by the printers ' union at the end of any article that criticized the government. This was the start of press censorship in Castro 's Cuba.
Popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice. Although he remained a moderating force and tried to prevent the mass reprisal killings of Batistanos advocated by many Cubans, Castro helped to set up trials of many figures involved in the old regime across the country, resulting in hundreds of executions. Critics, in particular from the U.S. press, argued that many of these did not meet the standards of a fair trial, and condemned Cuba 's new government as being more interested in vengeance than justice. Castro retaliated strongly against such accusations, proclaiming that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction. '' In a show of support for this "revolutionary justice '', he organized the first Havana trial to take place before a mass audience of 17,000 at the Sports Palace stadium; when a group of aviators accused of bombing a village were found not guilty, he ordered a retrial, in which they were instead found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. On 11 March 1961, Jesus Carreras and American William Alexander Morgan (a former Castro ally) were executed after a trial.
Castro 's Cuban government ordered the country 's oil refineries -- then controlled by US corporations Esso and Standard Oil and Anglo - Dutch Shell -- to process crude oil purchased from the Soviet Union, but under pressure from the US government, these companies refused. Castro responded by expropriating the refineries and nationalizing them under state control. In retaliation, the US canceled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most US - owned assets, including banks and sugar mills. Relations between Cuba and the US were further strained following the explosion and sinking of a French vessel, the Le Coubre, in Havana harbor in March 1960. The cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly insinuated that the US government were guilty of sabotage. On 13 October 1960, the US government then prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba -- the exceptions being medicines and certain foodstuffs -- marking the start of an economic embargo. In retaliation, the Cuban National Institute for Agrarian Reform took control of 383 private - run businesses on 14 October, and on 25 October a further 166 US companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized, including Coca - Cola and Sears Roebuck. On 16 December, the US then ended its import quota of Cuban sugar.
The US government was becoming increasingly critical of Castro 's revolutionary government. At an August 1960 meeting of the Organization of American States (OAS) held in Costa Rica, the US Secretary of State, Christian Herter, publicly proclaimed that Castro 's administration was "following faithfully the Bolshevik pattern '' by instituting a single - party political system, taking governmental control of trade unions, suppressing civil liberties, and removing both the freedom of speech and freedom of the press. He furthermore asserted that international communism was using Cuba as an "operational base '' for spreading revolution in the western hemisphere, and called on other OAS members to condemn the Cuban government for its breach of human rights. In turn, Castro lambasted the treatment of black people and the working classes he had witnessed in New York, which he lampooned as that "superfree, superdemocratic, superhumane, and supercivilized city ''. Proclaiming that the US poor were living "in the bowels of the imperialist monster '', he attacked the mainstream US media and accused it of being controlled by big business. It must be noted that, on the surface, the US was trying to improve its relationship with Cuba. Several negotiations between representatives from Cuba and the US took place around this time. Repairing financial international relations was the focal point of these discussions. Political relations were another hot topic of these conferences. The US stated that they would not interfere with Cuba 's choice of government or its domestic structure; however, the US also ordered the Cubans to sever all ties with the Soviet Union.
In August 1960, the CIA contacted the Cosa Nostra in Chicago with the intention to draft a simultaneous assassination of Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro and Che Guevara. In exchange, if the operation were a success and a pro-US government were restored in Cuba, the CIA agreed that the Mafia would get their "monopoly on gaming, prostitution and drugs. ''
Tensions percolated when the CIA began to act on its desires to snuff out Castro. The general public became aware of the attempts to assassinate Castro in 1975 when a report was leaked. Frank Church was the leader of a Senate Committee that was responsible for drafting a report on these clandestine CIA operations. Fourteen reports were issued under the name "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders ''. Castro was one of the leaders that the "alleged assassination plots '' referred to. Efforts to murder Castro officially commenced in 1960. Some methods that the CIA undertook to murder Castro were ridiculously creative. Some examples of these creative ways are: "poison pills, an exploding sea shell, and a planned gift of a diving suit contaminated with toxins. '' More traditional ways of slaying Castro were also planned, such as elimination via high - powered rifles with telescopic sights. CIA agents went to unbelievable lengths to try to murder Castro. Another example of this comes from operation AMLASH. Rolando Cubela was a Cuban Revolutionary hero that headlined this operation. He was contacted with hopes of possibly recruiting someone close to Fidel Castro that was interested in creating a military coup. However, this goal shifted from that to strictly hopes of recruiting someone close to Castro to murder him. All of the time, effort, and resources the CIA devoted to killing Castro were ultimately futile. Moreover, the time period selected by the CIA to carry out these missions stirs up a bit of controversy. In 1963, the CIA made plans to murder Castro, while in the same year, the Kennedy administration had peace talks with Castro. To complicate things even further, a high level CIA agent by the name of Desmond Fitzgerald met with Rolando Cubela and portrayed himself as a personal representative of Robert Kennedy without Kennedy 's actually knowing about it.
The idea of overthrowing Castro 's dictatorship first emerged within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), an independent civilian intelligence agency of the United States government, in early 1960. Founded in 1947 by the National Security Act, the CIA was "a product of the Cold War '', having been designed to counter the espionage activities of the Soviet Union 's own national security agency, the KGB. As the perceived threat of "international communism '' grew larger, the CIA expanded its activities to undertake covert economic, political, and military activities that would advance causes favourable to U.S. interests (often resulting in brutal dictatorships that favored US interests). The CIA 's Director at the time, Allen Dulles, was responsible for overseeing clandestine operations across the world, and although widely considered an ineffectual administrator, he was immensely popular among his employees, whom he had protected from the accusations of McCarthyism. Recognizing that Castro and his government were becoming increasingly hostile and openly opposed to the United States, President Dwight D. Eisenhower directed the Central Intelligence Agency to begin preparations of invading Cuba and overthrowing the Castro regime. The man overseeing plans for the Bay of Pigs Invasion was Richard M. Bissell Jr., the CIA 's Deputy Director for Plans (DDP). Putting together a "Special Group '' known as the 5412 Committee, he assembled a number of other agents to aid him in the plot, many of whom had worked on the 1954 Guatemalan coup six years before; these included David Philips, Gerry Droller and E. Howard Hunt.
Bissell placed Droller in charge of liaising with anti-Castro segments of the Cuban - American community living in the United States, and asked Hunt to fashion a government - in - exile, which the CIA would effectively control. Hunt proceeded to travel to Havana, the capital city of Cuba, where he spoke with Cubans from various different backgrounds and discovered a brothel through the Mercedes - Benz agency. Returning to the US, he informed the Cuban - Americans with whom he was liaising that they would have to move their base of operations from Florida to Mexico City, because the State Department refused to permit the training of a militia on US soil. Although unhappy with the news, they conceded to the order.
On 17 March 1960, the CIA put forward their plan for the overthrow of Castro 's administration to the U.S. National Security Council (NSC), where it was given the support of US President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The stated first objective of the plan was to "bring about the replacement of the Castro regime with one more devoted to the true interests of the Cuban people and more acceptable to the US in such a manner to avoid any appearance of US intervention. '' Four major forms of action were to be taken to aid anti-communist opposition in Cuba at the time. These were to: provide a powerful propaganda offensive against the regime, perfect a covert intelligence network within Cuba, develop paramilitary forces outside of Cuba, and get the necessary logistical support for covert military operations on the island. At this stage it was still not clear that an invasion would take place.
On 18 August 1960, Eisenhower approved a budget of $13,000,000 for the operation. By 31 October 1960, most guerrilla infiltrations and supply drops directed by the CIA into Cuba had failed, and developments of further guerrilla strategies were replaced by plans to mount an initial amphibious assault, with a minimum of 1,500 men. On 18 November 1960, Allen Dulles (CIA Director) and Richard Bissell (CIA Deputy Director for Plans) first briefed President - elect John Kennedy on the outline plans. Having experience in actions such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, Dulles was confident that the CIA was capable of overthrowing the Cuban government as led by Prime Minister Fidel Castro since 16 February 1959. On 29 November 1960, President Eisenhower met with the chiefs of the CIA, Defense, State and Treasury departments to discuss the new concept. No objections were expressed, and Eisenhower approved the plans, with the intention of persuading John Kennedy of their merit. On 8 December 1960, Bissell presented outline plans to the "Special Group '' while declining to commit details to written records. Further development of the plans continued, and on 4 January 1961 they consisted of an intention to carry out a "lodgement '' by 750 men at an undisclosed site in Cuba, supported by considerable air power.
Meanwhile, in the 1960 presidential election, both main candidates, Richard Nixon of the Republican Party and John F. Kennedy of the Democratic Party, campaigned on the issue of Cuba, with both candidates taking a hardline stance on Castro. Nixon -- who was then Vice President -- sent a military aide to Dulles to ask how the planned invasion was progressing; he believed that it was taking too long, considering the swift preparation of the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'etat. Nixon insisted that Kennedy should not be informed of the military plans, to which Dulles conceded.
On 28 January 1961, President Kennedy was briefed, together with all the major departments, on the latest plan (code - named Operation Pluto), which involved 1,000 men landed in a ship - borne invasion at Trinidad, Cuba, about 270 km (170 mi) south - east of Havana, at the foothills of the Escambray Mountains in Sancti Spiritus province. Kennedy authorized the active departments to continue, and to report progress. Trinidad had good port facilities, it was closer to many existing counter-revolutionary activities, it had an easily defensible beachhead, and it offered an escape route into the Escambray Mountains. When that scheme was subsequently rejected by the State Department, the CIA went on to propose an alternative plan. Kennedy rejected the landings at Trinidad largely because the airfield there was not large enough for B - 26 bombers and, since B - 26s were to play a prominent role in the invasion, this would destroy the façade that the invasion was just an uprising with no American involvement. On 4 April 1961, President Kennedy then approved the Bay of Pigs plan (also known as Operation Zapata), because it had an airfield that did not need extending to handle bomber operations, it was farther away from large groups of civilians than the Trinidad plan, and it was less "noisy '' militarily, which would make any future denial of direct US involvement more plausible. The invasion landing area was changed to beaches bordering the Bahía de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) in Las Villas Province, 150 km south - east of Havana, and east of the Zapata Peninsula. The landings were to take place at Playa Girón (code - named Blue Beach), Playa Larga (code - named Red Beach), and Caleta Buena Inlet (code - named Green Beach).
Interestingly, top aids to Kennedy, such as the secretary of state Dean Rusk and both Joint chiefs of staff later said that they had hesitations about the plans but muted their thoughts. Some leaders blamed these problems on the "Cold War mindset '' or the determination of the Kennedy brothers to oust Castro and fulfill campaign promises.
In March 1961, the CIA helped Cuban exiles in Miami to create the Cuban Revolutionary Council (CRC), chaired by José Miró Cardona, former Prime Minister of Cuba in January 1959. Cardona became the de facto leader - in - waiting of the intended post-invasion Cuban government.
In April 1960, the CIA began to recruit anti-Castro Cuban exiles in the Miami area. Until July 1960, assessment and training was carried out on Useppa Island and at various other facilities in South Florida, such as Homestead AFB. Specialist guerrilla training took place at Fort Gulick, Panama and at Fort Clayton, Panama. The force that became Brigade 2506 started with 28 men, who initially were told that their training was being paid for by an anonymous Cuban millionaire émigré, but the recruits soon guessed who was paying the bills, calling their supposed anonymous benefactor "Uncle Sam '', and the pretense was dropped. The overall leader was Dr. Manuel Artime while the military leader was José "Pepe '' Peréz San Román, a former Cuban Army officer imprisoned under both Batista and Castro.
For the increasing ranks of recruits, infantry training was carried out at a CIA - run base (code - named JMTrax) near Retalhuleu in the Sierra Madre on the Pacific coast of Guatemala. The exiled group named themselves Brigade 2506 (Brigada Asalto 2506). In summer 1960, an airfield (code - named JMadd, aka Rayo Base) was constructed near Retalhuleu, Guatemala. Gunnery and flight training of Brigade 2506 aircrews was carried out by personnel from Alabama ANG (Air National Guard) under General Reid Doster, using at least six Douglas B - 26 Invaders in the markings of Fuerza Aérea Guatemalteca, legitimate delivery of those being delayed by about six months. An additional 26 B - 26s were obtained from US military stocks, ' sanitized ' at ' Field Three ' to obscure their origins, and about 20 of them were converted for offensive operations by removal of defensive armament, standardization of the ' eight - gun nose ', addition of underwing drop tanks and rocket racks. Paratroop training was at a base nicknamed Garrapatenango, near Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. Training for boat handling and amphibious landings took place at Vieques Island, Puerto Rico. Tank training took place at Fort Knox, Kentucky, and Fort Benning, Georgia. Underwater demolition and infiltration training took place at Belle Chase near New Orleans. To create a navy, the CIA purchased five cargo ships from the Cuban - owned, but Miami - based Garcia Line, thereby giving "plausible deniability '' as the State Department had insisted no US ships could be involved in the invasion. The first four of the five ships, namely the Atlantico, the Caribe, the Houston and Río Escondido were to carry enough supplies and weapons to last thirty days while the Lake Charles had 15 days of supplies and was intended to land the provisional government of Cuba. The ships were loaded with supplies at New Orleans and sailed to Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua. Additionally, the invasion force had two old Landing Craft Infantry (LCI) ships, the Blagar and Barbara J from World War II that were part of the CIA 's "ghost ship '' fleet and served as command ships for the invasion. The crews of the supply ships were Cuban while the crews of the LCIs were Americans, borrowed by the CIA from the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) One CIA officer wrote that MSTS sailors were all professional and experienced, but not trained for combat.
In November 1960, the Retalhuleu recruits took part in quelling an officers ' rebellion in Guatemala, in addition to the intervention of the US Navy.
The CIA transported people, supplies, and arms from Florida to all the bases at night, using Douglas C - 54 transports. On 9 April 1961, Brigade 2506 personnel, ships, and aircraft started transferring from Guatemala to Puerto Cabezas. Curtiss C - 46s were also used for transport between Retalhuleu and a CIA base (code - named JMTide, aka Happy Valley) at Puerto Cabezas.
Facilities and limited logistical assistance were provided by the governments of General Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes in Guatemala, and General Luis Somoza Debayle in Nicaragua, but no military personnel or equipment of those nations was directly employed in the conflict. Both governments later received military training and equipment, including some of the CIA 's remaining B - 26s.
In early 1961, Cuba 's army possessed Soviet - designed T - 34 medium tanks, IS - 2 heavy tanks, SU - 100 tank destroyers, 122mm howitzers, other artillery and small arms plus Italian 105mm howitzers. The Cuban air force armed inventory included Douglas B - 26 Invader light bombers, Hawker Sea Fury fighters, and Lockheed T - 33 jets, all remaining from the Fuerza Aérea del Ejército de Cuba (FAEC), the Cuban air force of the Batista government.
Anticipating an invasion, Che Guevara stressed the importance of an armed civilian populace, stating: "all of the Cuban people must become a guerrilla army; each and every Cuban must learn to handle and if necessary use firearms in defense of the nation ''.
In April 1960, FRD (Frente Revolucionario Democratico - Democratic Revolutionary Front) rebels were taken to Useppa Island, a private island off the coast of Florida, which was covertly leased by the CIA at the time. Once the rebels had arrived they were greeted by instructors from U.S. Army special forces groups, members from the U.S. Air Force and Air National Guard and members of the CIA. The rebels were trained in amphibious assault tactics, guerrilla warfare, infantry and weapons training, unit tactics and land navigation.
Recruiting of Cuban exiles in Miami was organized by CIA staff officers E. Howard Hunt and Gerry Droller. Detailed planning, training and military operations were conducted by Jacob Esterline, Colonel Jack Hawkins, Felix Rodriguez and Colonel Stanley W. Beerli under the direction of Richard Bissell and his deputy Tracy Barnes.
Already, Fidel Castro was known as, and addressed as, the commander - in - chief of Cuban armed forces, with a nominal base at ' Point One ' in Havana. In early April 1961, his brother Raúl Castro was assigned command of forces in the east, based in Santiago de Cuba. Che Guevara commanded western forces, based in Pinar del Río. Major Juan Almeida Bosque commanded forces in the central provinces, based in Santa Clara. Raúl Curbelo Morales was head of the air force. Sergio del Valle Jiménez was Director of Headquarters Operations at Point One. Efigenio Ameijeiras was the Head of the Revolutionary National Police. Ramiro Valdés Menéndez was Minister of the Interior and head of G - 2 (Seguridad del Estado, or state security). His deputy was Comandante Manuel Piñeiro Losada, also known as ' Barba Roja '. Captain José Ramón Fernández was head of the School of Militia Leaders (Cadets) at Matanzas.
Other commanders of units during the conflict included Major Raúl Menéndez Tomassevich, Major Filiberto Olivera Moya, Major René de los Santos, Major Augusto Martínez Sanchez, Major Félix Duque, Major Pedro Miret, Major Flavio Bravo, Major Antonio Lussón, Captain Orlando Pupo Pena, Captain Victor Dreke, Captain Emilio Aragonés, Captain Angel Fernández Vila, Arnaldo Ochoa, and Orlando Rodriguez Puerta.
Soviet - trained Spanish advisors were brought to Cuba from Eastern Bloc countries. These advisors had held high staff positions in the Soviet armies during World War II, and became known as "Hispano - Soviets '', having long resided in the Soviet Union. The most senior of these were the Spanish communist veterans of the Spanish Civil War, Francisco Ciutat de Miguel, Enrique Líster, and Cuban - born Alberto Bayo. Ciutat de Miguel (Cuban alias: Ángel Martínez Riosola, commonly referred to as "Angelito ''), was an advisor to forces in the central provinces. The role of other Soviet agents at the time is uncertain, but some of them acquired greater fame later. For example, two KGB colonels, Vadim Kochergin and Victor Simanov were first sighted in Cuba in about September 1959.
The Cuban security apparatus knew the invasion was coming, via their extensive secret intelligence network, as well as loose talk by members of the brigade, some of which was heard in Miami, and was repeated in US and foreign newspaper reports. Nevertheless, days before the invasion, multiple acts of sabotage were carried out, such as the El Encanto fire, an arson attack in a department store in Havana on 13 April, that killed one shop worker. The Cuban government also had been warned by senior KGB agents Osvaldo Sánchez Cabrera and ' Aragon ', who died violently before and after the invasion, respectively. The general Cuban population was not well informed, except for CIA - funded Radio Swan. As of May 1960, almost all means of public communication were in the government 's hands.
On 29 April 2000, a Washington Post article, "Soviets Knew Date of Cuba Attack '', reported that the CIA had information indicating that the Soviet Union knew the invasion was going to take place, and did not inform Kennedy. On 13 April 1961, Radio Moscow broadcast an English - language newscast, predicting the invasion "in a plot hatched by the CIA '' using paid "criminals '' within a week. The invasion took place four days later.
David Ormsby - Gore, British Ambassador to the US, stated that British intelligence analysis, as made available to the CIA, indicated that the Cuban people were predominantly behind Castro, and that there was no likelihood of mass defections or insurrections.
From June to September 1960, the most time consuming task was the acquisition of the aircraft to be used in the invasion. The anti-Castro effort depended on the success of these aircraft. Although models such as the C - 46, C - 47 and C - 54 were to be used for airdrops and bomb drops as well as infiltration and exfiltration, they were looking for an aircraft that could perform tactical strikes. The two models that were going to be decided on were the Navy 's AD - 5 Skyraider or the Air Force 's light bomber, the B - 26. The AD - 5 was readily available and ready for the Navy to train pilots, and in a meeting among a special group in the office of the Deputy Director of the CIA, the AD - 5 was approved and decided on. After a cost benefit analysis, word was sent that the AD - 5 plan would be abandoned and the B - 26 would take its place.
Under the cover of darkness, the invasion fleet set sail from Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua and headed towards the Bay of Pigs on the night of 14 April. Following behind the fleet was the carrier USS Essex and five destroyers.
During the night of 14 / 15 April, a diversionary landing was planned near Baracoa, Oriente Province, by about 164 Cuban exiles commanded by Higinio ' Nino ' Diaz. Their mother ship, named La Playa or Santa Ana, had sailed from Key West under a Costa Rican ensign. Several US Navy destroyers were stationed offshore near Guantánamo Bay to give the appearance of an impending invasion fleet. The reconnaissance boats turned back to the ship after their crews detected activities by Cuban militia forces along the coastline.
As a result of those activities, at daybreak, a reconnaissance sortie over the Baracoa area was launched from Santiago de Cuba. That was a FAR (Fuerza Aérea Revolucionaria) (Cuban Air Force) T - 33, piloted by Lt Orestes Acosta, and it crashed fatally into the sea. On 17 April, his name was falsely quoted as a defector among the disinformation circulating in Miami.
The CIA, with the backing of the Pentagon, had originally requested permission to produce sonic booms over Havana on 14 April to create an air of confusion. The request was a form of psychological warfare that had proven successful in the overthrow of Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala in 1954. The point was to create confusion in Havana and have it be a distraction to Castro if they could "break all the windows in town ''. The request was denied, however, since officials thought such would be too obvious a sign of involvement by the United States.
On 15 April 1961, at about 06: 00 AM Cuban local time, eight Douglas B - 26B Invader bombers in three groups simultaneously attacked three Cuban airfields at San Antonio de los Baños and at Ciudad Libertad (formerly named Campo Columbia), both near Havana, plus the Antonio Maceo International Airport at Santiago de Cuba. The B - 26s had been prepared by the CIA on behalf of Brigade 2506, and had been painted with the false flag markings of the FAR, the air force of the Cuban government. Each was armed with bombs, rockets and machine guns. They had flown from Puerto Cabezas in Nicaragua, and were crewed by exiled Cuban pilots and navigators of the self - styled Fuerza Aérea de Liberación (FAL). The purpose of the action (code - named Operation Puma) was reportedly to destroy most or all of the armed aircraft of the FAR in preparation for the main invasion. At Santiago, the two attackers destroyed a C - 47 transport, a PBY Catalina flying boat, two B - 26s and a civilian DC - 3 plus various other civilian aircraft. At San Antonio, the three attackers destroyed three FAR B - 26s, one Sea Fury and one T - 33, and one attacker diverted to Grand Cayman due to low usable fuel. Aircraft that diverted to the Caymans were aggressively seized since Great Britain was leery that the Cayman Islands might be perceived as a launch site for the invasion. At Ciudad Libertad, the three attackers destroyed only non-operational aircraft such as two P - 47 Thunderbolts. One of those attackers was damaged by anti-aircraft fire, and ditched about 50 km north of Cuba, with the loss of its crew Daniel Fernández Mon and Gaston Pérez. Its companion B - 26, also damaged, continued north and landed at Boca Chica field (Naval Air Station Key West), Florida. The crew, José Crespo and Lorenzo Pérez - Lorenzo, were granted political asylum, and made their way back to Nicaragua the next day via Miami and the daily CIA C - 54 flight from Opa - locka Airport to Puerto Cabezas Airport. Their B - 26, purposely numbered 933, the same as at least two other B - 26s that day for disinformation reasons, was held until late on 17 April.
About 90 minutes after the eight B - 26s had taken off from Puerto Cabezas to attack Cuban airfields, another B - 26 departed on a deception flight that took it close to Cuba but headed north towards Florida. Like the bomber groups, it carried false FAR markings and the same number 933 as painted on at least two of the others. Before departure, the cowling from one of the aircraft 's two engines was removed by CIA personnel, fired upon, then re-installed to give the false appearance that the aircraft had taken ground fire at some point during its flight. At a safe distance north of Cuba, the pilot feathered the engine with the pre-installed bullet holes in the cowling, radioed a mayday call, and requested immediate permission to land at Miami International airport. He landed and taxied to the military area of the airport near an Air Force C - 47 and was met by several government cars. The pilot was Mario Zúñiga, formerly of the FAEC (Cuban Air Force under Batista), and after landing he masqueraded as ' Juan Garcia ', and publicly claimed that three colleagues had also defected from the FAR. The next day he was granted political asylum, and that night he returned to Puerto Cabezas via Opa - Locka. This deception operation was successful at the time in convincing much of the world media that the attacks on the Cuban Air Force bases were the work of an internal anti-Communist faction, and did not involve outside actors.
At 10: 30 am on 15 April at the United Nations, the Cuban Foreign Minister Raúl Roa accused the US of aggressive air attacks against Cuba, and that afternoon formally tabled a motion to the Political (First) Committee of the UN General Assembly. Only days earlier, the CIA had unsuccessfully attempted to entice Raúl Roa into defecting. In response to Roa 's accusations before the UN, US ambassador to the UN Adlai Stevenson stated that US armed forces would not "under any conditions '' intervene in Cuba, and that the US would do everything in its power to ensure that no US citizens would participate in actions against Cuba. He also stated that Cuban defectors had carried out the attacks that day, and he presented a UPI wire photo of Zúñiga 's B - 26 in Cuban markings at Miami airport. Stevenson was later embarrassed to realize that the CIA had lied to him and to Secretary of State Dean Rusk.
President Kennedy supported the statement made by Stevenson: "I have emphasized before that this was a struggle of Cuban patriots against a Cuban dictator. While we could not be expected to hide our sympathies, we made it repeatedly clear that the armed forces of this country would not intervene in any way ''.
On 15 April, the Cuban national police, led by Efigenio Ameijeiras, started the process of arresting thousands of suspected anti-revolutionary individuals, and detaining them in provisional locations such as the Karl Marx Theatre, the moat of Fortaleza de la Cabana and the Principe Castle all in Havana, and the baseball park in Matanzas.
On the night of 15 / 16 April, the Nino Diaz group failed in a second attempted diversionary landing at a fresh location near Baracoa.
On 16 April, Merardo Leon, Jose Leon, and 14 others staged an armed uprising at Las Delicias Estate in Las Villas, with only four surviving. Leonel Martinez and three others took to the countryside.
Following the air strikes on airfields on 15 April 1961, the FAR managed to prepare for armed action at least four T - 33s, four Sea Furies and five or six B - 26s. All three types were armed with machine guns (20mm cannon, in the case of the Sea Furies) for air - to - air combat and for strafing of ships and ground targets. CIA planners had failed to discover that the US - supplied T - 33 jets had long been armed with M - 3 machine guns. The three types could also carry bombs, for attacks against ships and tanks.
No additional air strikes against Cuban airfields and aircraft were specifically planned before 17 April, because B - 26 pilots ' exaggerated claims gave the CIA false confidence in the success of 15 April attacks, until U-2 reconnaissance photos taken on 16 April showed otherwise. Late on 16 April, President Kennedy ordered cancellation of further airfield strikes planned for dawn on 17 April, to attempt plausible deniability of US direct involvement.
Late on 16 April, the CIA / Brigade 2506 invasion fleet converged on ' Rendezvous Point Zulu ', about 65 kilometres (40 mi) south of Cuba, having sailed from Puerto Cabezas in Nicaragua where they had been loaded with troops and other materiel, after loading arms and supplies at New Orleans. The US Navy operation was code - named Bumpy Road, having been changed from Crosspatch on 1 April 1961. The fleet, labelled the ' Cuban Expeditionary Force ' (CEF), included five 2,400 - ton (empty weight) freighter ships chartered by the CIA from the Garcia Line, and subsequently outfitted with anti-aircraft guns. Four of the freighters, Houston (code name Aguja), Río Escondido (code name Ballena), Caribe (code name Sardina), and Atlántico (code - name Tiburón), were planned to transport about 1,400 troops in seven battalions of troops and armaments near to the invasion beaches. The fifth freighter, Lake Charles, was loaded with follow - up supplies and some Operation 40 infiltration personnel. The freighters sailed under Liberian ensigns. Accompanying them were two LCIs (Landing Craft Infantry) outfitted with heavy armament at Key West. The LCIs were Blagar (code - name Marsopa) and Barbara J (code - name Barracuda), sailing under Nicaraguan ensigns. After exercises and training at Vieques Island, the CEF ships were individually escorted (outside visual range) to Point Zulu by US Navy destroyers USS Bache, USS Beale, USS Conway, USS Cony, USS Eaton, USS Murray, and USS Waller. US Navy Task Group 81.8 had already assembled off the Cayman Islands, commanded by Rear Admiral John E. Clark onboard aircraft carrier USS Essex, plus helicopter assault carrier USS Boxer, destroyers USS Hank, USS John W. Weeks, USS Purdy, USS Wren, and submarines USS Cobbler and USS Threadfin. Command and control ship USS Northampton and carrier USS Shangri - La were also reportedly active in the Caribbean at the time. USS San Marcos was a Landing Ship Dock that carried three LCUs (Landing Craft Utility) and four LCVPs (Landing Craft, Vehicles, Personnel). San Marcos had sailed from Vieques Island. At Point Zulu, the seven CEF ships sailed north without the USN escorts, except for San Marcos that continued until the seven landing craft were unloaded when just outside the 5 kilometres (3 mi) Cuban territorial limit.
During the night of 16 / 17 April, a mock diversionary landing was organized by CIA operatives near Bahía Honda, Pinar del Río Province. A flotilla containing equipment that broadcast sounds and other effects of a shipborne invasion landing provided the source of Cuban reports that briefly lured Fidel Castro away from the Bay of Pigs battlefront area.
At about 00: 00 on 17 April 1961, the two CIA LCIs Blagar and Barbara J, each with a CIA ' operations officer ' and an Underwater Demolition Team (UDT) of five frogmen, entered the Bay of Pigs (Bahía de Cochinos) on the southern coast of Cuba. They headed a force of four transport ships (Houston, Río Escondido, Caribe and Atlántico) carrying about 1,400 Cuban exile ground troops of Brigade 2506, plus tanks and other vehicles in the landing craft. At about 01: 00, Blagar, as the battlefield command ship, directed the principal landing at Playa Girón (code - named Blue Beach), led by the frogmen in rubber boats followed by troops from Caribe in small aluminium boats, then LCVPs and LCUs. Barbara J, leading Houston, similarly landed troops 35 km further northwest at Playa Larga (code - named Red Beach), using small fiberglass boats. Unloading troops at night was delayed, due to engine failures and boats damaged by unforeseen coral reefs, the CIA had originally believed that the coral reef was seaweed. As the frogmen came in, they were shocked to discover that the Red Beach was lit with floodlights, which led to the location of the landing being hastily changed. As the frogmen landed, a firefight broke out when a jeep carrying Cuban militia happened by. The few militia in the area succeeded in warning Cuban armed forces via radio soon after the first landing, before the invaders overcame their token resistance. Castro was woken up at about 3: 15 am to be informed of the landings, which led him to put all militia units in the area on the highest state of alert and to order airstrikes. The Cuban regime planned to strike the brigadistas at Playa Larga first as they were inland before turning on the brigadistas at Girón at the sea. El Comandante departed personally to lead his forces into battle against the brigadistas.
At daybreak around 06: 30 AM, three FAR Sea Furies, one B - 26 bomber and two Lockheed T - 33 fighter jets started attacking those CEF ships still unloading troops. At about 06: 50, and 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of Playa Larga, Houston was damaged by several bombs and rockets from a Sea Fury and a T - 33, and about two hours later captain Luis Morse intentionally beached it on the western side of the bay. About 270 troops had been unloaded, but about 180 survivors who struggled ashore were incapable of taking part in further action because of the loss of most of their weapons and equipment. The loss of Houston was a great blow to the bridgadistas as that ship was carrying much of the Brigade 2506 's medical supplies, which meant that wounded bridgadistas had to make do with inadequate medical care. At about 07: 00, two invading FAL B - 26s attacked and sank the Cuban Navy Patrol Escort ship El Baire at Nueva Gerona on the Isle of Pines. They then proceeded to Girón to join two other B - 26s to attack Cuban ground troops and provide distraction air cover for the paratroop C - 46s and the CEF ships under air attack. Brigade 2506 's tanks had been all landed by 7: 30 am at Blue Beach and all of the troops by 8: 30 am. Neither San Román at Blue Beach nor Erneido Oliva at Red Beach could communicate as all of the radios had been soaked in the water during the landings.
At about 07: 30, five C - 46 and one C - 54 transport aircraft dropped 177 paratroops from the parachute battalion of Brigade 2506 in an action code - named Operation Falcon. About 30 men, plus heavy equipment, were dropped south of the Central Australia sugar mill on the road to Palpite and Playa Larga, but the equipment was lost in the swamps, and the troops failed to block the road. Other troops were dropped at San Blas, at Jocuma between Covadonga and San Blas, and at Horquitas between Yaguaramas and San Blas. Those positions to block the roads were maintained for two days, reinforced by ground troops from Playa Girón. The paratroopers had landed amid a collection of militia, but their training allowed them to hold their own against the ill - trained militiamen. However, the dispersal of the paratroopers as they landed meant they were unable to take the road from the Central Australia sugar mill down to Playa Larga, which allowed the government to continue to send troops down to resist the invasion.
At about 08: 30, a FAR Sea Fury piloted by Carlos Ulloa Arauz crashed in the bay, due to stalling or anti-aircraft fire, after encountering a FAL C - 46 returning south after dropping paratroops. By 09: 00, Cuban troops and militia from outside the area had started arriving at the Central Australia sugar mill, Covadonga and Yaguaramas. Throughout the day they were reinforced by more troops, heavy armour and T - 34 tanks typically carried on flat - bed trucks. At about 09: 30, FAR Sea Furies and T - 33s fired rockets at Rio Escondido, which then ' blew up ' and sank about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) south of Girón. Rio Escondido was loaded with aviation fuel and as the ship started to burn, the captain gave the order to abandon ship with the ship being destroyed in three explosions shortly afterwards. Rio Escondido carried not only fuel, but also enough ammunition, food and medical supplies to last ten days and the radio that allowed the Brigade to communicate with the Liberation Air Force. The loss of the communications ship Rio Escondido meant that San Román was only able to issue orders to the forces at Blue Beach, and he had no idea of what was happening at Red Beach or with the paratroopers. A messenger from Red Beach arrived at about 10: 00 am asking San Román to send tank and infantry to block the road from the Central Australia sugar mill, a request that he agreed to. It was not expected that government forces would be counter-attacking from this direction.
At about 11: 00, Premier Fidel Castro issued a statement over Cuba 's nationwide network saying that the invaders, members of the exiled Cuban revolutionary front, have come to destroy the revolution and take away the dignity and rights of men.
At about 11: 00, a FAR T - 33 attacked and shot down a FAL B - 26 (serial number 935) piloted by Matias Farias, who then survived a crashlanding on the Girón airfield, his navigator Eduardo González already killed by gunfire. His companion B - 26 suffered damage and diverted to Grand Cayman Island; pilot Mario Zúñiga (the ' defector ') and navigator Oscar Vega returned to Puerto Cabezas via CIA C - 54 on 18 April. By about 11: 00, the two remaining freighters Caribe and Atlántico, and the CIA LCIs and LCUs, started retreating south to international waters, but still pursued by FAR aircraft. At about 12: 00, a FAR B - 26 exploded due to heavy anti-aircraft fire from Blagar, and pilot Luis Silva Tablada (on his second sortie) and his crew of three were lost.
By 12: 00, hundreds of Cuban militia cadets from Matanzas had secured Palpite, and cautiously advanced on foot south towards Playa Larga, suffering many casualties during attacks by FAL B - 26s. By dusk, other Cuban ground forces were gradually advancing southward from Covadonga and southwest from Yaguaramas toward San Blas, and westward along coastal tracks from Cienfuegos towards Girón, all without heavy weapons or armour. At 2: 30 pm a group of militiamen from the 339th Battalion set up a position, which came under attack from the brigadista M41 Walker Bulldog tanks, who inflicted heavy losses on the defenders. This action is remembered in Cuba as the "Slaughter of the Lost Battalion '' as most of the militiamen were killed.
Three FAL B - 26s were shot down by FAR T - 33s, with the loss of pilots Raúl Vianello, José Crespo, Osvaldo Piedra and navigators Lorenzo Pérez - Lorenzo and José Fernández. Vianello 's navigator Demetrio Pérez bailed out and was picked up by USS Murray. Pilot Crispín García Fernández and navigator Juan González Romero, in B - 26 serial 940, diverted to Boca Chica, but late that night they attempted to fly back to Puerto Cabezas in B - 26 serial 933 that Crespo had flown to Boca Chica on 15 April. In October 1961, the remains of the B - 26 and its two crew were found in dense jungle in Nicaragua. One FAL B - 26 diverted to Grand Cayman with engine failure. By 16: 00, Fidel Castro had arrived at the Central Australia sugar mill, joining José Ramón Fernández whom he had appointed as battlefield commander before dawn that day.
On 17 April 1961, Osvaldo Ramírez (leader of the rural resistance to Castro) was captured by Castro 's forces in Aromas de Velázquez, and immediately executed.
At about 21: 00 on 17 April 1961, a night air strike by three FAL B - 26s on San Antonio de Los Baños airfield failed, reportedly due to incompetence and bad weather. Two other B - 26s had aborted the mission after take - off. Other sources allege that heavy anti-aircraft fire scared the aircrews As night fell, Atlantico and Caribe pulled away from Cuba, to be followed by Blagar and Barbara J. The ships were to return to the Bay of Pigs the next day to land more ammunition, but the captains of Atlantico and Caribe decided to abandon the invasion and headed out to the open sea out of fear of further air attacks by the FAR. Destroyers from the US Navy intercepted Atlantico about 110 miles south of Cuba, and persuaded the captain to return, but Caribe was not intercepted until she was 218 miles away from Cuba, and she was not to return until it was too late.
During the night of 17 -- 18 April, the force at Red Beach came under repeated counter-attacks from the Cuban Army and militia. As casualties mounted and ammunition was used up, the brigadistas steadily gave way. Airdrops from four C - 52s and 2 C - 46s had only limited success in landing more ammunition. Both the Blagar and Barbara J returned at midnight to land more ammunition, which proved insufficient for the brigadistas. Following desperate appeals for help from Oliva, San Román ordered all of his M41 tanks ' six mortars to assist in the defence. During the night fighting, a tank battle broke out with the brigadista tanks clashed with the T - 34 tanks of the Cuban Army, a sharp action that ended with the brigadistas being driven back. At 8: 00 pm, the Cuban Army opened fire with its 76.2 mm and 122mm artillery guns on the brigadista forces at Playa Larga, which was followed by an attack by T - 34 tanks at about midnight. The 2,000 artillery rounds fired by the Cuban Army had mostly missed the brigadista defense positions and the T - 34 tanks rode into an ambush when they came under fire from the brigadista M41 tanks and mortar fire, and a number of T - 34 tanks were destroyed or knocked out. At 1: 00 am, Cuban Army infantrymen and militiamen started an offensive. Despite heavy losses on the part of the Communist forces, the shortage of ammunition forced the brigadistas back and the T - 34 tanks continued to force their way past the wreckage of the battlefield to press on the assault. The Communist forces numbered about 2,100 consisting of about 300 FAR soldiers, 1,600 militiamen and 200 policemen supported by 20 T - 34s who were faced by 370 brigadistas. By 5: 00 am, Oliva started to order his men to retreat as he had almost no ammunition or mortar rounds left. By about 10: 30 am on 18 April, Cuban troops and militia, supported by the T - 34 tanks and 122mm artillery, took Playa Larga after Brigade forces had fled towards Girón in the early hours. During the day, Brigade forces retreated to San Blas along the two roads from Covadonga and Yaguaramas. By then, both Fidel Castro and José Ramón Fernández had re-located to that battlefront area.
As the men from Red Beach arrived at Girón, San Román and Oliva met to discuss the situation. With ammunition running low, Oliva suggested that the Brigade 2506 retreat into the Escambray mountains to wage guerilla warfare, but San Román decided to hold the beachhead. At about 11: 00 am, the Cuban government began an offensive to take San Blas. San Román ordered all of the paratroopers back in order to hold San Blas, and they halted the offensive. During the afternoon, Castro kept the brigadistas under steady air attack and artillery fire, but did not order any new major attacks.
At 14: 00, President Kennedy received a telegram from Nikita Khrushchev in Moscow, stating the Russians would not allow the US to enter Cuba, and implied swift nuclear retribution to the United States heartland if their warnings were not heeded.
At about 17: 00 on 18 April, FAL B - 26s attacked a Cuban column of 12 civilian buses leading trucks carrying tanks and other armour, moving southeast between Playa Larga and Punta Perdiz. The vehicles, loaded with civilians, militia, police and soldiers, were attacked with bombs, napalm and rockets, suffering heavy casualties. The six B - 26s were piloted by two CIA contract pilots plus four pilots and six navigators from Brigade 2506 air force. The column later re-formed and advanced to Punta Perdiz, about 11 km northwest of Girón.
During the night of 18 April, a FAL C - 46 delivered arms and equipment to the Girón airstrip occupied by Brigade 2506 ground forces, and took off before daybreak on 19 April. The C - 46 also evacuated Matias Farias, the pilot of B - 26 serial ' 935 ' (code - named Chico Two) that had been shot down and crash - landed at Girón on 17 April. The crews of the Barbara J and Blagar had done their best to land what ammunition they had left onto the beachhead, but without air support the captains of both ships reported that it was too dangerous to be operating off the Cuban coast by day.
The final air attack mission (code - named Mad Dog Flight) comprised five B - 26s, four of which were manned by American CIA contract air crews and pilots from the Alabama Air Guard. One FAR Sea Fury (piloted by Douglas Rudd) and two FAR T - 33s (piloted by Rafael del Pino and Alvaro Prendes) shot down two of these B - 26s, killing four American airmen. Combat air patrols were flown by Douglas A4D - 2N Skyhawk jets of VA - 34 squadron operating from USS Essex, with nationality and other markings removed. Sorties were flown to reassure Brigade soldiers and pilots, and to intimidate Cuban government forces without directly engaging in acts of war. At 10 am, a tank battle had broken out, with the brigadista holding their line until about 2: 00 pm, which led Olvia to order a retreat into Girón. Following the last air attacks, San Román ordered his paratroopers and the men of the 3rd Battalion to launch a surprise attack, which was initially successful, but soon failed. With the brigadistas in disorganized retreat, the Cuban Army and militiamen started to advance rapidly, taking San Blas and only being stopped outside of Girón at about 11 am. Later that afternoon, San Román heard the rumbling of the advancing T - 34s and reported with no more mortar rounds and bazooka rounds, he could not stop the tanks and ordered his men to fall back to the beach. Oliva arrived afterwards to find that the brigadistas were all heading out to the beach or retreating into the jungle or swamps. Without direct air support, and short of ammunition, Brigade 2506 ground forces retreated to the beaches in the face of considerable onslaught from Cuban government artillery, tanks and infantry.
Late on 19 April, destroyers USS Eaton (code - named Santiago) and USS Murray (code - named Tampico) moved into Cochinos Bay to evacuate retreating Brigade soldiers from beaches, before fire from Cuban army tanks caused Commodore Crutchfield to order a withdrawal.
From 19 April until about 22 April, sorties were flown by A4D - 2Ns to obtain visual intelligence over combat areas. Reconnaissance flights are also reported of Douglas AD - 5Ws of VFP - 62 and / or VAW - 12 squadron from USS Essex or another carrier, such as USS Shangri - La that was part of the task force assembled off the Cayman Islands.
On 21 April, Eaton and Murray, joined on 22 April by destroyers USS Conway and USS Cony, plus submarine USS Threadfin and a CIA PBY - 5A Catalina flying boat, continued to search the coastline, reefs and islands for scattered Brigade survivors, about 24 -- 30 being rescued.
114 Cuban exiles from Brigade 2506 were killed in action. Aircrews killed in action totalled 6 from the Cuban air force, 10 Cuban exiles and 4 American airmen. Paratrooper Eugene Herman Koch was killed in action, and the American airmen shot down were Thomas W. Ray, Leo F. Baker, Riley W. Shamburger, and Wade C. Gray. In 1979, the body of Thomas ' Pete ' Ray was repatriated from Cuba. In the 1990s, the CIA admitted he was linked to the agency, and awarded him the Intelligence Star.
The final toll in Cuban armed forces during the conflict was 176 killed in action. This figure includes only the Cuban Army and it is estimated that about 2,000 militiamen were killed or wounded during the fighting. Other Cuban forces casualties were between 500 and 4,000 (killed, wounded or missing). The airfield attacks on 15 April left 7 Cubans dead and 53 wounded.
In 2011, the National Security Archive, in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act, released over 1200 pages of documents. One detail within these documents was incidents of friendly fire. The CIA had outfitted some B - 26 bombers to appear as Cuban aircraft, having ordered them to remain inland to avoid being fired upon by American - backed forces. Some of the planes did not heed the warning, and were fired upon. According to CIA operative Grayston Lynch, "we could n't tell them from the Castro planes. We ended up shooting at two or three of them. We hit some of them there because when they came at us... it was a silhouette, that was all you could see. ''
-- Life magazine
On 19 April 1961, at least seven Cubans plus two CIA - hired US citizens (Angus K. McNair and Howard F. Anderson) were executed in Pinar del Rio province, after a two - day trial. On 20 April, Humberto Sorí Marin was executed at Fortaleza de la Cabaña, having been arrested on 18 March following infiltration into Cuba with 14 tons of explosives. His fellow conspirators Rogelio González Corzo (alias "Francisco Gutierrez ''), Rafael Diaz Hanscom, Eufemio Fernandez, Arturo Hernandez Tellaheche and Manuel Lorenzo Puig Miyar were also executed.
Between April and October 1961, hundreds of executions took place in response to the invasion. They took place at various prisons, including the Fortaleza de la Cabaña and Morro Castle. Infiltration team leaders Antonio Diaz Pou and Raimundo E. Lopez, as well as underground students Virgilio Campaneria, Alberto Tapia Ruano, and more than one hundred other insurgents were executed.
About 1,202 members of Brigade 2506 were captured, of whom nine died from asphyxiation during transfer to Havana in a closed truck. In May 1961, Fidel Castro proposed to exchange the surviving Brigade prisoners for 500 large farm tractors, valued at US $ 28,000,000. On 8 September 1961, 14 Brigade prisoners were convicted of torture, murder and other major crimes committed in Cuba before the invasion, five being executed and nine jailed for 30 years. Three confirmed as executed were Ramon Calvino, Emilio Soler Puig ("el Muerte '') and Jorge King Yun ("el Chino ''). On 29 March 1962, 1,179 men were put on trial for treason. On 7 April 1962, all were convicted and sentenced to 30 years in prison. On 14 April 1962, 60 wounded and sick prisoners were freed and transported to the US.
On 21 December 1962, Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro and James B. Donovan, a US lawyer aided by Milan C. Miskovsky, a CIA legal officer, signed an agreement to exchange 1,113 prisoners for US $53 million in food and medicine, sourced from private donations and from companies expecting tax concessions. On 24 December 1962, some prisoners were flown to Miami, others following on the ship African Pilot, plus about 1,000 family members also allowed to leave Cuba. On 29 December 1962, President Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline attended a "welcome back '' ceremony for Brigade 2506 veterans at the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida.
The failed invasion severely embarrassed the Kennedy administration, and made Castro wary of future US intervention in Cuba. On 21 April, in a State Department press conference, President Kennedy said: "There 's an old saying that victory has a hundred fathers and defeat is an orphan... Further statements, detailed discussions, are not to conceal responsibility because I 'm the responsible officer of the Government... ''
The initial U.S. response concerning the first air attacks were of a dismissive quality. U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson denied any involvement in the first wave of air strikes, stating before the United Nations, "These charges are totally false and I deny them categorically. '' Stevenson continued to promote a story of two Cuban planes that had reportedly defected to the United States, apparently unaware that they were in fact U.S. planes piloted by U.S. - backed Cuban pilots in an effort to promote a false story of defection.
In August 1961, during an economic conference of the Organization of American States in Punta del Este, Uruguay, Che Guevara sent a note to Kennedy via Richard N. Goodwin, a secretary of the White House. It read: "Thanks for Playa Girón. Before the invasion, the revolution was weak. Now it 's stronger than ever ''.
Additionally, Guevara answered a set of questions from Leo Huberman of Monthly Review following the invasion. In one reply, Guevara was asked to explain the growing number of Cuban counter-revolutionaries and defectors from the regime, to which he replied that the repelled invasion was the climax of counter revolution, and that afterwards such actions "fell drastically to zero. '' In regard to the defections of some prominent figures within the Cuban government, Guevara remarked that this was because "the socialist revolution left the opportunists, the ambitious, and the fearful far behind and now advances toward a new regime free of this class of vermin. ''
As Allen Dulles later stated, CIA planners believed that once the troops were on the ground, Kennedy would authorize any action required to prevent failure -- as Eisenhower had done in Guatemala in 1954 after that invasion looked as if it would collapse. President Kennedy was deeply dispirited and angered with the failure. Several years after his death, the New York Times reported that he told an unspecified high administration official of wanting "to splinter the CIA in a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds. '' However, following a "rigorous inquiry into the agency 's affairs, methods, and problems... (Kennedy) did not ' splinter ' it after all and did not recommend Congressional supervision. '' Kennedy commented to his journalist friend Ben Bradlee, "The first advice I 'm going to give my successor is to watch the generals and to avoid feeling that because they were military men their opinions on military matters were worth a damn. ''
The aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion and events involving Cuba that followed caused the US to feel threatened by their neighbor. Previous to the events at Playa Girón the US government imposed embargoes that limited trade with Cuba. An article that appeared in The New York Times on 6 January 1960 called trade with Cuba "too risky '' and about six months later in July 1960, the US reduced the import quota of Cuban sugar, which left the US to increase its sugar supply using other sources. Just following the Bay of Pigs invasion the Kennedy Administration considered complete trade restrictions with Cuba. Five months later the president was authorized to do so. After Cuba 's declaration of Marxism, the Kennedy administration imposed a complete trade embargo against Cuba. After the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 the Kennedy Administration imposed strict travel restrictions for U.S. citizens.
According to author Jim Rasenberger, the Kennedy administration became very aggressive in regards to overthrowing Fidel Castro following failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, reportedly doubling its efforts against Castro. Rasenberger elaborated on the fact that, almost every decision that was made by Kennedy following the Bay of Pigs had some correlation with the destruction of the Castro administration. Shortly after the invasion ended, Kennedy ordered the Pentagon to design secret operations to overthrow the Castro regime. Also, President Kennedy persuaded his brother Robert to set up a covert operation against Castro which was known as "Operation Mongoose. '' This covert operation included sabotage and assassination plots. One major flaw with these operations was that, both Castro and Khrushchev were aware of these secret plots and even the plan to invade the Bay of Pigs which can possibly explain the failure of the operation.
On 22 April 1961, President Kennedy asked General Maxwell D. Taylor, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Admiral Arleigh Burke and CIA Director Allen Dulles to form the Cuba Study Group, to report on lessons to learn from the failed operation. On 13 June, General Taylor submitted the Board of Inquiry 's report to President Kennedy. The report attributed the defeat to lack of early realization of the impossibility of success by covert means, inadequate aircraft, limitations on armaments, pilots and air attacks to attempt plausible deniability -- and ultimately, loss of important ships and lack of ammunition.
The Taylor Commission received criticism due to implications of bias. Attorney General Robert Kennedy was included in the group and collectively, the commission was seen as a unit more preoccupied with deflecting the White House from blame than that of a group concerned with realizing the true depth of mistakes that promoted the failure in Cuba. Jack Pfeiffer, who worked as a historian for the CIA until the mid-1980s, simplified his own view of the failed Bay of Pigs effort by including a quote from Raúl Castro, Fidel 's brother, given to a Mexican media member in 1975. "Kennedy vacillated, '' Castro said. "If at that moment he had decided to invade us, he could have suffocated the island in a sea of blood, but he could have destroyed the revolution. Lucky for us, he vacillated. ''
In November 1961, CIA Inspector - General Lyman B Kirkpatrick, authored a report ' Survey of the Cuban Operation ', that remained classified until 1996. Conclusions were:
In spite of vigorous rebuttals by CIA management of the findings, CIA Director Allen Dulles, CIA Deputy Director Charles Cabell, and Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell were all forced to resign by early 1962.
In later years, the CIA 's behavior in the event became the prime example cited for the psychology paradigm known as groupthink syndrome.
Further study shows that among various components of groupthink analyzed by Irving Janis, The Bay of Pigs Invasion followed the structural characteristics that led to an irrational decision making in foreign policy pushed by deficiency in impartial leadership. An account on the process of invasion decision reads,
(At) each meeting, instead of opening up the agenda to permit a full airing of the opposing considerations, he allowed the CIA representatives to dominate the entire discussion. The president permitted them to refute immediately each tentative doubt that one of the others might express, instead of asking whether anyone else had the same doubt or wanted to pursue the implications of the new worrisome issue that had been raised.
Referencing to both the Survey of the Cuban Operation and Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes by Irving Janis, the lack of communication and the mere assumption of concurrence can be identified to be the main causes behind the C.I.A and the president 's collective failure to efficiently evaluate the facts before them. In fact, a considerable amount of information presented before President Kennedy actually proved to be false in reality, making it inevitable to assess the situation and the future of the operation irrationally. The absence of the initiative to explore other options of the debate led the participants to remain optimistic and rigid in their belief that the operation would succeed, being unknowingly biased in the group psychology of wishful thinking as well.
In mid-1960, CIA operative E. Howard Hunt had interviewed Cubans in Havana; in a 1997 interview with CNN, he said, "... all I could find was a lot of enthusiasm for Fidel Castro. ''
For many Latin Americans, the Bay of Pigs Invasion served to reinforce the already widely held belief that the US could not be trusted. The invasion also illustrated that the US could be defeated, and thus, the failed invasion encouraged political groups across the Latin American region to find ways to undermine US influence.
The invasion is often recognized as making Castro even more popular, adding nationalistic sentiments to the support for his economic policies. Following the air attacks on Cuban airfields on 15 April, he declared the revolution "Marxist - Leninist ''. After the invasion, he pursued closer relations with the Soviet Union, partly for protection, that helped pave the way for the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Castro was then increasingly wary of further US intervention, and more open to Soviet suggestions of placing nuclear weapons on Cuba to ensure its security.
In March 2001, shortly before the 40th anniversary of the invasion, a conference took place in Havana, attended by about 60 American delegates. The conference was titled Bay of Pigs: 40 Years After, co-sponsored by the University of Havana and the US - based National Security Archive.
There are still yearly nationwide drills in Cuba during the ' Dia de la Defensa ' (Defense Day), to prepare the population for an invasion.
Many who fought for the CIA in the conflict remained loyal after the event; some Bay of Pigs veterans became officers in the US Army in Vietnam, including 6 colonels, 19 lieutenant colonels, 9 majors, and 29 captains. By March 2007, about half of the Brigade had died.
In April 2010, the Cuban Pilot 's Association unveiled a monument at the Kendall - Tamiami Executive Airport in memory of the 16 aviators for the exile side killed during the battle. The memorial consists of an obelisk and a restored B - 26 replica aircraft atop a large Cuban flag.
The name for the invasion in Spanish is politically contested. The Cuban government generally calls it "Playa Girón '', while Cuban exiles generally call it "Bahía de Cochinos ''.
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when is the final four game being played | 2018 NCAA Division I men 's basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament was a 68 - team single - elimination tournament to determine the men 's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I college basketball national champion for the 2017 -- 18 season. The 80th edition of the tournament began on March 13, 2018, and concluded with the championship game on April 2 at the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas.
During the first round, UMBC became the first 16 - seed to defeat a 1 - seed in the men 's tournament by defeating Virginia 74 -- 54. For the first time in tournament history, none of the four top seeded teams in a single region (the South) advanced to the Sweet 16. Also, the tournament featured the first regional final matchup of a 9 - seed (Kansas State) and an 11 - seed (Loyola - Chicago).
Villanova, Michigan, Kansas, and Loyola - Chicago, the "Cinderella team '' of the tournament, reached the Final Four. Villanova defeated Michigan in the championship game, 79 -- 62.
A total of 68 teams entered the 2018 tournament. 32 automatic bids were awarded, one to each program that won their conference tournament. The remaining 36 bids were "at - large '', with selections extended by the NCAA Selection Committee.
Eight teams (the four lowest - seeded automatic qualifiers and the four lowest - seeded at - large teams) played in the First Four (the successor to what had been popularly known as "play - in games '' through the 2010 tournament). The winners of these games advanced to the main draw of the tournament.
The Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 68.
The following sites were selected to host each round of the 2018 tournament:
First Four
First and Second Rounds
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
For the fourth time, the Alamodome and city of San Antonio are hosting the Final Four. This is the first tournament since 1994 in which no games were played in an NFL stadium, as the Alamodome is a college football stadium, although the Alamodome hosted some home games for the New Orleans Saints during their 2005 season. The 2018 tournament featured three new arenas in previous host cities. Philips Arena, the home of the Atlanta Hawks and replacement for the previously used Omni Coliseum, hosted the South regional games, and the new Little Caesars Arena, home of the Detroit Pistons and Detroit Red Wings, hosted games. And for the first time since 1994, the tournament returned to Wichita and the state of Kansas where Intrust Bank Arena hosted first round games.
The state of North Carolina was threatened with a 2018 - 2022 championship venue boycott by the NCAA, due to the HB2 law passed in 2016. However, the law was repealed (but with provisos) days before the NCAA met to make decisions on venues in April 2017. At that time, the NCAA board of governors "reluctantly voted to allow consideration of championship bids in North Carolina by our committees that are presently meeting ''. Therefore, Charlotte was eligible and served as a first weekend venue for the 2018 tournament.
Four teams, out of 351 in Division I, were ineligible to participate in the 2018 tournament due to failing to meet APR requirements: Alabama A&M, Grambling State, Savannah State, and Southeast Missouri State. However, the NCAA granted the Savannah State Tigers a waiver which would have allowed the team to participate in the tournament, but the team failed to qualify.
The following 32 teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2018 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's automatic bid.
The tournament seeds were determined through the NCAA basketball tournament selection process. The seeds and regions were determined as follows:
* See First Four
The 2018 tournament was the first time since the 1978 tournament that the six Division I college basketball - playing schools based in the Washington, DC metropolitan area -- American, Georgetown, George Mason, George Washington, Howard, and Maryland -- were collectively shut out of the NCAA Tournament.
All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4) * -- Denotes overtime period
During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed 's region (Virginia 's South Region) plays against the champion of the fourth - ranked top seed 's region (Xavier 's West Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed 's region (Villanova 's East Region) plays against the champion of the third - ranked top seed 's region (Kansas 's Midwest Region).
The Pac - 12 lost all of its teams after the first day of the main tournament draw, marking the first time since the Big 12 began play in 1996 that one of the six major conferences -- defined as the ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac - 12, SEC, and both versions of the Big East -- failed to have a team advance to the tournament 's round of 32.
CBS Sports and Turner Sports had U.S. television rights to the Tournament under the NCAA March Madness brand. As part of a cycle beginning in 2016, TBS held the rights to the Final Four and to the championship game. Additionally, TBS held the rights to the 2018 Selection Show, which returned to a two - hour format, was presented in front of a studio audience, and promoted that the entire field of the tournament would be unveiled within the first ten minutes of the broadcast. The broadcast was heavily criticized for its quality (including technical problems and an embedded product placement segment for Pizza Hut), as well as initially unveiling the 68 - team field in alphabetical order (beginning with automatic qualifiers, followed by the at - large teams) rather than unveiling the matchups region - by - region (which was criticized for having less suspense than the traditional format).
Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament.
Live video of games was available for streaming through the following means:
Live audio of games was available for streaming through the following means:
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where are genes located what are their functions | Gene - wikipedia
In biology, a gene is a sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a function. During gene expression, the DNA is first copied into RNA. The RNA can be directly functional or be the intermediate template for a protein that performs a function. The transmission of genes to an organism 's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes. Genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as gene -- environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye color or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that constitute life.
Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotypical traits. Usage of the term "having a gene '' (e.g., "good genes, '' "hair colour gene '') typically refers to containing a different allele of the same, shared gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.
The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism 's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.
The term gene was introduced by Danish botanist, plant physiologist and geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1905. It is inspired by the ancient Greek: γόνος, gonos, that means offspring and procreation.
The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822 -- 1884). From 1857 to 1864, in Brno (Czech Republic), he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2 combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured Wilhelm Johannsen 's distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.
Prior to Mendel 's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, from Greek pan ("all, whole '') and genesis ("birth '') / genos ("origin ''). Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction.
Mendel 's work went largely unnoticed after its first publication in 1866, but was rediscovered in the late 19th century by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who (claimed to have) reached similar conclusions in their own research. Specifically, in 1889, Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. De Vries called these units "pangenes '' (Pangens in German), after Darwin 's 1868 pangenesis theory.
Sixteen years later, in 1905, Wilhelm Johannsen introduced the term ' gene ' and William Bateson that of ' genetics ' while Eduard Strasburger, amongst others, still used the term ' pangene ' for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity.
Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double - stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication.
In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities, indivisible by recombination and arranged like beads on a string. The experiments of Benzer using mutants defective in the rII region of bacteriophage T4 (1955 - 1959) showed that individual genes have a simple linear structure and are likely to be equivalent to a linear section of DNA.
Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.
In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: that of Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain - termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.
The theories developed in the early 20th century to integrate Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley.
Evolutionary biologists have subsequently modified this concept, such as George C. Williams ' gene - centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency. '' In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.
The vast majority of organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five - carbon sugar (2 - deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.
Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate - sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.
Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3 ' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5 ' end. The two strands of a double - helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5 ' → 3 ' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3 ' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.
The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single - stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three - nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words '' in the genetic "language ''. The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.
The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded. The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. Each locus contains one allele of a gene; however, members of a population may have different alleles at the locus, each with a slightly different gene sequence.
The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin. The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere. Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes. Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.
Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene - dense, those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single - celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function. This DNA has often been referred to as "junk DNA ''. However, more recent analyses suggest that, although protein - coding DNA makes up barely 2 % of the human genome, about 80 % of the bases in the genome may be expressed, so the term "junk DNA '' may be a misnomer.
The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part. These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.
Flanking the open reading frame, genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression. First, genes require a promoter sequence. The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription. The recognition typically occurs as a consensus sequence like the TATA box. A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5 ' end. Highly transcribed genes have "strong '' promoter sequences that form strong associations with transcription factors, thereby initiating transcription at a high rate. Others genes have "weak '' promoters that form weak associations with transcription factors and initiate transcription less frequently. Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters.
Additionally, genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame that alter expression. These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence (and bound transcription factor) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site. For example, enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase.
The transcribed pre-mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons. In addition, most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated. The sequences at the ends of the introns, dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product.
Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, with multiple protein - coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit. The genes in an operon are transcribed as a continuous messenger RNA, referred to as a polycistronic mRNA. The term cistron in this context is equivalent to gene. The transcription of an operon 's mRNA is often controlled by a repressor that can occur in an active or inactive state depending on the presence of certain specific metabolites. When active, the repressor binds to a DNA sequence at the beginning of the operon, called the operator region, and represses transcription of the operon; when the repressor is inactive transcription of the operon can occur (see e.g. Lac operon). The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network.
Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult. Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity. Similarly, a gene 's introns can be much larger than its exons. Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome.
Early work in molecular genetics suggested the concept that one gene makes one protein. This concept (originally called the one gene - one enzyme hypothesis) emerged from an influential 1941 paper by George Beadle and Edward Tatum on experiments with mutants of the fungus Neurospora crassa. Norman Horowitz, an early colleague on the Neurospora research, reminisced in 2004 that "these experiments founded the science of what Beadle and Tatum called biochemical genetics. In actuality they proved to be the opening gun in what became molecular genetics and all the developments that have followed from that. '' The one gene - one protein concept has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans - splicing.
A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena, where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products. This definition categorizes genes by their functional products (proteins or RNA) rather than their specific DNA loci, with regulatory elements classified as gene - associated regions.
In all organisms, two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene 's DNA and produce the protein it specifies. First, the gene 's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA). Second, that mRNA is translated to protein. RNA - coding genes must still go through the first step, but are not translated into protein. The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression, and the resulting molecule is called a gene product.
The nucleotide sequence of a gene 's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code. Sets of three nucleotides, known as codons, each correspond to a specific amino acid. The principle that three sequential bases of DNA code for each amino acid was demonstrated in 1961 using frameshift mutations in the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4 (see Crick, Brenner et al. experiment).
Additionally, a "start codon '', and three "stop codons '' indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region. There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 4 possible codons) and only 20 standard amino acids; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms.
Transcription produces a single - stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed. The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product. The gene 's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA. The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene 's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3 ' to 5 ' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5 ' to 3 '. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus, a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase, or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.
In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm; for very long transcripts, translation may begin at the 5 ' end of the RNA while the 3 ' end is still being transcribed. In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus, where the cell 's DNA is stored. The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post-transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation. One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein. Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins. This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes.
Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein. Translation is carried out by ribosomes, large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds. The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time, in units called codons, via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA). Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA. The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon. When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand, the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain, which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus. During and after synthesis, most new proteins must fold to their active three - dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions.
Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed, since expression draws on limited resources. A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment (e.g. available nutrients, temperature and other stresses), its internal environment (e.g. cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status), and its specific role if in a multicellular organism. Gene expression can be regulated at any step: from transcriptional initiation, to RNA processing, to post-translational modification of the protein. The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli (lac operon) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961.
A typical protein - coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product. In other cases, the RNA molecules are the actual functional products, as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA. Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function, and microRNA has a regulatory role. The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non-coding RNA genes.
Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA, and contain no DNA at all. Because they use RNA to store genes, their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription. On the other hand, RNA retroviruses, such as HIV, require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized. RNA - mediated epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in plants and very rarely in animals.
Organisms inherit their genes from their parents. Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome. Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent.
According to Mendelian inheritance, variations in an organism 's phenotype (observable physical and behavioral characteristics) are due in part to variations in its genotype (particular set of genes). Each gene specifies a particular trait with different sequence of a gene (alleles) giving rise to different phenotypes. Most eukaryotic organisms (such as the pea plants Mendel worked on) have two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent.
Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait, whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele. If you know the genotypes of the organisms, you can determine which alleles are dominant and which are recessive. For example, if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems, then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems. Mendel 's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes, or germ cells, ensuring variation in the next generation. Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes (including a number of well - known genetic disorders) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division.
The growth, development, and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division; the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells. This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication. The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases, which "read '' one strand of the double - helical DNA, known as the template strand, and synthesize a new complementary strand. Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing, the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy. The process of DNA replication is semiconservative; that is, the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA.
The rate of DNA replication in living cells was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage - infected E. coli and found to be impressively rapid. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 ° C, the rate of elongation was 749 nucleotides per second.
After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane - bound cells. In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane - bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase.
The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance, and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes. Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents ' cells. In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism. In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene. The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those produced by males are called sperm. Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg, a single cell that has two sets of genes, with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father.
During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing - over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding homologous non-sister chromatid. This can result in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles. The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent 's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome, or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together (known as genetic linkage). Genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them.
DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate, however errors (mutations) do occur. The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10 per nucleotide per replication, whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10. This means that each generation, each human genome accumulates 1 -- 2 new mutations. Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted. Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense (change a codon to encode a different amino acid) or nonsense (a premature stop codon). Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication, deletion, rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome. Additionally, DNA repair mechanisms can introduce mutational errors when repairing physical damage to the molecule. The repair, even with mutation, is more important to survival than restoring an exact copy, for example when repairing double - strand breaks.
When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species 's population it is called polymorphic. Most different alleles are functionally equivalent, however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits. A gene 's most common allele is called the wild type, and rare alleles are called mutants. The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift. The wild - type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles, nor is it necessarily fitter.
Most mutations within genes are neutral, having no effect on the organism 's phenotype (silent mutations). Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid (synonymous mutations). Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes, but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid (e.g. conservative mutations). Many mutations, however, are deleterious or even lethal, and are removed from populations by natural selection. Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual, or can be inherited. Finally, a small fraction of mutations are beneficial, improving the organism 's fitness and are extremely important for evolution, since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution.
Genes with a most recent common ancestor, and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry, are known as homologs. These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism 's genome, where they are known as paralogous genes, or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event, where they are known as orthologous genes, and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms. It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.
The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA. The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence. Most changes to a gene 's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution. Additionally, any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate. Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly. The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related.
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way compose a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.
"Orphan '' genes, whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes, are less common than gene duplicates. Estimates of the number of genes with no homologs outside humans range from 18 to 60. Two primary sources of orphan protein - coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change, such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons, and de novo conversion of a previously non-coding sequence into a protein - coding gene. De novo genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes, with few if any introns. Over long evolutionary time periods, de novo gene birth may be responsible for a significant fraction of taxonomically - restricted gene families.
Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction. This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes, sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication. It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance, virulence, and adaptive metabolic functions. Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes, likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin.
The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non-coding sequences.
The genome size, and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms. The smallest genomes occur in viruses, and viroids (which act as a single non-coding RNA gene). Conversely, plants can have extremely large genomes, with rice containing > 46,000 protein - coding genes. The total number of protein - coding genes (the Earth 's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences.
Although the number of base - pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s, the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes, and methods of detecting them have been refined. Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2,000,000. Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50,000 -- 100,000 transcribed genes (expressed sequence tags). Subsequently, the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes, and the total number of protein - coding genes was revised down to ~ 20,000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome. With the GENCODE annotation project, that estimate has continued to fall to 19,000. Of the human genome, only 1 -- 2 % consists of protein - coding genes, with the remainder being ' noncoding ' DNA such as introns, retrotransposons, and noncoding RNAs. Every multicellular organism has all its genes in each cell of its body but not every gene functions in every cell.
Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism 's survival. This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress. Only a small portion of an organism 's genes are essential. In bacteria, an estimated 250 -- 400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which is less than 10 % of their genes. Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher, at 1000 genes (~ 20 % of their genes). Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes, mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes (~ 10 % of their genes). The synthetic organism, Syn 3, has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi-essential genes (necessary for fast growth), although 149 have unknown function.
Essential genes include Housekeeping genes (critical for basic cell functions) as well as genes that are expressed at different times in the organisms development or life cycle. Housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression, since they are constitutively expressed at a relatively constant level.
Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short - form abbreviation), which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC. Symbols are chosen to be unique, and each gene has only one symbol (although approved symbols sometimes change). Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species, particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism.
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism 's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.
Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene 's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene 's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.
For multicellular organisms, typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism. However, the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases.
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (Fourth ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 978 - 0 - 8153 - 3218 - 3. -- A molecular biology textbook available free online through NCBI Bookshelf.
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which fruit get its name from an arabic word which can be translated as dates from india | Jujube - wikipedia
Ziziphus jujuba (from Greek ζίζυφον, zízyphon), commonly called jujube (/ ˈdʒuːdʒuːb /; sometimes jujuba), red date, Chinese date, Korean date, or Indian date is a species of Ziziphus in the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae).
It is a small deciduous tree or shrub reaching a height of 5 -- 12 metres (16 -- 39 ft), usually with thorny branches. The leaves are shiny - green, ovate - acute, 2 -- 7 centimetres (0.79 -- 2.76 in) long and 1 -- 3 centimetres (0.39 -- 1.18 in) wide, with three conspicuous veins at the base, and a finely toothed margin. The flowers are small, 5 mm (0.20 in) wide, with five inconspicuous yellowish - green petals. The fruit is an edible oval drupe 1.5 -- 3 centimetres (0.59 -- 1.18 in) deep; when immature it is smooth - green, with the consistency and taste of an apple, maturing brown to purplish - black, and eventually wrinkled, looking like a small date. There is a single hard seed similar to an olive pit.
Its precise natural distribution is uncertain due to extensive cultivation, but is thought to be in southern Asia, between Lebanon, northern India, and southern and central China, and possibly also southeastern Europe though more likely introduced there.
This plant has been introduced in Madagascar and grows as an invasive species in the western part of the island. This plant is known as the "hinap '' or "finab '' in the eastern part of Bulgaria where it grows wild but is also a garden shrub, kept for its fruit. The fruit is picked in the autumn. The trees grow wild in the eastern Caribbean, and are reported to exist in Jamaica and Trinidad as well. In Antigua and Barbuda, the fruit is called "dumps '' or "dums ''. It is also known as "pomme surette '' on the French islands of the Caribbean. This fruit, more precisely known as "Indian jujube '' elsewhere, is different from the "jujube '' fruit that is cultivated in various parts of southern California.
The species has a curious nomenclatural history, due to a combination of botanical naming regulations, and variations in spelling. It was first described scientifically by Carl Linnaeus as Rhamnus zizyphus, in Species Plantarum in 1753. Later, in 1768, Philip Miller concluded it was sufficiently distinct from Rhamnus to merit separation into a new genus, which he named Ziziphus jujube, using Linnaeus ' species name for the genus but with a probably accidental single letter spelling difference, "i '' for "y ''. For the species name he used a different name, as tautonyms (repetition of exactly the same name in the genus and species) are not permitted in botanical naming. However, because of Miller 's slightly different spelling, the combination the earlier species name (from Linnaeus) with the new genus, Ziziphus zizyphus, is not a tautonym, and was therefore permitted as a botanical name. This combination was made by Hermann Karsten in 1882. In 2006, a proposal was made to suppress the name Ziziphus zizyphus in favor of Ziziphus jujuba, and this proposal was accepted in 2011. Ziziphus jujuba is thus the correct scientific name for this species.
In Arabic - speaking regions the jujube and alternatively the species Z. lotus are closely related to the lote - trees ("sing. "sidrah '', pl. "sidr '') which are mentioned in the Quran, while in Palestine it is rather the species Z. spina - christi that is called sidr.
Varieties of jujube include Li, Lang, Sherwood, Silverhill, So, Shui Men and GA 866.
Jujube was domesticated in south Asia by 9000 BC. Over 400 cultivars have been selected.
The tree tolerates a wide range of temperatures and rainfall, though it requires hot summers and sufficient water for acceptable fruiting. Unlike most of the other species in the genus, it tolerates fairly cold winters, surviving temperatures down to about − 15 ° C (5 ° F). This enables the jujube to grow in mountain or desert habitats, provided there is access to underground water throughout the summer. The jujube, Z. jujuba grows in cooler regions of Asia. Five or more other species of Ziziphus are widely distributed in milder climates to hot deserts of Asia and Africa.
In Madagascar, jujube trees grow extensively in the western half of the island, from the north all the way to the south. It is widely eaten by free ranging zebus, and its seeds grow easily in zebu feces. It is an invasive species there, threatening mostly protected areas.
The freshly harvested, as well as the candied dried fruit, are often eaten as a snack, or with coffee. Smoked jujubes are consumed in Vietnam and are referred to as black jujubes. Both China and Korea produce a sweetened tea syrup containing jujube fruit in glass jars, and canned jujube tea or jujube tea in the form of teabags. To a lesser extent, jujube fruit is made into juice and jujube vinegar (called 枣 醋 or 红枣 醋 in Chinese). They are used for making pickles (কুলের আচার) in west Bengal and Bangladesh. In China, a wine made from jujube fruit is called hong zao jiu (红枣 酒).
Sometimes pieces of jujube fruit are preserved by storing them in a jar filled with baijiu (Chinese liquor), which allows them to be kept fresh for a long time, especially through the winter. Such jujubes are called jiu zao (酒 枣; literally "alcohol jujube ''). The fruit is also a significant ingredient in a wide variety of Chinese delicacies..
In Vietnam and Taiwan, fully mature, nearly ripe fruit is harvested and sold on the local markets and also exported to Southeast Asian countries. The dried fruit is used in desserts in China and Vietnam, such as ching bo leung, a cold beverage that includes the dried jujube, longan, fresh seaweed, barley, and lotus seeds.
In Korea, jujubes are called daechu (대추) and are used in daechucha teas and samgyetang.
In Croatia, especially Dalmatia, jujubes are used in marmalades, juices, and rakija (fruit brandy).
In Lebanon, Jordan, and other Middle Eastern countries, the fruit is eaten as snacks or alongside a dessert after a meal. On his visit to Medina, the 19th - century English explorer, Sir Richard Burton, observed that the local variety of jujube fruit was widely eaten. He describes its taste as "like a bad plum, an unrepentant cherry and an insipid apple. '' He gives the local names for three varieties as "Hindi (Indian), Baladi (native), Tamri (date - like). '' In Palestine a hundred years ago, a close variety was common in the Jordan valley and around Jerusalem. The bedouin valued the fruit, calling it nabk. It could be dried and kept for winter or made into a paste which was used as bread.
In Persian cuisine, the dried drupes are known as annab, while in neighboring Azerbaijan, it is commonly eaten as a snack, and is known as innab. These names are related, and the Turks use a similarly related name, hünna. Z. jujuba grows in northern Pakistan and is known as innab, commonly used in the Tibb system of medicine. Confusion in the common name apparently is widespread. The innab is Z. jujuba: the local name ber is not used for innab. Rather, ber is used for three other cultivated or wild species, e.g., Z. spina - christi, Z. mauritiana, and Z. nummularia in Pakistan and parts of India and is eaten both fresh and dried. Often, the dry fruit (ber) was used as a padding in leather horse saddles in parts of Baluchistan in Pakistan. The Arabic name sidr is used for Ziziphus species other than Z. jujuba.
Traditionally in India, the fruit is dried in the sun and the hard nuts are removed. Then, it is pounded with tamarind, red chillies, salt, and jaggery. In some parts of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, fresh whole ripe fruit is crushed with the above ingredients and dried under the sun to make cakes called ilanthai vadai or regi vadiyalu (Telugu).
In Madagascar, jujube fruit is eaten fresh or dried. People also use it to make jam. A jujube honey is produced in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco.
Italy has an alcoholic syrup called brodo di giuggiole. In Senegal Jujube is called Sii dem and the fruit is used as snack. The fruit is turned into dried paste used by school kids.
The fruit and its seeds are used in Chinese and Korean traditional medicine, where they are believed to alleviate stress, and traditionally for anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-ulcer, anti-inflammatory purposes and sedation, antispastic, antifertility / contraception, hypotensive and antinephritic, cardiotonic, antioxidant, immunostimulant, and wound healing properties. It is among the fruits used in Kampo.
A controlled clinical trial found the fruit helpful for chronic constipation. In another clinical trial, jujube was proved to be effective against neonatal jaundice.
In Persian traditional medicine it is used in combination with other herbal medicines to treat colds, flu and coughing.
Research suggests jujube fruit has nootropic and neuroprotective properties.
Ziziphin, a compound in the leaves of the jujube, suppresses the ability to perceive sweet taste. The fruit, being mucilaginous, is very soothing to the throat and decoctions of jujube have often been used in pharmacy to treat sore throats.
In the Himalaya and Karakoram regions, boys take a stem of sweet - smelling jujube flowers with them or put it on their hats to attract girls. as there is the belief that the jujube 's sweet smell has the power to make teenagers fall in love.
In the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony, the jujube was often placed in the newlyweds ' bedroom as a good luck charm for fertility, along with peanuts, longan, and chestnuts, punning on an invocation to "have an honored child soon ''.
In Bhutan, the leaves are used as a potpourri to help keep homes smelling fresh and clean. It is also used to keep bugs and other insects out of the house and free of infestation.
In Japan, the natsume has given its name to a style of tea caddy used in the Japanese tea ceremony, due to the similar shape, and also to nightlights (ナツメ 球), again due to the similarity between the shape of the bulb and the fruit.
In Korea, the wood is used to make the body of the taepyeongso, a double - reed wind instrument. The wood is also used to make Go bowls, beads, and violin parts.
In Madagascar, jujube trees are a good wood for charcoal, the second main source of cooking energy.
Witch 's brooms, prevalent in China and Korea, is the main disease affecting jujubes, though plantings in North America currently are not affected by any pests or diseases. In Europe, the last several years have seen some 80 % -- 90 % of the jujube crop eaten by insect larvae (see picture), including those of the false codling moth, Thaumatotibia (Cryptophlebia) leucotreta.
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what are the different phases of rapid application development model | Rapid application development - wikipedia
Rapid - application development (RAD) is both a general term, used to refer to adaptive software development approaches, as well as the name for James Martin 's approach to rapid development. In general, RAD approaches to software development put less emphasis on planning and more emphasis on an adaptive process. Prototypes are often used in addition to or sometimes even in place of design specifications.
RAD is especially well suited for (although not limited to) developing software that is driven by user interface requirements. Graphical user interface builders are often called rapid application development tools. Other approaches to rapid development include the adaptive, agile, spiral, and unified models.
Rapid application development was a response to plan - driven waterfall processes, developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM). One of the problems with these methods is that they were based on a traditional engineering model used to design and build things like bridges and buildings. Software is an inherently different kind of artifact. Software can radically change the entire process used to solve a problem. As a result, knowledge gained from the development process itself can feed back to the requirements and design of the solution. Plan - driven approaches attempt to rigidly define the requirements, the solution, and the plan to implement it, and have a process that discourage changes. RAD approaches, on the other hand, recognize that software development is a knowledge intensive process and provide flexible processes that help take advantage of knowledge gained during the project to improve or adapt the solution.
The first such RAD alternative was developed by Barry Boehm and was known as the spiral model. Boehm and other subsequent RAD approaches emphasized developing prototypes as well as or instead of rigorous design specifications. Prototypes had several advantages over traditional specifications:
Starting with the ideas of Barry Boehm and others, James Martin developed the rapid application development approach during the 1980s at IBM and finally formalized it by publishing a book in 1991, Rapid Application Development. This has resulted in some confusion over the term RAD even among IT professionals. It is important to distinguish between RAD as a general alternative to the waterfall model and RAD as the specific method created by Martin. The Martin method was tailored toward knowledge intensive and UI intensive business systems.
These ideas were further developed and improved upon by RAD pioneers like James Kerr and Richard Hunter, who together wrote the seminal book on the subject, Inside RAD, which followed the journey of a RAD project manager as he drove and refined the RAD Methodology in real - time on an actual RAD project. These practitioners, and those like them, helped RAD gain popularity as an alternative to traditional systems project life cycle approaches.
The RAD approach also matured during the period of peak interest in business re-engineering. The idea of business process re-engineering was to radically rethink core business processes such as sales and customer support with the new capabilities of Information Technology in mind. RAD was often an essential part of larger business re engineering programs. The rapid prototyping approach of RAD was a key tool to help users and analysts "think out of the box '' about innovative ways that technology might radically reinvent a core business process.
The James Martin approach to RAD divides the process into four distinct phases:
In modern Information Technology environments, many systems are now built using some degree of Rapid Application Development (not necessarily the James Martin approach). In addition to Martin 's method, Agile methods and the Rational Unified Process are often used for RAD development.
The advantages of RAD include:
The disadvantages of RAD include:
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what is the difference between d1 and d2 receptors | Dopamine receptor - wikipedia
Dopamine receptors are a class of G protein - coupled receptors that are prominent in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). The neurotransmitter dopamine is the primary endogenous ligand for dopamine receptors.
Dopamine receptors are implicated in many neurological processes, including motivation, pleasure, cognition, memory, learning, and fine motor control, as well as modulation of neuroendocrine signaling. Abnormal dopamine receptor signaling and dopaminergic nerve function is implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders. Thus, dopamine receptors are common neurologic drug targets; antipsychotics are often dopamine receptor antagonists while psychostimulants are typically indirect agonists of dopamine receptors.
The existence of multiple types of receptors for dopamine was first proposed in 1976. There are at least five subtypes of dopamine receptors, D, D, D, D, and D. The D and D receptors are members of the D - like family of dopamine receptors, whereas the D, D and D receptors are members of the D - like family. There is also some evidence that suggests the existence of possible D and D dopamine receptors, but such receptors have not been conclusively identified.
At a global level, D receptors have widespread expression throughout the brain. Furthermore, D receptor subtypes are found at 10 - 100 times the levels of the D subtypes.
The D - like family receptors are coupled to the G protein G. D is also coupled to G.
G subsequently activates adenylyl cyclase, increasing the intracellular concentration of the second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).
The D - like family receptors are coupled to the G protein G, which directly inhibits the formation of cAMP by inhibiting the enzyme adenylyl cyclase.
Dopamine receptors have been shown to heterodimerize with a number of other G protein - coupled receptors. The resulting dopamine receptor heterodimers include:
Dopamine receptor D and Dopamine receptor D are G coupled receptors that stimulate adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP, increasing intracellular calcium among other cAMP mediated processes. The D2 class of receptors produce the opposite effect, as they are G coupled receptors, and block the activity of adenylyl cyclase. cAMP mediated protein kinase A activity also results in the phosphorylation of DARPP - 32, an inhibitor of protein phosphatase 1. Sustained D1 receptor activity is kept in check by Cyclin - dependent kinase 5. Dopamine receptor activation of Ca / calmodulin - dependent protein kinase II can be cAMP dependent or independent.
The cAMP mediated pathway results in amplification of PKA phosphorylation activity, which is normally kept in equilibrium by PP1. The DARPP - 32 mediated PP1 inhibition amplifies PKA phosphorylation of AMPA, NMDA, and inward rectifying potassium channels, increasing AMPA and NMDA currents while decreasing potassium conductance.
D1 receptor agonism and D2 receptor blockade also increases mRNA translation by phosphorylating ribosomal protein s6, resulting in activation of mTOR. The behavioral implications are unknown. Dopamine receptors may also regulate ion channels and BDNF independent of cAMP, possibly through direct interactions. There is evidence that D1 receptor agonism regulates phospholipase C independent of cAMP, however implications and mechanisms remain poorly understood. D2 receptor signaling may mediate protein kinase B, arrestin beta 2, and GSK - 3 activity, and inhibition of these proteins results in stunting of the hyperlocomotion in amphetamine treated rats. Dopamine receptors can also transactivate Receptor tyrosine kinases.
Beta Arrestin recruitment is mediated by G - protein kinases that phosphorylate and inactivate dopamine receptors after stimulation. While beta arrestin plays a role in receptor desensitization, it may also be critical in mediating downstream effects of dopamine receptors. Beta arrestin has been shown to form complexes with MAP kinase, leading to activation of Extracellular signal -- regulated kinases. Furthermore, this pathway has been demonstrated to be involved in the locomotor response mediated by dopamine receptor D1. Dopamine receptor D2 stimulation results in the formation of an Akt / Beta - arrestin / PP2A protein complex that inhibits Akt through PP2A phosphorylation, therefore disinhibiting GSK - 3.
Dopamine receptors control neural signaling that modulates many important behaviors, such as spatial working memory. Dopamine also plays an important role in the reward system, incentive salience, cognition, prolactin release, emesis and motor function.
In humans, the pulmonary artery expresses D, D, D, and D and receptor subtypes, which may account for vasodilatory effects of dopamine in the blood. Such receptor subtypes have also been discovered in the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium of the heart. In rats, D - like receptors are present on the smooth muscle of the blood vessels in most major organs.
D receptors have been identified in the atria of rat and human hearts. Dopamine increases myocardial contractility and cardiac output, without changing heart rate, by signaling through dopamine receptors.
Dopamine receptors are present along the nephron in the kidney, with proximal tubule epithelial cells showing the highest density. In rats, D - like receptors are present on the juxtaglomerular apparatus and on renal tubules, while D - like receptors are present on the glomeruli, zona glomerulosa cells of the adrenal cortex, renal tubules, and postganglionic sympathetic nerve terminals. Dopamine signaling affects diuresis and natriuresis.
Dysfunction of dopaminergic neurotransmission in the CNS has been implicated in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, including social phobia, Tourette 's syndrome, Parkinson 's disease, schizophrenia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, attention - deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and drug and alcohol dependence.
Dopamine receptors have been recognized as important components in the mechanism of ADHD for many years. Drugs used to treat ADHD, including methylphenidate and amphetamine, have significant effects on neuronal dopamine signaling. Studies of gene association have implicated several genes within dopamine signaling pathways; in particular, the D variant of D has been consistently shown to be more frequent in ADHD patients. ADHD patients with the 4.7 allele also tend to have better cognitive performance and long - term outcomes compared to ADHD patients without the 4.7 allele, suggesting that the allele is associated with a more benign form of ADHD.
The D allele has suppressed gene expression compared to other variants.
Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter involved in the reward pathway in the brain. Thus, drugs that increase dopamine signaling may produce euphoric effects. Many recreational drugs, such as cocaine and substituted amphetamines, inhibit the dopamine transporter (DAT), the protein responsible for removing dopamine from the neural synapse. When DAT activity is blocked, the synapse floods with dopamine and increases dopaminergic signaling. When this occurs, particularly in the nucleus accumbens, increased D and decreased D receptor signaling mediates the "rewarding '' stimulus of drug intake.
While there is evidence that the dopamine system is involved in schizophrenia, the theory that hyperactive dopaminergic signal transduction induces the disease is controversial. Psychostimulants, such as amphetamine and cocaine, indirectly increase dopamine signaling; large doses and prolonged use can induce symptoms that resemble schizophrenia. Additionally, many antipsychotic drugs target dopamine receptors, especially D receptors.
Dopamine receptor mutations can cause genetic hypertension in humans. This can occur in animal models and humans with defective dopamine receptor activity, particularly D.
Dopamine receptors are typically stable, however sharp (and sometimes prolonged) increases or decreases in dopamine levels can downregulate (reduce the numbers of) or upregulate (increase the numbers of) dopamine receptors.
Haloperidol, and some other antipsychotics, have been shown to increase the binding capacity of the D receptor when used over long periods of time (i.e. increasing the number of such receptors). Haloperidol increased the number of binding sites by 98 % above baseline in the worst cases, and yielded significant dyskinesia side effects.
Addictive stimuli have variable effects on dopamine receptors, depending on the particular stimulus. According to one study, cocaine, heroin, amphetamine, alcohol, and nicotine cause decreases in D receptor quantity. A similar association has been linked to food addiction, with a low availability of dopamine receptors present in people with greater food intake. A recent news article summarized a U.S. DOE Brookhaven National Laboratory study showing that increasing dopamine receptors with genetic therapy temporarily decreased cocaine consumption by up to 75 %. The treatment was effective for 6 days. Cocaine upregulates D receptors in the nucleus accumbens, possibly contributing to drug seeking behavior.
Certain stimulants will enhance cognition in the general population (e.g., direct or indirect mesocortical DRD1 agonists as a class), but only when used at low (therapeutic) concentrations. Relatively high doses of dopaminergic stimulants will result in cognitive deficits.
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how might topography and climate limit the population of the continent of africa | Geography of Africa - wikipedia
Africa is a continent comprising 63 political territories, representing the largest of the great southward projections from the main mass of Earth 's surface. Within its regular outline, it comprises an area of 30,368,609 km (11,725,385 sq mi), excluding adjacent islands. Its highest mountain is Mount Kilimanjaro, its largest lake is Lake Victoria
Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea in from much of Asia by the Red Sea, Africa is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (which in transected by the Suez Canal), 130 km (81 mi) wide. For geopolitical purposes, the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt -- east on the Suez Canal -- is often considered part of Africa. From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia, at 37 ° 21 ′ N, to the more southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa, 34 ° 51 ′ 15 '' S, is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 mi); from Cap - Vert, 17 ° 31 ′ 13 '' W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51 ° 27 ′ 52 '' E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 mi).
The main structural lines of the continent show both the east - to - west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north - to - south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus mainly composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, and the southern from north to south.
The average elevation of the continent approximates closely to 600 m (2,000 ft) above sea level, roughly near to the mean elevation of both North and South America, but considerably less than that of Asia, 950 m (3,120 ft). In contrast with other continents, it is marked by the comparatively small area of either very high or very low ground, lands under 180 m (590 ft) occupying an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia or South America, but the area of land over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and ridges that a specialised term (Inselberg - Landschaft, island mountain landscape) has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind of country, thought to be in great part the result of wind action.)
As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the lowlands and the Atlas mountain range, the continent may be divided into two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat concave to the north - west) running from the middle of the Red Sea to about 6 deg. S. on the west coast.
Africa can be divided into a number of geographic zones:
The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below 600 m (2,000 ft), have a mean elevation of about 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The South African Plateau, as far as about 12 ° S, is bounded east, west and south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer. Due south, the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with level ground between them. The largest of these level areas, the Great Karoo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known as the Kalahari Desert.
The South African Plateau is connected towards East African plateau, with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the Earth 's crust, the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards the south the two lines converge and give place to one great valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of the system.
Farther north the western hollow, known as the Albertine Rift, is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the Great Lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Lake Edward and Lake Albert, the first - named over 400 miles (640 km) long and the longest freshwater lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern branch of the East African Rift, contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough being Lake Turkana or Basso Norok.
A short distance east of this rift - valley is Mount Kilimanjaro -- with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the latter being 5,889 m (19,321 ft), and the culminating point of the whole continent -- and Mount Kenya, which is 5,184 m (17,008 ft). Hardly less important is the Ruwenzori Range, over 5,060 m (16,600 ft), which lies east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active. This could cause most of the cities and states to be flooded with lava and ash.
The third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Ethiopian Highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little of its surface falling below 1,500 m (4,900 ft), while the summits reach heights of 4400 m to 4550 m. This block of country lies just west of the line of the great East African Trough, the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarpment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana.
Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, the Ethiopian mountains being continued northwards along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). In the west the zone of high land is broader but somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, etc.), where heights of 1,800 to 2,400 m (5,900 to 7,900 ft) are reached. Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic action continued by the islands to the south - west, has a height of 4,075 m (13,369 ft), while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first of the line of islands, rises to over 2,700 m (8,900 ft). Towards the extreme west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting.
Much of Africa is made up of plains of the pediplain and etchplain type often occurring as steps. The etchplains are commonly associated with laterite soil and inselbergs. Inselberg - dotted plains are common in Africa including Tanzania, the Anti-Atlas of Morocco, Namibia, and the interior of Angola. One of the most wideaspread plain is the African Surface, a composite etchplain occurring across much of the continent.
The area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17 ° N is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea.
Running along the south of desert is the plains region known as the Sahel.
The arid region, the Sahara -- the largest hot desert in the world, covering 9,000,000 km (3,500,000 sq mi) -- extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation, it contains mountain ranges with peaks rising to 2,400 m (7,900 ft) Bordered N.W. by the Atlas range, to the northeast a rocky plateau separates it from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the north - westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 160 km (99 mi) broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water - channels.
The following table gives the details of the chief mountains and ranges of the continent:
From the outer margin of the African plateaus, a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long distances on the interior highlands, before breaking through the outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean.
To the main African rivers belong: Nile (the longest river of Africa), Congo (river with the highest water discharge on the continent) and the Niger, which flows half of its length through the arid areas. The largest lakes are the following: Lake Victoria (Lake Ukerewe), Lake Chad, in the centre of the continent, Lake Tanganyika, lying between the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia. There is also the considerably large Lake Malawi stretching along the eastern border of one of the poorest countries in the world - Malawi. There are also numerous water dams throughout the continent: Kariba on the river of Zambezi, Asuan in Egypt on the river of Nile and the biggest dam of the continent lying completely in The republic of Ghana is called Akosombo on the Volta river (Fobil 2003). The high lake plateau of the African Great Lakes region contains the headwaters of both the Nile and the Congo.
The break - up of Gondwana in Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic times led to a major reorganization of the river courses of various large African rivers including the Congo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Limpopo and Zambezi rivers.
The upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighborhood of the equator. From there, streams pour eastward into Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa (covering over 26,000 square m.), and to the west and north into Lake Edward and Lake Albert. To the latter of these, the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from there, the Nile flows northward, and between the latitudes of 7 and 10 degrees north it traverses a vast marshy level, where its course is liable to being blocked by floating vegetation. After receiving the Bahr - el - Ghazal from the west and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Ethiopian Highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood - water), it separates the great desert with its fertile watershed, and enters the Mediterranean at a vast delta.
The most remote head - stream of the Congo is the Chambezi, which flows southwest into the marshy Lake Bangweulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest - clad basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic northward curve, and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns southwest and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, where the corresponding area is 1,000,000 km (390,000 sq mi).
West of Lake Chad is the basin of the Niger, the third major river of Africa. With its principal source in the far west, it reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo, and ultimately flows into the Atlantic -- a fact that eluded European geographers for many centuries. An important branch, however -- the Benue -- flows from the southeast.
These four river basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa -- the remainder consists of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams that do not reach the sea.
Of the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin, the Orange, in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coastal highlands of the southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal, for over 1,500 km (930 mi) of coast, the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses, reaching the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains.
Of the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean, the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose western branches rise in the western coastal highlands. The main stream has its rise in 11 ° 21 ′ 3 '' S 24 ° 22 ′ E, at an elevation of 1,500 m (4,900 ft). It flows to the west and south for a considerable distance before turning eastward. All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground stretching across the continent from 10 ° to 12 ° S. In the southwest, the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans that was formerly centred in Lake Ngami, now dried up.
Farther south, the Limpopo drains a portion of the interior plateau, but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source. The Rovuma, Rufiji and Tana principally drain the outer slopes of the African Great Lakes highlands.
In the Horn region to the north, the Jubba and the Shebelle rivers begin in the Ethiopian Highlands. These rivers mainly flow southwards, with the Jubba emptying in the Indian Ocean. The Shebelle River reaches a point to the southwest. After that, it consists of swamps and dry reaches before finally disappearing in the desert terrain near the Jubba River. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the Ethiopian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden.
Between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the Ethiopian plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes in the Great Rift Valley. The largest river is the Omo, which, fed by the rains of the Ethiopian highlands, carries down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths, or by cataracts at no great distance upstream. But when these obstacles have been overcome, the rivers and lakes afford a vast network of navigable waters.
North of the Congo basin, and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface, is the basin of Lake Chad -- a flat - shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Chari coming from the southeast.
The principal lakes of Africa are situated in the African Great Lakes plateau. As a rule, the lakes found within the Great Rift Valley have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter with depths of 800 m (2,600 ft).
Others, however, are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the Great Rift Valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in Lake Victoria being under 90 m (300 ft).
Besides the African Great Lakes, the principal lakes on the continent are: Lake Chad, in the northern inland watershed; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head - stream of the Congo; and Lake Mai - Ndombe and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Lake Chad appears to be drying up.
Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin of the African Great Lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type. They include jellyfish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc.
With the exception of Madagascar, the African islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 587,041 km (226,658 sq mi), is, after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo, the fourth largest island on the Earth. It lies in the Indian Ocean, off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 400 km (250 mi) wide at its narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius and Réunion. There are also islands in the Gulf of Guinea on which lies the Republic of Sao Tomé and Príncipe (islands of São Tomé and Príncipe). Part of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea is lying on the island of Bioko (with the capital Malabo and the town of Lubu) and the island of Annobón. Socotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the north - west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes. which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin. The South Atlantic Islands of Saint Helena and Ascension are classed as Africa but are situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge half way to South America.
Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature.
Great heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.)
Farther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast.
In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt.
The most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics.
The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west - to - east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west. Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coastland west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual rainfall of about 10,000 mm (394 in) as compared with a mean of 11,600 mm (457 in) at Cherrapunji, in Meghalaya, India.
The two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half - yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine.
The countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from the Kalahari Desert in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the southeast hurricanes are occasionally experienced.
The climate of Africa lends itself to certain environmental diseases, the most serious of which are: malaria, sleeping sickness and yellow fever. Malaria is the most deadly environmental disease in Africa. It is transmitted by a genus of mosquito (anopheles mosquito) native to Africa, and can be contracted over and over again. There is not yet a vaccine for malaria, which makes it difficult to prevent the disease from spreading in Africa. Recently, the dissemination of mosquito netting has helped lower the rate of malaria.
Yellow fever is a disease also transmitted by mosquitoes native to Africa. Unlike malaria, it can not be contracted more than once. Like chicken pox, it is a disease that tends to be severe the later in life a person contracts the disease.
Sleeping sickness, or African trypanosomiasis, is a disease that usually affects animals, but has been known to be fatal to some humans as well. It is transmitted by the Tsetse fly and is found almost exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa. This disease has had a significant impact on African development not because of its deadly nature, like Malaria, but because it has prevented Africans from pursuing agriculture (as the sleeping sickness would kill their livestock).
These are the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent.
The highest point in Africa is Mount Kilimanjaro, 5,891.8 m (19,330 ft) in Tanzania. The lowest point is Lake Asal, 153 m (502 ft) below sea level, in Djibouti.
Richard Grant 2014. Africa. Geographies of Change. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wikimedia Atlas of Africa
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a layer in the stratosphere where ozone is more concentrated | Ozone layer - wikipedia
The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth 's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth 's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 kilometers (12 to 19 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a black body with a temperature in the range of 5,500 -- 6,000 K (5,227 to 5,727 ° C), except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum. It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere. Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical, ozone. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G.M.B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "Dobson unit '', a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.
The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun 's medium - frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface.
In 1976 atmospheric research revealed that the ozone layer was being depleted by chemicals released by industry, mainly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Concerns that increased UV radiation due to ozone depletion threatened life on Earth led to bans on the chemicals, and the latest evidence is that ozone depletion has slowed or stopped. The United Nations General Assembly has designated September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer.
Venus also has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 kilometers from the planet 's surface.
The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the British physicist Sydney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth 's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O to create ozone, O. The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long - lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone - oxygen cycle. Chemically, this can be described as:
About 90 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres (66,000 and 131,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only 3 millimetres (⁄ inch) thick.
Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun. Extremely short or vacuum UV (10 -- 100 nm) is screened out by nitrogen. UV radiation capable of penetrating nitrogen is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV - A (400 -- 315 nm), UV - B (315 -- 280 nm), and UV - C (280 -- 100 nm).
UV - C, which is very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by a combination of dioxygen (< 200 nm) and ozone (> about 200 nm) by around 35 kilometres (115,000 ft) altitude. UV - B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer (which absorbs from about 200 nm to 310 nm with a maximal absorption at about 250 nm) is very effective at screening out UV - B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth 's surface. Nevertheless, some UV - B, particularly at its longest wavelengths, reaches the surface, and is important for the skin 's production of vitamin D.
Ozone is transparent to most UV - A, so most of this longer - wavelength UV radiation reaches the surface, and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to DNA, although it may still potentially cause physical damage, premature aging of the skin, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer.
The thickness of the ozone layer -- that is, the total amount of ozone in a column overhead -- varies by a large factor worldwide, being in general smaller near the equator and larger towards the poles. It also varies with season, being in general thickest during the autumn and thinner during the early spring. The reasons for this latitude and seasonal dependence are complicated, which involve in atmospheric circulation patterns as well as solar intensity. But in general, bitterly cold temperatures mixed with sunlight assist in maximum ozone depletion, which occurs in early spring.
Since stratospheric ozone is produced by solar UV radiation, one might expect to find the highest ozone levels over the tropics and the lowest over polar regions. The same argument would lead one to expect the highest ozone levels in the summer and the lowest in the winter. The observed behavior is very different: most of the ozone is found in the mid-to - high latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres, and the highest levels are found in the spring, not summer, and the lowest in the autumn, not winter in the northern hemisphere. During winter, the ozone layer actually increases in depth. This puzzle is explained by the prevailing stratospheric wind patterns, known as the Brewer - Dobson circulation. While most of the ozone is indeed created over the tropics, the stratospheric circulation then transports it poleward and downward to the lower stratosphere of the high latitudes. However, owing to the ozone hole phenomenon, the lowest amounts of column ozone found anywhere in the world are over the Antarctic in the southern spring period of September and October and to a lesser extent over the Arctic in the northern spring period of March, April, and May.
The ozone layer is higher in altitude in the tropics, and lower in altitude outside the tropics, especially in the polar regions. This altitude variation of ozone results from the slow circulation that lifts the ozone - poor air out of the troposphere into the stratosphere. As this air slowly rises in the tropics, ozone is produced as the sun overhead photolyzes oxygen molecules. As this slow circulation levels off and flows towards the mid-latitudes, it carries the ozone - rich air from the tropical middle stratosphere to the lower stratosphere middle and high latitudes. The high ozone concentrations at high latitudes are due to the accumulation of ozone at lower altitudes.
The Brewer - Dobson circulation moves very slowly. The time needed to lift an air parcel by 1 km in the lower tropical stratosphere is about 2 months (18 m per day). However, horizontal poleward transport in the lower stratosphere is much faster and amounts to approximately 100 km per day in the northern hemisphere whilst it is only half as much in the southern hemisphere (~ 51 km per day). Even though ozone in the lower tropical stratosphere is produced at a very slow rate, the lifting circulation is so slow that ozone can build up to relatively high levels by the time it reaches 26 kilometres (16 mi).
Ozone amounts over the continental United States (25 ° N to 49 ° N) are highest in the northern spring (April and May). These ozone amounts fall over the course of the summer to their lowest amounts in October, and then rise again over the course of the winter. Again, wind transport of ozone is principally responsible for the seasonal changes of these higher latitude ozone patterns.
The total column amount of ozone generally increases as we move from the tropics to higher latitudes in both hemispheres. However, the overall column amounts are greater in the northern hemisphere high latitudes than in the southern hemisphere high latitudes. In addition, while the highest amounts of column ozone over the Arctic occur in the northern spring (March -- April), the opposite is true over the Antarctic, where the lowest amounts of column ozone occur in the southern spring (September -- October).
The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N O), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man - made organohalogen compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicals are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone - depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.
The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth 's surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth 's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as "ozone holes ''. The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin, in a paper which appeared in Nature on May 16, 1985.
To support successful regulation attempts, the ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy - to - understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture '' and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance ''. The specific metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) proved quite useful and, compared to global climate change, the ozone case was much more seen as a "hot issue '' and imminent risk. Lay people were cautious about a depletion of the ozone layer and the risks of skin cancer.
In 1978, the United States, Canada and Norway enacted bans on CFC - containing aerosol sprays that damage the ozone layer. The European Community rejected an analogous proposal to do the same. In the U.S., chlorofluorocarbons continued to be used in other applications, such as refrigeration and industrial cleaning, until after the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985. After negotiation of an international treaty (the Montreal Protocol), CFC production was capped at 1986 levels with commitments to long - term reductions. Since that time, the treaty was amended to ban CFC production after 1995 in the developed countries, and later in developing countries. Today, all of the world 's 197 countries have signed the treaty. Beginning January 1, 1996, only recycled and stockpiled CFCs were available for use in developed countries like the US. This production phaseout was possible because of efforts to ensure that there would be substitute chemicals and technologies for all ODS uses.
On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone - depleting substances. In a study organized by the American Geophysical Union, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper - atmosphere ozone - depletion rate slowed down significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
Compounds containing C -- H bonds (such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.
The residual effects of CFCs accumulating within the atmosphere lead to a concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the ocean. This organohalogen compound is able to dissolve into the ocean 's surface waters and is able to act as a time - dependent tracer. This tracer helps scientists study ocean circulation by tracing biological, physical and chemical pathways
As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the Earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths have to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer, GALEX, is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.
This GALEX image of the Cygnus Loop nebula could not have been taken from the surface of the Earth because the ozone layer blocks the ultra-violet radiation emitted by the nebula.
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who is the new member in bigg boss tamil | Bigg Boss Tamil - wikipedia
Bigg Boss Tamil is the Tamil - language version of the reality TV programme Bigg Boss broadcast in India. It follows the Big Brother format, which was first developed by Endemol in the Netherlands.
Kamal Haasan hosts the first season of Bigg Boss Tamil launched on 25 June 2017 on Star Vijay.
Bigg Boss Tamil is a reality show based on the Hindi show Bigg Boss which too was based on the original Dutch Big Brother format developed by John de Mol Jr. A number of contestants (known as "housemates '') live in a purpose - built house and are isolated from the rest of the world. Each week, housemates nominate two of their fellow housemates for eviction, and the housemates who receives the most nominations would face a public vote. Eventually, one housemate would leave after being "evicted '' from the House. In the final week, there will be five housemates remaining, and the public will vote for who they wanted to win. Unlike other versions of Big Brother, the Tamil version uses celebrities as housemates, not members of the general public.
The house is well - furnished and decorated. It has all kinds of modern amenities, but just two bedrooms, living area, kitchen, store room, smoking room, and four toilet bath rooms. There is a garden, pool, activity area and gym in the House. There is also a Confession Room, where the housemates may be called in by Bigg Boss for any kind of conversation, and for the nomination process. The House has no TV connection, no telephones, and no Internet connection.
They are not supposed to tamper with any of the electronic equipment or any other thing in the House. They can not leave the House premises at any time except when permitted to. They can not discuss the nomination process with anyone. They can not sleep in the day time.
Sometimes, the housemates may be nominated for other reasons, such as nomination by a person who has achieved special privileges (via tasks or other things), for breaking rules or something else. If something is very serious, a contestant may be evicted directly.
All the rules have never been told to the audience, the most prominent ones are clearly seen. The inmates are not permitted to talk in any other language than the language Tamil.
Bigg Boss Tamil is aired on Star Vijay and also Vijay Super from 9 to 10: 30 (IST) on weekdays and 8: 30 to 10 (IST) on weekends. Everyday 's episodes contain the main happenings of the previous day. Every weekend episode mainly focuses on an interview of the evicted contestant by the host.
Contestants are nominated every week by their housemates. Viewers cast their vote in favour of the contestants they would like to save from eviction. Each viewer is entitled to 50 votes per day. The contestant with the least number of votes is evicted from the house.
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cosmos a spacetime odyssey size of the universe | Cosmos: a Spacetime Odyssey - wikipedia
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey is a 2014 American science documentary television series. The show is a follow - up to the 1980 television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, which was presented by Carl Sagan on the Public Broadcasting Service and is considered a milestone for scientific documentaries. This series was developed to bring back the foundation of science to network television at the height of other scientific - based television series and films. The show is presented by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who, as a young high school student, was inspired by Sagan. Among the executive producers are Seth MacFarlane, whose financial investment was instrumental in bringing the show to broadcast television, and Ann Druyan, a co-author and co-creator of the original television series and Sagan 's wife. The show is produced by Brannon Braga, and Alan Silvestri composed the backing score.
The series loosely follows the same thirteen - episode format and storytelling approach that the original Cosmos used, including elements such as the "Ship of the Imagination '' and the "Cosmic Calendar '', but features information updated since the 1980 series along with extensive computer - generated graphics and animation footage augmenting the narration.
The series premiered on March 9, 2014, simultaneously in the United States across ten 21st Century Fox networks. The remainder of the series aired on the Fox Network, with the National Geographic Channel rebroadcasting the episodes the next night with extra content. The series has been rebroadcast internationally in dozens of other countries by local National Geographic and Fox stations. The series concluded on June 8, 2014, with home media release of the entire series on June 10, 2014. Cosmos has been critically praised, winning several television broadcasting awards and a Peabody Award for educational content.
In March 2017, Tyson stated that although nothing has been greenlit, there has been talk about a second season.
The original 13 - part Cosmos: A Personal Voyage first aired in 1980 on the Public Broadcasting System, and was hosted by Carl Sagan. The show has been considered highly significant since its broadcast; David Itzkoff of The New York Times described it as "a watershed moment for science - themed television programming ''. The show has been watched by at least 400 million people across 60 different countries, and until the 1990 documentary The Civil War, remained the network 's highest rated program.
Following Sagan 's death in 1996, his widow Ann Druyan, the co-creator of the original Cosmos series along with Steven Soter, and astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson sought to create a new version of the series, aimed to appeal to as wide an audience as possible and not just to those interested in the sciences. They had struggled for years with reluctant television networks that failed to see the broad appeal of the show.
Seth MacFarlane had met Druyan through Tyson at the 2008 kickoff event for the Science & Entertainment Exchange, a new Los Angeles office of the National Academy of Sciences, designed to connect Hollywood writers and directors with scientists. A year later, at a 2009 lunch in New York City with Tyson, MacFarlane learned of their interest to re-create Cosmos. He was influenced by Cosmos as a child, believing that Cosmos served to "(bridge) the gap between the academic community and the general public ''. At the time MacFarlane told Tyson, "I 'm at a point in my career where I have some disposable income... and I 'd like to spend it on something worthwhile. '' MacFarlane had considered the reduction of effort for space travel in recent decades to be part of "our culture of lethargy ''. MacFarlane, who has several series on the Fox network, was able to bring Druyan to meet the heads of Fox programming, Peter Rice and Kevin Reilly, and helped secure the greenlighting of the show. MacFarlane admits that he is "the least essential person in this equation '' and the effort is a departure from work he 's done before, but considers this to be "very comfortable territory for me personally ''. He and Druyan have become close friends, and Druyan stated that she believed that Sagan and MacFarlane would have been "kindred spirits '' with their respective "protean talents ''. In June 2012, MacFarlane provided funding to allow about 800 boxes of Sagan 's personal notes and correspondences to be donated to the Library of Congress.
In a Point of Inquiry interview, Tyson discussed their goal of capturing the "spirit of the original Cosmos '', which he describes as "uplifting themes that called people to action ''. Druyan describes the themes of wonder and skepticism they are infusing into the scripts, in an interview with Skepticality, "In order for it to qualify on our show it has to touch you. It still has to be rigorously good science -- no cutting corners on that. But then, it also has to be that equal part skepticism and wonder both. '' In a Big Picture Science interview, Tyson credits the success of the original series for the proliferation of science programming, "The task for the next generation of Cosmos is a little bit different because I do n't need to teach you textbook science. There 's a lot of textbook science in the original Cosmos, but that 's not what you remember most. What most people who remember the original series remember most is the effort to present science in a way that has meaning to you that can influence your conduct as a citizen of the nation and of the world -- especially of the world. '' Tyson states that the new series will contain both new material and updated versions of topics in the original series, but primarily, will service the "needs of today 's population ''. "We want to make a program that is not simply a sequel to the first, but issues forth from the times in which we are making it, so that it matters to those who is this emergent 21st century audience. '' Tyson considered that recent successes of science - oriented shows like The Big Bang Theory and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, along with films like Gravity, showed that "science has become mainstream '' and expects Cosmos "will land on hugely fertile ground ''.
Tyson spoke about the "love - hate relationship '' viewers had with the original series ' Spaceship of the Imagination, but confirmed during production that they were developing "vehicles of storytelling ''. Tyson affirmed that defining elements of the original series such as the Spaceship of the Imagination and the Cosmic Calendar with improved special effects, as well as new elements, would be present. Animation for these sequences was ultimately created by a team hand - picked by MacFarlane for the series. Kara Vallow developed and produced the animation, and the animation studio used was Six Point Harness in Los Angeles, California. The sound of the Spaceship of the Imagination, and sound design in general, was created by Rick Steele, who said of the show: "Cosmos has been, by far, the most challenging show of my career. '' The updated Spaceship was designed to "remain timeless and very simple '', according to MacFarlane, using the ceiling to project future events and the floor for those in the past, to allow Tyson, as the host, to "take (the viewer) to the places that he 's talking about ''.
In August 2011, the show was officially announced for primetime broadcast in the spring of 2014. The show is a co-production of Druyan 's Cosmos Studios, MacFarlane 's Fuzzy Door Productions, and National Geographic Channel; Druyan, MacFarlane, Cosmos Studios ' Mitchell Cannold, and director Brannon Braga are the executive producers.
Fox 's CEO Kevin Reilly considered that the show would be a risk and outside the network 's typical programming, but that "we believe this can have the same massive cultural impact that the original series delivered, '' and committed the network 's resources to the show. The show would first be broadcast on Fox, re-airing the same night on the National Geographic Channel.
In Canada, the show was broadcast simultaneously on Global, National Geographic Channel and Nat Geo Wild. A preview of the show 's first episode was aired for student filmmakers at the White House Student Film Festival on February 28, 2014.
Cosmos premiered simultaneously in the US across ten Fox networks: Fox, FX, FXX, FXM, Fox Sports 1, Fox Sports 2, National Geographic Channel, Nat Geo WILD, Nat Geo Mundo, and Fox Life. According to Fox Networks, this was the first time that a TV show was set to premiere in a global simulcast across their network of channels.
The Fox network broadcast averaged about 5.8 million viewers in Nielsen 's affiliate - based estimates for the 9 o'clock hour Sunday, as well as a 2.1 rating / 5 share in adults 18 - 49. The under - 50 audience was roughly 60 % men. Viewing on other networks raised these totals to 8.5 million and a 2.9 rating in the demo, according to Nielsen.
The show begins with a brief introduction recorded by President of the United States Barack Obama describing the "spirit of discovery '' that the series aspires to give to its viewers.
Tyson opens the episode to reflect on the importance of Sagan 's original Cosmos, and the goals of this series. He introduces the viewer to the "Ship of the Imagination '', the show 's narrative device to explore the universe 's past, present, and future. Tyson takes the viewer to show where Earth sits in the scope of the known universe, defining the Earth 's "address '' within the Virgo Supercluster. Tyson explains how humanity has not always seen the universe in this manner, and describes the hardships and persecution of Renaissance Italian Giordano Bruno in challenging the prevailing geocentric model held by the Catholic Church. To show Bruno 's vision of the cosmic order he uses an animated adaptation of the Flammarion engraving, a 19th century illustration that has now become a common meme for the revealing of the mysteries of the Universe.
The episode covers several facets of the origin of life and evolution. Tyson describes both artificial selection via selective breeding, using the example of humankind 's domestication of wolves into dogs, and natural selection that created species like polar bears. Tyson uses the Ship of the Imagination to show how DNA, genes, and mutation work, and how these led to the diversity of species as represented by the Tree of life, including how complex organs such as the eye came about as a common element.
Tyson then continues to relate the collaboration between Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton in the last part of the 17th century in Cambridge. The collaboration would result in the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, the first major work to describe the laws of physics in mathematical terms, despite objections and claims of plagiarism from Robert Hooke and financial difficulties of the Royal Society of London. Tyson explains how this work challenged the prevailing notion that God had planned out the heavens, but would end up influencing many factors of modern life, including space flight.
Tyson begins the episode by explaining the nature of the speed of light and how much of what is seen of the observable universe is from light emanated from billions of years in the past. Tyson further explains how modern astronomy has used such analyses via deep time to identify the Big Bang event and the age of the universe.
Tyson proceeds to describe how the work of Isaac Newton, William Herschel, Michael Faraday, and James Clerk Maxwell contributed to understanding the nature of electromagnetic waves and gravitational force, and how this work led towards Albert Einstein 's Theory of Relativity, that the speed of light is a fundamental constant of the universe and gravity can be seen as distortion of the fabric of space - time. Tyson describes the concept of dark stars as postulated by John Michell which are not visible but detectable by tracking other stars trapped within their gravity wells, an idea Herschel used to discover binary stars.
Tyson then describes the nature of black holes, their enormous gravitational forces that can even capture light, and their discovery via X-ray sources such as Cygnus X-1. Tyson uses the Ship of Imagination to provide a postulate of the warping of spacetime and time dilation as one enters the event horizon of the black hole, and the possibility that these may lead to other points within our universe or others, or even time travel. Tyson ends on noting that Herschel 's son, John would be inspired by his father to continue to document the known stars as well as contributions towards photography that play on the same nature of deep time used by astronomers.
This episode explores the wave theory of light as studied by humankind, noting that light has played an important role in scientific progress, with such early experiments from over 2000 years ago involving the camera obscura by the Chinese philosopher Mozi. Tyson describes the work of the 11th century Arabic scientist Ibn al - Haytham, considered to be one of the first to postulate on the nature of light and optics leading to the concept of the telescope, as well as one of the first researchers to use the scientific method.
This episode looks to the nature of the cosmos on the micro and atomic scales, using the Ship of the Imagination to explore these realms. Tyson describes some of the micro-organisms that live within a dew drop, demonstrating parameciums and tardigrades. He proceeds to discuss how plants use photosynthesis via their chloroplasts to convert sunlight into chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy - rich sugars. Tyson then discusses the nature of molecules and atoms and how they relate to the evolution of species. He uses the example set forth by Charles Darwin postulating the existence of the long - tongued Morgan 's sphinx moth based on the nature of the comet orchid with pollen far within the flower. He further demonstrates that scents from flowers are used to trigger olfactory centers in the brain, stimulating the mind to threats as to aid in the survival of the species.
This episode is centered around how science, in particular the work of Clair Patterson (voiced in animated sequences by Richard Gere) in the middle of the 20th century, was able to determine the age of the Earth. Tyson first describes how the Earth was formed from the coalescence of matter some millions of years after the formation of the Sun, and while scientists can examine the formations in rock stratum to date some geological events, these can only trace back millions of years. Instead, scientists have used the debris from meteor impacts, such as the Meteor Crater in Arizona, knowing that the material from such meteors coming from the asteroid belt would have been made at the same time as the Earth.
Tyson then outlines the work Patterson did as a graduate under his adviser Harrison Brown to provide an accurate count of lead in zircon particles from Meteor Crater, and to work with similar results being collected by George Tilton on uranium counts; with the established half - life of uranium 's radioactive decay to lead, this would be used to estimate the age of the Earth. Patterson found that his results were contaminated by lead from the ambient environment, compared to Tilton 's results, and required the construction of the first ultra-high cleanroom to remove all traces of environmental lead. With these clean results, Patterson was able to estimate the age of the Earth to 4.5 billion years.
This episode provides an overview of the composition of stars, and their fate in billions of years. Tyson describes how early humans would identify stars via the use of constellations that tied in with various myths and beliefs, such as the Pleiades. Tyson describes the work of Edward Charles Pickering to capture the spectra of multiple stars simultaneously, and the work of the Harvard Computers or "Pickering 's Harem '', a team of women researchers under Pickering 's mentorship, to catalog the spectra. This team included Annie Jump Cannon, who developed the stellar classification system, and Henrietta Swan Leavitt, who discovered the means to measure the distance from a star to the earth by its spectra, later used to identify other galaxies in the universe. Later, this team included Cecilia Payne, who would develop a good friendship with Cannon; Payne 's thesis based on her work with Cannon was able to determine the composition and temperature of the stars, collaborating with Cannon 's classification system.
This episode explores the palaeogeography of Earth over millions of years, and its impact on the development of life on the planet. Tyson starts by explaining that the lignin - rich trees evolved in the Carboniferous era about 300 million years ago, were not edible by species at the time and would instead fall over and become carbon - rich coal. Some 50 million years later, near the end of the Permian period, volcanic activity would burn the carbonaceous matter, releasing carbon dioxide and acidic components, creating a sudden greenhouse gas effect that warmed the oceans and released methane from the ocean beds, all leading towards the Permian -- Triassic extinction event, killing 90 % of the species on Earth.
Tyson then explains the nature of plate tectonics that would shape the landmasses of the world. Tyson explains how scientists like Abraham Ortelius hypothesized the idea that land masses may have been connected in the past, Alfred Wegener who hypothesized the idea of a super-continent Pangaea and continental drift despite the prevailing idea of flooded land - bridges at the time, and Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp who discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that supported the theory of plate tectonics. Tyson describes how the landmasses of the earth lay atop the mantle, which moves due to the motion and heat of the earth 's outer and inner core.
This episode provides an overview of the nature of electromagnetism, as discovered through the work of Michael Faraday. Tyson explains how the idea of another force of nature, similar to gravitational forces, had been postulated by Isaac Newton before. Tyson continues on Faraday, coming from poor beginnings, would end up becoming interested in studying electricity after reading books and seeing lectures by Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution. Davy would hire Faraday after seeing extensive notes he had taken to act as his secretary and lab assistant.
After Davy and chemist William Hyde Wollaston unsuccessfully tried to build on Hans Christian Ørsted 's discovery of the electromagnetic phenomena to harness the ability to create motion from electricity, Faraday was able to create his own device to create the first electric motor by applying electricity aligned along a magnet. Davy, bitter over Faraday 's breakthrough, put Faraday on the task of improving the quality of high - quality optical glass, preventing Faraday from continuing his research. Faraday, undeterred, continued to work in the Royal Institution, and created the Christmas Lectures designed to teach science to children. Following Davy 's death, Faraday returned to full time efforts studying electromagnetism, creating the first electrical generator by inserting a magnet in a coil of wires.
This episode covers how life may have developed on Earth and the possibility of life on other planets. Tyson begins by explaining how the human development of writing systems enabled the transfer of information through generations, describing how Princess Enheduanna ca. 2280 BC would be one of the first to sign her name to her works, and how Gilgamesh collected stories, including that of Utnapishtim documenting a great flood comparable to the story of Noah 's Ark. Tyson explains how DNA similarly records information to propagate life, and postulates theories of how DNA originated on Earth, including evolution from a shallow tide pool, or from the ejecta of meteor collisions from other planets. In the latter case, Tyson explains how comparing the composition of the Nakhla meteorite in 1911 to results collected by the Viking program demonstrated that material from Mars could transit to Earth, and the ability of some microbes to survive the harsh conditions of space. With the motions of solar systems through the galaxy over billions of years, life could conceivably propagate from planet to planet in the same manner.
This episode explores the nature of the greenhouse effect (discovered by Joseph Fourier and Svante Arrhenius), and the evidence demonstrating the existence of global warming from humanity 's influence. Tyson begins by describing the long - term history of the planet Venus; based on readings from the Venera series of probes to the planet, the planet once had an ocean and an atmosphere, but due to the release of carbon dioxide from volcanic eruptions, the runaway greenhouse effect on Venus caused the surface temperatures to increase and boiled away the oceans.
Tyson then notes the delicate nature of the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can influence Earth 's climate due to the greenhouse effect, and that levels of carbon dioxide have been increasing since the start of the 20th century. Evidence has shown this to be from humankind 's consumption of oil, coal, and gas instead of from volcanic eruptions due to the isotopic signature of the carbon dioxide. The increase in carbon dioxide has led to an increase in temperatures, in turn leading to positive feedback loops of the melting polar ice caps and dethawing of the permafrost to increase carbon dioxide levels.
Tyson begins the episode by noting how the destruction of the Library of Alexandria lost much of humanity 's knowledge to that point. He then contrasts on the strive for humanity to continue to discover new facts about the universe and the need to not close off further discovery.
Tyson then proceeds to describe the discovery of cosmic rays by Victor Hess through high - altitude balloon trips, where radiation increased the farther one was from the surface. Swiss Astronomer Fritz Zwicky, in studying supernovae, postulated that these cosmic rays originated from these events instead of electromagnetic radiation. Zwicky would continue to study supernovae, and by looking at standard candles that they emitted, estimated the movement of the galaxies in the universe. His calculations suggested that there must be more mass in the universe than those apparent in the observable galaxies, and called this dark matter. Initially forgotten, Zwicky 's theory was confirmed by the work of Vera Rubin, who observed that the rotation of stars at the edges of observable galaxies did not follow expected rotational behavior without considering dark matter. This further led to the proposal of dark energy as a viable theory to account for the universe 's increasing rate of expansion.
Tyson then describes the interstellar travel, using the two Voyager probes. Besides the abilities to identify several features on the planets of the solar system, Voyager I was able to recently demonstrate the existence of the Sun 's variable heliosphere which helps buffer the Solar System from interstellar winds. Tyson describes Carl Sagan 's role in the Voyager program, including creating the Voyager Golden Record to encapsulate humanity and Earth 's position in the universe, and convincing the program directors to have Voyager I to take a picture of Earth from beyond the orbit of Neptune, creating the image of the Pale Blue Dot. Tyson concludes the series by emphasizing Sagan 's message on the human condition in the vastness of the cosmos, and to encourage viewers to continue to explore and discover what else the universe has to offer.
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey has received highly positive reviews from critics, receiving a Metacritic rating of 83 out of 100 based on 19 reviews.
The miniseries won the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Award for "Best Reality Series '', with Tyson awarded for "Best Reality Host ''. The miniseries was also nominated for "Outstanding Achievement in News and Information '' for the 30th TCA Awards and 12 Emmy Awards, including "Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series ''. The program won the Emmy for "Outstanding Writing for Nonfiction Programming '' and "Outstanding Sound Editing for Nonfiction Programming (Single or Multi-Camera) '', and Silvestri won the Emmys for both "Outstanding Original Main Title Theme Music '' and "Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Original Dramatic Score) ''. The series won a 2014 Peabody Award within the Education category. In 2014, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSICOP) presented Cosmos with the Robert B. Balles Prize in Critical Thinking. "Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey opened the eyes of a new generation to humanity 's triumphs, its mistakes, and its astounding potential to reach unimagined heights. ''
The new miniseries has been criticized by some Christians and the religious right for some of the facts stated during the show. Christian fundamentalists were upset that the scientific theories covered in the show opposed the Genesis creation narrative in the Bible. The Catholic League was upset that the science show "smears '' Catholicism. A spokesman for the League noted how the show focused on Giordano Bruno, whom the Catholic Church turned over to secular authorities to be burnt at the stake for blasphemy, immoral conduct, and heresy in matters of dogmatic theology, in addition to some of the basic doctrines of his philosophy and cosmology, and stated that the show "skipped Copernicus and Galileo -- two far more consequential men in proving and disseminating the heliocentric theory -- because in their cases, the Church 's role was much more complicated ''.
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey was released on Blu - ray and DVD on June 10, 2014 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The set contains all 13 episodes, plus an audio commentary on the first episode, and three featurettes: "Celebrating Carl Sagan: A Selection from the Library of Congress Dedication '', "Cosmos at Comic - Con 2013 '' and "Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey -- The Voyage Continues ''. Exclusive to the Blu - ray version is the interactive Cosmic Calendar.
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nausicaä of the valley of the wind teto | List of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind characters - wikipedia
Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind is a manga series created by Hayao Miyazaki, between 1981 and 1994, featuring an extensive cast of characters. The series takes place on a post-apocalyptic Earth where environmental disasters threaten the survival of humankind. Nausicaä, the titular protagonist of the series, is a princess of the Valley of the Wind, who explores the ecological system of her world and becomes involved in a war between kingdoms. Nausicaä 's objective is to bring about a peaceful coexistence among the people of her world, as well as between humanity and nature.
In 1984 Miyzaki 's film of the same title was released. At the time only 16 chapters of the manga had been published. Miyazaki had not written an ending for the manga and not all the characters had been created yet. Characters from the manga were adapted for the screen and new characters were created who appear exclusively in the film.
(Valley of the Wind (風 の 谷, Kaze no Tani))
(Nausicaä (ナウシカ, Naushika)) The main character. Princess of the Valley of the Wind. A brave, caring person, she has a special connection with animals. From a young age she explores the ecosystem of her world and as a result considers it folly to fight the Sea of Corruption. Because of her exploration of its flora and fauna and her scientific experiments with the samples she brings back to her laboratory, she comes to the conclusion that the ecosystem of their world is misunderstood by most of the people who inhabit it. Sees war as pointless, but accepts the responsibilities she has towards her people and their allies, responsibilities that increase as her father 's condition deteriorates. Her ultimate responsibility is towards the world as a whole and her actions transcend the narrow scope of tribal politics and warfare in which she becomes embroiled. Throughout most of the story she is portrayed as a sixteen - year - old girl but there are flashbacks to her earlier childhood.
Voice cast: Sumi Shimamoto was the character 's Japanese voice actor In the 1984 animated film adaptation of Nausicaä. For the 2005 English dub, released by Buena Vista, Alison Lohman performed the role.
Reito Adachi observes that the name of the ' Nausicaä ' character was changed, to the more English sounding, "Zandra '' for the simplified and cut New World Pictures release of the film, titled Warriors of the Wind (1985).
(Jihl (ジル, Jiru)) Nausicaä 's father. King of the Valley of the Wind. Shown as a bedridden old man throughout his appearances except in flashbacks. The manga and film differ in his ultimate fate. In the manga his death is attributed to long - term poisoning caused by the Sea of Corruption. In the movie he is sniped down during an invasion of the Valley of the Wind by Torumekian troops.
Voice cast: Mahito Tsujimura (Japanese), Mark Silverman (English, 2005)
(ユパ ・ ミラルダ (yupa miraruda)) Also referred to as Master Yupa, or Lord Yupa. An explorer and the greatest swordsman in the Periphery. A mentor figure to Nausicaä, he travels with Asbel and Ketcha in the early parts of the story. In the manga he sacrifices himself protecting Kushana from the vengeful Mani Tribe in the final days of the war.
Voice cast: Goro Naya (Japanese), Patrick Stewart (English, 2005)
(Mito (ミト, mito)) The sergeant - at - arms and King Jihl 's chief retainer. His primary role is piloting the Valley 's gunship in support of Nausicaä 's mission.
Voice cast: Ichirō Nagai (Japanese), Edward James Olmos (English, 2005)
(Tepa (テパ, tepa)) A young wind - rider who attempts to fill Nausicaä 's role back in the Valley after she leaves.
(Oh - baba (大 ババ, Ōbaba)) The oldest and most prominent of the Valley 's "wise women ''. In the anime, she is the first to realize Nausicaa to be the "Blue - Clad One '' of prophecy; in the manga, the Dorok Mani - tribe Elder is the first one to acknowledge this.
Voice cast: Hisako Kyōda (Japanese), Tress MacNeille (English, 2005)
(Pejite - city (ペジテ 市, pejite - shi))
(Asbel (アスベル, asberu) Prince of Pejite, forced to journey in exile after Princess Kushana invades Pejite. He becomes Nausicaa 's and later Yupa 's, friend and ally throughout the manga.
Voice cast: Yōji Matsuda (Japanese), Shia LaBeouf (English, 2005)
(Rastel (ラステル, rasteru) Princess of Pejite and Asbel 's twin sister. Dies at the beginning of the movie, fleeing from Kushana 's invasion.
Voice cast: Miina Tominaga (Japanese), Emily Bauer (English, 2005)
(Torumekia (トルメキア, torumekia)
(Kushana (クシャナ, kushana) Princess of Torumekia. She cares deeply for the men under her command and commands their unwavering loyalty, but is portrayed as brutal and harsh to her enemies.
Hideaki Anno, who worked on the film of Nausicaä, had planned to do a manga side - story centered around Kushana 's military exploits, but Miyazaki denied him access, believing that Anno was intending to use her to "play war games. '', etc.
Kushana has been noted as a complex antagonist. Susan J. Napier and Patrick Drazen note a parallel between the character of Kushana, the rival warrior princess, and that of Nausicaä - Napier describes Kushana as Nausicaä 's "shadow '', noting that Kushana is not shown with any "alleviating, ' feminine ' virtues '' as Nausicaä is, but that they share the same tactical brilliance. Drazen describes this as a "feminine duality ''. Miyazaki has described the two characters as being "two sides of the same coin '', but Kushana has "deep, physical wounds ''.
Voice cast: Yoshiko Sakakibara (Japanese), Uma Thurman (English, 2005)
The name of the Kushana character was changed, to the more English sounding, "Selina '' for the simplified and cut New World Pictures release of the film, titled Warriors of the Wind (1985).
(Kurotowa (クロトワ, kurotowa) Kushana 's aide and a spy for the Emperor, at first. He switches allegiance to Kushana when he realizes the Emperor will probably kill him after he fulfills his usefulness. He was once a pilot and shows his flying skill when he evades Asbel 's attack on the Torumekian fleet and shoots him down. Kurotowa prides himself in being a cynical survivor, but he also feels irresistibly attracted to the idealism and purity of spirit of Nausicaä.
Voice cast: Iemasa Kayumi (Japanese), Chris Sarandon (English, 2005)
(Vai Emperor (ヴ 王, vu ō)) Fearless, ruthless, as well as would even assassinate his own children should he perceive them to be a threat to his authority. After the Daikaisho he personally leads the remnants of the Tourmekian army to Shuwa in an attempt to take possession of the Crypt 's secrets. He and Nausicaä confront the Master of the Crypt together and he sacrifices himself by taking the full force of the Crypt 's last light himself in order to save Nausicaä. As he dies, he repents and declares Kushana his successor, warning her not to make the same mistakes that he did, saying that killing even one treacherous noble will lead to a path of endless killing.
(Three princes (3 皇子, 3 ōji)) The first prince dies when his airship is attacked by insects. The two other princes are shown to be similar to the first, but state that their behavior was an act to convince their father that they were stupid and therefore, not a threat. The two are content to stay with the Master of the Garden, away from politics and safe from war.
(Dorok (土 鬼 / ドルク, doruku)) This theocratic empire and its characters are exclusive to the manga and do not appear in the film. Throughout most of the story depicted in the manga, authority is divided between the hereditary ruling class and the priesthood.
Eriko Ogihara - Schuck identifies the Dorok as a religious group, not present in the anime, with a dualistic world view that parallels Christian apocalypticism. Ogihara Schuck writes that the Dorok are responsible for the creation of the Sea of Corruption in the manga, whereas the Sea of Corruption is attributed to pollution resulting from the Seven Days of Fire in the anime. She attributes Nausicaä 's motivation for sealing the Crypt in Dorok holy city of Shuwa in the manga to a belief that humans should no longer selfishly attempt to control the natural world and on a more abstract level attributes Nausicaä 's motivation to a desire to counter the Dorok 's dualistic world view, a worldview which divides the world into purity and corruption, light and dark. Ogihara - Schuck observes that Nausicaa 's thinking reflects Miyazaki 's own world view and conforms to Miyazaki 's expressed opposition to dividing the world into a good and evil dichotomy.
Kulubaluka (クルバルカ, kurubaruka) The family name of the dynasty of Dorok kings that ruled before being dethroned in a coup d'état by the first "Holy Emperor ''. Only mentioned in the story in textual references.
Name not revealed: once a pupil of the Master of the Garden, but departed with four Heedra to save the world, then usurped authority over the Dorok lands through a coup d'état. Originally a just and honest ruler, but eventually came to hate the peasants for their "incorrigible stupidity '' and also apparently fell under the sway of the Master of the Crypt. Father of the two brothers Namulith and Miralupa upon whom he bestowed dual reign of the Dorok Empire. Died prior to the main events depicted in the manga, from a failed attempt to prolong his life. Appears as an illustrated character only in recollections of other characters and is mentioned retrospectively in dialogue.
Namulith (ナムリス, namurisu) "The Emperor the Elder (皇 兄, Kōkei) '', Co-regent of the Holy Dorok Empire with Miralupa, his younger brother. He is charismatic and a warrior, but has none of his younger brother 's psychic abilities. Namulith is over a century old, surviving by having his brain periodically transplanted into cloned bodies. Namulith assassinates Miralupa, usurps the authority of the priests and takes the title "Divine Emperor (神聖 皇帝, shinseiKōtei) '' when he assumes the sole reign of what remains of the Holy Dorok Empire. Namulith captures Kushana, hoping to marry her and thus claim the two empires. He eventually tires of life as he sees that everything seems to always go as the Master of the Crypt says they will and so passes on the burden of rule to Nausicaa after he is badly wounded by the attack of the God Warrior.
Miralupa (ミラルパ, miralupa) "The Emperor the Younger (皇 弟, Kōtei) '', Co-regent of the Holy Dorok Empire with Namulith, his elder brother. Miralupa 's connection to the ruling Dorok theocracy and his psychic powers give him an edge in the early part of the series. Although he is the younger of the two, he appears much older than his brother because he still inhabits his original body, kept alive by painful life extension treatments. After a reversal of his and his brother 's fortunes, Miralupa is assassinated by Namulith. His spirit is redeemed and saved by Nausicaä. He had repeatedly tried to destroy her, but her purity of spirit prevailed and she returned good for evil.
(Chikuku (チクク, chikuku)) A young boy with strong telepathy. He was the disciple and assistant of an elderly holy man. This mystical hermit, feeling the approach of his death, left Chikuku in Nausicaä 's strong and capable hands. Chikuku becomes loyal to Nausicaa and fiercely protective of her. His weapon of choice is a blow gun that he uses to fire sharp darts. He uses his highly developed telepathy to help Nausicaä communicate with those with whom she does not share a common language. In volume 6, Chikuku rallies the Dorok people to disobey the Emperor Namulith and follow the path of Nausicaä instead. At this time he also reveals for the first time his true full name: Luwa Chikuku Kulubaluka, with Kulubaluka being the name of the emperor who reigned before Namulis 's father staged a coup.
(Charuka (チヤルカ, chiyaruka)) A Priest and commander of the Dorok armies. Though at first he fears the appearance of the "Blue - Clad One '' as the prophesized warrior come to destroy Miralupa and the Dorok Empire, he later sees that Nausicaä is in reality a good person after she helps him attempt to destroy the engineered mold that was threatening to overwhelm the Dorok lands. Charuka then regrets and aids her during the rest of her journey and was willing to give up his life to save the Dorok people from the Emperor 's tyranny. Charuka was saved by Nausicaä as he was about to be executed and later worked with Nausicaä and Chikuku to bring the survivors of the Daikaisho to safety. He valued the lives of the Dorok people above all else.
(Elder of the Mani Tribe (マニ 族 僧正, Mani zoku sōjō)) Makes the Ohmu attack Kushana 's forces by using a captured, injured baby Ohmu. After Nausicaä stops the attack, he recognizes her as the "Blue - Clad One '', a savior from old legends. Dies using his psychic powers to save Nausicaä from Miralupa, who considers the legends heresy.
(Ketcha (ケチャ, kecha)) An interpreter from the Mani tribe who befriends Asbel and Yupa.
(People of the forest (森 の 人, mori no hito))
(Selm (セルム, serumu)) A man of the forest who helps Yupa, Asbel and Ketcha when they crash into the forest. He is with Nausicaä in spirit many times when she needs his guidance, including at the end when she confronts the Master of the Crypt. Yupa notices that he has the "same gaze as Nausicaa ''.
(Ceraine (セライネ, seraine)) Selm 's sister.
(Worm Handlers (蟲 使い, mushitsukai)) A people who dwell on the fringes of the Sea of Corruption, domesticating the slug - worms and living as scavenger merchants and mercenaries. Generally viewed as disgusting and treated as outcasts and an "untouchable '' race by all the other societies, they are also at first the only people who have had encounters with the Forest People, whom the Worm Handlers greatly respect and idolize. They are originally hired by both the Doroks and Torumekians as soldiers, but later come to view Nausicaä as their goddess and savior, accompanying her to the Crypt and protecting her during the final battle.
Miyazaki has said that he invented these people from the very start, to represent inequality and to explore the nobility of those whose existence may be abhorrent to the rest of society. He described them as being of the lowest caste but regrets not being able to explore them more deeply in spite of the length of the saga.
(Giant God Warriors (巨 神 兵, Kyoshinhei)) Gargantuan biomechanical beings, Daniel Haas has referred to them as "man - made living weapons '', considered to have been the primary instruments of destruction during the Seven Days of Fire. While the ceramic skeletons of God Warriors are a common sight across the landscape, the creatures are believed extinct at the beginning of the story. They have the ability to fly by "twisting space '' and can fire devastating energy beams. These abilities are fueled by nuclear energy and contact with them is known to cause radiation poisoning, which suggests that the Seven Days of Fire may have been at least partially a nuclear holocaust. The characters of the manga refer to the radiation emitted by the God Warriors as "poisonous light. '' As later proven no conventional weapons work on them and all attempts to destroy them were futile.
(Ohma (オーマ, Ōma)) A God Warrior who is accidentally activated by those who find him. He is passed around while barely sentient until he is given to Nausicaä by Namulith. At first he has the mentality of a child or toddler. He assumes Nausicaä is his mother and sees confirmation of that assumption when she presents him with his missing core component. Nausicaä gives him the name Ohma, meaning innocence in the Eftal language. Nausicaä acts out the role of his mother, to control his destructive powers and to adjust his single minded perception of the divisions in the world. Soon afterwards Ohma starts deteriorating and rotting away until his death, although a reason is never given it is assumed that it Is due to the continued use of his nuclear powers (The fire of heaven). Through their interactions Ohma 's intelligence increases drastically and he begins to mature: discoursing about justice and how he was tasked with judging mankind. Together they travel to Shuwa where Nausicaä instructs him to deliver the final blow to the heart of the Crypt, once she discovers the nature of the entities in the Crypt and their designs for the future of the world. Ohmus dies from the massive damage received while battling the crypt.
(Master of the Garden (庭 の 主, niwa no nushi) A mysterious entity tasked with preserving the knowledge of the ancient world within an isolated and concealed area referred to as "the Garden '', an idyllic place containing plants and animals long extinct in the outside world and samples of literature, music, as well as advanced sciences. The Master, an engineered life - form who has lived for over a thousand years, cures Nausicaä of her radiation poisoning and reveals to her the plan of the previous civilization: to purify the Earth of toxins using the genetically - engineered Sea of Corruption, then use the old sciences and creatures contained within the Garden to rebuild the world. Though he attempts to persuade Nausicaä to remain in the Garden, her will is very strong and he permits her to leave, saying that the door of the Garden will always be open for her should she ever choose to come back. Nausicaä gives him her name when she leaves, saying that he is cruel yet kind.
(Heedra (ヒドラ, hidora)) Powerful, biologically - engineered creatures (possibly with biomechanical additions) from before the Seven Days of Fire. Used for menial tasks as well as artificial soldiers. While not capable of destruction on as vast a scale as the God Warriors, they are far more numerous and easier to maintain. Heedra are extremely strong and difficult to kill: they can only be killed by destroying their "core '', apparently located in the head just behind the uppermost of their three eyes, or blasting a Heedra into pieces. The cloned bodies of the Dorok Holy Emperor and the Master of the Garden are also referred to as Heedra, suggesting the name may in fact be a catch - all term for genetically engineered humanoids.
Master of the Crypt (墓所 の 主, bosho no nushi) The man made, deitylike entity at the centre of the Crypt. Depository of the ancient society 's technologies and science. Tasked with purifying the earth. Serving as an Ark for the old mankind which is to re-emerge once the purification is complete. Nausicaä rejects its designs for the future of the planet and with the assistance of the Vai Emperor and using Ohma 's final powers, destroys it.
(Ohmu (王蟲, Ō mushi)) Enormous creatures Miyazaki created by combining insects and arthropods, which exist in a perpetual larval form until their lives end. They were created specifically to represent a new ecosystem for the story, simultaneously stimulating a sense of wonder and alienation. He chose their form in an effort to defy easy identification with existing life forms, to make it more difficult to discern their thoughts from their appearance and to resist empathy.
The Ohmu play a very important role in the story of Nausicaä. The Ohmu are greatly feared by many people in Nausicaä 's world: though they are ordinarily docile, killing any insect while in the forest will drive any nearby Ohmu into a berserk rage, signified by their eyes changing to bright red as opposed to blue when they are calm. Due to their great size, they can destroy entire settlements in this state and the spores from forest plants which they scatter as they move can kill crops and render an area unsuitable for human life if left unchecked. However, the molted exoskeletons of the creatures are stronger than ceramics, capable of resisting most human weaponry and thus highly sought - after as material for weapons, tools, as well as structures. The Ohmu possess a hive mind with which certain sensitive people may communicate. They also appear to have empathic powers as well: able to discern emotions through their tentacle feelers as they have done with Nausicaä herself. While most of the giant insects in the Sea of Corruption are driven by basic instinct, the Ohmu exhibit a greater level of intelligence.
Pronunciation: Ohm: / oʊ m /. The Japanese name, (王蟲 (Ō mu (shi))), consists of the kanji for king and insect or bug. Transliterated as Ohmu in manga translations and as Ohm in the film 's subtitles. The name has its origins in a mixture of the words for the king 's worm, the sandworm from Dune, and Daijiro Morohoshi 's Buddhist term ohm.
The creatures were renamed Gorgons for the Warriors of the Wind version of the film.
(Fox - squirrels (キツネリス, kitsunerisu)) Small, catlike wild animals, generally considered impossible to domesticate. These creatures also make a brief cameo appearance in Castle in the Sky.
(Teto (テト, teto)) Nausicaä 's fox - squirrel. Initially hostile. In the beginning of the manga and the film Nausicaä 's gains his trust and loyalty through her connection with living things and he accepts and accompanies her on her various destinations. Late in the series of the manga she betrays this trust when she continues travelling towards Shuwa with Ohma, in spite of noticing the detrimental influence Ohma has on Teto 's health. He dies from exposure to the radiation that God Warrior generates. She interrupts her journey to bury him and as a result encounters the Master of the Garden.
(Horseclaws (トリウマ, toriuma)) Large, flightless birds genetically - engineered as replacements for horses, which are now entirely extinct in the world of Nausicäa. They are commonly used as beasts - of - burden and as riding animals. They were the inspiration from Hironobu Sakaguchi for the making of chocobos.
(Kai (カイ, kai) and Kui (クイ, kui)) A mated pair of horseclaws, originally belonging to Lord Yupa but given to Nausicäa to aid her on her journeys. Kai is killed saving Nausicäa, after which Kui lays their egg.
(Kest (ケスト, kesuto)) An Ibex, chief assistant to the Master of the Garden and serves as Nausicaä 's guide during her stay. He is very intelligent, able to converse with the Master and Nausicaä. After Nausicaä leaves, Kest follows after her to bring her leggings and Kushana 's cape before returning to the Garden.
(Slugworms (蟲, mushi) Slugs the size of small dogs, adept at tracking by scent. The Wormhandler people derive their name from their practice of domesticating and using these creatures. While they appear harmless, they are considered unclean creatures by many non-Wormhandlers.
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where does the head of the humerus fits into the scapula | Humerus - wikipedia
The humerus (/ ˈhjuːmərəs /, Plural: humeri) is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow. It connects the scapula and the two bones of the lower arm, the radius and ulna, and consists of three sections. The humeral upper extremity consists of a rounded head, a narrow neck, and two short processes (tubercles, sometimes called tuberosities). The body is cylindrical in its upper portion, and more prismatic below. The lower extremity consists of 2 epicondyles, 2 processes (trochlea & capitulum), and 3 fossae (radial fossa, coronoid fossa, and olecranon fossa). As well as its true anatomical neck, the constriction below the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus is referred to as its surgical neck due to its tendency to fracture, thus often becoming the focus of surgeons.
The word "humerus '' is derived from Latin: humerus, umerus meaning upper arm, shoulder, and is linguistically related to Gothic ams shoulder and Greek ōmos.
At the shoulder, the head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula. More distally, at the elbow, the capitulum of the humerus articulates with the head of the radius, and the trochlea of the humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna.
The axillary nerve is located at the proximal end, against the shoulder girdle. Dislocation of the humerus 's glenohumeral joint, has the potential to injure the axillary nerve or the axillary artery. Signs and symptoms of this dislocation include a loss of the normal shoulder contour and a palpable depression under the acromion.
The radial nerve follows the humerus closely. At the midshaft of the humerus, the radial nerve travels from the posterior to the anterior aspect of the bone in the spiral groove. A fracture of the humerus in this region can result in radial nerve injury.
The ulnar nerve lies at the distal end of the humerus near the elbow. When struck, it can cause a distinct tingling sensation, and sometimes a significant amount of pain. It is sometimes popularly referred to as ' the funny bone ', possibly due to this sensation (a "funny '' feeling), as well as the fact that the bone 's name is a homophone of ' humorous '. It lies posterior to the medial epicondyle, and is easily damaged in elbow injuries.
The deltoid originates on the lateral third of the clavicle, acromion and the crest of the spine of the scapula. It is inserted on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus and has several actions including abduction, extension, and circumduction of the shoulder. The supraspinatus also originates on the spine of the scapula. It inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus, and assists in abduction of the shoulder.
The pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi insert at the intertubercular groove of the humerus. They work to adduct and medially, or internally, rotate the humerus.
The infraspinatus and teres minor insert on the greater tubercle, and work to laterally, or externally, rotate the humerus. In contrast, the subscapularis muscle inserts onto the lesser tubercle and works to medially, or internally, rotate the humerus.
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis (which attaches distally) act to flex the elbow. (The biceps do not attach to the humerus.) The triceps brachii and anconeus extend the elbow, and attach to the posterior side of the humerus.
The four muscles of supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis form a musculo - ligamentous girdle called the rotator cuff. This cuff stabilizes the very mobile but inherently unstable glenohumeral joint. The other muscles are used as counterbalances for the actions of lifting / pulling and pressing / pushing.
Primitive fossils of amphibians had little, if any, shaft connecting the upper and lower extremities, making their limbs very short. In most living tetrapods, however, the humerus has a similar form to that of humans; connecting their extremities. In many reptiles and some primitive mammals, the lower extremity includes a large foramen, or opening, which allows nerves and blood vessels pass through.
Position of humerus (shown in red). Animation.
Left humerus. Animation.
Human arm bones diagram.
Humerus - inferior epiphysis. Anterior view.
Trochlea. Posterior view.
Humerus - inferior epiphysis. Posterior view.
Humerus - superior epiphysis. Anterior view.
Humerus - superior epiphysis. Posterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Anterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Upper end Accompanies shaft in 20th year. The parts which form upper end - Head Starts from 1st year, Greater tubercle Starts from 3rd year, Lesser tubercle Starts from the fifth year.
Lower end Accompanies shaft in 16th to 17th year. The parts which form lower end are - Capitulum and the lateral flange of trochlea Sarts from 2nd year, Medial part of trochlea starts from 10th year, Lateral epicondyle starts from 12th year and Medial epicondyle starts from the sixth year.
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all the judges that have been on the voice | The Voice (U.S. TV series) - wikipedia
The Voice is an American reality television singing competition broadcast on NBC. Based on the original The Voice of Holland, the concept of the series is to find currently unsigned singing talent (solo or duets, professional and amateur) contested by aspiring singers, age 15 or over (reduced to 13 since season 12), drawn from public auditions. The winner is determined by television viewers voting by telephone, internet, SMS text, and iTunes Store purchases of the audio - recorded artists ' vocal performances. They receive US $100,000 and a record deal with Universal Music Group for winning the competition. The winners of the thirteen seasons have been: Javier Colon, Jermaine Paul, Cassadee Pope, Danielle Bradbery, Tessanne Chin, Josh Kaufman, Craig Wayne Boyd, Sawyer Fredericks, Jordan Smith, Alisan Porter, Sundance Head, Chris Blue and Chloe Kohanski.
The series employs a panel of four coaches who critique the artists ' performances and guide their teams of selected artists through the remainder of the season. They also compete to ensure that their act wins the competition, thus making them the winning coach. Members of the coaching panel include Adam Levine, Blake Shelton, Christina Aguilera (seasons 1 -- 3, 5, 8, 10), CeeLo Green (seasons 1 -- 3, and 5), Shakira (seasons 4 and 6), Usher (seasons 4 and 6), Gwen Stefani (seasons 7, 9, and 12), Pharrell Williams (seasons 7 -- 10), Miley Cyrus (seasons 11 and 13), Alicia Keys (seasons 11 -- 12, and 14), Jennifer Hudson (season 13), and Kelly Clarkson (season 14).
The Voice began airing on April 26, 2011, as a spring TV season program. The show proved to be a hit for NBC and was subsequently expanded into the fall cycle when season three premiered on September 10, 2012. The series premiered its twelfth season on February 27, 2017. On October 18, 2016, NBC renewed the series through its thirteenth season. On May 10, 2017, NBC renewed the series for a fourteenth series, along with announcing Jennifer Hudson as a new coach in the thirteenth season. The following day, it was announced that Kelly Clarkson would be a new coach in the fourteenth season. The thirteenth season premiered on September 25, 2017.
An adaptation of the Dutch show The Voice of Holland, NBC announced the show under the name The Voice of America in December 2010; its name was soon shortened to The Voice. In each season, the winner receives $100,000 and a record deal with Universal Republic Records (seasons 1 & 2) or later Universal Music Group (season 3 -- present).
Each season begins with the "Blind Auditions, '' where coaches form their team of artists (8 in season 1, 12 in season 2 and seasons 4 - 12, and 16 in season 3) whom they mentor through the remainder of the season. The coaches ' chairs are faced towards the audience during artists ' performances; those interested in an artist press their button, which turns their chair towards the artist and illuminates the bottom of the chair to read "I want you. '' At the conclusion of the performance, an artist either defaults to the only coach who turned around, or selects his or her coach if more than one coach expresses interest. In the 14th season, a new twist called "Block '' is featured, which allows one coach to block another coach from getting a contestants.
In the "Battle Rounds, '' each coach pairs two of his or her team members to perform together, then chooses one to advance in the competition. In each season, coaches are assisted by celebrity advisors that are different each season. In the first season, coaches sit alongside their respective advisors in the battle stage. However, starting with the second season, the advisors no longer join the coaches in the battle stage. A new element was added in season three; coaches were given two "steals '', allowing each coach to select two individuals who were eliminated during a battle round by another coach.
The Knockout Rounds were also introduced in season three. A pair of artists within a team are selected to sing individual performances in succession. They are not told until a few minutes prior to their performances who their partner is. The artists get to choose their own songs in this round, although they continue to get help and advice from their respective coaches. At the conclusion of the performances, coaches would decide which one of each pair gets to advance to the next round. Just like in the battle rounds, the coaches can steal one eliminated artist from another coach starting with season five.
The "Battles, Round 2 '' were introduced to replace the Knockout Rounds in season six. Similar to the Knockout Rounds, each singer is paired randomly within their team. One celebrity key adviser also assists all four of the coaches and their teams in preparation of these rounds. Coaches give each Battle pairing a list of songs and each pair must agree on which song to sing. Each coach can still decide which of their singers in each pair will advance to the next round. The coaches are also allowed one steal. However, the Knockouts were brought back in season seven.
In the final live performance phase of the competition, artists perform in weekly shows, where public voting narrows to a final group of artists and eventually declares a winner. The coaches have the power to save one artist that had not received the public 's vote that week. As of season two, these artists would give a last chance performance to win their coach 's save. However, in deciding who moves on to the final four phase, the television audience and the coaches have equal say. With one team member remaining for each coach, the contestants compete against each other in the finale, where the outcome is decided solely by public vote. In the first two seasons, one contestant from each team would advance to the final four. Due to the possibility of having multiple potential winners on the same team, eliminations were adjusted in season three to eliminate contestants who earned the lowest number of votes, thus not guaranteeing a coach and a contestant in the (reduced) final three (having reverted to four since season seven).
In a first for a music competition series, NBC and Universal Republic Records offered fans of the show the ability to vote for their favorite artists by purchasing the studio versions of the songs that they perform on the live show each week via the iTunes Store. Alternative methods of voting can be done through toll - free phone calls (until season 8), text messaging, the show 's app, and through online votes via NBC.com and Facebook. Each method is limited to ten votes per user. Voting lasts until noon EST the next day.
As of the top 12 results show of season three, producers made changes in the voting system with regards to iTunes singles purchases. Previous voting via iTunes purchases of contestant performances had previously only counted singly during the official voting window and only accredited to the live show in concern. If a competitor 's performance charts within the Top 10 of the iTunes "Top 200 Singles Chart '' during this window, it will be given an iTunes bonus that multiplies iTunes votes made by ten. Starting in season five, the iTunes bonus multiplier is now five for the studio versions of the songs performed by the competitors. The finale 's vote count will include a ' Cumulative iTunes Vote Total ' of all singles (from top 12 onwards) purchased during and outside of the various voting windows, with iTunes bonuses previously earned.
Only the studio recording of the contestants ' performances, not the live performance, are available on iTunes. In the first season, the battle rounds were recorded in the studio with both artists in the pairing. However, from season two on, only the winner 's version of the song from the battle round is released. Season seven reverted to the old style of both artists. With the introduction of the Knockout Rounds in season three, where each contestant sang a separate song, only the winner 's single is released.
The "Instant Save '' was introduced in season five. During the live elimination episodes, viewers are given a five - minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their Twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show, starting with the Top 12. Home viewers can only vote once per account for one contestant of their choice.
CeeLo Green of Gnarls Barkley and Adam Levine of Maroon 5 became the first confirmed coaches in February 2011, followed by Christina Aguilera and Blake Shelton in March. Aguilera and Green did not return for season four and were replaced by Shakira and Usher as substitute coaches. Aguilera and Green then returned for season five, while Shakira and Usher returned for season six. In an interview with Ellen DeGeneres in February 2014, Green revealed that he would not be returning to The Voice. On March 31, 2014, it was announced that Pharrell Williams would become Green 's replacement. On April 19, 2014, it was announced that No Doubt 's Gwen Stefani would replace Aguilera in season seven due to her pregnancy. On May 20, 2014, Shakira and Usher confirmed that after season six, they would focus on their music. On March 25, 2016, Miley Cyrus confirmed that following her role as key advisor during the tenth season that she would be joining the series once again in its eleventh season as a coach, replacing Christina Aguilera. That same day, Alicia Keys was also announced to be joining the series as a coach for the eleventh season. On October 18, 2016, it was announced that Stefani would re-join the coaches ' panel for the series ' twelfth season, alongside returning coaches Keys, Levine and Shelton; it was also confirmed that Cyrus would return for the thirteenth season.
On April 27, 2017, in an interview published by TV Insider, Keys confirmed that the twelfth season would be her last. She stated, "Who knows what the future holds, but I know this one is my final season. '' On May 10, 2017, NBC announced that Jennifer Hudson would join the coaches lineup for the series ' thirteenth season. On May 11, 2017, it was announced that Kelly Clarkson would be a coach in season fourteen in 2018. On October 18, 2017, NBC announced that Alicia Keys will be returning to the series for the upcoming 14th season.
Adam Levine
CeeLo Green (2011 -- 2013)
Christina Aguilera (2011 -- 2016)
Blake Shelton
Shakira (2013 -- 2014)
Usher (2013 -- 2014)
Gwen Stefani (2014 -- 2015, 2017)
Pharrell Williams (2014 -- 2016)
Miley Cyrus (2016 -- 2017)
Alicia Keys (2016 --)
Jennifer Hudson (2017)
Kelly Clarkson (2018)
Carson Daly has hosted the series since the inaugural season. Alison Haislip served as the original "backstage, online and social media correspondent '' and was replaced by Christina Milian. Milian did not return for season five, at which point Daly assumed her duties as the social media correspondent.
Carson Daly
Alison Haislip (2011)
Christina Milian (2012 -- 2013)
Battle round advisors are first listed; additional advisors and their roles are denoted by superscripts.
Names in bold type indicate the winner of the season.
The first season of The Voice premiered on April 26, 2011, and concluded on June 29. The coaching panel consisted of Christina Aguilera, Cee Lo Green, Adam Levine, and Blake Shelton. Carson Daly and Alison Haislip respectively appeared as the host and social media correspondent. Contestant auditions were held in Chicago, New York, Miami, Nashville, Minneapolis, Austin, Los Angeles, and Seattle during January and February.
It delivered the highest 18 -- 49 rating for a series premiere on a major broadcast network since Undercover Boss debuted after the Super Bowl in February 2010. It became the first new primetime series of the season (from ABC, CBS, NBC, or Fox) to increase in adults 18 -- 49 and total viewers from its first week to its second. Owing to the strong performance of the show, NBC offered expanded two - hour live episodes beginning June 7, following America 's Got Talent, with an additional results show.
Each coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Javier Colon was announced as the winner of the season, while Dia Frampton was declared the runner - up. Third and fourth places were a draw between Vicci Martinez and Beverly McClellan.
Season two premiered on February 5, 2012 as the lead - out program after Super Bowl XLVI; it concluded on May 8. The original coaching panel remained intact, while Haislip was replaced by Christina Milian as the social media correspondent. Its regular time slot held a 6.7 rating, 17 share in adults 18 -- 49, 17.8 million viewers overall and winning every half - hour in adults 18 -- 49, adults 18 -- 34, adults 25 -- 54 and total viewers versus first - run competition on ABC, CBS, Fox and CW. The shows ' continued premiere on Monday delivered NBC 's highest 18 -- 49 rating in this time period, excluding Olympics, in nearly eight years (since February 16, 2004) and the network 's biggest overall non-Olympic viewership in the slot since January 15, 2007. That season, Kia Motors, Sprint and Starbucks became the official sponsors of The Voice.
Each coach was allowed to advance six top to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Jermaine Paul was announced as the winner of the season, while Juliet Simms, Tony Lucca, and Chris Mann placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
Season three premiered on September 10, 2012, and concluded on December 18. All personnel returned from the previous season.
Each coach was allowed to advance five top to the live shows:
Three finalists were advanced to the final round. Cassadee Pope was announced as the winner of the season, while Terry McDermott and Nicholas David placed second and third, respectively.
Season four premiered on March 25, 2013, and concluded on June 18. The coaching panel was modified for the first time in the series ' history, with Shakira and Usher replacing Aguilera and Green during their hiatuses from the program. Daly and Milian continued appearing for their respective positions. 13.64 million viewers tuned in, up from last season by 1.36 million viewers.
Each coach was allowed to advance four top to the live shows:
Three finalists were advanced to the final round. Danielle Bradbery was announced as the winner of the season, while Michelle Chamuel and The Swon Brothers placed second and third, respectively.
Season five premiered on September 23, 2013, and concluded on December 18. The original coaching panel was reinstated with the returns of Green and Aguilera which was promoted with an advertisement featuring the coaches ' cover version of "Reunited '' by Peaches & Herb. However, Milian left her position as the social media correspondent before production began, at which point Daly assumed her former duties.
Each coach was allowed to advance five top to the live shows:
Three finalists were advanced to the final round. Tessanne Chin was announced as the winner of the season, while Jacquie Lee and Will Champlin placed second and third, respectively. This is also the first series in which Shelton did not have an act in the final.
Season six premiered on February 24, 2014, and concluded on May 20, 2014. After four seasons, Green departed the show and Aguilera took a hiatus. Shakira and Usher then returned to join Levine and Shelton as coaches, and Daly returned as host.
Each coach was allowed to advance three top to the live shows:
Three finalists were advanced to the final round. Josh Kaufman was announced as the winner of the season, while Jake Worthington and Christina Grimmie placed second and third, respectively.
Season seven premiered on September 22, 2014, and concluded on December 16, 2014. Levine and Shelton returned as coaches, with Pharrell Williams and Gwen Stefani completing the panel. Later that season Nissan became the official sponsor of The Voice, replacing Kia Motors.
Each coach was allowed to advance five top to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Craig Wayne Boyd was announced as the winner of the season, while Matt McAndrew, Chris Jamison, and Damien placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
Season eight premiered on February 23, 2015 and concluded on May 19, 2015. Levine and Shelton return as coaches for their eighth season, along with Williams and Aguilera who returns after a two - season break.
Each coach was allowed to advance five top to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Sawyer Fredericks was announced as the winner of the season, while Meghan Linsey, Joshua Davis, and Koryn Hawthorne placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
Season nine premiered on September 21, 2015 and concluded on December 15, 2015, with coaches Levine, Shelton, Williams and Stefani.
Each coach was allowed to advance five artists to the live shows. For the first time in the show history, the coaches had the chance to bring back four artists who were previously eliminated in the battles or the knockouts rounds. The four bring back artists performed in the live playoffs with the top 20 and had a chance to move on to the live shows along with the top 12:
Each coach was allowed to advance five plus one top to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Jordan Smith was announced as the winner of the season, while Emily Ann Roberts, Barrett Baber, and Jeffery Austin placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
Season ten premiered on February 29, 2016 and concluded on May 24, 2016, with coaches Levine, Shelton, Williams and Aguilera.
Each coach was allowed to advance five artists to the live shows. Like the previous season, the coaches had the chance to bring back four artists who were previously eliminated in the battles or the knockouts rounds. The four bring back artists performed in the live playoffs with the top 20 and had a chance to move on to the live shows along with the top 12.
Each coach was allowed to advance five plus one top to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Alisan Porter was announced as the winner of the season, while Adam Wakefield, Hannah Huston, and Laith Al - Saadi placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
Season eleven premiered on September 19, 2016 and concluded on December 13, 2016 with coaches Levine, Shelton, and new coaches Miley Cyrus and Alicia Keys.
Each coach was allowed to advance five to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Sundance Head was announced as the winner of the season, while Billy Gilman, Wé McDonald, and Josh Gallagher placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
Season twelve premiered on February 27, 2017 and concluded on May 23, with Gwen Stefani and Alicia Keys returning as coaches alongside Levine and Shelton. Cyrus will be taking a break from the show; however, she will return as coach on the show 's thirteenth season.
Each coach was allowed to advance five plus one top to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Chris Blue was announced as the winner of the season, while Lauren Duski, Aliyah Moulden, and Jesse Larson placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
The thirteenth season premiered on September 25, 2017, with new coach Jennifer Hudson, alongside Levine and Shelton, and returning coach Cyrus.
Each coach was allowed to advance three to the live shows:
Four finalists were advanced to the final round. Chloe Kohanski was announced as the winner of the season, while Addison Agen, Brooke Simpson, and Red Marlow placed second, third, and fourth, respectively.
The fourteenth season premiered on February 26, 2018, with new coach Kelly Clarkson, alongside Levine and Shelton, and returning coach Keys.
Each coach was allowed to advance five plus one to to the live shows:
In 2013, American Spanish - language network Telemundo (a subsidiary of NBCUniversal Television Group) introduced a children 's version of The Voice in Spanish called La Voz Kids. It featured Spanish - speaking American children from 7 to 15 years of age. Prizes include $50,000 cash for their education and a recording contract with Universal Music Group. The show debuted on May 5, 2013, and is hosted by Jorge Bernal (from ¡ Suelta La Sopa!) and Daisy Fuentes. The coaches in season one were Prince Royce, Paulina Rubio, and Roberto Tapia. The first season aired 13 episodes with the season finale airing on July 28, 2013.
Season two saw Natalia Jiménez replace Paulina Rubio as one of the coaches. The other coaches and hosts remained the same.
For the show 's third season, Daddy Yankee and Pedro Fernandez took Tapia and Royce 's place as the new coaches along with season two veteran Natalia Jiménez.
At their 2015 Upfronts, Telemundo announced that La Voz Kids would return for a fourth season, with all three Season 3 coaches returning.
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that The Voice "is most popular in North Dakota and least popular in New York. It was behind only Duck Dynasty and Fast N ' Loud in its correlation with Trump voters ''.
The first season premiered strong at 11.78 million viewers, and actually grew upon that audience through its first season. In the 18 -- 49 demographic, the show constantly found itself in the top 5. For its average season rating, the show landed itself as No. 20 with total viewers at nearly 12 million viewers. In the 18 -- 49 rankings, the show was No. 4 at a 5.4 ranking.
The second season premiered on Super Bowl Sunday, February 5, 2012, and for a while managed to keep a 6.0 in the adults 18 -- 49 demographic and 17 million viewers. Partnering The Voice with Smash (NBC 's musical drama) helped NBC win the Monday night ratings. However, by Monday, April 9, the ratings had fallen to a 4.0 rating in the adult 18 -- 49 demographic.
The third season premiered on Monday, September 10, 2012 to 12.28 million viewers and a 4.2 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic and has since then grown to a season high 4.8 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic on October 8, October 15 and 29, 2012 and a 4.9 rating in the finale. The Voice, along with NBC 's new drama, Revolution has once again led NBC to win every Monday night of the season so far, just like it did last season. On Tuesdays, comedies Go On and The New Normal have been successful thanks to The Voice, leading NBC to be the only network of the Big 5 to grow in ratings from last season.
The fourth season premiered on Monday, March 25, 2013 to a 13.64 million viewer audience, scoring a 4.8 in the 18 -- 49 demographic but fell back to a 12.41 million viewer audience. In the 18 -- 49 demographic, this first episode had a 4.1 score.
The fifth season premiered on Monday, September 23, 2013 scoring 14.98 million viewers and a 5.1 in the 18 -- 49 demographic.
The sixth season premiered on February 24, 2014 and was watched by 15.74 million viewers with a 4.7 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic. It was up from last season 's premiere by. 76 million viewers.
The seventh season premiered on September 22, 2014 and was watched by 12.95 million viewers with a 3.9 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic. It was down from last season 's premiere by 2.91 million viewers.
The eighth season premiered on February 23, 2015, and was watched by 13.97 million viewers with a 4.1 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic. It was up from last season 's premiere by 1.02 million viewers.
The ninth season premiered on September 21, 2015, and was watched by 12.37 million viewers with a 3.5 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic. It was down from last falls premiere by. 48 million viewers.
The tenth season premiered on February 29, 2016, and was watched by 13.33 million viewers with a 3.4 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic. It was up from last season 's premiere by. 96 million viewers.
The eleventh season premiered on September 19, 2016, and was watched by 12.10 million viewers with a 3.3 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic. It is down from last season 's premiere by 1.23 million viewers.
The twelfth season premiered on February 27, 2017, and was watched by 13.03 million viewers with a 3.1 in the 18 -- 49 demographic. It was up from last season 's premiere by. 93 million viewers.
The thirteenth season premiered on September 25, 2017, and was watched by 10.57 million viewers with a 2.6 in the 18 - 49 demographic. It is down from last season 's premiere by 2.46 million viewers.
The fourteenth season premiered on February 26, 2018, and was watched by 12.31 million viewers with a 2.8 in the 18 - 49 demographic. It is up from last season 's premiere by 1.74 million viewers.
† Including an episode that aired after a live broadcast of the Super Bowl:
In the final episode of the first season, Carson Daly announced a summer concert tour. This tour had six stops across the United States, including Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Chicago, Boston, Wallingford, and New York. The tour featured the top two finalists from each team, including Javier Colon, Dia Frampton, Vicci Martinez, Beverly McClellan, Xenia, Frenchie Davis, Nakia, and Casey Weston. Out of the six dates, the New York show was a sell - out. However, as overall ticket sales were lackluster, the tour was canceled in subsequent seasons. In 2014, the tour was resumed from June 21, 2014 to August 2, 2014, including the contestants of seasons five and six, and season one contestant Dia Frampton.
The Voice: I Want You is a video game based on the television show releasing on PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii and Wii U on October 21, 2014 published by Activision. The game includes a microphone and it has songs from the show including songs performed by the coaches.
The show premiered in Canada on April 26, 2011 on CTV. In Asia, the series aired on August 21, 2011 on AXN, but later transferred to Star World (now Fox Life) starting Season 11. It premiered in New Zealand on July 16, 2011 on TV2, in Australia on August 9, 2011 on Go!, in South Africa on October 5, 2011 on SABC 3, and on March 31, 2012 in the Philippines on Studio 23 (now S + A).
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what is the best explanation of the purpose of alicia’s list | The Official Story - wikipedia
The Official Story (Spanish: La historia oficial) is a 1985 Argentine drama historical film directed by Luis Puenzo and written by Puenzo and Aída Bortnik. It stars Norma Aleandro, Héctor Alterio, Chunchuna Villafañe and Hugo Arana. In the United Kingdom, it was released as The Official Version.
The film deals with the story of an upper middle class couple who lives in Buenos Aires with an illegally adopted child. The mother comes to realize that her daughter may be the child of a desaparecido, a victim of the forced disappearances that occurred during Argentina 's last military dictatorship (1976 - 1983), which saw widespread human rights violations and a genocide.
Among several other international awards, it won the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film at the 58th Academy Awards.
The film is set in Argentina in the 1980s, in the last years of the country 's last military dictatorship, during which a campaign of state - sponsored terrorism produced thousands of killings and torture of accused political leftists and innocents alike, who were buried in unmarked graves or became desaparecidos.
Alicia, a teacher, and Roberto, a government agent, live in Buenos Aires with their adopted daughter, Gaby. On Gaby 's fifth birthday, Alicia wonders about Gaby 's real parents, a topic her husband has told her to ignore, although he seems to know the story of his daughter 's adoption.
Ana, Alicia 's longtime friend, returns from exile and tells Alicia about having been held and tortured for having lived with a man labeled as a subversive. When she tells Alicia that she had seen children taken away from their parents in jail, Alicia begins to think that Gaby 's parents may have been similarly arrested.
While searching for records about Gaby at a hospital, Alicia learns of an organization searching for missing children. A woman there, Sara, believes Gaby may be her granddaughter, whose parents had disappeared.
Alicia, like other members of the Argentine upper class, is not aware of how much killing and suffering has gone on in the country. Her views are challenged by a fellow teacher, Benitez (Patricio Contreras), and some of her students. One student argues that the government - issued history textbooks are "written by murderers. '' When Alicia reports the student, Benitez intervenes to protect him. Alicia gradually becomes friendly with Benitez as her research brings her closer to the truth.
Roberto faces stress at work due to the machinations of his colleagues, several of whom disappear over the course of the film. Ana confronts him and accuses him of denouncing her and causing her arrest. He also comes into friction with his liberal father and brother, who frown on his ties to the ruling conservative military elite and argue in favor of social justice.
Alicia brings Sara home to meet Roberto, and he becomes furious. That evening, Alicia surprises Roberto when she tells him that Gaby is not home, saying, "How does it feel not knowing where your child is? '' Although she tells him that Gaby is at his mother 's house, he becomes enraged and assaults her. The violence is interrupted by a telephone call from Gaby. While Gaby sings a nursery rhyme to Roberto, Alicia gets her purse and walks out the door, leaving her keys behind.
The film 's final shot shows Gaby sitting in a wicker rocking chair at her adopted grandparents ' house, continuing to sing.
The film is based on the real political events that took place in Argentina after Jorge Rafael Videla 's reactionary military junta assumed power on March 24, 1976. During the junta 's rule, the parliament was suspended; unions, political parties and provincial governments were banned; and, in what became known as the Dirty War, between 9,000 and 30,000 people deemed left - wing "subversives '' disappeared from society.
Like many progressive actors and others in the country, the lead actress in the film, Norma Aleandro, was forced into exile during this time. She traveled to Uruguay first and Spain later. She returned after the fall of the military government in 1983. Aleandro once said, "Alicia 's personal search is also my nation 's search for the truth about our history. The film is positive in the way it demonstrates that she can change her life despite all she is losing. ''
The Official Story can be considered alongside a group of other films that were the first to be made in Argentina after the downfall in 1983 of the last Argentine dictator, Gen. Leopoldo Galtieri, and his autocratic regime. These films deal frankly with the repression, the torture, and the disappearances during Argentina 's Dirty War in the 1970s and early 1980s; they include Funny Dirty Little War (1983) and Night of the Pencils (1986). A second group of films, which includes Verónico Cruz (1988) uses metaphor and hints at wider socio - political issues.
At first, director Puenzo, fearing for his safety, intended to shoot the film in secret, using hidden 16mm cameras. But the junta government fell right about the time the screenplay was completed.
The film was entirely shot in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, including the Plaza de Mayo where the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo congregated in the late 1970s with signs and pictures of desaparecidos who were subjected to forced disappearance by the Argentine military in the Dirty War. The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo continue to protest every Thursday afternoon at 3: 30 pm in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires.
The Official Story first opened in Argentina on April 3, 1985. It has also been featured at various film festivals including the Toronto Festival of Festivals, the Berlin International Film Festival, the Cannes Film Festival, and the Mar del Plata Film Festival.
The film won many awards when first released and, as such, the drama was widely well received in the 1980s. Walter Goodman, film critic for The New York Times, believes the film was well balanced, and wrote, "Mr. Puenzo 's film is unwaveringly committed to human rights, yet it imposes no ideology or doctrine. The further miracle is that this is the 39 - year - old director 's first feature film. ''
Critic Roger Ebert lauded the film in his film review, writing, "The Official Story is part polemic, part thriller, part tragedy. It belongs on the list with films like Z, Missing and El Norte, which examine the human aspects of political unrest. It is a movie that asks some very hard questions... Alicia is played in the movie by Norma Aleandro, whose performance won the best actress award at this year 's Cannes Film Festival. It is a performance that will be hard to forget, particularly since so much of it is internal. Some of the key moments in the film come as we watch Aleandro and realize what must be taking place inside her mind, and inside her conscience. Most political films play outside the countries that they are about; "The Official Story '' is now actually playing in Argentina, where it must be almost unbearably painful for some of the members of its audiences. It was almost as painful for me. ''
Film critics Frederic and Mary Ann Brussat, of the website Spirituality and Practice, were painfully touched by the story they viewed. They write, "The Official Story is a wrenching and painful drama that crystallizes the horror and the obscenity of political activities that annihilate family solidarity in the name of ideology... The Official Story packs a shattering visceral punch. ''
A few critics were dismissive of the story Puenzo tells. For example, The Chicago Reader 's Dave Kehr thought "Puenzo 's methods are so crudely manipulative... that the film quickly uses up the credit of its good intentions. ''
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when does episode 10 of seal team come on | SEAL Team (TV series) - wikipedia
SEAL Team is an American military drama television series created by Benjamin Cavell. The series is produced by CBS Television Studios, and began airing on CBS on September 27, 2017.
The series follows an elite unit of United States Navy SEALs portrayed by David Boreanaz, Max Thieriot, Jessica Paré, Neil Brown Jr., A.J. Buckley and Toni Trucks. SEAL Team received a pilot order from CBS in January 2017, and was ordered to series in May 2017. The series received a full - season order on October 12, 2017, bringing the first season to a total of 22 episodes.
The series follows Bravo Team, a sub-unit of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group, the most elite unit of Navy SEALs, as they plan and undertake dangerous missions worldwide with little notice, and the burden on them and their families.
(Enlisted SEALs have Special Warfare Operator specific ratings. See US Navy SEAL ratings.)
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 69 % based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 5.75 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "SEAL Team 's solidly written first season offers compelling characters and hints at broader potential, even if it 's somewhat undermined by an overall sense of predictability. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 57 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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who does kara danvers end up with in the comics | Supergirl (Kara Zor - El) - wikipedia
Supergirl is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by writer Otto Binder and designed by artist Al Plastino. Supergirl first appeared in a story published in Action Comics # 252 (May 1959) titled "The Supergirl from Krypton ''.
Kara Zor - El is the biological cousin of Kal - El (Superman). Since the character 's comic book debut, Kara Zor - El 's Supergirl has been adapted into various media, including merchandise, television, and film. However, during the 1980s and the revolution of the Modern Age of Comics, Superman editors believed the character 's history had become too convoluted, and desired to re-establish Superman as "The Last Son of Krypton ''. Supergirl was thus killed during the 1985 limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths and retconned out of existence. In the decades following Crisis, several characters unrelated to Superman used the Supergirl alias.
Kara Zor - El re-entered mainstream continuity in 2004 when DC Comics Senior Vice President and Executive Editor Dan DiDio, along with editor Eddie Berganza and comic book writer Jeph Loeb, reintroduced the character in the Superman / Batman storyline "The Supergirl from Krypton ''. The title paid homage to the original character 's 1959 debut. As the current Supergirl, Kara Zor - El stars in her own monthly comic book series. With DC 's 2011 relaunch, Kara, like most of the DC Universe, was revamped. DC relaunched the Supergirl comic in August 2016 as part of their DC Rebirth initiative. Several actors have played Supergirl in a motion picture and TV series including Helen Slater, Laura Vandervoort, and most recently Melissa Benoist in a shared DC Arrowverse.
Although Kara Zor - El was the first character to use the name "Supergirl, '' DC Comics tested three different female versions of Superman prior to her debut.
The first story to feature a female counterpart to Superman was "Lois Lane -- Superwoman, '' which was published in Action Comics # 60 (May 1943). In the story, a hospitalized Lois Lane dreams she has gained superpowers thanks to a blood transfusion from the Man of Steel. She begins her own career as "Superwoman '', complete with a version of Superman 's costume.
In the Superboy # 78 story entitled "Claire Kent, Alias Super-Sister '', Superboy saves the life of an alien woman named Shar - La, who turns Superboy into a girl, in retaliation for his disparaging thoughts about women drivers which she picked up telepathically. In Smallville, Clark claims to be Claire Kent, an out - of - town relative who is staying with the Kents. When in costume, he appears as Superboy 's sister, Super-Sister, and claims the two have exchanged places. Once Superboy has learned his lesson about feeling more respect for women, Shar - La reveals the episode to be a dream which she projected into Superboy 's mind.
In Superman # 123 (August 1958), Jimmy Olsen uses a magic totem to wish a "Super-Girl '' into existence as a companion and aid to Superman; however, the two frequently get in each other 's way until she is fatally injured protecting Superman from a Kryptonite meteor. At her insistence, Jimmy wishes the dying girl out of existence. DC used this story to gauge public response to the concept of a completely new super-powered female counterpart to Superman.
The Kara Zor - El version of Supergirl finally appeared in Action Comics # 252 (May 1959). Otto Binder wrote and Al Plastino illustrated her début story, in which Kara was born and raised in Argo City (unnamed until later issues), a fragment of Krypton that survived destruction. When the city is doomed by a meteor shower, Kara is sent to Earth by her parents, Zor - El and Alura (unnamed until later issues), to be raised by her cousin Kal - El, known as Superman. Supergirl adopted the secret identity of an orphan "Linda Lee '', and made Midvale Orphanage her home. Supergirl promised Superman that she would keep her existence on Earth a secret, so that he may use her as a "secret weapon '', but that did n't stop Supergirl from exploring her new powers covertly. Action Comics # 255 published reader 's letters - of - comment to Supergirl 's first appearance; she had allegedly generated a sizeable and mostly positive reaction.
Supergirl, from her debut onwards, became a regular backup strip in Action Comics. She joined the Legion of Super-Heroes, like her cousin had done as a teenager, and in Action Comics # 279 (July 1961) she was adopted by Fred and Edna Danvers, becoming "Linda Lee Danvers ''. Supergirl acted for three years as Superman 's secret weapon, and her adventures during that time have been compared to contemporary developments in feminist thinking in work such as Betty Friedan 's The Feminine Mystique. She was at last introduced by her super-powered cousin to an unsuspecting world in Action Comics # 285 (February 1962).
During her first quarter of a century Linda Danvers would have many professions, from student, to student advisor, to actor, and even TV camera operator. She shared Action Comics with Superman until transferring to the lead in Adventure Comics at the end of the 1960s. In 1972 she finally moved to her own short - lived eponymous magazine, before DC merged its Supergirl, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen titles into a single anthology title named The Superman Family. In 1982 Supergirl was relaunched into her own magazine.
In 1985, the maxi - series Crisis on Infinite Earths was conceived as a way to reduce DC continuity to a single universe in which all characters maintained a single history. Despite Supergirl 's continued popularity and status as a central member of the "Superman Family '', the editors at DC Comics and the creators of the maxi - series decided to kill Supergirl off during the Crisis. According to Marv Wolfman, writer of Crisis on Infinite Earths:
Before Crisis it seemed that half of Krypton had survived the explosion. We had Superman, Supergirl, Krypto, the Phantom Zone criminals, the bottle city of Kandor, and many others. Our goal was to make Superman unique. We went back to his origin and made Kal - El the only survivor of Krypton. That, sadly, was why Supergirl had to die. However, we were thrilled by all the letters we received saying Supergirl 's death in Crisis was the best Supergirl story they ever read. Thank you. By the way, I miss Kara, too.
The idea of killing Supergirl was first conceived by DC 's vice president / executive editor Dick Giordano, who lobbied for the death to DC 's publishers. He later said he has never had any regrets about this, explaining, "Supergirl was created initially to take advantage of the high Superman sales and not much thought was put into her creation. She was created essentially as a female Superman. With time, writers and artists improved upon her execution, but she never did really add anything to the Superman mythos -- at least not for me. '' The poor initial reception of the 1984 film Supergirl was also blamed by some sources.
In 1989, in the tale "Christmas with the Super-Heroes '' the soul of Kara appears to Boston "Deadman '' Brand, cheers him up, and then disappears from continuity until 2001 (see below).
Several characters unrelated to Superman soon took on the Supergirl persona, including the Matrix (a shapeshifting genetically engineered life - form that ' defaulted ' as Supergirl), Linda Danvers (the result of Matrix merging with the dying Linda Danvers and becoming an Earth - bound angel of fire), and Cir - El (Superman 's apparent daughter from a possible future).
A heroine resembling the Pre-Crisis Kara would later appear in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds # 5, along with an entire army of Legionnaires gathered from alternate worlds, times, and realities, to battle the Time Trapper.
Prior to the post-Crisis introduction of Kara Zor - El into mainstream continuity, the pre-Crisis Kara Zor - El made an appearance in Peter David 's Supergirl: Many Happy Returns. The then - current Supergirl series, at the time starring Linda Danvers, was in danger of cancellation and Peter David thought a story arc involving Kara Zor - El would be enough to revitalize the series. In an interview with Cliff Biggers of Newsarama, David states:
Although it had always been in the back of my mind that doing a Kara - related storyline might be fun, the impetus at this point was, frankly, sales... I was trying to figure out who currently was n't reading the series, and came up with two groups that we 'd have a shot at getting: Those who 'd become bored with the current storyline, and those who did n't accept any Supergirl save Kara. By doing ' Many Happy Returns, ' I sought to pull in both potential audiences.
In the Linda Danvers ' Supergirl series issues 48 and 49 in 2001, the original dead Kara appears as Linda 's "guardian angel ''. Then in issues 75 to 80, "Many Happy Returns '', a young Kara appears from an earlier time long before the Crisis. The paradox becomes a moral crisis for Linda who tries to take her place as the Crisis sacrifice, living for years in a Silver Age universe where "no one swears, the villains are always easy to defeat, and everything 's very, very clean. '' This run was illustrated by Ed Benes who had also illustrated Gail Simone 's Birds of Prey which had a similar whimsical camaraderie between its female leads.
Linda 's inability to ultimately save Kara is so devastating that it ends her own career as Supergirl. This story arc is usually cited as one of the best Supergirl stories ever written. The series ended with issue 80.
After the launch of the Superman / Batman comic book series, Executive Editor Dan DiDio had been looking for a way to simplify the Supergirl character from her convoluted post-crisis history; the simplest version of course, was Superman 's cousin. Jeph Loeb and editor Eddie Berganza found an opening to reintroduce the character following the conclusion of the first story arc of Superman / Batman. Loeb states:
It was the convergence of two trains heading on toward each other. I was working on the Superman monthly when Superman Group Editor Eddie "Extravaganza '' Berganza and I were kicking around an Armageddon type story where this giant asteroid from Krypton was making its way toward Earth, and somewhere out past Neptune Superman was beginning to feel it. We figured we could tie it into "The Fall of Luthor '' since DC was very kind to let me both put Lex in the White House and figure out how to get him out. Eddie and I started giggling over the possibilities of there being "something '' in the asteroid. Or "someone '' in the asteroid -- neither of us daring to speak her name, but we both knew who (we) were talking about.
The modern version of Kara Zor - El made her debut in Superman / Batman # 8 (2004). Kara takes the mantle of Supergirl at the conclusion of the storyline. The Supergirl comic book series would later be relaunched, now starring Kara Zor - El as "The Girl of Steel ''. The first arc of the new series was written by Jeph Loeb and illustrated by Ian Churchill. Loeb would later describe the appeal of writing for Supergirl:
I love that she has all this power and has to learn what it is to be a superhero in the DCU, '' said Loeb. "It 's one thing to try that with Manhunter (which is terrific), but when you have an icon like Supergirl trying to find her way and, at the same time, at a power level that we have n't even begun to explore... it should make for a bitchin ' good time.
As the character continued to be reinvented, steps towards regarding the iconic character were some of the most prominent changes. Artist Jamal Igle and editor Matt Idleson moved to transition the character away from red panties under her skirt to biker shorts, feeling such a change was a logical progression and "more respectable. ''
In September 2011, DC Comics began The New 52, in which it cancelled all of its monthly superhero titles and relaunched 52 new ones, wiping out most of its past continuity in the process. One of the new titles was a new Supergirl series (Volume 6) that featured a new origin for Kara and was published between 2011 and 2015. Artist Mahmud Asrar designed a new costume for the character which strongly deviated from her classic, "cheerleader '' suit, a change generated criticism from some readers.
The 2016 DC Comics title relaunch Rebirth incorporates several elements (such as the costume, the setting and some characters) from the Supergirl television series. The DC Rebirth initiative undid the New 52 's modern recreations, bringing DC 's heroes back to their more classic iterations. Supergirl 's new series (Volume 7) was titled Supergirl: Rebirth, written by Steven Orlando. The first arc was pencilled by Brian Ching, who also redesigned Supergirl 's costume in reference to a more classic look. In April 2018, it was announced that the title would be cancelled after issue # 20, which featured DC 's first non-binary character. DC Comics soon oficially announced that Supergirl would be revived under a new creative team, with new writer Marc Andreyko and artist Kevin Maguire.
In her debut story, Kara Zor - El is the last survivor of Argo City of the planet Krypton. Although Argo, which had survived the explosion of the planet, drifted through space as a self - sustaining environment, the soil of the colony eventually turned into Kryptonite; and though Kara 's father Zor - El placed lead sheeting above the ground to protect the citizens from radiation, meteorites pierced the sheeting, and the Kryptonians died of radiation poisoning instead of replacing the metal.
In Supergirl 's subsequent backup feature in Action Comics drawn by artist Jim Mooney for ten years until 1968, Supergirl adopts the identity of Linda Lee, an orphan at Midvale Orphanage presided over by headmistress Miss Hart. She disguises herself by hiding her blond hair beneath a brunette wig; Supergirl interacts with humans on a person - to - person basis performing good deeds and saving the world by helping one person at a time, and she also devises clever schemes as "Superman 's Secret Weapon, '' saving him many times and avoiding adoption before Superman can introduce her publicly.
While temporarily powerless due to the scheming of Kandorian scientist Lesla - Lar, who is out to supplant her on Earth, Linda allows herself to be adopted by engineer and rocket scientist Fred Danvers and his wife, Edna. In time, she reveals her secret identity to her adoptive parents on the same day her cousin Superman finally introduces her to the world in the finale of then - DC 's longest playing series ever (eight chapters) aptly called "The World 's Greatest Heroine ''.
When frequent dreams about her parents being alive turn out to be real, she builds a machine aided by her engineer father 's talent, and brings them both back alive from the "Survival Zone '' where they had both teleported during Argo City 's final moments. Zor - El and Allura eventually end up living in Kandor, and when the city in the bottle is enlarged, they both go on to live in Rokyn / New Krypton, where they have the sad duty of receiving her mortal remains after "Crisis '' for burial.
Graduating from high school in 1965, Linda Lee goes to college on a scholarship and stays in Stanhope College until she graduates in 1971. During this era, she is helped by her pet cat Streaky, her Super-Horse pet Comet, and befriends Lena Thorul, who had first appeared in the Lois Lane series. Kara is also a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes, where she becomes close to Brainiac 5. In addition, Linda has boyfriends from the orphanage (Richard "Dick '' Malverne) and from Atlantis (Jerro the merboy).
In 1967, Supergirl meets Batgirl for the first time in World 's Finest Comics. Developing a strong friendship, the two characters teamed up many times again, as in Superman Family # 171, or Adventure # 381. In 1969, Supergirl left Action Comics and became a featured character in Adventure Comics beginning with issue # 381 (June 1969).
During the 1970s, Supergirl 's costume changed frequently, as did her career in her civilian life. In her secret identity as Linda Lee Danvers, Kara Zor - El took a variety of jobs including graduate student in acting, television reporter, and student counselor, and finally became an actress on the TV soap Secret Hearts.
After long - time Superman family editor Mort Weisinger retired in 1971, the character underwent revitalization under editor Joe Orlando and artist Mike Sekowsky. Wearing a series of new outfits, leaving her adopted foster home with the Danvers family, Linda goes on to San Francisco where she works for KSF - TV as a camera operator and develops a crush on her boss, Geoffrey Anderson. These stories introduced Supergirl 's most memorable villain from this period: Lex Luthor 's niece Nasthalthia, or Nasty. Nasty had made two appearances towards the end of Linda 's college years, then pursued her to KSF - TV, trying to secure proof of her dual identity.
Supergirl starred in her first solo eponymous monthly series beginning in 1972 until October 1974, when her monthly title merged with Superman 's Girl Friend, Lois Lane, and Superman 's Pal Jimmy Olsen to produce a new title: then - highest DC selling series called The Superman Family, where she eventually became the steady lead story. Linda worked as a student advisor at New Athens Experimental School, before leaving for New York to follow a career in acting with daytime soap Secret Hearts.
In 1982 Supergirl received a second monthly solo series titled The Daring New Adventures of Supergirl, relocating the character to Chicago as Linda became a mature student of Psychology. Industry legend, and former DC Publisher, Carmine Infantino provided the pencilled art (Bob Oksner inked). With issue 13 the title was revamped, with a new costume design (sporting a red headband) and the title shortened to just Supergirl. The series ran until sudden cancellation in 1984, only two months before the character 's debut in a big - budget Hollywood film starring Helen Slater.
In the Crisis on Infinite Earths (1985) the greatest heroes from Earth - One, Earth - Two, Earth - Four, Earth - S, and Earth - X join forces in order to defeat the Anti-Monitor. When Superman comes face to face with the Anti-Monitor and is knocked unconscious, Supergirl rushes to save him before he is killed. She is able to fight him off long enough for Dr. Light to carry her cousin to a safe distance, but is killed by the Anti-Monitor. A public memorial service for Supergirl takes place in Chicago, where Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) delivers the eulogy. In her remarks she states "Kara is a hero. She will not be forgotten. '' Superman then gives his late cousin burial by taking her corpse to Rokyn / New Krypton to Zor - El and Allura. A Superman issue the next month reveals that Kara had experienced a premonition about her own passing. However, when the universe is rebooted, the timeline is altered. Kara Zor - El and all memory of her is erased from existence.
After these events, the soul of Kara Zor - El made another appearance in continuity three years later in a story titled "Should Auld Acquaintance Be Forgot '' in Christmas with the Super-Heroes # 2 (1989). Within the story, Boston "Deadman '' Brand tries to feel the warmth of Christmas by possessing revelers ' bodies. Feeling guilty upon the realization that he has been stealing others ' Christmases, he flies off feeling sorry for himself for being denied a reward after a year of helping people. A warmly - dressed blonde woman approaches Brand, startling him. Somehow seeing the normally invisible Brand, she converses with him, reminding him,
She reminds Brand that even though he is dead, he is still human, and he should rejoice because it means his spirit is still alive. As the woman leaves, Brand asks her who she is, to which she replies, "My name is Kara. Though I doubt that will mean anything to you. '' The story, written by Alan Brennert and penciled by Dick Giordano, is dedicated to Otto Binder and Jim Mooney, adding: "We still remember. ''
Finally, the soul of Kara Zor - El appeared twice during Peter David 's run, specifically in issues # 48 and # 49 when she appears before a defeated and imprisoned then - Supergirl, Linda Danvers from Earth, and comforts her. Linda acknowledges she has been helped three times by her phantom - friend, and when she asks her name she is told by the smiling figure: "I have gone by many names, but the one I am most fond of is: Kara! ''
In 2004, Jeph Loeb reintroduced Kara Zor - El into post-Zero Hour continuity during a storyline in the series Superman / Batman. She is the biological cousin of Superman, and although chronologically older than him, the ship in which she traveled to Earth was caught in a large green Kryptonite meteorite which held her in a state of suspended animation for much of the journey. Making her having the appearance of an 18 - 19 year old woman. Still, Supergirl sometimes saw Superman as a child, due to last carrying him as a baby. DC Comics relaunched the Supergirl, the first story arc of which was written by Loeb. showcases Supergirl on a journey of self - discovery. Along her journey, she encounters Power Girl (Kara Zor - El 's counterpart from another universe), the Teen Titans, the Outsiders, the Justice League of America, and arch - villain Lex Luthor.
During the company wide crossover series Infinite Crisis (2005), a sequel to Crisis on Infinite Earths, Supergirl is transported to the 31st century, where she is revered as a member of the Superman family and joins the Legion of Super-Heroes. DC Comics renamed the monthly series Legion of Super-Heroes to Supergirl and the Legion of Super-Heroes. Beginning with issue # 16. In the limited series 52, which chronicles the events that took place during the missing year after the end of Infinite Crisis, Donna Troy recalls the original Kara Zor - El and her sacrifice to save the universe. Supergirl returns to the 21st century during the course of 52. After briefly filling in for a temporarily depowered Superman as guardian of Metropolis, she assumes the identity of Flamebird to fight crime in the bottle city of Kandor with Power Girl as Nightwing in Greg Rucka 's arc Supergirl: Kandor.
In 2007, Supergirl appeared in the miniseries Amazons Attack! That same year, she joined the Teen Titans for five issues.
Conversations with other heroes who maintain secret identities lead Kara to the conclusion that she needs to make a deeper connection with human beings. She accepts Lana Lang 's proposal to present her to the Daily Planet staff as "Linda Lang '', Lana 's teenaged niece.
In the 2008 - 2009 "New Krypton '' story arc, in which Superman discovers and frees the real Kandor and a large number of its citizens, Supergirl is reunited with her father, Zor - El and mother, Alura, though Zor - El is killed by the villain Reactron. When a planet is formed that the Kryptonians call New Krypton, Kara is torn between her life on Earth, and her obligation to her mother, eventually joining the New Krypton Science Guild.
Supergirl subsequently appears in the 2009 miniseries Justice League: Cry for Justice, and the 2009 -- 2010 storyline "Blackest Night ''. The New Krypton storyline would later be resolved in the "World of New Krypton '', "Superman: Last Stand of New Krypton '', "War of the Supermen '' storylines, resulting in the destruction of New Krypton and seeing Supergirl mourn her people.
Supergirl subsequently appears in the 2010 "Brightest Day '' storyline, the follow up to "Blackest Night ''.
In this continuity, Kara 's ship lands in Smallville, Kansas but hurtles through the Earth and emerges in Siberia.
Kara has no memory of the destruction of Krypton, and believes it is only three days since her spacecraft was launched. She learns the truth about Krypton 's destruction from Superman, and later journeys through a wormhole to Argo City, which she finds in orbit around a blue sun. She finds the city in ruins, with no explanation of how it met that fate, and is attacked by a female Worldkiller named Reign before the city plummets into the sun. When Reign and her fellow Worldkiller plan to enslave the Earth, Supergirl returns there to defeat them, and thus adopts Earth as her new home.
After several battles with supervillains, including the Worldkillers, superweapons of Kryptonian design, she accepts Krypton 's destruction, but continues to grapple with her grief. Her desire to restore Krypton results in her being manipulated into nearly destroying the Earth by another Kryptonian whom she falls in love with. Upon realizing his manipulation, she kills him by driving Kryptonite through his heart, and succumbs to Kryptonite poisoning.
Following her poisoning, Supergirl departs the Earth to die alone. While adrift in interstellar space, she encounters a planet under attack by monsters, and quickly intervenes to save them, unaware that the entire planet is a trap by Brainiac. She is captured and restrained by Cyborg Superman, but after a struggle, manages to escape both Brainiac and Cyborg Superman. Returning to Earth, she is sent into the past by the Oracle alongside Superman and Superboy, where she ensures that a resurrected H'el can not save Krypton, and sacrifices the planet and her family in order to save the universe.
Back on Earth, she encounters the assassin Lobo. Initially eager for a peaceful resolution, seeing a kind of kinship with him in their both being lone survivors of their respective worlds (although not truly aware of Lobo 's circumstances), Kara 's encounter with the Czarnian would reveal deep mental wounds, resulting in the unleashing of her rage and transformation into a Red Lantern. Driven insane by rage, Kara wanders space, attacking everyone in her way, until captured by several Green Lanterns and brought to Hal Jordan. Immediately recognizing a Kryptonian and unable to remove the power ring without killing her, he brings her to Guy Gardner, the leader of one of the two Red Lantern factions, who manages to restore her sanity.
After some time under Guy Gardner 's tutelage and protecting the galaxy as a Red Lantern, after being discharged from the Red Lantern Corps (because Guy did not want for her to die needlessly against Atrocitus ' splinter group), on her way back to Earth, Kara encounters the leader of the Worldkillers, who are revealed to be parasitic suits of armor. He attempts to assimilate Kara as his host, but she voluntarily subjects herself to Kryptonite poisoning in order to stop him, and eventually flies into the Sun and removes her power ring, killing her and removing him from her body. However, Kara is revealed to be immortal while in the Sun 's core, and is restored to life without the power ring or any Kryptonite poisoning, immediately destroying the Worldkiller. She later helps Guy against Atrocitus and his Red Lantern splinter group.
During the Convergence story arc, the original Kara Zor - El who had sacrificed her life during Crisis on Infinite Earths makes an appearance on the amalgamated planet of Telos. At the end of the saga she volunteers herself to once again fight the Anti-Monitor but this time, with the help of her timeline 's Barry Allen, the Pre-Flashpoint Superman (in tow with his pregnant wife, Lois Lane), and a repentant Parallax (Zero Hour Hal Jordan), vows to defeat him for the sake of the multiverse 's continued existence. Without it being seen, those left on Telos discover the group was successful and all previous timelines (with the mysterious exception of the pre-Flashpoint / pre-New 52 DC universe) from DC history had been re-established, though the fate of the original Kara Zor - El and her fellows went unmentioned.
A few more details of the battle against the Anti-Monitor are later revealed during the New 52 comic mini-series (leading into DC 's Rebirth event). After the defeat of Anti-Monitor, Pre-New 52 Clark and Lois decide to start life anew in the closest universe they can find (mysteriously yet unable to see their old universe even though the rest of the multiverse had been restored) while Pre-Crisis Kara Zor - El, along with her contemporary Barry Allen and Zero Hour Parallax / Hal Jordan, decide to find their place in the universe and go off to do so. Her fate as of that story arc is yet to be revealed.
After the events that led to the death of the New 52 version of Superman, 16 - year - old Kara lives in National City with her adoptive parents, D.E.O. agents Jeremiah and Eliza Danvers, where she attends high school and works with the agency as led by Cameron Chase. As part of her civilian identity, Kara receives special glasses that darken her blond hair when posing as Kara Danvers. Kara also goes on an internship at Cat Grant 's CATCO alongside Ben Rubel, whom she befriends.
In her opening arc "The Reign of the Cyborg Supermen '', Kara discovers that the cyborg Zor - El, whom she had battled in her New 52 title, is still active and has rebuilt other Kryptonians (her mother Alura included), planning to take over Earth. Supergirl defeats them but vows to help her father regardless of his actions. After National City discovers Supergirl has kept Zor - El 's "living '' status a secret, they become untrustful of her. Director Bones takes advantage of the heroine 's impopularity and, after taking control of the D.E.O., sends villains as an attempt to bring Kara down. She defeats all of them and regains trust from National 's City with Ben 's help as he shares a touching story on CATCO 's app, telling the citizens how Supergirl helped Lee Serano, a young non-binary teenager, out of trouble.
Like all Kryptonians under a yellow sun, the current version of Kara Zor - El possesses vast superhuman strength, speed, and stamina; invulnerability; flight; super breath; x-ray vision; telescopic and microscopic vision; freeze breath; heat vision; and super hearing.
Kara 's Pre-Crisis incarnation had all of the abilities of her Post-Crisis version, but to an unlimited degree. She also could create entire new powers on a whim and could sneeze entire solar systems away. She also could break infinity and hold her own against the entire DC Universe and win casually. Kryptonite was the only way to actually harm her, though she was still susceptible to magic. Supergirl could also break the time - barrier and easily throw a capsule into the 30th century. She could also regenerate from any injury instantaneously.
Continued exposure to a yellow sun will slowly increase abilities. Many characters in the DC Universe have noted that Supergirl appears at times to be even more powerful than Superman himself. This is noted by superman when he notes that he has spent his life subconsciously suppressing his powers in order to avoid hurting others.
There are numerous alternate versions of Supergirl. The most notable is Power Girl (real name Kara Zor - El, also known as Karen Starr) who first appeared in All Star Comics # 58 (January / February 1976).
Power Girl is the Earth - Two counterpart of Supergirl and the first cousin of Kal - L, Superman of the pre-Crisis Earth - Two. The infant Power Girl 's parents enabled her to escape the destruction of Krypton. Although she left the planet at the same time that Superman did, her ship took much longer to reach Earth - Two.
She has superhuman strength and the ability to fly and is the first chairwoman of the Justice Society of America. She sports a bob of blond hair; wears a distinctive white, red, and blue costume; and has an aggressive fighting style. Throughout her early appearances in All Star Comics, she is often at odds with Wildcat because his penchant for talking to her as if she were an ordinary human female rather than a superpowered Kryptonian annoys her.
She also fought alongside the Sovereign Seven team, replacing Rampart after his death though that series is not considered to be part of canon in the DC universe.
The 1985 limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths eliminated Earth - Two, causing her origin to change; she became the granddaughter of the Atlantean sorcerer Arion. However, story events culminating in the 2005 -- 2006 Infinite Crisis limited series restored her status as a refugee from the Krypton of the destroyed pre-Crisis Earth - Two universe.
Like the original Kara 's Streaky, Power Girl has a cat, featured in a story by Amanda Conner in Wonder Woman # 600.
This version of Supergirl is ranked as the 153rd greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine.
IGN also ranked this version of Supergirl as the 94th greatest comic book superhero, stating "for a character born of the Silver Age that saw everything from a Super Baby to a Super Monkey, Kara Zor - El grew into something much more than simply another marketing ploy to slap an ' S ' on. '' In 2013 IGN ranked Supergirl as the 17th greatest DC comic superhero, stating "she was an early example of a female sidekick developing a large fanbase in her own right '', and "Supergirl has been one of DC 's most powerful heroes, and a standard to hold other female heroes against. ''
Kara Zor - El appeared in over 750 stories published by DC from 1959 to 1985.
Kara Zor - El also appears as a supporting character in several issues of other DC Comics, including Superman, Action Comics, Teen Titans, Amazons Attack, World War III, and Wonder Girl. She has also appeared in many issues of Superman, Action Comics, and Superman New Krypton starting with the World Without Superman event in 2009, and continuing with the World Against Superman event going into 2010.
Listed in chronological order. All ages titles are not in continuity with the original or modern Kara.
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guns n roses sweet child o mine alternate | Sweet Child O ' Mine - wikipedia
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' is a song by American rock band Guns N ' Roses, appearing on their debut album, Appetite for Destruction. Released in August 1988 as the album 's third single, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the band 's only number 1 US single. Billboard ranked it the number 5 song of 1988. Re-released in 1989, it reached number 6 on the UK Singles Chart. Guitarist Slash said in 1990, "(The song) turned into a huge hit and now it makes me sick. I mean, I like it, but I hate what it represents. ''
Duff McKagan, 1988
Slash has been quoted as having an initial disdain for the song due to its roots as simply a "string skipping '' exercise and a joke at the time. During a jam session at the band 's house in the Sunset Strip, drummer Steven Adler and Slash were warming up and Slash began to play a "circus '' melody while making faces at Adler. Rhythm guitarist Izzy Stradlin asked Slash to play it again. Stradlin came up with some chords, Duff McKagan created a bassline and Adler planned a beat. In his autobiography, Slash said "within an hour my guitar exercise had become something else ''. Lead singer Axl Rose was listening to the musicians upstairs in his room and was inspired to write lyrics, which he completed by the following afternoon. He based it on his girlfriend Erin Everly, and declared that Lynyrd Skynyrd served as an inspiration "to make sure that we 'd got that heartfelt feeling ''. On the next composing session in Burbank, the band added a bridge and a guitar solo.
When the band recorded demos with producer Spencer Proffer, he suggested adding a breakdown at the song 's end. The musicians agreed, but were not sure what to do. Listening to the demo in a loop, Rose started saying to himself, "Where do we go? Where do we go now? '' and Proffer suggested that he sing that.
The "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' video depicts the band rehearsing in the Huntington Ballroom at Huntington Beach, surrounded by crew members. All of the band members ' girlfriends at the time were shown in the clip: Rose 's girlfriend Erin Everly, whose father is Don Everly of The Everly Brothers; McKagan 's girlfriend Mandy Brix, from the all - female rock band the Lame Flames; Stradlin 's girlfriend Angela Nicoletti; Adler 's girlfriend Cheryl Swiderski; and Slash 's girlfriend Sally McLaughlin. Stradlin 's dog was also featured. The video was successful on MTV, and helped launch the song to success on mainstream radio.
To make "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' more marketable to MTV and radio stations, the song was cut from 5: 56 to 4: 59, for the video / radio edit, with much of Slash 's solo removed. This drew the ire of the band, including Rose, who commented on it in a 1989 interview with Rolling Stone: "I hate the radio edit of ' Sweet Child O ' Mine. ' Radio stations said, "Well, your vocals are n't cut. '' "My favorite part of the song is Slash 's slow solo; it 's the heaviest part for me. There 's no reason for it to be missing except to create more space for commercials, so the radio - station owners can get more advertising dollars. When you get the chopped version of ' Paradise City ' or half of ' Sweet Child ' and ' Patience ' cut, you 're getting screwed. '' The video uses the same edits as the radio version.
A 7 - inch vinyl format and cassette single were released. The album version of the song was included on the US single release, while the UK single was the "edit / remix '' version. The 12 '' vinyl format also contained the longer LP version. The b - side to the single is a non-album, live version of "It 's So Easy ''.
On an interview on Eddie Trunk 's New York radio show in May 2006, Rose stated that his original concept for the video focused on the theme of drug trafficking. According to Rose, the video was to depict an Asian woman carrying a baby into a foreign land, only to discover at the end that the child was dead and filled with heroin. This concept was rejected by Geffen Records.
There is also an alternative video for "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' in the same place, but with different shots and filmed in black & white.
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' placed number 37 on Guitar World 's list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Solos. '' It also came in at number 3 on Blender 's 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born, and at number 198 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In March 2005, Q magazine placed it at number 6 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. On a 2004 Total Guitar magazine poll, the introduction 's famous riff was voted number 1 riff of all - time by the readers of the magazine. It was also in Rolling Stone 's 40 Greatest Songs that Changed the World. It places number 7 in VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 80s '', and placed number 210 on the RIAA Songs of the Century list.
The song is currently ranked as the 104th greatest song of all time, as well as the best song of 1987, by Acclaimed Music. The song has sold 2,609,000 digital copies in the United States as of March 2012.
In 2015, the web page of the Australian music TV channel MAX published an article by music writer Nathan Jolly that noted similarities between "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' and the song "Unpublished Critics '' by the Australian band Australian Crawl, from 1981. The article included both songs, inviting readers to compare the two. It also cited a reader 's comment on an earlier article that had originally drawn attention to the similarities between the songs. As of May 2015, this comment no longer appeared on the earlier article. The story went viral quickly, encouraging several comments on both the MAX article and the suggestion that "Unpublished Critics '' had influenced "Sweet Child o ' Mine '', including one from Duff McKagan, bass player with Guns N ' Roses when "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' was written and recorded. McKagan found the similarities between the songs "stunning, '' but said he had not previously heard "Unpublished Critics. ''
All tracks written by Guns N ' Roses except where noted.
The song was covered by Sheryl Crow on the soundtrack to Big Daddy, and released as a bonus track on her third studio album, The Globe Sessions. This version earned her a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. The recording was produced by Rick Rubin and Crow. A music video for Crow 's version was also released, directed by Stéphane Sednaoui. Crow performed the song live at Woodstock ' 99. Ultimate Classic Rock profiled the song as part of a series on "Terrible Classic Rock Covers '', and Rolling Stone readers named it the 4th worst cover song of all - time.
"Sweet Child O ' Mine '' has been used in several films, such as:
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what are the parts of the elbow called | Elbow - wikipedia
The elbow is the visible joint between the upper and lower parts of the arm. It includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the elbow pit, the lateral and medial epicondyles, and the elbow joint. The elbow joint is the synovial hinge joint between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body.
The elbow is specific to humans and other primates.
The name for the elbow in Latin is cubitus, and so the word cubital is used in some elbow - related terms, as in cubital nodes for example.
The elbow joint has three different portions surrounded by a common joint capsule. These are joints between the three bones of the elbow, the humerus of the upper arm, and the radius and the ulna of the forearm.
When in anatomical position there are four main bony landmarks of the elbow. At the lower part of the humerus are the medial and lateral epicondyles, on the side closest to the body (medial) and on the side away from the body (lateral) surfaces. The third landmark is the olecranon found at the head of the ulna. These lie on a horizontal line called the Hueter line. When the elbow is flexed, they form an equilateral triangle called the Hueter triangle.
At the surface of the humerus where it faces the joint is the trochlea. The groove running across the trochlea is, in most people, vertical on the anterior side but spirals off on the posterior side. This results in the forearm being aligned to the upper arm during flexion, but forming an angle to the upper arm during extension -- an angle known as the carrying angle.
The superior radioulnar joint shares the joint capsule with the elbow joint but plays no functional role at the elbow.
The elbow joint and the superior radioulnar joint are enclosed by a single fibrous capsule. The capsule is strengthened by ligaments at the sides but relatively weak in front and behind.
On the anterior side the capsule consists mainly of longitudinal fibres. However, some bundles among these fibers run obliquely, thicken and strengthen the capsule, and are referred to as the capsular ligament. Deep fibres of the brachialis muscle insert anteriorly into the capsule and act to pull it and the underlying membrane during flexion in order to prevent them from being pinched.
On the posterior side the capsule is thin and mainly composed of transverse fibres. A few of these fibres stretch across the olecranon fossa without attaching to it and form a transverse band with a free upper border. On the ulnar side, the capsule reaches down to the posterior part of the annular ligament. The posterior capsule is attached to the triceps tendon which prevents the capsule from being pinched during extension.
The synovial membrane of the elbow joint is very extensive. On the humerus, it extends up from the articular margins and covers the coronoid and radial fossae anteriorly and the olecranon fossa posteriorly. Distally, it is prolonged down to the neck of the radius and the superior radioulnar joint. It is supported by the quadrate ligament below the annular ligament where it also forms a fold which gives the head of the radius freedom of movement.
Several synovial folds project into the recesses of the joint. These folds or plicae are remnants of normal embryonic development and can be categorized as either anterior (anterior humeral recess) or posterior (olecranon recess). A crescent - shaped fold is commonly present between the head of the radius and the capitulum of the humerus.
On the humerus there are extrasynovial fat pads adjacent to the three articular fossae. These pads fill the radial and coronoid fossa anteriorly during extension, and the olecranon fossa posteriorly during flexion. They are displaced when the fossae are occupied by the bony projections of the ulna and radius.
The elbow, like other joints, has ligaments on either side. These are triangular bands which blend with the joint capsule. They are positioned so that they always lie across the transverse joint axis and are, therefore, always relatively tense and impose strict limitations on abduction, adduction, and axial rotation at the elbow.
The ulnar collateral ligament has its apex on the medial epicondyle. Its anterior band stretches from the anterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial edge of the coronoid process, while the posterior band stretches from posterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial side of the olecranon. These two bands are separated by a thinner intermediate part and their distal attachments are united by a transverse band below which the synovial membrane protrudes during joint movements. The anterior band is closely associated with the tendon of the superficial flexor muscles of the forearm, even being the origin of flexor digitorum superficialis. The ulnar nerve crosses the intermediate part as it enters the forearm.
The radial collateral ligament is attached to the lateral epicondyle below the common extensor tendon. Less distinct than the ulnar collateral ligament, this ligament blends with the annular ligament of the radius and its margins are attached near the radial notch of the ulna.
There are three main flexor muscles at the elbow:
Brachialis is the main muscle used when the elbow is flexed slowly. During rapid and forceful flexion all three muscles are brought into action assisted by the superficial forearm flexors originating at the medial side of the elbow. The efficiency of the flexor muscles increases dramatically as the elbow is brought into midflexion (flexed 90 °) -- biceps reaches its angle of maximum efficiency at 80 -- 90 ° and brachialis at 100 -- 110 °.
Active flexion is limited to 145 ° by the contact between the anterior muscles of the upper arm and forearm, more so because they are hardened by contraction during flexion. Passive flexion (forearm is pushed against the upper arm with flexors relaxed) is limited to 160 ° by the bony projections on the radius and ulna as they reach to shallow depressions on the humerus; i.e. the head of radius being pressed against the radial fossa and the coronoid process being pressed against the coronoid fossa. Passive flexion is further limited by tension in the posterior capsular ligament and in triceps brachii.
Elbow extension is simply bringing the forearm back to anatomical position. This action is performed by triceps brachii with a negligible assistance from anconeus. Triceps originates with two heads posteriorly on the humerus and with its long head on the scapula just below the shoulder joint. It is inserted posteriorly on the olecranon.
Triceps is maximally efficient with the elbow flexed 20 -- 30 °. As the angle of flexion increases, the position of the olecranon approaches the main axis of the humerus which decreases muscle efficiency. In full flexion, however, the triceps tendon is "rolled up '' on the olecranon as on a pulley which compensates for the loss of efficiency. Because triceps ' long head is biarticular (acts on two joints), its efficiency is also dependent on the position of the shoulder.
Extension is limited by the olecranon reaching the olecranon fossa, tension in the anterior ligament, and resistance in flexor muscles. Forced extension results in a rupture in one of the limiting structures: olecranon fracture, torn capsule and ligaments, and, though the muscles are normally left unaffected, a bruised brachial artery.
The arteries supplying the joint are derived from an extensive circulatory anastomosis between the brachial artery and its terminal branches. The superior and inferior ulnar collateral branches of the brachial artery and the radial and middle collateral branches of the profunda brachii artery descend from above to reconnect on the joint capsule, where they also connect with the anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent branches of the ulnar artery; the radial recurrent branch of the radial artery; and the interosseous recurrent branch of the common interosseous artery.
The blood is brought back by vessels from the radial, ulnar, and brachial veins. There are two sets of lymphatic nodes at the elbow, normally located above the medial epicondyle -- the deep and superficial cubital nodes (also called epitrochlear nodes). The lymphatic drainage at the elbow is through the deep nodes at the bifurcation of the brachial artery, the superficial nodes drain the forearm and the ulnar side of the hand. The efferent lymph vessels from the elbow proceed to the lateral group of axillary lymph nodes.
The elbow is innervated anteriorly by branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus.
The elbow undergoes dynamic development of ossification centers through infancy and adolescence, with the order of both the appearance and fusion of the apophyseal growth centers being crucial in assessment of the pediatric elbow on radiograph, in order to distinguish a traumatic fracture or apophyseal separation from normal development. The order of appearance can be understood by the mnemonic CRITOE, referring to the capitellum, radial head, internal epicondyle, trochlea, olecranon, and external epicondyle at ages 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 years. These apophyseal centers then fuse during adolescence, with the internal epicondyle and olecranon fusing last. The ages of fusion are more variable than ossification, but normally occur at 13, 15, 17, 13, 16 and 13 years, respectively. In addition, the presence of a joint effusion can be inferenced by the presence of the fat pad sign, a structure that is normally physiologically present, but pathologic when elevated by fluid, and always pathologic when posterior.
The function of the elbow joint is to extend and flex the arm grasp and reach for objects. The range of movement in the elbow is from 0 degrees of elbow extension to 150 of elbow flexion. Muscles contributing to function are all flexion (biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis) and extension muscles (triceps and anconeus).
In humans, the main task of the elbow is to properly place the hand in space by shortening and lengthening the upper limb. While the superior radioulnar joint shares joint capsule with the elbow joint, it plays no functional role at the elbow.
With the elbow extended, the long axis of the humerus and that of the ulna coincide. At the same time, the articular surfaces on both bones are located in front of those axes and deviate from them at an angle of 45 °. Additionally, the forearm muscles that originate at the elbow are grouped at the sides of the joint in order not to interfere with its movement. The wide angle of flexion at the elbow made possible by this arrangement -- almost 180 ° -- allows the bones to be brought almost in parallel to each other.
When the arm is extended, with the palm facing forward or up, the bones of the upper arm (humerus) and forearm (radius and ulna) are not perfectly aligned. The deviation from a straight line occurs in the direction of the thumb, and is referred to as the "carrying angle '' (visible in the right half of the picture, right).
The carrying angle permits the arm to be swung without contacting the hips. Women on average have smaller shoulders and wider hips than men, which tends to produce a larger carrying angle (i.e., larger deviation from a straight line than that in men). There is, however, extensive overlap in the carrying angle between individual men and women, and a sex - bias has not been consistently observed in scientific studies. This could however be attributed to the very small sample sizes in those cited earlier studies. A more recent study based on a sample size of 333 individuals from both sexes concluded that carrying angle is a suitable secondary sexual characteristic.
The angle is greater in the dominant limb than the non-dominant limb of both sexes, suggesting that natural forces acting on the elbow modify the carrying angle. Developmental, aging and possibly racial influences add further to the variability of this parameter.
The types of disease most commonly seen at the elbow are due to injury.
Two of the most common injuries at the elbow are overuse injuries: tennis elbow and golfer 's elbow. Golfer 's elbow involves the tendon of the common flexor origin which originates at the medial epicondyle of the humerus (the "inside '' of the elbow). Tennis elbow is the equivalent injury, but at the common extensor origin (the lateral epicondyle of the humerus).
There are three bones at the elbow joint, and any combination of these bones may be involved in a fracture of the elbow. Patients who are able to fully extend their arm at the elbow are unlikely to have a fracture (98 % certainty) and an X-ray is not required as long as an olecranon fracture is ruled out. Acute fractures may not be easily visible on X-ray.
Elbow dislocations constitute 10 % to 25 % of all injuries to the elbow. The elbow is one of the most commonly dislocated joints in the body, with an average annual incidence of acute dislocation of 6 per 100,000 persons. Among injuries to the upper extremity, dislocation of the elbow is second only to a dislocated shoulder. A full dislocation of the elbow will require expert medical attention to re-align, and recovery can take approximately 8 -- 14 weeks. A small amount of people (10 % or less) report near full recovery and minimal permanent restriction, but a permanent restriction of 5 -- 15 % movement is common.
Infection of the elbow joint (septic arthritis) is uncommon. It may occur spontaneously, but may also occur in relation to surgery or infection elsewhere in the body (for example, endocarditis).
Elbow arthritis is usually seen in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis or after fractures that involve the joint itself. When the damage to the joint is severe, fascial arthroplasty or elbow joint replacement may be considered.
Olecranon bursitis, pain in posterior part of elbow, tenderness, warmth, swelling, pain in both flexion and extension, in chronic case extreme flexion is painful
Elbow pain can occur for a multitude of reasons, including injury, disease, and other conditions. Common conditions include tennis elbow, golfer 's elbow, distal radioulnar joint rheumatoid arthritis, and cubital tunnel syndrome.
Tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury. It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the hand and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas. These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (also known as "the elbow ''). Pain occurs, often radiating from the lateral forearm. Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon touch. A non-invasive treatment for pain management is rest. If achieving rest is an issue, a wrist brace can also be worn. This keeps the wrist in flexion, thereby relieving the extensor muscles and allowing rest. Ice, heat, ultrasound, steroid injections, and compression can also help alleviate pain. After the pain has been reduced, exercise therapy is important to prevent injury in the future. Exercises should be low velocity, and weight should increase progressively. Stretching the flexors and extensors is helpful, as are strengthening exercises. Massage can also be useful, focusing on the extensor trigger points.
Golfer 's elbow is very similar to tennis elbow, but less common. It is caused by overuse and repetitive motions like a golf swing. It can also be caused by trauma. Wrist flexion and pronation (rotating of the forearm) causes irritation to the tendons near the medial epicondyle of the elbow. It can cause pain, stiffness, loss of sensation, and weakness radiating from the inside of the elbow to the fingers. Rest is the primary intervention for this injury. Ice, pain medication, steroid injections, strengthening exercises, and avoiding any aggravating activities can also help. Surgery is a last resort, and rarely used. Exercises should focus on strengthening and stretching the forearm, and utilizing proper form when performing movements.
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease that affects joints. It is very common in the wrist, and is most common at the radioulnar joint. It results in pain, stiffness, and deformities. There are many different treatments for rheumatoid arthritis, and there is no one consensus for which methods are best. Most common treatments include wrist splints, surgery, physical and occupational therapy, and antirheumatic medication.
Cubital tunnel syndrome, more commonly known as ulnar neuropathy, occurs when the ulnar nerve is irritated and becomes inflamed. This can often happen where the ulnar nerve is most superficial, at the elbow. The ulnar nerve passes over the elbow, at the area known as the "funny bone ''. Irritation can occur due to constant, repeated stress and pressure at this area, or from a trauma. It can also occur due to bone deformities, and oftentimes from sports. Symptoms include tingling, numbness, and weakness, along with pain. First line pain management techniques include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory oral medicines. These help to reduce inflammation, pressure, and irritation of the nerve and around the nerve. Other simple fixes include learning more ergonomically friendly habits that can help prevent nerve impingement and irritation in the future. Protective equipment can also be very helpful. Examples of this include a protective elbow pad, and an arm splint. More serious cases often involve surgery, in which the nerve or the surrounding tissue is moved to relieve the pressure. Recovery from surgery can take awhile, but the prognosis is often a good one. Recovery often includes movement restrictions, and range of motion activities, and can last a few months (cubital and radial tunnel syndrome, 2).
The now obsolete length unit ell relates closely to the elbow. This becomes especially visible when considering the Germanic origins of both words, Elle (ell, defined as the length of a male forearm from elbow to fingertips) and Ellbogen (elbow). It is unknown when or why the second "l '' was dropped from English usage of the word. The ell as in the English measure could also be taken to come from the letter L, being bent at right angles, as an elbow. The ell as a measure was taken as six handbreadths; three to the elbow and three from the elbow to the shoulder. Another measure was the cubit (from cubital). This was taken to be the length of a man 's arm from the elbow to the end of the middle finger.
Though the elbow is similarly adapted for stability through a wide range of pronation - supination and flexion - extension in all apes, there are some minor differences. In arboreal apes such as orangutans, the large forearm muscles originating on the epicondyles of the humerus generate significant transverse forces on the elbow joint. The structure to resist these forces is a pronounced keel on the trochlear notch on the ulna, which is more flattened in, for example, humans and gorillas. In knuckle - walkers, on the other hand, the elbow has to deal with large vertical loads passing through extended forearms and the joint is therefore more expanded to provide larger articular surfaces perpendicular to those forces.
Derived traits in catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys) elbows include the loss of the entepicondylar foramen (a hole in the distal humerus), a non-translatory (rotation - only) humeroulnar joint, and a more robust ulna with a shortened trochlear notch.
The proximal radioulnar joint is similarly derived in higher primates in the location and shape of the radial notch on the ulna; the primitive form being represented by New World monkeys, such as the howler monkey, and by fossil catarrhines, such as Aegyptopithecus. In these taxa, the oval head of the radius lies in front of the ulnar shaft so that the former overlaps the latter by half its width. With this forearm configuration, the ulna supports the radius and maximum stability is achieved when the forearm is fully pronated.
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who got nobel prize in india in hindi | Amartya Sen - Wikipedia
Amartya Kumar Sen, CH, FBA (Bengali: (ˈɔmort:o ˈʃen); born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist and philosopher, who since 1972 has taught and worked in India, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Sen has made contributions to welfare economics, social choice theory, economic and social justice, economic theories of famines, and indexes of the measure of well - being of citizens of developing countries.
He is currently the Thomas W. Lamont University Professor at Harvard University and member of faculty at Harvard Law School. He is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge and was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 and India 's Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his work in welfare economics. In 2017, Sen was awarded the Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science for most valuable contribution to Political Science.
Sen was born in a Bengali Baidya family in Santiniketan in West Bengal, India, on the campus on Rabindranath Tagore 's Viswa - Bharati University, to Ashutosh Sen and Amita Sen. Rabindranath Tagore gave Amartya Sen his name (Bengali অমর্ত্য ômorto, lit. "immortal ''). Sen 's family was from Wari and Manikganj, Dhaka, both in present - day Bangladesh. His father Ashutosh Sen was a professor of chemistry at Dhaka University who moved with his family to West Bengal in 1945 and worked at various government institutions, including the West Bengal Public Service Commission (of which he was the chairman), and the Union Public Service Commission. Sen 's mother Amita Sen was the daughter of Kshiti Mohan Sen, a well - known scholar of ancient and medieval India and close associate of Rabindranath Tagore. He served as the Vice Chancellor of Delhi University for some years.
Sen began his high - school education at St Gregory 's School in Dhaka in 1940. From fall 1941, Sen studied at Patha Bhavana, Santiniketan. The school had many progressive features: at the school, any focus on examinations or competitive testing was deeply frowned upon. In addition, the school stressed cultural diversity, and embraced influences from the rest of the world. In 1951, he went to Presidency College, Kolkata, where he earned a B.A. in Economics with First Class, with a minor in Mathematics, as a graduating student of the University of Calcutta. While at Presidency, Sen was diagnosed with oral cancer, and given a 15 % chance of living five years. With radiation treatment, he survived, and in 1953 he moved to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he earned a second B.A. in Pure Economics in 1955 with a First Class, topping the list as well. He was elected President of the Cambridge Majlis. While Sen was officially a Ph. D student at Cambridge (though he had finished his research in 1955 - 6), he was offered the position of Professor and Head of the Economics Department of the newly created Jadavpur University in Calcutta, and he became the youngest chairman to head the Department of Economics. He served in that position, starting the new Economics Department, during 1956 to 1958.
Meanwhile, Sen was elected to a Prize Fellowship at Trinity College, which gave him four years of freedom to do anything he liked; he made the radical decision to study philosophy. Sen explained: "The broadening of my studies into philosophy was important for me not just because some of my main areas of interest in economics relate quite closely to philosophical disciplines (for example, social choice theory makes intense use of mathematical logic and also draws on moral philosophy, and so does the study of inequality and deprivation), but also because I found philosophical studies very rewarding on their own ''. His interest in philosophy, however, dates back to his college days at Presidency, where he read books on philosophy and debated philosophical themes. One of the books he was most interested in was Kenneth Arrow 's Social Choice and Individual Values.
In Cambridge, there were major debates between supporters of Keynesian economics on the one hand, and the "neo-classical '' economists who were skeptical of Keynes, on the other. However, because of a lack of enthusiasm for social choice theory in both Trinity and Cambridge, Sen had to choose a different subject for his Ph. D. thesis, which was on "The Choice of Techniques '' in 1959, though the work had been completed much earlier (except for some valuable advice from his adjunct supervisor in India, Professor A.K. Dasgupta, given to Sen while teaching and revising his work at Jadavpur) under the supervision of the "brilliant but vigorously intolerant '' post-Keynesian, Joan Robinson. Quentin Skinner notes that Sen was a member of the secret society Cambridge Apostles during his time at Cambridge.
Sen 's work on ' Choice of Techniques ' complemented that of Maurice Dobb. In a Developing country, the Dobb - Sen strategy relied on maximising investible surpluses, maintaining constant real wages and using the entire increase in labour productivity, due to technological change, to raise the rate of accumulation. In other words, workers were expected to demand no improvement in their standard of living despite having become more productive. Sen 's papers in the late 1960s and early 1970s helped develop the theory of social choice, which first came to prominence in the work by the American economist Kenneth Arrow. Arrow, while working at the RAND Corporation, had most famously shown that when voters have three or more distinct alternatives (options), any ranked order voting system will in at least some situations inevitably conflict with what many assume to be basic democratic norms. Sen 's contribution to the literature was to show under what conditions Arrow 's impossibility theorem applied, as well as to extend and enrich the theory of social choice, informed by his interests in history of economic thought and philosophy.
In 1981, Sen published Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (1981), a book in which he argued that famine occurs not only from a lack of food, but from inequalities built into mechanisms for distributing food. Sen also argued that the Bengal famine was caused by an urban economic boom that raised food prices, thereby causing millions of rural workers to starve to death when their wages did not keep up.
Sen 's interest in famine stemmed from personal experience. As a nine - year - old boy, he witnessed the Bengal famine of 1943, in which three million people perished. This staggering loss of life was unnecessary, Sen later concluded. He presents data that there was an adequate food supply in Bengal at the time, but particular groups of people including rural landless labourers and urban service providers like haircutters did not have the means to buy food as its price rose rapidly due to factors that include British military acquisition, panic buying, hoarding, and price gouging, all connected to the war in the region. In Poverty and Famines, Sen revealed that in many cases of famine, food supplies were not significantly reduced. In Bengal, for example, food production, while down on the previous year, was higher than in previous non-famine years. Sen points to a number of social and economic factors, such as declining wages, unemployment, rising food prices, and poor food - distribution, which led to starvation. His capabilities approach focuses on positive freedom, a person 's actual ability to be or do something, rather than on negative freedom approaches, which are common in economics and simply focuses on non-interference. In the Bengal famine, rural laborers ' negative freedom to buy food was not affected. However, they still starved because they were not positively free to do anything, they did not have the functioning of nourishment, nor the capability to escape morbidity.
In addition to his important work on the causes of famines, Sen 's work in the field of development economics has had considerable influence in the formulation of the "Human Development Report '', published by the United Nations Development Programme. This annual publication that ranks countries on a variety of economic and social indicators owes much to the contributions by Sen among other social choice theorists in the area of economic measurement of poverty and inequality.
Sen 's revolutionary contribution to development economics and social indicators is the concept of "capability '' developed in his article "Equality of What ''. He argues that governments should be measured against the concrete capabilities of their citizens. This is because top - down development will always trump human rights as long as the definition of terms remains in doubt (is a "right '' something that must be provided or something that simply can not be taken away?). For instance, in the United States citizens have a hypothetical "right '' to vote. To Sen, this concept is fairly empty. In order for citizens to have a capacity to vote, they first must have "functionings ''. These "functionings '' can range from the very broad, such as the availability of education, to the very specific, such as transportation to the polls. Only when such barriers are removed can the citizen truly be said to act out of personal choice. It is up to the individual society to make the list of minimum capabilities guaranteed by that society. For an example of the "capabilities approach '' in practice, see Martha Nussbaum 's Women and Human Development.
He wrote a controversial article in The New York Review of Books entitled "More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing '' (see Missing women of Asia), analyzing the mortality impact of unequal rights between the genders in the developing world, particularly Asia. Other studies, including one by Emily Oster, had argued that this is an overestimation, though Oster has since then recanted her conclusions.
In 1999, Sen further advanced and redefined the capability approach in his book Development as Freedom. Sen argues that development should be viewed as an effort to advance the real freedoms that individuals enjoy, rather than simply focusing on metrics such as GDP or income - per - capita. Sen was inspired by violent acts he had witnessed as a child leading up to the Partition of India in 1947. On one morning, a Muslim laborer named Kader Mia stumbled through the rear gate of Sen 's family home, bleeding from a knife wound in his back. Because of his extreme poverty, he had come to Sen 's primarily Hindu neighborhood searching for work; his choices were the starvation of his family or the risk of death in coming to the neighborhood. The price of Kader Mia 's economic unfreedom was his death. This experience led Sen to begin thinking about economic unfreedom from a young age.
In Development as Freedom, Sen outlines five specific types of freedoms: political freedoms, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency guarantees, and protective security. Political freedoms, the first of these, refers to the ability of the people to have a voice in government and to be able to scrutinize the authorities. Economic facilities concern both the resources within the market and the market mechanism itself. Any focus on income and wealth in the country would serve to increase the economic facilities for the people. Social opportunities deal with the establishments that provide benefits like healthcare or education for the populace, allowing individuals to live better lives. Transparency guarantees allow individuals to interact with some degree of trust and knowledge of the interaction. Protective security is the system of social safety nets that prevent a group affected by poverty being subjected to terrible misery. Before Sen 's work, these had been viewed as only the ends of development; luxuries afforded to countries that focus on increasing income. However, Sen argues that the increase in real freedoms should be both the ends and the means of development. He elaborates upon this by illustrating the closely interconnected natures of the five main freedoms as he believes that expansion of one of those freedoms can lead to expansion in another one as well. In this regard he discusses the correlation between social opportunities of education and health and how both of these complement economic and political freedoms as a healthy and well - educated person is better suited to make informed economic decisions and be involved in fruitful political demonstrations etc. A comparison is also drawn between China and India to illustrate this interdependence of freedoms. Both countries were working towards developing their economies, India since 1979 and China since 1991. Despite the fact that China opened its economy about a decade later, it was able to see more rapid development as it had always been pro health and education so its population was much more productive than that of India, where health and education was unavailable to about half of the population.
Welfare economics seeks to evaluate economic policies in terms of their effects on the well - being of the community. Sen, who devoted his career to such issues, was called the "conscience of his profession ''. His influential monograph Collective Choice and Social Welfare (1970), which addressed problems related to individual rights (including formulation of the liberal paradox), justice and equity, majority rule, and the availability of information about individual conditions, inspired researchers to turn their attention to issues of basic welfare. Sen devised methods of measuring poverty that yielded useful information for improving economic conditions for the poor. For instance, his theoretical work on inequality provided an explanation for why there are fewer women than men in India and China despite the fact that in the West and in poor but medically unbiased countries, women have lower mortality rates at all ages, live longer, and make a slight majority of the population. Sen claimed that this skewed ratio results from the better health treatment and childhood opportunities afforded boys in those countries, as well as sex - selective abortions.
Governments and international organizations handling food crises were influenced by Sen 's work. His views encouraged policy makers to pay attention not only to alleviating immediate suffering but also to finding ways to replace the lost income of the poor -- for example through public works -- and to maintain stable prices for food. A vigorous defender of political freedom, Sen believed that famines do not occur in functioning democracies because their leaders must be more responsive to the demands of the citizens. In order for economic growth to be achieved, he argued, social reforms -- such as improvements in education and public health -- must precede economic reform.
In 2009, Sen published a book called The Idea of Justice. Based on his previous work in welfare economics and social choice theory, but also on his philosophical thoughts, he presented his own theory of justice that he meant to be an alternative to the influential modern theories of justice of John Rawls or John Harsanyi. In opposition to Rawls but also earlier justice theoreticians Immanuel Kant, Jean - Jacques Rousseau or David Hume, and inspired by the philosophical works of Adam Smith and Mary Wollstonecraft, Sen developed a theory that is both comparative and realizations - oriented (instead of being transcendental and institutional). However, he still regards institutions and processes as being important. As an alternative to Rawls 's veil of ignorance, Sen chose the thought experiment of an impartial spectator as the basis of his theory of justice. He also stressed the importance of public discussion (understanding democracy in the sense of John Stuart Mill) and a focus on people 's capabilities (an approach that he had co-developed), including the notion of universal human rights, in evaluating various states with regard to justice.
Sen began his career both as a teacher and a research scholar in the Department of Economics, Jadavpur University as a Professor of Economics in 1956. He spent two years in that position. From 1957 to 1963, Sen served as a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Between 1960 and 1961, Sen was a visiting Professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, where he got to know Paul Samuelson, Robert Solow, Franco Modigliani, and Norbert Wiener. He was also a visiting Professor at UC - Berkeley (1964 - 1965) and Cornell (1978 - 1984). He taught as Professor of Economics between 1963 and 1971 at the Delhi School of Economics (where he completed his magnum opus Collective Choice and Social Welfare in 1969). During this time he was also a frequent visitor to various other premiere Indian economic schools and centres of excellence like Jawaharlal Nehru University, Indian Statistical Institute, Centre for Development Studies, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics and Centre for Studies in Social Sciences. Sen was a companion of distinguished economists like Manmohan Singh (Ex-Prime Minister of India and a veteran economist responsible for liberalizing the Indian economy), K.N. Raj (Advisor to various Prime Ministers and a veteran economist who was the founder of Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, which is one of India 's premier think tanks and schools) and Jagdish Bhagwati (who is known to be one of the greatest Indian economists in the field of International Trade and currently teaches at Columbia University). This is a period considered to be a Golden Period in the history of DSE. In 1971, he joined the London School of Economics as a Professor of Economics where he taught until 1977. From 1977 to 1988, he taught at the University of Oxford, where he was first a Professor of Economics and Fellow of Nuffield College, and then the Drummond Professor of Political Economy and a Fellow of All Souls College from 1980. In 1987, he joined Harvard as the Thomas W. Lamont University Professor of Economics. In 1998 he was appointed as Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming the first Asian head of an Oxbridge college. In January 2004, Sen returned to Harvard. He also established the Eva Colorni Trust at the former London Guildhall University in the name of his deceased wife.
In May 2007, he was appointed as chairman of Nalanda Mentor Group to examine the framework of international cooperation, and proposed structure of partnership, which would govern the establishment of Nalanda International University Project as an international centre of education seeking to revive the ancient center of higher learning which was present in India from the 5th century to 1197.
On 19 July 2012, Sen was named the first chancellor of the proposed Nalanda University (NU). Teaching began in August 2014. On 20 February 2015, Amartya Sen withdrew his candidature for a second term.
He has served as president of the Econometric Society (1984), the International Economic Association (1986 -- 1989), the Indian Economic Association (1989) and the American Economic Association (1994). He has also served as President of the Development Studies Association and the Human Development and Capability Association. He serves as the honorary director of the Academic Advisory Committee of the Center for Human and Economic Development Studies at Peking University in China.
Sen has been called "the Conscience of the profession '' and "the Mother Teresa of Economics '' for his work on famine, human development theory, welfare economics, the underlying mechanisms of poverty, gender inequality, and political liberalism. However, he denies the comparison to Mother Teresa, saying that he has never tried to follow a lifestyle of dedicated self - sacrifice. Amartya Sen also added his voice to the campaign against the anti-gay Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code.
Sen has served as Honorary Chairman of Oxfam - the UK based international development charity, and is now its Honorary Advisor.
Sen is also a member of the Berggruen Institute 's 21st Century Council.
A 57 - minute documentary named Amartya Sen: A Life Re-examined directed by Suman Ghosh details his life and work.
A 2001 portrait of Sen by Annabel Cullen is in Trinity College 's collection. A 2003 portrait of Sen hangs in the National Portrait Gallery in London. In 2011, he was present at the Rabindra Utsab ceremony at Bangabandhu International Conference Centre (BICC), Bangladesh. He unveiled the cover of Sruti Gitobitan, a Rabindrasangeet album comprising all the 2222 Tagore songs, brought out by Rezwana Chowdhury Bannya, principal of Shurer Dhara School of Music.
Amartya Sen was critical of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi when he was announced as the prime ministerial candidate by the BJP. In April 2014, he said that Modi would not make a good Prime Minister. But later in December 2014, he conceded that Narendra Modi did give people a sense of faith that things can happen. In February 2015, Sen opted out of seeking a second term for the chancellor post of Nalanda University stating that the Government of India was not keen on him continuing in the post.
Sen has been married three times. His first wife was Nabaneeta Dev Sen, an Indian writer and scholar, by whom he had two daughters: Antara, a journalist and publisher, and Nandana, a Bollywood actress. Their marriage broke up shortly after they moved to London in 1971. In 1978 Sen married Eva Colorni, an Italian economist, daughter of Eugenio Colorni and Ursula Hirschmann and niece of Albert O. Hirschman. The couple had two children, a daughter Indrani, who is a journalist in New York, and a son Kabir, a hip hop artist, MC, and music teacher at Shady Hill School. Eva died of cancer in 1985. In 1991, Sen married Emma Georgina Rothschild, who serves as the Jeremy and Jane Knowles Professor of History at Harvard University.
The Sens have a house in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which is the base from which they teach during the academic year. They also have a home in Cambridge, England, where Sen is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Rothschild is a Fellow of Magdalene College. He usually spends his winter holidays at his home in Santiniketan in West Bengal, India, where he used to go on long bike rides until recently. Asked how he relaxes, he replies: "I read a lot and like arguing with people. ''
Sen is an atheist and holds that this can be associated with one of the atheist schools in Hinduism, the Lokayata. In an interview for the magazine California, which is published by the University of California, Berkeley, he noted:
In some ways people had got used to the idea that India was spiritual and religion - oriented. That gave a leg up to the religious interpretation of India, despite the fact that Sanskrit had a larger atheistic literature than exists in any other classical language. Madhava Acharya, the remarkable 14th century philosopher, wrote this rather great book called Sarvadarshansamgraha, which discussed all the religious schools of thought within the Hindu structure. The first chapter is "Atheism '' -- a very strong presentation of the argument in favor of atheism and materialism.
Sen has received over 90 honorary degrees from universities around the world.
1960 -- 1979
1980 -- 1989
1990 -- 1999
2000 -- 2009
2010 onwards
Also a list of Persian translations of Amartya Sen 's work is available here
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the hunchback of notre dame characters and their roles | The Hunchback of Notre - Dame - wikipedia
The Hunchback of Notre - Dame (French: Notre - Dame de Paris, "Our Lady of Paris '') is a French Romantic / Gothic novel by Victor Hugo, published in 1831. The original French title refers to Notre Dame Cathedral, on which the story is centered. Frederic Shoberl 's 1833 English translation was published as The Hunchback of Notre Dame which became the generally used title in English. The story is set in Paris in the Late Middle Ages, during the reign of Louis XI.
Victor Hugo began writing Notre - Dame de Paris in 1829, largely to make his contemporaries more aware of the value of the Gothic architecture, which was neglected and often destroyed to be replaced by new buildings or defaced by replacement of parts of buildings in a newer style. For instance, the medieval stained glass panels of Notre - Dame de Paris had been replaced by white glass to let more light into the church. This explains the large descriptive sections of the book, which far exceed the requirements of the story. A few years earlier, Hugo had already published a paper entitled Guerre aux Démolisseurs (War to the Demolishers) specifically aimed at saving Paris ' medieval architecture. The agreement with his original publisher, Gosselin, was that the book would be finished that same year, but Hugo was constantly delayed due to the demands of other projects. In the summer of 1830, Gosselin demanded that Hugo complete the book by February 1831. Beginning in September 1830, Hugo worked nonstop on the project thereafter. The book was finished six months later.
Paris, 1482. The gypsy Esmeralda (born as Agnés) captures the hearts of many men, including those of Captain Phoebus and Pierre Gringoire, but especially Quasimodo and his guardian Archdeacon Claude Frollo. Frollo is torn between his obsessive lust for Esmeralda and the rules of the Notre Dame Cathedral. He orders Quasimodo to kidnap her, but the hunchback is captured by Phoebus and his guards, who save Esmeralda. Gringoire, who attempted to help Esmeralda but was knocked out by Quasimodo, is about to be hanged by beggars when Esmeralda saves him by agreeing to marry him for four years.
The following day, Quasimodo is sentenced to be flogged and turned on the pillory for one hour, followed by another hour 's public exposure. He calls for water. Esmeralda, seeing his thirst, approaches the public stocks and offers him a drink of water. It saves him, and she captures his heart.
Later, Esmeralda is arrested and charged with the attempted murder of Phoebus, whom Frollo actually attempted to kill in jealousy after seeing him trying to seduce Esmeralda. She is sentenced to death by hanging. As she is being led to the gallows, Quasimodo swings down by the bell rope of Notre - Dame and carries her off to the cathedral under the law of sanctuary, temporarily protecting her from arrest.
Frollo later informs Gringoire that the Court of Parlement has voted to remove Esmeralda 's right to the sanctuary so she can no longer seek shelter in the Cathedral and will be taken away to be killed. Clopin, the leader of the Gypsies, hears the news from Gringoire and rallies the citizens of Paris to charge the cathedral and rescue Esmeralda.
When Quasimodo sees the Gypsies, he assumes they are there to hurt Esmeralda, so he drives them off. Likewise, he thinks the King 's men want to rescue her, and tries to help them find her. She is rescued by Frollo and Gringoire. But after yet another failed attempt to win her love, Frollo betrays Esmeralda by handing her to the troops and watches while she is being hanged. When Frollo laughs during Esmeralda 's hanging, Quasimodo pushes him from the height of Notre Dame to his death. When Quasimodo sees Esmeralda 's body, he dies with her and their bodies turn to dust.
The novel 's original French title, Notre - Dame de Paris, indicates that the cathedral itself is the most significant aspect of the novel, both the main setting and the focus of the story 's themes. The building had fallen into disrepair at the time of writing, which was something Hugo felt strongly about. The book portrays the Romantic era as one of the extremes in architecture, passion, and religion. The theme of determinism (fate and destiny, as set up in the preface of the novel through the introduction of the word "ANANKE '') is explored, as well as revolution and social strife.
Architecture is a major concern of Hugo 's in Notre - Dame de Paris, not just as embodied in the cathedral itself, but as representing throughout Paris and the rest of Europe an artistic genre which, Hugo argued, was about to disappear with the arrival of the printing press. Claude Frollo 's portentous phrase, ' Ceci tuera cela ' ("This will kill that '', as he looks from a printed book to the cathedral building), sums up this thesis, which is expounded on in Book V, chapter 2. Hugo writes that ' quiconque naissait poète se faisait architecte ' ("whoever was born a poet became an architect ''), arguing that while the written word was heavily censored and difficult to reproduce, architecture was extremely prominent and enjoyed considerable freedom.
Il existe à cette époque, pour la pensée écrite en pierre, un privilège tout - à - fait comparable à notre liberté actuelle de la presse. C'est la liberté de l'architecture. There exists in this era, for thoughts written in stone, a privilege absolutely comparable to our current freedom of the press. It is the freedom of architecture.
With the recent introduction of the printing press, it became possible to reproduce one 's ideas much more easily on paper, and Hugo considered this period to represent the last flowering of architecture as a great artistic form. As with many of his books, Hugo was interested in a time which seemed to him to be on the cusp between two types of society.
The major theme of the third book is that over time the cathedral has been repaired, but the repairs and additions have made the cathedral worse: "And who put the cold, white panes in the place of those windows '' and "... who substituted for the ancient Gothic altar, splendidly encumbered with shrines and reliquaries, that heavy marble sarcophagus, with angels ' heads and clouds '' are a few examples of this. This chapter also discusses how, after repairs to the cathedral after the French Revolution, there was not a significant style in what was added. It seems as if the new architecture is actually now uglier and worse than it was before the repairing.
Hugo introduced with this work the concept of the novel as Epic Theatre. A giant epic about the history of a whole people, incarnated in the figure of the great cathedral as witness and silent protagonist of that history. The whole idea of time and life as an ongoing, organic panorama centered on dozens of characters caught in the middle of that history. It is the first novel to have beggars as protagonists.
Notre Dame de Paris was the first work of fiction to encompass the whole of life, from the King of France to Paris sewer rats, in a manner later co-opted by Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert and many others, including Charles Dickens. The enormous popularity of the book in France spurred the nascent historical preservation movement in that country and strongly encouraged Gothic revival architecture. Ultimately it led to major renovations at Notre - Dame in the 19th century led by Eugène Viollet - le - Duc. Much of the cathedral 's present appearance is a result of this renovation.
In The Hunchback of Notre - Dame, Victor Hugo makes frequent reference to the architecture of the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. He also mentions the invention of the printing press, when the bookmaker near the beginning of the work speaks of "the German pest. ''
In 2010, British archivist Adrian Glew discovered references to a real - life hunchback who was a foreman of a government sculpting studio in Paris in the 1820s who worked on post-Revolution restorations to the Cathedral.
The name Quasimodo has become synonymous with "a courageous heart beneath a grotesque exterior. ''
To date, all of the film and TV adaptations have strayed somewhat from the original plot, some going as far as to give it a happy ending, as in the classic 1939 film starring Charles Laughton as Quasimodo and Maureen O'Hara as Esmeralda (although Quasimodo loses her to Gringoire in this version). The 1956 French film, starring Anthony Quinn and Gina Lollobrigida, is one of the few versions to end almost exactly like the novel, although it changes other sections of the story. Unlike most adaptations, the 1996 Disney version has an ending that is inspired by an opera created by Hugo himself.
The book was twice adapted and broadcast by BBC Radio 4 as its Classic Serial:
The Hunchback of Notre - Dame has been translated into English many times. Translations are often reprinted in various imprints. Some translations have been revised over time.
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relation of political science with other social science in hindi | Social Studies - wikipedia
In the United States Education system, social studies is the integrated study of multiple fields of social science, including history, geography, and political science. The term was first coined by American educators around the turn of the twentieth century as a catch - all for the above - mentioned subjects, as well as other subjects which did not fit into the traditional models of lower education in the United States, such as philosophy, and psychology.
not not the In 1913, the Bureau of Education (not to be confused with its successor agency, the United States Department of Education) was tasked by then Secretary of the Interior Franklin Knight Lane with completely restructuring the American education system for the twentieth century. In response, the Bureau of Education, together with the National Education Association, created the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. The Commission was made up of sixteen committees (a seventeenth committee was established two years later, in 1916), each one tasked with the reform of a specific aspect of the American Education system. Notable amongst these was the Committee on Social Studies, which was created to consolidate and standardize various subjects which did not fit within normal school curricula into a new subject, which was to be called "The social studies. ''
In 1916, the work done by the Committee on Social Studies culminated in the publication and release of Bulletin No. 28 (also called "The Committee on Social Studies Report, 1916 ''). The 66 - page bulletin published and distributed by the Bureau of Education is believed to be the first written work dedicated entirely to the subject of Social Studies. The bulletin was designed to both introduce the new concept of Social Studies to American educators while simultaneously serving as a guide for the creation of nationwide curricula based around this new subject. Due to many of the ideas proposed within the bulletin (many of which were radical for the time), the document has been regarded by many educators as one the most controversial educational resources of the early twentieth century.
In the years after its release, the bulletin received criticism from educators on its vagueness, especially in regards to the definition of Social Studies itself. Critics often point to Section 1 of the report, which vaguely defines Social Studies as "... understood to be those whose subject matter relates directly to the organization and development of human society, and to man as a member of social groups. ''
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in 2012 which movie won every category in the 32nd golden raspberry awards | 32nd Golden Raspberry Awards - wikipedia
The 32nd Golden Raspberry Awards or Razzies ceremony was held on April 1, 2012 at Magicopolis in Santa Monica, California to honor the worst films of 2011. The nominations were announced on February 25, 2012. Taking a break from Razzie tradition of announcing both the nominees and winners before the Academy Awards functions by one day, it was decided in January 2012 to delay both the Razzie nomination announcements and ceremony by several weeks in order for the actual Razzie ceremony to be held on April Fool 's Day. The actual nominations however, still had some connection to the Oscars ceremony, as they were announced the night before the Academy Awards were held.
Adam Sandler received a Razzie record 6 nominations as an individual and a total of 23 nominations for films he was involved with.
Voting for Worst Screen Ensemble was not just determined by members of the Golden Raspberry Award Foundation. Voting for the award was opened up to the general public online and conducted by the website Rotten Tomatoes. A grand total of 35,117 votes were cast.
Jack and Jill was nominated for twelve awards (including twice each in Worst Supporting Actor and Worst Supporting Actress) and won in every category. This was the first time in the history of the Razzies that one film won every award. The film also holds the record for most Razzie wins (beating Battlefield Earth) and most wins in a single year (beating I Know Who Killed Me).
This was also the first, and so far only, year where all four acting categories were won exclusively by males (Sandler, Al Pacino and David Spade).
Adam Sandler, Worst Actor and Worst Actress winner, Worst Screen Couple and Worst Screenplay co-winner
Al Pacino, Worst Supporting Actor winner and Worst Screen Couple co-winner
David Spade, Worst Supporting Actress winner
Katie Holmes, Worst Screen Couple co-winner
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when is season 2 of kiss me first coming out | Kiss Me First (TV series) - Wikipedia
Kiss Me First is a British cyber-thriller drama series created by Bryan Elsley for Channel 4 and Netflix. The series began airing on 2 April 2018 on Channel 4. The series was made available on Netflix worldwide on 29 June 2018.
Leila is a lonely 17 - year - old girl addicted to a fictional massively multiplayer online role - playing game called Azana. While playing it, Leila meets Tess, a cool and confident party girl who harbours a dark secret. In the real world, the two girls become friends, but after Tess disappears Leila is quickly drawn into unravelling the mystery behind her disappearance.
In January 2016 it was reported that Netflix and E4 would co-produce a series based on the Lottie Moggach novel of the same title, consisting of six hour - long episodes, with Netflix holding the international broadcast rights and E4 the ones for the United Kingdom. The series is a mix of live - action performances and computer - generated scenes. Principal photography started in December 2016 in London locations including Hanwell and West Ealing and Croatia and was expected to end in the middle of 2017. In February 2018, it was announced it would now air on Channel 4 and the first image was released.
The Shellness Road Car Park was used in a sequence in which one character uses an improvised explosive device to blow up his abusive carer. A further scene was filmed on Leysdown Promenade showing the arrival by one of the leads on a bus. Leysdown on Sea is a coastal town on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent.
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when did dyson come out in the us | Dyson (company) - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 35 ′ 44 '' N 2 ° 06 ′ 18 '' W / 51.595473 ° N 2.1050741 ° W / 51.595473; - 2.1050741
Dyson Ltd is a British technology company established by James Dyson in 1991. It designs and manufactures household appliances such as vacuum cleaners, hand dryers, bladeless fans, heaters and hair dryers. As of February 2017, Dyson had more than 8,500 employees worldwide.
In 1974, James Dyson bought a Hoover Junior vacuum cleaner, which became clogged quickly and lost suction over time. Frustrated, Dyson emptied the bag to try to restore the suction but this had no effect. On opening the bag to investigate, he noticed a layer of dust inside, clogging the fine material mesh.
Later on, Dyson was working on his ballbarrow at a previous company he had founded (but no longer entirely owned) where a large vacuum system was used to contain the fusion bonded epoxy coating that was sprayed on the wheelbarrow arms as a powder coating. Dyson found the system inefficient, and was told by equipment manufacturers that giant cyclone systems were better. Centrifugal separators are a typical method of collecting dirt, dust and debris in industrial settings. Such methods usually were not applied on a smaller scale because of the higher cost. He knew sawmills used this type of equipment, and investigated by visiting a local sawmill in dark of night and taking measurements. He then built a 30 - foot model for the ballbarrow factory. While constructing this at home, Dyson realized the function of the cyclone was to extract dust without clogging. Wondering if this could be applied at a smaller scale to a home vacuum, he constructed a cardboard and Scotch tape model, connected it to his Hoover with its bag removed, and found it worked satisfactorily.
The directors of the ballbarrow company thought if a better vacuum was possible, Hoover or Electrolux would have invented it. Dyson was undeterred, and was kicked out of his company. Jeremy Fry provided 49 % of the investment for cyclonic vacuum development, and the rest came from a loan. In the shed behind his house, Dyson developed 5,127 prototype designs between 1979 and 1984. The first prototype vacuum cleaner, a red and blue machine, brought Dyson little success, as he struggled to find a licensee for his machine in the UK and America. Manufacturing companies such as Hoover did not want to license the design, probably because the vacuum bag market was worth $500 m so Dyson was a threat to their profits.
The only company that expressed interest in the new cyclonic vacuum technology was Dyson 's former employer, Rotork. Built by Italian appliance maker Zanussi and sold by Kleeneze through mail order catalogue, the Kleeneze Rotork Cyclon was the first publicly sold vacuum cleaner of Dyson 's design. Only about 500 units were sold in 1983.
In April 1984, Dyson claimed that he had sent the prototype machines, drawings, and confidential information to American consumer - products maker, Amway as part of a proposed licensing deal. The deal fell through, however in January 1985, Amway produced the CMS - 1000, a machine which was very similar to the Dyson design. Less than a month later, Dyson sued Amway for patent infringement.
In 1985 a Japanese company, Apex Ltd., expressed interest in licensing Dyson 's design and in March 1986 a reworked version of the Cyclon -- called G - Force -- was put into production and sold in Japan for the equivalent of US $2,000. The G - Force had an attachment that could turn it into a table to save space in small Japanese apartments. In 1991, it won the International Design Fair prize in Japan, and became a status symbol there.
Using the income from the Japanese licence, James Dyson set up Dyson Appliances Ltd. in 1991. The first dual - cyclone vacuum built under the Dyson name, the DA 001, was produced by American company Phillips Plastics in a facility in Wrexham, Wales, beginning in January 1993 and sold for about £ 200. Vacuum assembly took place in the unused half of the plastic factory. Due to quality control concerns and Phillips 's desire to renegotiate the terms of their contract to build the vacuum cleaner, Dyson severed the agreement in May 1993. Within two months Dyson set up a new supply chain and opened a new production facility in Chippenham, Wiltshire, England; the first vacuum built at the new facility was completed 1 July 1993. The DA 001 was soon replaced by an almost identical vacuum called DC01.
Dyson licensed the technology in North America from 1986 to 2001 to Fantom Technologies, after which Dyson entered the market directly.
Even though market research showed that people would n't be happy with a transparent container for the dust, Dyson and his team decided to make a transparent container anyway and this turned out to be a popular and enduring feature which has been heavily copied. The DC01 became the biggest selling vacuum cleaner in the UK in just 18 months. By 2001, the DC01 made up 47 % of the upright vacuum cleaner market.
The company introduced a cylinder machine, the DC02, and produced a number of special editions and revised models (DC02 Absolute, DC02 De Stijl, DC05, DC04, DC06, DC04 Zorbster). On 2 January 2001 the company name was shortened from Dyson Appliances Ltd. to simply Dyson Ltd. In April of that year the DC07, a new upright vacuum cleaner using "Root Cyclone '' technology with seven cyclone funnels instead of the original dual - cyclone design, was launched. By 2009 Dyson began creating other technologies: the AirBlade hand dryer, the Air Multiplier "bladeless '' fan and Dyson Hot, the "bladeless '' fan heater.
In 2014, Dyson invested in a joint robotics lab with Imperial College London to investigate vision systems and engineer a generation of household robots. In 2001 they were close to launching a robot vacuum, the DC06, but James Dyson pulled it from the production line as it was too heavy and slow.
Dyson invested in a Dyson Chair at the University of Cambridge in November 2011. The Dyson Professor of Fluid Mechanics focuses on teaching and researching the science and engineering behind air movement. In addition, Dyson invested hundreds of thousands pounds in a Dyson research branch at Newcastle University in May 2012 to investigate the next generation of Dyson digital motor and motor drive.
In March 2015, Dyson invested in its first outside business, paying $15 m for an undisclosed stake in US battery start - up Sakti3, which is developing solid - state batteries. Dyson acquired the remaining stake in Sakti3 for $90 m in October 2015. Dyson researchers had been working on battery technology since 2010. In 2017, Dyson abandoned its licensing of patents held by University of Michigan, fuelling doubts over Sakti3 's technology.
In late September 2017, company founder James Dyson announced via email to employees that the company has 400 people working on a battery electric vehicle, secretly in the works for two years, which it hopes to release by 2020. Further information about the company 's plans emerged in February 2018, with news of three electric vehicles in the works as part of an estimated $2.8 B project. Even with the company 's investment in solid state batteries, sources report that the initial lower - volume high - end model will likely still use current generation battery technology.
The James Dyson Award is an international student design award running in 18 countries. It is run by the James Dyson Foundation, James Dyson 's charitable trust, as part of its mission to encourage the next generation of design engineers to be creative, challenging and inventive. The James Dyson Award is presented jointly to students and their university.
The James Dyson Foundation aims to inspire young people to study engineering and become engineers. By visiting schools and universities and providing workshops for young people, the foundation hopes to encourage creativity and ingenuity. Over 727 schools in Great Britain and Northern Ireland have used Dyson 's educational "Ideas Boxes '', sent to teachers and pupils, in order to learn more about the design process. The James Dyson Foundation also provides bursaries and scholarships to aspiring engineers.
A Dyson vacuum cleaner uses cyclonic separation to remove dust and other particles from the air stream, without enhancing or contributing to the suction needed to collect dirt. Dirty air enters a conical container called a cyclone, where it is made to flow in a tight spiral. Centrifugal force throws the particles out of the airflow onto the wall of the container, from which they can fall into a bin. The vacuum cleaner uses two stages of cyclones. Dyson states that centrifugal forces can reach up to 150,000 g. Although Dyson vacuum cleaners do not need a dustbag, there are several filters incorporated which must be kept reasonably clean, otherwise the partial blockage created will cause the performance of the cleaner to diminish. Many of the latest cleaners incorporate digital electric motors which are very compact for their performance. Naturally, the very high rotational speed (e.g. 120,000 rpm) advertised for these motors is necessary to enable the attached low diameter fan to achieve a reasonably high tip speed to satisfy the airflow / pressure rise requirements of the vacuum cleaner.
Dyson vacuum cleaners and washing machines were made in Malmesbury, Wiltshire until 2002, when the company transferred vacuum cleaner production to Malaysia. There was some controversy over the reason for this move, as well as over plans to expand Dyson 's factory to increase production. Moreover, trade unionists in Wiltshire claimed that the move would negatively impact the local economy through the loss of jobs. The following year, washing machine production was also transferred to Malaysia. This move was driven by lower production costs in Malaysia (lower by 30 % compared with the UK); however, it created a loss of 65 jobs.
In 2004, the Meiban - Dyson Laundry Manufacturing Plant was launched in Johor, Malaysia. The newly opened RM10 million (approx. US $2.63 million) plant is a joint venture between Dyson and the Singapore - based Meiban Group Ltd., which has manufacturing facilities in Singapore, Malaysia and China.
Dyson stated that the cost savings from transferring production to Malaysia enabled investment in research & development at their Malmesbury head office.
In 2007, Dyson formed a partnership with the Malaysian electronics manufacturer VS Industry Bhd (VSI) to take on a major role in Dyson 's supply chain, from raw material sourcing and production to distribution. VSI also undertook an extensive production plan to supply finished product to Dyson 's destination markets around the globe (America, UK, Japan, etc.).
It is said that Dyson has around 7,000 employees. Dyson has not publicly stated where those employees are actually located, though it is known that VS Industry Bhd (VSI) currently has around 4,250 employees at their Malaysian facility which manufactures Dyson products, and in 2007 it was reported that Dyson alone was responsible for 80 % of VS Industry Bhd (VSI) revenue.
Dyson launched a $360 million plant in Tuas, Singapore in 2013, which can produce 4 million digital motors a year. In 2016, Dyson injected $100 million to increase the production output to an estimated 11 million digital motors a year.
On 28 February 2017, Dyson announced a significant expansion programme in the UK, by opening a new high tech campus on the former RAF Hullavington Airfield in Hullavington, Wiltshire near its Malmesbury headquarters. It has been suggested that research there will focus on battery technologies, following the acquisition of US start - up Sakti3, and robotics. It will also house the Dyson Institute of Technology, a college founded by James Dyson to combat a perceived shortage of engineering skills in the UK.
In 1985, Dyson sued Amway for copyright infringement of a Dyson dual cyclone prototype machine. Dyson claimed that he had sent the prototype machines, drawings, and confidential information to Amway as part of a contract in April 1984. In January 1985, Amway produced the CMS - 1000, a machine which was very similar to the Dyson design. Less than a month later, Dyson sued Amway.
In 1999, the US company Hoover was found guilty of patent infringement.
In 2006, Dyson sued the parts manufacturer Qualtex for copyright and unregistered design right infringement, for creating and selling deliberate imitations of Dyson 's original vacuum cleaner parts. Dyson was seeking to prevent the sale of spare parts made by Qualtex to fit and match Dyson vacuum cleaners. The Qualtex parts in question were intended to resemble closely the Dyson spares, not least as they were visible in the normal use of the vacuum cleaners. The Chinese manufacturer that produced certain parts for Qualtex was found to have copied the visual design of some of Dyson 's spare parts. Following the victory, £ 100,000 was donated to the Royal College of Art to help young designers protect their designs.
In 2010, Dyson launched legal action against rival manufacturer Vax, claiming the design of its Mach Zen vacuum cleaner is an infringement of the registered design of its first "bagless '' Dyson cylinder vacuum DC02, which dates back to 1994. Dyson also claimed the Chinese - owned rival had "flagrantly copied '' Dyson 's iconic design. However, the court backed an earlier decision which rejected Dyson 's claims, as the two designs did not produce "the same overall impression '' on the informed user. The courts held that the two cleaners were "different designs '', the Dyson cleaner being "smooth, curving and elegant '', the Vax cleaner being "rugged, angular and industrial ''.
In August 2013, Dyson sued Samsung Electronics over claims his company 's steering technology was infringed. The product that was targeted, Samsung 's "Motion Sync '', allegedly infringed the design of a steering mechanism for cylinder cleaners, patented by Dyson in 2009. It describes a way to allow a vacuum cleaner to spin quickly from one direction to another on the spot, and to follow the user 's path rather than just being dragged behind, in order to prevent the vacuum getting snagged on corners. But three months after it filed the lawsuit, Dyson voluntarily dropped the litigation for unknown reasons. Samsung filed a counter suit for ₤ 6 million for compensation for hurting Samsung 's corporate image.
On 5 December 2012, a lawsuit by hand dryer manufacturer Excel Dryer was filed against Dyson, claiming that Dyson 's advertising comparing the Airblade to the Excel Dryer Xlerator was deceptive. Dyson 's advertisements stated that the Xlerator produced twice as much carbon dioxide, was worse for the environment, and cost more to operate than the Airblade. Excel Dryer claimed that Dyson was falsifying its comparisons by submitting a 20 - second dry time for the Xlerator to the Materials Systems Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, rather than Excel Dryer 's tested 12 second dry time, thus inflating energy consumption figures in the Airblade 's favour.
In March 2011, James Dyson reportedly said in an interview for The Sunday Times that British universities were allowing Chinese nationals to study engineering and spy on the departments where they were working, enabling them to take technology back to China after completing their studies. In the interview he was quoted as saying that "Britain is very proud about the number of foreign students we educate at our universities, but actually all we are doing is educating our competitors. (...) I 've seen frightening examples. Bugs are even left in computers so that the information continues to be transmitted after the researchers have returned home. ''
David Willetts, the government minister responsible for British universities, said he would thoroughly investigate the statement provided by James Dyson. He has also criticised the Chinese authorities for failing to act on patent infringements.
In December 2011, The Independent reported that Bell Pottinger executive Tim Collins had been filmed by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism saying that David Cameron had raised a copyright issue with Chinese premier Wen Jiabao on behalf of Dyson Limited "because we asked him to ''.
In 2012, Yong Pang, an engineer specialist in electric motors, was accused of stealing Dyson 's digital motor technology which was a part of future product development projects. The motors, in development over 15 years, incorporated microchip "digital impulse technology '' to spin at 104,000 rpm in order to draw high volumes of air through the appliance, and were not licensed to any other companies. Yong Pang and his wife Yali Li allegedly set up a front company "ACE Electrical Machine Design '' to receive payments of £ 11,650 from Bosch while Pang was working for Dyson. Dyson claimed that trade secrets were passed to Bosch 's Chinese motor manufacturer.
In 2015, Dyson charged that Siemens and Bosch vacuums were using a sensor that sent signals to its motor to increase its power while the machine sucked up dust remnants, making them appear more competent during European Union (EU) efficiency tests. Because tests are conducted in dust - free labs, Dyson claimed that this gave an unfair reading, because in a real home environment the machines used much more power. Dyson said both brands have "capitalized on loopholes '' found within the EU regulations to be granted an AAAA energy consumption rating, when actual domestic use showed they performed similar to that of an "E '' or "F '' rating. Dyson issued proceedings against Bosch in Netherlands and France, and against Siemens in Germany and Belgium.
However, BSH 's Hausgeräte, which makes household appliances under the Bosch and Siemens brands explained that many of its machines contain "intelligent sensor technology '' to avoid loss of suction, which control the vacuum cleaner motor automatically. After weeks of court proceeedings, Dyson lost the court battle against Bosch; the courts in the Netherlands decided that Dyson accusations were baseless.
Until 2017, European Union regulations had required vacuum cleaners be tested when empty, a ruling which greatly favored bagged vacuum cleaners. Dyson sued the European Commission, resulting in a judgement requiring testing be done under normal usage conditions.
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what is the holy trinity of mexican agriculture | Three Sisters (agriculture) - wikipedia
The Three Sisters are the three main agricultural crops of various Native American groups in North America: winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (typically tepary beans or common beans). The Iroquois, among others, used these "Three Sisters '' as trade goods.
In a technique known as companion planting the three crops are planted close together. Flat - topped mounds of soil are built for each cluster of crops. Each mound is about 30 cm (12 in) high and 50 cm (20 in) wide, and several maize seeds are planted close together in the center of each mound. In parts of the Atlantic Northeast, rotten fish or eels are buried in the mound with the maize seeds, to act as additional fertilizer where the soil is poor. When the maize is 15 cm (6 inches) tall, beans and squash are planted around the maize, alternating between the two kinds of seeds. The process to develop this agricultural knowledge took place over 5,000 -- 6,500 years. Squash was domesticated first, with maize second and then beans being domesticated. Squash was first domesticated 8,000 -- 10,000 years ago.
The three crops benefit from each other. The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight, helping prevent the establishment of weeds. The squash leaves also act as a "living mulch '', creating a microclimate to retain moisture in the soil, and the prickly hairs of the vine deter pests. Corn, beans, and squash contain complex carbohydrates, essential fatty acids and all eight essential amino acids, allowing most Native American tribes to thrive on a plant - based diet.
Native Americans throughout North America are known for growing variations of Three Sisters gardens. The milpas of Mesoamerica are farms or gardens that employ companion planting on a larger scale. The Ancestral Puebloans are known for adopting this garden design in a drier environment. The Tewa and other peoples of the Southwestern United States often included a "fourth Sister '', Rocky Mountain bee plant (Cleome serrulata), which attracts bees to help pollinate the beans and squash.
The Three Sisters planting method is featured on the reverse of the 2009 US Sacagawea dollar.
The division of labor among the Iroquois and Seneca peoples was noted to be that women tended the crops, the ' three sisters '. This was because men could be absent from their home and villages for an extended amount of time while hunting, attending diplomatic missions and raiding. The initial preparation for the planting of the ' three sisters ' was performed by the men who cleared the land. After the land was cleared, groups of women who were related to each other would then do the planting, weeding and harvesting.
Maize
Phaseolus vulgaris
Butternut squash, a type of winter squash.
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who killed captain alex i have a key | Who Killed Captain Alex? - Wikipedia
Who Killed Captain Alex? is a 2010 Ugandan action - comedy film directed and produced by Nabwana IGG, in Wakaliwood, an ultra low - budget studio in Kampala, Uganda. It has gained viral notoriety for being a no - budget action film, produced on a reported budget of under $200. A trailer for the film was uploaded to YouTube in January 2010, and has been viewed over 1.8 million times as of August 2017. The original version of the film was lost due to power outages and "strained conditions '', while the surviving version of Who Killed Captain Alex? released online includes an English "Video Joker '' commentary that adds in running gags about the characters.
Captain Alex, the local military 's top soldier, is sent out to destroy the evil Tiger Mafia, a group that controls the city of Kampala from the shadows. The Tiger Mafia is led by a man named Richard.
After Richard 's brother is captured by Captain Alex, Richard sets out for revenge. Later, Captain Alex turns up dead -- but nobody is sure who killed him. Captain Alex 's brother, a Ugandan Shaolin Monk, arrives in Kampala to try to discover who the murderer is. He develops a friendship with one of Richard 's wives, who has lost her memory due to being shot by Richard (Richard has so many wives they are expendable).
The last action sequence features a number of helicopters, myriad explosions, and an immense body count. After an extended ambush, a chain reaction overwhelms Richard to the point where he is wounded and taken into custody. In the end, however, no one knows who actually killed Captain Alex (even the director himself).
The film was produced on an estimated $200 budget. Production began in late 2009 in the ghettos of Nateete. Filmmaker Isaac Nabwana (nicknamed Nabwana IGG) was inspired by his love of Hollywood action movies and martial arts films from childhood. The helicopter scenes in the film were based on Nabwana 's experiences during the Ugandan Bush War where he and his brother were chased by a helicopter.
Throughout the film, a panpipes cover of the Seal song "Kiss from a Rose '' can be heard.
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need for speed most wanted 2005 android game | Need for Speed: Most Wanted (2005 video game) - wikipedia
Need for Speed: Most Wanted is a 2005 racing video game developed by EA Black Box and published by Electronic Arts. It is the ninth installment in the Need for Speed series. The game features street racing - oriented game play, with certain customization options from the Need for Speed: Underground series. The game is succeeded by Need for Speed: Carbon, which serves as a sequel to Most Wanted.
Most Wanted has been released for Nintendo DS, Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, Game Boy Advance and is the first Need for Speed game released for the seventh generation console, the Xbox 360, as one of the system 's launch titles. Another version of Most Wanted, titled Need for Speed: Most Wanted 5 - 1 - 0 has been released for the PlayStation Portable. In May 2012, the PlayStation 2 version was released on the online virtual market, PlayStation Store, for the PlayStation 3, but was removed from the storefront later that year. On June 1, 2012, a reboot of the game, also called Need for Speed: Most Wanted, was announced by the British developing team Criterion Games and was released on October 30, 2012.
Need for Speed: Most Wanted received positive reviews and was a commercial success; it sold 16 million copies worldwide, making it the best - selling title in the series.
Most Wanted is like other Need for Speed games, where the player selects one car and races against a time limit or other racers to reach a destination. Police chases have once again been integrated into certain racing sessions, in which the police employ vehicles and tactics to stop the player 's car and arrest the player, like Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit and Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2. As players take control of faster cars and increasingly rely on nitrous oxide speed boosts, the oxide meter now refills automatically for the first time since its introduction in Underground, and driving sequences become fast - paced and intense similar to the Burnout series.
Three distinct regions are offered in the city of Rockport, along with cycling weather. Racing events take place between sunrise and sunset, unlike in the Underground where the events took place at night. A Grand Theft Auto - like Free Roam mode is provided as in Need for Speed: Underground 2, but is still limited to Career mode, as well as pursuit - based events in other modes.
Brand promotion from Underground 2 still continues strongly, with Old Spice and the presence of Burger King restaurants, Castrol oil, Axe Unlimited and Edge shaving gel. The Cingular logo is still visible in the game 's wireless communication system. Performance, body and visual parts that can be bought in the game are also from real life companies. However, Best Buy stores did not return from Underground 2.
The game provides players with three game modes. The Quick Race mode allows the player to select a car and an event and immediately start racing. The available cars and events are unlocked as the player progresses through the storyline in the Career mode. Achieving goals by winning races and performing a number of actions, dubbed "Milestones '', during police pursuits, as well as a minimum Bounty are needed to advance in the storyline and race against any of the mode 's 15 Blacklist racers. In the Xbox 360 version, the player is awarded with achievements each time a Blacklist opponent is defeated. Career mode introduces a new feature -- the ability to win a Blacklist opponent 's car ("pink slip ''), bonus functions, extra cash or car parts and decors, after defeating the opponent in question. These come in the form of six markers -- the rival 's pink slip (which is concealed as a bonus marker), two bonus function markers, and three custom backroom parts markers of which there is a body part, visual upgrade, and performance marker ("Junkman Marker '') that the player can select -- of which the player can choose only two. New cars and parts are also unlocked as the player progresses through Career mode by beating Blacklist racers.
In addition to the Quick Race and Career modes, there is also a "Challenge Series '' mode involving 69 progressively difficult challenges where players are required to successfully complete Tollbooth races and pursuit challenges, such as tagging a number of police cars. The pre-tuned cars used in each Challenge is fixed, ranging from mostly Career cars with poor handling to traffic vehicles such as a dump truck or police cars. Additional bonus cars may be unlocked as the player progresses through Challenge mode. The Challenge mode also has a cheat; by entering the words ' burgerking ', or for consoles by pressing a certain code on the d - pad, at the start of the game, the player can avail the exclusive Burger King challenge. Once successfully completed, the game will reward you with something, such as "Junkman '' parts. You can equip these parts to your vehicles in the "My Cars '' menu to provide extra performance to your car. These parts are not available in "Career Mode ''.
In terms of actual variations of races, Most Wanted inherits several racing modes prevalent in its Underground predecessors. The game 's four existing modes: Circuit races, point - to - point Sprint races, Lap Knockout races and Drag races, remain largely unchanged since the first iteration of Underground, while Drifting, Street X, Underground Racing League tournaments and Outrun racing are removed. Meanwhile, Most Wanted sees the introduction of two new racing variations, which places emphasis on speed. The first mode is known as Tollbooth, where a player races alone to designated checkpoints along a point - to - point route before time runs out; the more time a player has as they reach a toll booth, the more time they have to arrive at the next one. The second mode, dubbed Speedtrap, sees racers competing with each other to get the highest accumulated speed record at multiple traffic cameras. At a speed trap / traffic camera, players accelerate their car to aim for the highest possible speed. Accumulated speed is reduced over a period of time after an opponent crosses the finish line first.
Most Wanted features pursuit evasion in the game for the first time in the series since Hot Pursuit 2. In Career mode, police pursuits may occur during a race or during free roaming through the city, depending on the frequency of the police units in the area and traffic offenses players have committed. The player can initiate a pursuit immediately from the game 's safe house or menu by choosing an unfinished Milestone or a Bounty challenge. Pursuits can also be initiated by selecting an appropriate Challenge in the Challenge Series mode. Traffic offenses committed by the player are known in game as Infractions. These include speeding, excessive speeding, reckless driving, driving off roadway, damage to property, hit and run, ramming a police unit, and resisting arrest.
The system is significantly more complex than its previous Hot Pursuit incarnations. The manner in which the police handle a player is now determined by the "heat level '' of the player 's current car. Heat levels, which increase with the length of a police pursuit and the amount of damage caused by the player during the pursuit, add a twist to the pursuit. The higher the car 's heat level, the more aggressive the police units are against the player, employing additional tactics and tools, such as roadblocks, spike strips, police helicopters and heavier and faster police cars such as police SUV 's and Federal units.
In Career mode, pursuits are integrated into the game in such a way that it is necessary to participate in pursuit in order to be able to challenge Blacklist racers. The player must complete Milestones which involve committing at least a specified amount of traffic offenses or pursuit lengths during a pursuit, and collecting an amount of Bounty, a form of credit accumulated as players continue to evade the police or damage police units. A car 's heat level may be reduced by changing the physical appearance of a car by changing body parts or paint color, or by using another purchased car with a lower heat level to race in the streets. If a car is not being used by the player its heat level will slowly lower over time. Rap sheets, with records such as the player 's infractions, cost to state, deployed tactics and pursuit lengths, are also available for viewing by hacking into police records.
Players are provided with several additional features which are useful during pursuits. The Speedbreaker, provided within the driving interface, slows down time similar to bullet time also while momentarily adding weight to the player 's car allowing it to become more difficult for other vehicles to push around, and induces a drift. This allows the player a limited amount of time to quickly maneuver the car out of difficult situations, or assess an escape route through a road block or spike strip blockade. Another feature in Most Wanted are Pursuit Breakers, road - side objects which are designed to collapse when a player uses their car to knock down its support, either damaging or disabling following police cars (which can be visually seen in many cases). In one example, if a player smashes through a gas station, the roof of the station falls potentially crushing police units following them.
Pursuits in the game are split into two main parts. The first part, which is the actual pursuit itself, occurs when the player is being actively chased by police. The second part, known as the "Cooldown '' mode, occurs when the police have lost sight of the player and are conducting a search for him / her. During this period of time, the pursuit and its corresponding timer are temporarily paused and a Cooldown bar is enabled, which will slowly fill up as time passes. Once the bar fills up completely, the player is considered to have successfully evaded the pursuit. Conversely, if a police unit spots the player, the pursuit resumes. To evade the pursuit, it is necessary to enter Cooldown mode first. This is accomplished by getting a certain distance away from the police or by disabling police units. Cooldown spots, areas in the world usually not seen from the street or helicopters, can be used to hide from pursuers and aid in the player 's escape. If the player finds a hiding spot and stops they will spend significantly less time in Cooldown mode.
Online multiplayer was available on Xbox 360, Xbox, PC and PlayStation Portable. Up to 4 players can participate in an online race and can race in 4 game modes including circuit, sprint, lap knockout and speed trap. Furthermore, there is the option to enable Performance Matching in an online race. When performance matching is enabled, all cars in the race are automatically upgraded to match the performance (i.e. top speed, handling, etc.) of the fastest car in that particular race. However, as soon as the race is over, all modifications made to the cars by performance matching are removed. The online multiplayer lobby was shut down on August 1, 2011.
There are a wide range of cars available for the main Career mode of the game. Cars such as the Fiat Punto, Audi TT and Cadillac CTS are only seen in Most Wanted and tuners return from Underground 2 (e.g. Toyota Supra, Mazda RX - 7 and Mazda RX - 8) but SUVs do not return except as non-playable police vehicles. Exotics like the Lotus Elise, Lamborghinis, Porsches make their first appearance since Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2 and classic muscle cars featured in the Black Edition (e.g. Chevrolet Camaro) are new to the series. As the game progresses, better and faster cars are unlocked and races get faster and more intense as the player makes his / her way through the game. Cars must either be purchased at car lots or won by getting the pink slip to a Blacklist Racer 's car, as detailed in the Modes section. Cars can be purchased at car lots in stock condition with no enhancement whatsoever. Not all of them are available or affordable for purchase at the beginning stages of Career mode and must be unlocked by defeating a certain Blacklist member. The Blacklist members ' cars can also be won for free after defeating him / her by choosing a pink slip hidden special cards providing 4 types of unknown and 2 known criteria, the two criteria being performance and visual upgrades with the other four containing slips to get out of jail for free, increasing the number of times a vehicle can be impounded before paying a fine to get it back, some extra money and of course, the pink slip to the Blacklist Members ' car. These cars are unique in every way, already upgraded with the latest custom parts, therefore, making them the fastest vehicles available. While the game features police cars, Most Wanted does not allow players to play as a pursuing police in chases. However, players may drive several police cars in Challenge mode, but are solely used in checkpoint races and police pursuits, where the police are still pursuing the player.
As in the preceding Underground installments, the performance and physical appearance of the player 's car can be extensively modified, but options for exterior and interior modifications have been significantly reduced to only the essentials. The customization of side mirrors, lights, exhausts and individual body kit pieces were dropped from body customization. However, instead of individual body kit pieces, up to 5 whole body kits can be chosen, some of which widen the car 's stance. The "Car Specialties '' customization (including neon, nitrous purge, hydraulics, spinners, doors, split hoods, and trunk audio) have been completely eliminated with the exception of window tint and custom gauges. Paint customization is limited to the main body color (with mirror, exhaust, spoiler, roof scoop, and brake color options gone). Unlike the Underground games, visual customization is used to lower the car 's "heat level '', instead of increasing the car 's "visual rating ''. Additionally, players are allowed to assume a sleeper appearance (leaving the exterior of the car unmodified or barely modified) for cars without penalty in Most Wanted.
The player character arrives in Rockport City, driving a racing version of the BMW M3 GTR. Following Mia Townsend (Josie Maran), the player character proves their driving prowess. However, when the duo stops at an intersection in Downtown Rockport, they draw the attention of a veteran police sergeant named Nathan Cross (Dean McKenzie), who blocks their path with his police issued Chevrolet Corvette C6. As Mia quickly flees, Cross and his female partner confront the player and his car, wanting to seize it, due to the fact that the car is not street legal, as well as informing the player that he 's putting an end to street racing in Rockport. However, just before he can arrest the player, a call comes over the radio about a high speed pursuit nearby, and he is requested to assist the chase. Cross reluctantly lets the player go, but warns the player by saying "next time, you wo n't be so lucky '', and scratches the side of the BMW with his car key as he leaves.
Races seem to be in the player character 's favor against the Blacklist, a group of the fifteen most notorious drivers wanted by the Rockport Police Department. That is, until their latest member, Clarence "Razor '' Callahan (Derek Hamilton), sabotages the M3 GTR and wins the player character 's car in a pink slip race. After the M3 GTR is towed away, as Razor and the other blacklist members are mocking the player character, the Rockport PD arrives, forcing everyone to flee. Without a car to escape in, the player is arrested by Cross, but is later released due to a lack of evidence. Mia picks up the player character and then informs them about Razor 's new status as # 1 on the Blacklist. She then helps by assisting in acquiring a new car and helping the player character work their way up the Blacklist.
Rivals are defeated one by one, and reputation, new vehicles, and upgrades are awarded with every Blacklist member taken down. As new boroughs are opened up throughout Rockport (Rosewood, Camden Beach, and Downtown Rockport), Mia also sets up safehouses for the player to hide out at and a rap sheet to keep track of how notorious they become, in exchange for placement of "side bets '' on the player 's races. In his quest to climb up the Blacklist, he 's assisted by Rog, another street racer defeated by the player when he came into the city, who befriended the player. He provides the player with tips and updates about pursuit tactics, races, upgrades, cars etc. However, once time passes, Rog gets suspicious of Mia 's great amounts of cash she earns out of the bets, learns that the RPD is monitoring her and advices the player to avoid her.
Once the player reaches the # 2 spot, Rog informs the players that everyone calls out a race between him and Razor, and that even people from Bayview are placing bets with odds in the player 's favor. Afterwards, Razor calls and sets the location for the showdown. The final challenge for the top spot on the Blacklist puts the player character in a race against Razor, with the player emerging as the victor, thus reclaiming the BMW M3 GTR. Razor refuses to relinquish ownership of the car, but Mia subdues Razor and returns the keys to the player, revealing that she is an undercover police officer. At the same time, the Rockport PD arrives on the scene; Razor and all of the other blacklist members are arrested, and the player character is pursued by the entire Rockport Police Department under the command of Cross. During the chase, Cross reveals that the player character actually assisted him in arresting the entire blacklist and tries to get them to surrender. With Mia helping him one last time, the player character evades the police and escapes Rockport by driving the car over an old broken bridge. In the end, Cross adds the player character to the National Most Wanted List.
Need for Speed: Most Wanted ' Black Edition ', a collector 's edition of Most Wanted, was released in celebration of the Need for Speed series ' 10th anniversary and in conjunction with the release of Most Wanted. The Black Edition features additional races, bonus cars and other additional content. The Black Edition also comes with a special feature DVD that contains interviews and videos about the game. The Black Edition was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox in the United States and Australia; only the PlayStation 2 version of Black Edition was released additionally for Europe.
The cutscenes in the game are live - action videos shot with real actors and set pieces, and CGI effects are added to car exteriors and environments for extra visual flair. The videos are presented in a significantly different style from the Underground series, and this presentation of cut scenes is used again in Carbon and Undercover.
The depiction between all of the versions graphics-wise is not the same especially on portable versions. The Microsoft Windows version varies by hardware and can look better compared to the console versions. The recommended hardware or above has a similar frame rate to the Xbox 360 version. The game makes heavy use of the HDRR and motion blur effects to give a more realistic feel.
Need for Speed: Most Wanted 5 - 1 - 0 is a PlayStation Portable port of Most Wanted, released on the same day as its console and personal computer counterparts. Similar to Most Wanted, Most Wanted 5 - 1 - 0 features a similar Blacklist 15 listing and Career Mode, with the addition of "Tuner Takedown '', a "Be the Cop '' mode not featured on Most Wanted. Most Wanted 5 - 1 - 0 lacks many elements of its other console and PC counterparts, like cut scenes, a storyline and a free roam mode, and contains minor differences (including listing the real name of a Blacklist racer rather than his / her nickname). The title of the game is based on the numerals "5 - 1 - 0 '', which is the police code for street racing.
Most Wanted, like the Underground series, avoids the use of major vehicle damage on all racing models, with only scratched paint and heavily cracked windscreens comprising the whole of the racers ' damage modeling. Police cars, however, are subject to extreme physical body damages. They can be immobilized if they flip over or have been heavily damaged by "pursuit breakers '' and / or the player 's car. EA ceased support to the Windows version of the game very early in its life cycle. The latest patch for the Windows version (1.3) was released on December 6, 2005.
Need for Speed: Most Wanted was met with positive reviews. Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Xbox 360 version 83.05 % and 83 / 100, the Xbox version 82.59 % and 83 / 100, the PlayStation 2 version 81.56 % and 82 / 100, the PC version 81.50 % and 82 / 100 and the GameCube version 79.36 % and 80 / 100. While the Game Boy Advance version was met with mixed reviews with a score of 67.33 % and the Nintendo DS version was met with negative reviews with a score of 46.89 % and 45 / 100. GameSpot gave the game an 8.4 out of 10, praising the game for its "sharp graphics '' and "outstanding sound effects '', but noted the AI for being "too easy at first, but too hard later on ''. Need for Speed: Most Wanted was a commercial success; it sold 16 million copies worldwide and 3.9 million in the United States, making it the best - selling title in the series.
IGN gave it an 8.5 out of 10 "great '' rating, praising almost every element of the game. Praise was given to the map design, described as "a crazily chromed out, sepia - tone landscape of industrial structures '', car modeling, saying "The car models are especially sleek looking too '', the car line up and the return of exotics. Particularly strong praise was given to the police system, saying "The cops are never that smart, but they continually grow in aggressiveness and numbers. '' and "they add that very necessary component of challenge, annoyance, and heat that makes this game so fun ''. Praise even went to the cut scenes and their casting, which usually falls victim to critics, saying "this mixture of animated, highly colored FMV characters and stylized backgrounds is both imaginative and refreshing ''.
On April 18, 2012, South Africa - based online retailer BTGames, the retailer that listed the existence of Jak and Daxter Collection, listed both Need for Speed: Most Wanted 2 and Dead Space 3 for pre-order, hinting that a possible sequel is in the works. The Most Wanted reboot was officially confirmed on June 1, 2012 on the official website and Facebook fan page. EA presented the game at their E3 live press conference on June 4, 2012. Despite its name the game is completely different in nearly all aspects from the 2005 version.
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where did the first large earthquake occur and what was its magnitude | Earthquake - Wikipedia
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth 's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they can not be felt to those violent enough to toss people around and destroy whole cities. The seismicity, or seismic activity, of an area is the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. The word tremor is also used for non-earthquake seismic rumbling.
At the Earth 's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and displacing or disrupting the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event -- whether natural or caused by humans -- that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake 's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick - slip behavior. Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build - up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic - rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake 's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake 's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth 's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth 's deep interior.
There are three main types of fault, all of which may cause an interplate earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike - slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip - slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary. Strike - slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike - slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip - slip and strike - slip; this is known as oblique slip.
Reverse faults, particularly those along convergent plate boundaries are associated with the most powerful earthquakes, megathrust earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more. Strike - slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can produce major earthquakes up to about magnitude 8. Earthquakes associated with normal faults are generally less than magnitude 7. For every unit increase in magnitude, there is a roughly thirtyfold increase in the energy released. For instance, an earthquake of magnitude 6.0 releases approximately 30 times more energy than a 5.0 magnitude earthquake and a 7.0 magnitude earthquake releases 900 times (30 × 30) more energy than a 5.0 magnitude of earthquake. An 8.6 magnitude earthquake releases the same amount of energy as 10,000 atomic bombs like those used in World War II.
This is so because the energy released in an earthquake, and thus its magnitude, is proportional to the area of the fault that ruptures and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth 's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes. The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in Chile, 1960; Alaska, 1957; Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike - slip faults, like the San Andreas Fault (1857, 1906), the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey (1939) and the Denali Fault in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.
The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees. Thus the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become 50 to 100 km (Japan, 2011; Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.
Strike - slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of 10 km within the brittle crust, thus earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible. Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6 km.
In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault types. Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike slip by intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. This can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest principal stress, the direction of the force that ' pushes ' the rock mass during the faulting. In the case of normal faults, the rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatest principal stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself. In the case of thrusting, the rock mass ' escapes ' in the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the overburden equals the least principal stress. Strike - slip faulting is intermediate between the other two types described above. This difference in stress regime in the three faulting environments can contribute to differences in stress drop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions.
Where plate boundaries occur within the continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself. In the case of the San Andreas fault continental transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e.g., the "Big bend '' region). The Northridge earthquake was associated with movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian plates where it runs through the northwestern part of the Zagros Mountains. The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike - slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms.
All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighboring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g. deglaciation). These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes.
The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km are classified as ' shallow - focus ' earthquakes, while those with a focal - depth between 70 and 300 km are commonly termed ' mid-focus ' or ' intermediate - depth ' earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, Deep - focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometers). These seismically active areas of subduction are known as Wadati -- Benioff zones. Deep - focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep - focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure.
Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be recorded by seismometers and tiltmeters (a device that measures ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions.
A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slow component revealed by low - frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest that it is larger. The possibility that the nucleation involves some sort of preparation process is supported by the observation that about 40 % of earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks. Once the rupture has initiated, it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process are poorly understood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a laboratory. Also the effects of strong ground motion make it very difficult to record information close to a nucleation zone.
Rupture propagation is generally modeled using a fracture mechanics approach, likening the rupture to a propagating mixed mode shear crack. The rupture velocity is a function of the fracture energy in the volume around the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture energy. The velocity of rupture propagation is orders of magnitude faster than the displacement velocity across the fault. Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in the range 70 -- 90 % of the S - wave velocity, and this is independent of earthquake size. A small subset of earthquake ruptures appear to have propagated at speeds greater than the S - wave velocity. These supershear earthquakes have all been observed during large strike - slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic damage caused by the 2001 Kunlun earthquake has been attributed to the effects of the sonic boom developed in such earthquakes. Some earthquake ruptures travel at unusually low velocities and are referred to as slow earthquakes. A particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is the tsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities, caused by the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighboring coast, as in the 1896 Sanriku earthquake.
Tides may induce some seismicity, see tidal triggering of earthquakes for details.
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock.
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notable higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park. In August 2012, a swarm of earthquakes shook Southern California 's Imperial Valley, showing the most recorded activity in the area since the 1970s.
Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in what has been called an earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East.
Quaking or shaking of the earth is a common phenomenon undoubtedly known to humans from earliest times. Prior to the development of strong - motion accelerometers that can measure peak ground speed and acceleration directly, the intensity of the earth - shaking was estimated on the basis of the observed effects, as categorized on various seismic intensity scales. Only in the last century has the source of such shaking been identified as ruptures in the earth 's crust, with the intensity of shaking at any locality dependent not only on the local ground conditions, but also on the strength or magnitude of the rupture, and on its distance.
The first scale for measuring earthquake magnitudes was developed by Charles F. Richter in 1935. Subsequent scales (see seismic magnitude scales) have retained a key feature, where each unit represents a ten-fold difference in the amplitude of the ground shaking, and a 32-fold difference in energy. Subsequent scales are also adjusted to have approximately the same numeric value within the limits of the scale.
Although the mass media commonly reports earthquake magnitudes as "Richter magnitude '' or "Richter scale '', standard practice by most seismological authorities is to express an earthquake 's strength on the moment magnitude scale, which is based on the actual energy released by an earthquake.
It is estimated that around 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, detectable with current instrumentation. About 100,000 of these can be felt. Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in El Salvador, Mexico, Guatemala, Chile, Peru, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, the Azores in Portugal, Turkey, New Zealand, Greece, Italy, India, Nepal and Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, including Downstate New York, England, and Australia. Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3.7 -- 4.6 every year, an earthquake of 4.7 -- 5.5 every 10 years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years. This is an example of the Gutenberg -- Richter law.
The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The United States Geological Survey estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0 -- 7.9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable. In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, though this is probably a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the United States Geological Survey (USGS). A recent increase in the number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of intense tectonic activity, interspersed with longer periods of low - intensity. However, accurate recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too early to categorically state that this is the case.
Most of the world 's earthquakes (90 %, and 81 % of the largest) take place in the 40,000 km long, horseshoe - shaped zone called the circum - Pacific seismic belt, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains.
With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo and Tehran, in areas of high seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3 million people.
While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth 's tectonic plates, human activity can also produce earthquakes. Four main activities contribute to this phenomenon: storing large amounts of water behind a dam (and possibly building an extremely heavy building), drilling and injecting liquid into wells, and by coal mining and oil drilling. Perhaps the best known example is the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China 's Sichuan Province in May; this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the 19th deadliest earthquake of all time. The Zipingpu Dam is believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the fault 1,650 feet (503 m) away; this pressure probably increased the power of the earthquake and accelerated the rate of movement for the fault. The greatest earthquake in Australia 's history is also claimed to be induced by humanity, through coal mining. The city of Newcastle was built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake has been reported to be spawned from a fault that reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process.
The instrumental scales used to describe the size of an earthquake began with the Richter magnitude scale in the 1930s. It is a relatively simple measurement of an event 's amplitude, and its use has become minimal in the 21st century. Seismic waves travel through the Earth 's interior and can be recorded by seismometers at great distances. The surface wave magnitude was developed in the 1950s as a means to measure remote earthquakes and to improve the accuracy for larger events. The moment magnitude scale measures the amplitude of the shock, but also takes into account the seismic moment (total rupture area, average slip of the fault, and rigidity of the rock). The Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale, the Medvedev -- Sponheuer -- Karnik scale, and the Mercalli intensity scale are based on the observed effects and are related to the intensity of shaking.
Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities:
Propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approx. 3 km / s up to 13 km / s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In the Earth 's interior the shock - or P waves travel much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1.7: 1). The differences in travel time from the epicenter to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also, the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.
In solid rock P - waves travel at about 6 to 7 km per second; the velocity increases within the deep mantle to ~ 13 km / s. The velocity of S - waves ranges from 2 -- 3 km / s in light sediments and 4 -- 5 km / s in the Earth 's crust up to 7 km / s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the Earth 's mantle.
On average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P and S wave times 8. Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analyses of seismograms the Earth 's core was located in 1913 by Beno Gutenberg.
S waves and later arriving surface waves do main damage compared to P waves. P wave squeezes and expands material in the same direction it is traveling. S wave shakes the ground up and down and back and forth.
Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur. The world is divided into 754 Flinn -- Engdahl regions (F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions.
Standard reporting of earthquakes includes its magnitude, date and time of occurrence, geographic coordinates of its epicenter, depth of the epicenter, geographical region, distances to population centers, location uncertainty, a number of parameters that are included in USGS earthquake reports (number of stations reporting, number of observations, etc.), and a unique event ID.
Although relatively slow seismic waves have traditionally been used to detect earthquakes, scientists realized in 2016 that gravitational measurements could provide instantaneous detection of earthquakes, and confirmed this by analyzing gravitational records associated with the 2011 Tohoku - Oki ("Fukushima '') earthquake.
The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following:
Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground - shaking is measured by ground acceleration.
Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low - intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth 's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any which are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.
Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue.
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water - saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves.
Tsunamis are long - wavelength, long - period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water -- including when an earthquake occurs at sea. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 mi), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600 -- 800 kilometers per hour (373 -- 497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.
Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter magnitude scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.
The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flood if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5 million people.
An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general property damage, and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities, mental consequences such as panic attacks, depression to survivors, and higher insurance premiums.
One of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history was the 1556 Shaanxi earthquake, which occurred on 23 January 1556 in Shaanxi province, China. More than 830,000 people died. Most houses in the area were yaodongs -- dwellings carved out of loess hillsides -- and many victims were killed when these structures collapsed. The 1976 Tangshan earthquake, which killed between 240,000 and 655,000 people, was the deadliest of the 20th century.
The 1960 Chilean earthquake is the largest earthquake that has been measured on a seismograph, reaching 9.5 magnitude on 22 May 1960. Its epicenter was near Cañete, Chile. The energy released was approximately twice that of the next most powerful earthquake, the Good Friday earthquake (March 27, 1964) which was centered in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all been megathrust earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history.
Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were deadly because of their proximity to either heavily populated areas or the ocean, where earthquakes often create tsunamis that can devastate communities thousands of kilometers away. Regions most at risk for great loss of life include those where earthquakes are relatively rare but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or nonexistent seismic building codes.
Earthquake prediction is a branch of the science of seismology concerned with the specification of the time, location, and magnitude of future earthquakes within stated limits. Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions can not yet be made to a specific day or month.
While forecasting is usually considered to be a type of prediction, earthquake forecasting is often differentiated from earthquake prediction. Earthquake forecasting is concerned with the probabilistic assessment of general earthquake hazard, including the frequency and magnitude of damaging earthquakes in a given area over years or decades. For well - understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated.
Earthquake warning systems have been developed that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the system 's range to seek shelter before the earthquake 's impact is felt.
The objective of earthquake engineering is to foresee the impact of earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such structures to minimize the risk of damage. Existing structures can be modified by seismic retrofitting to improve their resistance to earthquakes. Earthquake insurance can provide building owners with financial protection against losses resulting from earthquakes.
Emergency management strategies can be employed by a government or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences.
From the lifetime of the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras in the 5th century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually attributed to "air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth. '' Thales of Miletus, who lived from 625 -- 547 (BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water. Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines ' (585 -- 526 BCE) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. The Greek philosopher Democritus (460 -- 371 BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes. Pliny the Elder called earthquakes "underground thunderstorms. ''
In recent studies, geologists claim that global warming is one of the reasons for increased seismic activity. According to these studies melting glaciers and rising sea levels disturb the balance of pressure on Earth 's tectonic plates thus causing increase in the frequency and intensity of earthquakes.
In Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the god Loki. When Loki, god of mischief and strife, murdered Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Loki 's wife Sigyn stood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison dripped on Loki 's face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his bonds, which caused the earth to tremble.
In Greek mythology, Poseidon was the cause and god of earthquakes. When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with a trident, causing earthquakes and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear upon people as revenge.
In Japanese mythology, Namazu (鯰) is a giant catfish who causes earthquakes. Namazu lives in the mud beneath the earth, and is guarded by the god Kashima who restrains the fish with a stone. When Kashima lets his guard fall, Namazu thrashes about, causing violent earthquakes.
In modern popular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the memory of great cities laid waste, such as Kobe in 1995 or San Francisco in 1906. Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning. For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as in Short Walk to Daylight (1972), The Ragged Edge (1968) or Aftershock: Earthquake in New York (1999). A notable example is Heinrich von Kleist 's classic novella, The Earthquake in Chile, which describes the destruction of Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakami 's short fiction collection After the Quake depicts the consequences of the Kobe earthquake of 1995.
The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical "Big One '' expected of California 's San Andreas Fault someday, as depicted in the novels Richter 10 (1996), Goodbye California (1977), 2012 (2009) and San Andreas (2015) among other works. Jacob M. Appel 's widely anthologized short story, A Comparative Seismology, features a con artist who convinces an elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake is imminent.
Contemporary depictions of earthquakes in film are variable in the manner in which they reflect human psychological reactions to the actual trauma that can be caused to directly afflicted families and their loved ones. Disaster mental health response research emphasizes the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and key community members, loss of home and familiar surroundings, loss of essential supplies and services to maintain survival. Particularly for children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who are able to protect, nourish, and clothe them in the aftermath of the earthquake, and to help them make sense of what has befallen them has been shown even more important to their emotional and physical health than the simple giving of provisions. As was observed after other disasters involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, recently observed in the 2010 Haiti earthquake, it is also important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or disruption of governmental administration and services, but rather to validate these reactions, to support constructive problem - solving and reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected.
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who plays the big monkey in the jungle book | The Jungle Book (2016 film) - wikipedia
The Jungle Book is a 2016 American fantasy adventure film, directed and co-produced by Jon Favreau, produced by Walt Disney Pictures, and written by Justin Marks. Based on Rudyard Kipling 's eponymous collective works and inspired by Walt Disney 's 1967 animated film of the same name, The Jungle Book is a live - action / CGI film that tells the story of Mowgli, an orphaned human boy who, guided by his animal guardians, sets out on a journey of self - discovery while evading the threatening Shere Khan. The film introduces Neel Sethi as Mowgli and also features the voices of Bill Murray, Ben Kingsley, Idris Elba, Lupita Nyong'o, Scarlett Johansson, Giancarlo Esposito, and Christopher Walken.
Favreau, Marks and producer Brigham Taylor developed the film 's story as a balance between Disney 's animated adaptation and Kipling 's original works, borrowing elements from both into the film. Principal photography commenced in 2014, with filming taking place entirely in Los Angeles. The film required extensive use of computer - generated imagery to portray the animals and settings.
The Jungle Book was released in North America in Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX 3D, D - Box, and premium large formats, on April 15, 2016. It became a critical and commercial success, grossing over $966 million, making it the fifth highest - grossing film of 2016 and the 35th highest - grossing film of all time. The film won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 89th Academy Awards.
Mowgli is a "man cub '' raised by the wolf Raksha and her pack, led by Akela, in an Indian jungle ever since he was brought to them as a baby by the black panther Bagheera. Bagheera trains Mowgli to learn the ways of the wolves, but the boy faces certain challenges and falls behind his wolf siblings while Akela disapproves of him using human tricks like building tools instead of learning the ways of the pack.
One day, during the dry season, the jungle animals gather to drink the water that remains as part of a truce during a drought that enables the jungle 's wildlife to drink without fear of being eaten by their predators. The truce is disrupted when a scarred tiger named Shere Khan arrives detecting Mowgli 's scent in the large crowd. Resentful against man for scarring him, he issues a warning that he will kill Mowgli at the end of the drought. After the drought ends, the wolves debate whether they should keep Mowgli or not. Mowgli decides to leave the jungle for the safety of his pack. Bagheera agrees with the decision and volunteers to guide him to the nearby man village.
En route, Shere Khan ambushes them and injures Bagheera, but Mowgli manages to escape. Later, Mowgli meets an enormous python named Kaa who hypnotizes him. While under her influence, Mowgli sees a vision of his father being mauled while protecting him from Shere Khan. The vision also warns of the destructive power of the "red flower '' (fire). Kaa attempts to devour Mowgli, but she is attacked by a sloth bear named Baloo, rescuing an unconscious Mowgli. Baloo and Mowgli bond while retrieving some difficult - to - access honey for Baloo and Mowgli agrees to stay with Baloo until the winter season arrives. Upon learning that Mowgli has left the jungle, Shere Khan kills Akela and threatens the pack to lure Mowgli out.
Bagheera eventually finds Mowgli and Baloo and is angered that Mowgli has not joined the humans as agreed, but Baloo calms him down and persuades both of them to sleep on it. During the night, Mowgli finds a herd of Indian elephants gathered around a ditch and uses his vines to save a baby elephant from the ditch. Although Baloo and Bagheera are both impressed, Baloo realizes that he can not guarantee Mowgli 's safety after learning that he is being hunted by Shere Khan. Baloo agrees to push Mowgli away to get him to continue onward to the man village.
Mowgli is kidnapped by the "Bandar - log '' (monkeys) who present him to their leader, a giant ape named King Louie. Assuming that all humans can make fire, King Louie offers Mowgli protection from Shere Khan in exchange for it. Baloo distracts King Louie while Bagheera tries to sneak him out, but their plan is discovered. As King Louie chases Mowgli through his temple, he informs Mowgli of Akela 's death. King Louie 's rampage eventually causes his temple to collapse on top of him. Furious that Baloo and Bagheera never told him about Akela 's death, Mowgli goes to confront Shere Khan alone.
Mowgli steals a lit torch at the village to use as a weapon and heads back to the jungle, accidentally starting a wildfire in the process. He confronts Shere Khan, who argues that Mowgli has made himself the enemy of the jungle by causing the wildfire. Mowgli throws the torch into the water, giving Shere Khan the advantage. Baloo, Bagheera, and the wolf pack intervene and hold Shere Khan off, giving Mowgli enough time to set a trap. He lures Shere Khan up a dead tree and onto a branch, which breaks under the tiger 's weight and Shere Khan falls into the fire to his death. Mowgli then directs the elephants to divert the river and put out the fire.
In the aftermath, Raksha becomes the new leader of the wolf pack. Mowgli decides to utilize his equipment and tricks for his own use, having found his true home and calling with his wolf family, Baloo, and Bagheera.
Emjay Anthony, Max Favreau, Chloe Hechter, Asher Blinkoff, Knox Gagnon, Sasha Schrieber, and Kai Schrieber voice the Young Wolves.
Dee Bradley Baker, Artie Esposito, Sean Johnson, and Allan Trautman provide additional animal voices.
Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live - action remake of The Jungle Book was in development on July 9, 2013, with Justin Marks set to write the script. The film would be Disney 's second live - action adaptation of Rudyard Kipling 's works, following the 1994 film, and the studio 's third overall after the 1967 animated musical. Jon Favreau was later confirmed as director on November 5, 2013. Favreau as a child used to watch Disney 's 1967 animated musical version. He felt the need to strike a balance between the two films by retaining the buoyant spirit of the 1967 film, including some of its memorable songs, while crafting a movie with more realism and peril. He also stressed the importance of nature and realized how things have shifted during Kipling 's time and now, "In Kipling 's time, nature was something to be overcome. Now nature is something to be protected. '' He was encouraged by Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn to take advantage of the film 's setting and story as an opportunity to use the latest advancements in photorealistic rendering, computer - generated imagery, and motion capture technologies. The story of the film is not independently taken from Kipling 's works, but also borrows cinematic inspirations from other films, including the child - mentor relationship in Shane (1953), the establishment of rules in a dangerous world from Goodfellas (1990) and the use of a shadowy jungle figure in Apocalypse Now (1979).
The cast was announced between March and August 2014, with Idris Elba being announced to voice Shere Khan during early stages and Bill Murray eventually confirmed as the voice of Baloo in August 2014. Between then, Scarlett Johansson, Ben Kingsley, and Christopher Walken were confirmed to play Kaa, Bagheera, and King Louie. Favreau decided to cast Johansson to play Kaa, originally a male character, as he felt the original film was "a little too male - oriented. '' Favreau and Marks noticed the lack of female characters in the 1967 film version and wanted to address that by featuring Raksha 's character more prominently, as in Kipling 's tales. Lupita Nyong'o was cast as Raksha as Favreau believed her voice imbued the emotion required for the role, "Lupita has tremendous depth of emotion in her performance. There 's an emotional underpinning she brings, and a strength, and we wanted that for this surrogate mother. Much of that comes from her voice. '' Favreau also decided to change King Louie from an orangutan to a Gigantopithecus due to the fact that orangutans are not native to India, where the story takes place. His character was given a slight alteration from the 1967 film and was partly inspired by Marlon Brando 's character Colonel Kurtz in Apocalypse Now, as well as incorporating Walken 's own physical mannerisms. In regards to Louie 's changes, Favreau stated, "We created this looming figure that was trying to extract the secret of fire from Mowgli. And also this gave Mowgli the idea that if he had fire, he could have power over Shere Khan, whether it was good or bad. So there was a Lord of the Rings aspect to that; the fire was almost like the ring in that was going to give someone ultimate power, but corrupt them as well as create destruction. '' The film is dedicated to Garry Shandling, who voiced a porcupine in the film and died of a heart attack before the film 's release.
The search for casting Mowgli was extensive, with thousands of children auditioning from the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Canada. Eventually, newcomer Neel Sethi was confirmed for the role, with casting director Rebecca Williams describing him as embodying "the heart, humor, and daring of the character. He 's warm and accessible, yet also has an intelligence well beyond his years and impressed us all with his ability to hold his own in any situation. '' Sethi underwent parkour training in preparation for the role. Pixar Animation Studios assisted in the development of the story, as well as providing suggestions for the film 's end credits sequence.
Principal photography took place entirely on sound stages at L.A. Center Studios in downtown Los Angeles. The animal characters were created entirely in key frame computer animation, with the assistance of footage of real animal movement, the actors recording their lines, and performance capture for reference. The production team underwent a thorough process to realistically convey the animals ' speaking, while still making them perceptually believable to the audience. Favreau researched earlier films featuring anthropomorphic animals -- including Walt Disney 's animated features, such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Bambi, as well as modern films such as Babe -- and adopted certain techniques from those films into The Jungle Book. Nearly 70 separate species of animals native to India are featured in the film, with several species being portrayed as "150 % larger '' than their actual counterparts.
Jim Henson 's Creature Shop was brought in to provide animal puppet figures for Sethi to act against, although none appear in the finished film. The animal puppets were performed by Artie Esposito, Sean Johnson, Allan Trautman, and April Warren. Favreau utilized motion capture with certain actors, expressing a desire to avoid overusing the technology in order to prevent evoking an uncanny valley effect.
Moving Picture Company (MPC) and Weta Digital created the film 's visual effects. MPC developed new software for animating muscular structure in the animals. Around 1,000 remote jungle locations in India were photographed and used as reference in post-production. Weta was responsible for animating the King Louie sequence, with visual effects supervisor Keith Miller adding that, "It was important for Jon to see Christopher Walken in the creature. So we took some of the distinctive Walken facial features -- iconic lines, wrinkles and folds -- and integrated them into the animated character. '' Favreau expressed desire in wanting the film 's 3D shots to imbue the abilities of the multiplane camera system utilized in Disney 's earlier animated films. At Favreau 's behest, the idea was extended into the film 's version of the Walt Disney Pictures opening production logo, which was recreated as "a hand - painted, cel - animated multi-plane logo '' in homage to the animated films of that era, also incorporating the word "Presents '' in the same style as the 1967 film 's opening credits. The film 's ending also features the original physical book that opened the 1967 film.
Director Jon Favreau and composer John Debney sought to recreate the Fantasound experience Walt had in mind. When mixing the soundtrack in Dolby Atmos, as Favreau said, "we isolated instruments when we could. And in the sound mix, we created a Fantasound mix. If you see the film in Atmos, you will feel that there are instruments that move around the theater. '' A mention for Fantasound appears in the film 's closing credits.
The musical score for The Jungle Book was composed and conducted by frequent Favreau collaborator John Debney, mostly drawing from George Bruns ' original music. Though Favreau decided not to make the film a musical, nevertheless, he and Debney incorporated several songs from the 1967 animated film. "The Bare Necessities, '' written by Terry Gilkyson, is performed by Murray and Sethi, and a cover version by Dr. John is featured in the end credits. "I Wan'na Be Like You '' and "Trust in Me '' -- written by the Sherman Brothers -- are performed by Walken and Johansson, respectively; Richard M. Sherman wrote revised lyrics for Walken 's version of "I Wan'na Be Like You. '' Johansson 's rendition of "Trust in Me '' was produced by Mark Ronson and appears in the end credits only.
Walt Disney Records released the film 's soundtrack on April 15, 2016.
The film was originally scheduled for October 9, 2015, but the film 's release date was later postponed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures to April 15, 2016. The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in the United States, and is the first film to be released in Dolby Vision 3D (in a few select theaters in New York City and Chicago). The Jungle Book held its world premiere at the El Capitan Theatre on April 4, 2016. It was released in 15 countries, a week ahead of its U.S. debut on April 15, in countries like Argentina, Australia, Russia, Malaysia and most notably in India on April 8. The release date in India was strategic for the film as it coincided with the Indian New Year and was a holiday in most parts of the country. Disney India commissioned a contemporary recording of "Jungle Jungle Baat Chali Hai, '' overseen by the song 's composers Vishal Bhardwaj and Gulzar, and released it as part of the film 's promotional campaign in India.
The film was released digitally on August 23, 2016, and on DVD and Blu - ray on August 30 (August 22 in the UK). A 3D Blu - ray was said to be coming by the end of the year. The film topped the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart for two consecutive weeks.
The film became a huge financial success and a surprise hit. It briefly held the record for the biggest remake of all - time until the studio 's own Beauty and the Beast surpassed it the following year. It grossed $364 million in the United States and Canada and $602.5 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $966.6 million, against a budget of $175 million. Worldwide, the film was released across 28,000 RealD 3D screens and had an IMAX worldwide opening of $20.4 million from 901 IMAX screens, a new record for a PG film. It grossed a total of $39 million in IMAX screens worldwide. On May 13, it became the second film of 2016 (after the studio 's own Zootopia) to pass the $800 million mark. On June 10, it became the third film of 2016 after Zootopia and Captain America: Civil War to pass the $900 million mark. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $258 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the sixth most profitable release of 2016.
Projections for its opening weekend in the United States and Canada were continuously revised upwards, starting from $60 million to as high as $88 million, with female and older male quadrants being the prime draw. The Jungle Book was shown across 4,028 theaters of which 3,100 theaters (75 %) were in 3D, including 376 IMAX screens, 463 premium large format screens, and 145 D - Box locations. It opened Friday, April 15, 2016, on around 9,500 screens across 4,028 theaters, and earned $32.4 million, the fourth biggest April Friday. This includes $4.2 million from Thursday previews, the biggest preview number for a Disney live - adaptation film (tied with Maleficent), an almost unheard - of for a PG title which rarely attracts many ticketbuyers later in the night. In total, it earned $103.3 million in its opening weekend, exceeding expectations by 40 % and recorded the biggest PG - rated April opening (breaking Hop 's record), the second biggest Disney live - action adaptation opening (behind Alice in Wonderland), and the second biggest April opening (behind Furious 7). It also performed exceptionally well in both 3D and IMAX formats, where they both generated an income of $44 million and $10.4 million of the film 's opening weekend gross respectively, the later broke the record for the biggest April Disney release IMAX opening. Notably, it also became the only second PG - rated release to ever open above $100 million (following Alice in Wonderland) and the third film of 2016 overall to open above $100 million (following Deadpool and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice). It earned $130.7 million in its first full week, the second biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, behind only Alice in Wonderland 's $146.6 million seven - day gross.
Buoyed by excellent word of mouth and benefiting from spring break, it fell only by 40 % in its second weekend earning $61.5 million, still maintaining the top position and far surpassing newcomer The Huntsman: Winter 's War. That puts The Jungle Book in the top fifteen second weekends of all time and in terms of films that opened above $100 million, it scored the fourth smallest drop behind Shrek 2 (− 33 %), Spider - Man (− 39 %), and Star Wars: The Force Awakens (− 39 %). Of those numbers, $5.6 million came from IMAX shows for a two weekend cumulative total of $18.4 million which represents about 10 % of its entire North American box office gross. It crossed $200 million on its twelfth day of release and managed to hold the top spot for the third consecutive weekend with $43.7 million from 4,041 theaters (an addition of 13 more theaters), a fall of only 29 %, outgrossing the next six pictures combined (including the openings of three newcomers) and recorded the sixth biggest third weekend of all time. Moreover, the 29 % drop is the smallest third weekend drop (from its second weekend) for a $100 million opener ever. Disney added an additional 103 theaters for the film 's fourth weekend of release which propelled its theater count to 4,144 theaters, but nevertheless, it was overtaken by Disney 's own Captain America: Civil War after experiencing a − 50 % decline. It passed $300 million on its thirtieth day of release, on May 14, as it continued to witness marginal declines in the wake of several new releases weekend after weekend. It made 3.53 times its opening weekend numbers, which is one of the biggest of all time for a film opening above $100 million. It became one of the few surprise hits and one of the highest - grossing films of the year, alongside Finding Dory, The Secret Life of Pets, and Zootopia, centered around talking animals to dominate the year - end chart.
The film was released in approximately 70 countries. Internationally, it opened across 15 markets and 69 IMAX screens a week ahead of its U.S. debut, and faced notable competition from newcomer The Huntsman: Winter 's War and holdover Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the latter of which was entering its third weekend. The reason behind the divided release pattern was because Disney wanted to get some space before Captain America: Civil War releases in early May, as well as availing school holidays and avoiding local competitors. It eventually grossed $31.7 million, debuting at first place in all markets and second overall at the international box office, behind Dawn of Justice, which was playing across 67 markets. In its second weekend, it expanded to an additional 49 countries (88 % of its total marketplace) and grossed $138.6 million from 64 countries, easily topping the international box office, a bulk of it came from China. Approximately 63 % or $85 million of that came from 3D screenings, with the largest 3D opening haul represented by China (98 %), Germany (83 %), Brazil (73 %), Russia (60 %), Mexico (47 %), and the UK (39 %). $10 million alone came from 525 IMAX screens, a record for a PG and April release. It further continued to hold the top spot in its third weekend after adding another $98.9 million from 53 territories, falling only by a marginal 32 %. IMAX generated another $6.1 million from 484 IMAX theaters for a three - weekend total of $20.6 million. After three straight No. 1 runs, it was finally dethroned by the studio 's Captain America: Civil War in its fourth weekend.
In India, it scored the second biggest opening day for a Hollywood film, earning $1.51 million (behind Avengers: Age of Ultron) from around 1,500 screens and went on to score the second biggest Hollywood opening weekend of all time film, with $8.4 million from 1,600 screens, behind only Furious 7 in terms of local as well as U.S. currency, performing better than expected and its initial $5 -- 6 million opening projection. Its opening weekend in India alone surpassed the entire lifetime total of Disney 's other live - fantasy adaptations -- Cinderella, Maleficent, Oz the Great and Powerful, and Alice in Wonderland -- in the country. It then went on to score the biggest opening and single week for a Hollywood film with $15.1 million. In its second weekend, it dropped just by a mere 40 % to $4.97 million. In just ten days, it became the fourth highest - grossing Hollywood film there with $21.2 million. On Wednesday, April 19 -- its twelfth day of release -- it surpassed Furious 7 to become the highest - grossing Hollywood / foreign release of all time there. By the end of its theatrical run, the film made an estimated $38.8 million with half of its revenue -- 58 % -- coming from local dubbed versions, compared to Avengers: Age of Ultron, which saw 45 % of its revenue from dubbed versions.
In China, where the film was locally known as Fantasy Forest, expectations were high, with projections going as high $154 -- 200 million or more. Ultimately, it was unable to hit these marks. Before the release of the film in the state, Disney had a very successful run at the box office with Zootopia the previous month, in which anthropomorphic animals were the central figure. Forbes noted that The Jungle Book was precisely the sort of film that Chinese audiences love with its 3D visuals, heartwarming story, and talking animal cast. It earned around $12 million on its opening day, including $300,000 worth of previews from 65,000 screenings. Buoyed by good word of mouth and positive reception (albeit mostly from audiences with polarized reception from Chinese critics), it rose 72 % on its second day to $20 million. Through its opening weekend it grossed $48.5 million, including $5.1 million from 279 IMAX screens, a new record for April release. Its opening marked the biggest Walt Disney Pictures film opening ever, the second biggest for a family film (behind Kung Fu Panda 3), the second biggest April debut (behind Furious 7), and the fourth biggest Disney opening (behind Avengers: Age of Ultron, Iron Man 3, and Star Wars: The Force Awakens). It topped the daily box office through the whole opening week and went on to remain at the top of the box office for a second weekend, after dropping by a mere 20 % to $29.8 million, despite facing some competitions. It ended its run there with a total of $150.1 million after thirty days of playing in theaters, adding $1.2 million on its last day. Albeit falling just below expectations, it nevertheless emerged as a huge financial success and becoming the fourth biggest Disney release there.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it had an opening weekend total of £ 9.9 million ($14.1 million) from 594 theaters and in France with $8.1 million. Elsewhere, the highest openings were recorded in Russia and the CIS ($7.4 million), Germany ($5.1 million), Spain ($3.9 million), Australia ($2.8 million), Argentina ($2.3 million), and in Malaysia, where it scored the biggest opening weekend for a live - action Disney film with $2.3 million. In the UK, it became the first film of 2016 to earn over £ 5 million in three straight weekends and the first film since Jurassic World, Spectre, and Star Wars: The Force Awakens (all 2015 films) to achieve such an accomplishment, and the first film of 2016 to earn above £ 40 million ($58 million). In South Korea, it faced competition with Warcraft, but ended up debuting atop the charts with $6.2 million. It has so far grossed a total of $18 million there.
It opened in Japan on August 11, alongside the superhero film X-Men: Apocalypse and delivered a four - day opening of $6.2 million from 676 screens ($3 million in two days), debuting at second place behind The Secret Life of Pets. Although the opening figure was considered mediocre, Deadline.com noted that Japan is a market that can see big multiples. It fell just 30 % in its second weekend earning $2.1 million for an eleven - day total of $13.7 million.
In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America were China ($150.1 million), the United Kingdom ($66.2 million) and India ($38.8 million). It was the highest - grossing film of 2016 in Europe with a total of $209 million, the United Kingdom and Ireland, and in India (although it was later surpassed by Sultan, in terms of Hollywood / imported films, it is still the biggest).
The film received praise for its visual effects, Debney 's musical score, the performances of the voice cast, Favreau 's direction, and its faithfulness to the animated film. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 95 %, based on 288 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "As lovely to behold as it is engrossing to watch, The Jungle Book is the rare remake that actually improves upon its predecessors -- all while setting a new standard for CGI. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 77 out of 100, based on 49 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale. 97 % of the audience gave the film an A or a B. It got As from both the under - and over-25 crowd and A+ among those under 18 years of age, and also for the over-50 audience.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Exceptionally beautiful to behold and bolstered by a stellar vocal cast, this umpteenth film rendition of Rudyard Kipling 's tales of young Mowgli 's adventures amongst the creatures of the Indian jungle proves entirely engaging, even if it 's ultimately lacking in subtext and thematic heft. '' Andrew Barker of Variety felt that this version "ca n't rival the woolly looseness of Disney 's 1967 animated classic, of course, but it succeeds on its own so well that such comparisons are barely necessary. '' Robbie Collin of The Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five, and deemed it "a sincere and full - hearted adaptation that returns to Kipling for fresh inspiration. '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap says "This ' Book ' might lack the post-vaudeville razzamatazz of its predecessor, but director Jon Favreau and a team of effects wizards plunge us into one of the big screen 's most engrossing artificial worlds since Avatar. '' Peter Bradshaw, writing for The Guardian, gave the film four out of five stars and felt that the film had a touch of Apocalypto in it, finding the plot elements to be similar to those in The Lion King. He wrote that the film was "spectacular, exciting, funny and fun '' and that it "handsomely revives the spirit of Disney 's original film. '' Pete Hammond of Deadline.com wrote that the film had laughs, excitement, an exceptional voice cast and, most importantly, a lot of heart, calling it a cinematic achievement like no other. He particularly praised Murray 's performance and the visual effects, deeming it "simply astonishing. '' Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly graded the film an "A --, '' calling it one of the biggest surprises of 2016. He, however, felt the two songs were rather unnecessary and distracting, and believed the film to be a little too frightening for children.
Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, pointing out the CGI as the apex achievement of the film. He labelled it "a beautifully rendered, visually arresting take on Rudyard Kipling 's oft - filmed tales '' but found the musical numbers to be trivial, saying that without the musical numbers, the film might have been a more exhilarating streamlined adventure. Los Angeles Times ' Kenneth Turan remarked that "The Jungle Book is the kind of family film calculated to make even those without families wish they had one to take along. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film three and a half stars out of four, labeling it scary and thrilling, yet unique and unforgettable, and adding that it "fills us with something rare in movies today -- a sense of wonder. '' The Village Voice 's Bilge Ebiri hailed the film as fast and light and that it "manages to be just scary enough to make us feel the danger of solitude in the middle of a massive jungle, but never indulgent or gratuitous. '' The New York Times ' Manohla Dargis was less enthusiastic. Cath Clarke of Time Out compared Elba 's character of Shere Khan to Scar from The Lion King, calling him "baddie of the year. '' Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com also had high praise for Elba 's portrayal of Shere Khan stating: "His loping menace is envisioned so powerfully that he 'd be scary no matter what, but the character becomes a great villain through imaginative empathy. We understand and appreciate his point - of - view, even though carrying it out would mean the death of Mowgli. ''
The film 's visual effects and 3D photography received acclaim, with comparisons being made to the likes of Avatar, Gravity, Hugo, and Life of Pi. Sarah Ward of Screen International wrote that the level of detail on display in the film "is likely to evoke the same jaw - dropping reaction as James Cameron 's box office topper. '' Entertainment Weekly called it "one of the few 3D movies that actually benefits from being in 3D. '' The film also garnered a positive reception from Indian contemporary critics and publications, such as The Times of India, The Hindu, India Today, The Indian Express, and The Economic Times.
The film also had its share of negative reviews with most reviewers criticizing the inconsistent tone of the film and the director 's indecision to stick to one vision. Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine wrote, "Jon Favreau draws heavily on his film 's animated predecessor for plot, characterizations, songs, and set pieces, but does n't know how to fit these familiar elements into his own coherent vision ''. Josh Spiegel of Movie Mezzanine also echoed these feelings, saying that the film "stumbles because the people involved are n't willing to fully commit to either making a near - shot - for - shot remake or going in a completely different direction ''. Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald felt that the movie was soulless, writing that "The better these talking beasts look, the more the film resembles a gorgeous screen saver. You admire The Jungle Book, but you ca n't lose yourself in it ''.
Following the film 's early financial and critical success, the studio has begun working on a sequel. Jon Favreau is reported to return as director and Neel Sethi is reported to reprise his role of Mowgli, while screenwriter Justin Marks is also in negotiations to return. It was announced on April 25, 2016 that Favreau and Marks will return to direct and write, and the sequel could potentially have a release sometime in 2019 and will shoot it back - to - back with a live - action remake of The Lion King. However, it was reported in March 2017 that the sequel was put on hold in order for Favreau to instead focus mainly on The Lion King.
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quenching of orbital angular momentum in transition metal complexes | Magnetochemistry - wikipedia
Magnetochemistry is concerned with the magnetic properties of chemical compounds. Magnetic properties arise from the spin and orbital angular momentum of the electrons contained in a compound. Compounds are diamagnetic when they contain no unpaired electrons. Molecular compounds that contain one or more unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. The magnitude of the paramagnetism is expressed as an effective magnetic moment, μ. For first - row transition metals the magnitude of μ is, to a first approximation, a simple function of the number of unpaired electrons, the spin - only formula. In general, spin - orbit coupling causes μ to deviate from the spin - only formula. For the heavier transition metals, lanthanides and actinides, spin - orbit coupling can not be ignored. Exchange interaction can occur in clusters and infinite lattices, resulting in ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism or ferrimagnetism depending on the relative orientations of the individual spins.
The primary measurement in magnetochemistry is magnetic susceptibility. This measures the strength of interaction on placing the substance in a magnetic field. The volume magnetic susceptibility, represented by the symbol χ v (\ displaystyle \ chi _ (v)) is defined by the relationship
where, M → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (M))) is the magnetization of the material (the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume), measured in amperes per meter (SI units), and H → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (H))) is the magnetic field strength, also measured in amperes per meter. Susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity. For chemical applications the molar magnetic susceptibility (χ) is the preferred quantity. It is measured in m mol (SI) or cm mol (CGS) and is defined as
where ρ is the density in kg m (SI) or g cm (CGS) and M is molar mass in kg mol (SI) or g mol (CGS).
A variety of methods are available for the measurement of magnetic susceptibility.
When an isolated atom is placed in a magnetic field there is an interaction because each electron in the atom behaves like a magnet, that is, the electron has a magnetic moment. There are two types of interaction.
When the atom is present in a chemical compound its magnetic behaviour is modified by its chemical environment. Measurement of the magnetic moment can give useful chemical information.
In certain crystalline materials individual magnetic moments may be aligned with each other (magnetic moment has both magnitude and direction). This gives rise to ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism or ferrimagnetism. These are properties of the crystal as a whole, of little bearing on chemical properties.
Diamagnetism is a universal property of chemical compounds, because all chemical compounds contain electron pairs. A compound in which there are no unpaired electrons is said to be diamagnetic. The effect is weak because it depends on the magnitude of the induced magnetic moment. It depends on the number of electron pairs and the chemical nature of the atoms to which they belong. This means that the effects are additive, and a table of "diamagnetic contributions '', or Pascal 's constants, can be put together. With paramagnetic compounds the observed susceptibility can be adjusted by adding to it the so - called diamagnetic correction, which is the diamagnetic susceptibility calculated with the values from the table.
A metal ion with a single unpaired electron, such as Cu, in a coordination complex provides the simplest illustration of the mechanism of paramagnetism. The individual metal ions are kept far apart by the ligands, so that there is no magnetic interaction between them. The system is said to be magnetically dilute. The magnetic dipoles of the atoms point in random directions. When a magnetic field is applied, first - order Zeeman splitting occurs. Atoms with spins aligned to the field slightly outnumber the atoms with non-aligned spins. In the first - order Zeeman effect the energy difference between the two states is proportional to the applied field strength. Denoting the energy difference as ΔE, the Boltzmann distribution gives the ratio of the two populations as e − Δ E / k T (\ displaystyle e ^ (- \ Delta E / kT)), where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature in kelvins. In most cases ΔE is much smaller than kT and the exponential can be expanded as 1 -- ΔE / kT. It follows from the presence of 1 / T in this expression that the susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
This is known as the Curie law and the proportionality constant, C, is known as the Curie constant, whose value, for molar susceptibility, is calculated as
where N is the Avogadro constant, g is the Landé g - factor, and μ is the Bohr magneton. In this treatment it has been assumed that the electronic ground state is not degenerate, that the magnetic susceptibility is due only to electron spin and that only the ground state is thermally populated.
While some substances obey the Curie law, others obey the Curie - Weiss law.
T is the Curie temperature. The Curie - Weiss law will apply only when the temperature is well above the Curie temperature. At temperatures below the Curie temperature the substance may become ferromagnetic. More complicated behaviour is observed with the heavier transition elements.
When the Curie law is obeyed, the product of molar susceptibility and temperature is a constant. The effective magnetic moment, μ is then defined as
Where C has CGS units cm mol K, μ is
Where C has SI units m mol K, μ is
The quantity μ is effectively dimensionless, but is often stated as in units of Bohr magneton (μ).
For substances that obey the Curie law, the effective magnetic moment is independent of temperature. For other substances μ is temperature dependent, but the dependence is small if the Curie - Weiss law holds and the Curie temperature is low.
Compounds which are expected to be diamagnetic may exhibit this kind of weak paramagnetism. It arises from a second - order Zeeman effect in which additional splitting, proportional to the square of the field strength, occurs. It is difficult to observe as the compound inevitably also interacts with the magnetic field in the diamagnetic sense. Nevertheless, data are available for the permanganate ion. It is easier to observe in compounds of the heavier elements, such as uranyl compounds.
Exchange interactions occur when the substance is not magnetically dilute and there are interactions between individual magnetic centres. One of the simplest systems to exhibit the result of exchange interactions is crystalline copper (II) acetate, Cu (OAc) (H O). As the formula indicates, it contains two copper (II) ions. The Cu ions are held together by four acetate ligands, each of which binds to both copper ions. Each Cu ion has ad electronic configuration, and so should have one unpaired electron. If there were a covalent bond between the copper ions, the electrons would pair up and the compound would be diamagnetic. Instead, there is an exchange interaction in which the spins of the unpaired electrons become partially aligned to each other. In fact two states are created, one with spins parallel and the other with spins opposed. The energy difference between the two states is so small their populations vary significantly with temperature. In consequence the magnetic moment varies with temperature in a sigmoidal pattern. The state with spins opposed has lower energy, so the interaction can be classed as antiferromagnetic in this case. It is believed that this is an example of superexchange, mediated by the oxygen and carbon atoms of the acetate ligands. Other dimers and clusters exhibit exchange behaviour.
Exchange interactions can act over infinite chains in one dimension, planes in two dimensions or over a whole crystal in three dimensions. These are examples of long - range magnetic ordering. They give rise to ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism or ferrimagnetism, depending on the nature and relative orientations of the individual spins.
Compounds at temperatures below the Curie temperature exhibit long - range magnetic order in the form of ferromagnetism. Another critical temperature is the Néel temperature, below which antiferromagnetism occurs. The hexahydrate of nickel chloride, NiCl 6H O, has a Néel temperature of 8.3 K. The susceptibility is a maximum at this temperature. Below the Néel temperature the susceptibility decreases and the substance becomes antiferromagnetic.
The effective magnetic moment for a compound containing a transition metal ion with one or more unpaired electrons depends on the total orbital and spin angular momentum of the unpaired electrons, L → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (L))) and S → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (S))), respectively. "Total '' in this context means "vector sum ''. In the approximation that the electronic states of the metal ions are determined by Russell - Saunders coupling and that spin - orbit coupling is negligible, the magnetic moment is given by
Orbital angular momentum is generated when an electron in an orbital of a degenerate set of orbitals is moved to another orbital in the set by rotation. In complexes of low symmetry certain rotations are not possible. In that case the orbital angular momentum is said to be "quenched '' and L → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (L))) is smaller than might be expected (partial quenching), or zero (complete quenching). There is complete quenching in the following cases. Note that an electron in a degenerate pair of d or d orbitals can not rotate into the other orbital because of symmetry.
When orbital angular momentum is completely quenched, L → = 0 (\ displaystyle (\ vec (L)) = 0) and the paramagnetism can be attributed to electron spin alone. The total spin angular momentum is simply half the number of unpaired electrons and the spin - only formula results.
where n is the number of unpaired electrons. The spin - only formula is a good first approximation for high - spin complexes of first - row transition metals.
The small deviations from the spin - only formula may result from the neglect of orbital angular momentum or of spin - orbit coupling. For example, tetrahedral d, d, d and d complexes tend to show larger deviations from the spin - only formula than octahedral complexes of the same ion, because "quenching '' of the orbital contribution is less effective in the tetrahedral case.
According to crystal field theory, the d orbitals of a transition metal ion in an octahedal complex are split into two groups in a crystal field. If the splitting is large enough to overcome the energy needed to place electrons in the same orbital, with opposite spin, a low - spin complex will result.
With one unpaired electron μ values range from 1.8 to 2.5 μ and with two unpaired electrons the range is 3.18 to 3.3 μ. Note that low - spin complexes of Fe and Co are diamagnetic. Another group of complexes that are diamagnetic are square - planar complexes of d ions such as Ni and Rh and Au.
When the energy difference between the high - spin and low - spin states is comparable to kT (k is the Boltzmann constant and T the temperature) an equilibrium is established between the spin states, involving what have been called "electronic isomers ''. Tris - dithiocarbamato iron (III), Fe (S CNR), is a well - documented example. The effective moment varies from a typical d low - spin value of 2.25 μ at 80 K to more than 4 μ above 300 K.
Crystal field splitting is larger for complexes of the heavier transition metals than for the transition metals discussed above. A consequence of this is that low - spin complexes are much more common. Spin - orbit coupling constants, ζ, are also larger and can not be ignored, even in elementary treatments. The magnetic behaviour has been summarized, as below, together with an extensive table of data.
Russell - Saunders coupling, LS coupling, applies to the lanthanide ions, crystal field effects can be ignored, but spin - orbit coupling is not negligible. Consequently, spin and orbital angular momenta have to be combined
and the calculated magnetic moment is given by
In actinides spin - orbit coupling is strong and the coupling approximates to j j coupling.
This means that it is difficult to calculate the effective moment. For example, uranium (IV), f, in the complex (UCl) has a measured effective moment of 2.2 μ, which includes a contribution from temperature - independent paramagnetism.
Very few compounds of main group elements are paramagnetic. Notable examples include: oxygen, O; nitric oxide, NO; nitrogen dioxide, NO and chlorine dioxide, ClO. In organic chemistry, compounds with an unpaired electron are said to be free radicals. Free radicals, with some exceptions, are short - lived because one free radical will react rapidly with another, so their magnetic properties are difficult to study. However, if the radicals are well separated from each other in a dilute solution in a solid matrix, at low temperature, they can be studied by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Such radicals are generated by irradiation. Extensive EPR studies have revealed much about electron delocalization in free radicals. The simulated spectrum of the CH radical shows hyperfine splitting due to the interaction of the electron with the 3 equivalent hydrogen nuclei, each of which has a spin of 1 / 2.
Spin labels are long - lived free radicals which can be inserted into organic molecules so that they can be studied by EPR. For example, the nitroxide MTSL, a functionalized derivative of TEtra Methyl Piperidine Oxide, TEMPO, is used in site - directed spin labeling.
The gadolinium ion, Gd, has the f electronic configuration, with all spins parallel. Compounds of the Gd ion are the most suitable for use as a contrast agent for MRI scans. The magnetic moments of gadolinium compounds are larger than those of any transition metal ion. Gadolinium is preferred to other lanthanide ions, some of which have larger effective moments, due to its having a non-degenerate electronic ground state.
For many years the nature of oxyhemoglobin, Hb - O, was highly controversial. It was found experimentally to be diamagnetic. Deoxy - hemoglobin is generally accepted to be a complex of iron in the + 2 oxidation state, that is ad system with a high - spin magnetic moment near to the spin - only value of 4.9 μ. It was proposed that the iron is oxidized and the oxygen reduced to superoxide.
Pairing up of electrons from Fe and O was then proposed to occur via an exchange mechanism. It has now been shown that in fact the iron (II) changes from high - spin to low - spin when an oxygen molecule donates a pair of electrons to the iron. Whereas in deoxy - hemoglobin the iron atom lies above the plane of the heme, in the low - spin complex the effective ionic radius is reduced and the iron atom lies in the heme plane.
This information has an important bearing on research to find artificial oxygen carriers.
Compounds of gallium (II) were unknown until quite recently. As the atomic number of gallium is an odd number (31), Ga should have an unpaired electron. It was assumed that it would act as a free radical and have a very short lifetime. The non-existence of Ga (II) compounds was part of the so - called inert pair effect. When salts of the anion with empirical formula such as (GaCl) were synthesized they were found to be diamagnetic. This implied the formation of a Ga - Ga bond and a dimeric formula, (Ga Cl).
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who is named as responsible for the st james massacre | Saint James church massacre - Wikipedia
The Saint James Church massacre was a massacre perpetrated on St James Anglican Church in Kenilworth, Cape Town, South Africa, on 25 July 1993 by four terrorists of the Azanian People 's Liberation Army (APLA). Eleven members of the congregation were killed and 58 wounded. In 1998 the attackers were granted amnesty for their acts by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
The attack occurred during the Sunday evening service. Sichumiso Nonxuba, Bassie Mkhumbuzi, Gcinikhaya Makoma and Tobela Mlambisa approached the church, a congregation of the Church of England in South Africa, in a vehicle stolen by Mlambisa and Makoma beforehand. Nonxuba, who commanded the unit, and Makoma entered the church armed with M26 hand grenades and R4 assault rifles. They threw the grenades and then opened fire on the congregation, killing 11 and wounding 58.
One member of the congregation, Charl van Wyk, who wrote a book about the event (Shooting Back: the right and duty of self defense), returned fire with a. 38 special revolver, wounding one of the attackers. At this point they fled the church. Mkhumbuzi had been ordered to throw four petrol bombs into the church following the shooting, but abandoned this intention as all four fled in the vehicle.
Members of the congregation killed were Guy Cooper Javens, Richard Oliver O'Kill, Gerhard Dennis Harker, Wesley Alfonso Harker, Denise Gordon, Mirtle Joan Smith, Marita Ackermann, Andrey Katyl, Oleg Karamjin, Valentin Varaksa and Pavel Valuet. The last four on this list were Russian seamen attending the service as part of a church outreach programme. Another Russian seaman, Dmitri Makogon, lost both legs and an arm in the attack. The attack was seen as particularly shocking as relatively few terrorist attacks happened in the suburbs and the Cape Town area was regarded as relatively peaceful. The attack was seen as harming prospects for future constitutional negotiation.
APLA cadres were held responsible for several similar attacks. Among these were the attack on King William 's Town Golf Club on 28 November 1992 in which four people were killed, and the attack on the Heidelberg Tavern in Observatory, Cape Town on 31 December 1993, in which four people were killed. Ballistic tests showed that the same rifles were used in the St James and Heidelberg Tavern attacks.
Makoma was arrested ten days later and convicted for 11 murders. He was sentenced to 23 years in prison. Nonxuba, Mlambisa and Mkhumbuzi were subsequently arrested and charged in 1996. They had in the meantime joined the South African National Defence Force as part of the integration of APLA operatives into the new national defence force.
In 1997, while on trial, Nonxuba, Mlambisa and Mkhumbuzi appealed to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for amnesty, together with Makoma. They were granted bail pending their appearance before the TRC. Nonxuba died in a car accident while on bail.
Makoma, Mkhumbuzi and Mlambisa were all granted amnesty for the St James Church attack by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC). As a result, Makoma was freed after serving only 51⁄2 years of his sentence, and the trial of Mkhumbuzi and Mlambisa was never completed. In this and other APLA amnesty hearings, APLA operatives claimed that they were following their orders and that they regarded all whites as legitimate targets as they were complicit in the government 's policy of apartheid.
In statements made to the representatives of St James church they added they were unaware the selected target was a church until they arrived in Kenilworth. Dawie Ackerman, husband of one of the victims, noted that perhaps 35 -- 40 % of the congregation were people of colour, with the counsel for the APLA saying they had assumed all congregants would be white as the church was in a white area.
Letlapa Mphahlele, national director of operations for APLA, took responsibility for ordering the attacks as part of his application for amnesty. He claimed that he had authorised attacks on white civilians following the killing of five school children by the Transkei Defence Force in Umtata.
Amnesty in such cases was typically granted in terms of the TRC 's mandate because the crimes were considered politically motivated, with the perpetrators following the orders of the APLA commanders, and full disclosure was made to the TRC. Although amnesty was granted to the individual perpetrators, the TRC found the act itself, and other APLA / PAC attacks specifically targeting civilians, were "a gross violation of human rights '' and a "violation of internal (sic) humanitarian law ''.
Several of the church members who were injured or who lost family members in the attacks, as well as Charl van Wyk, who had returned fire on the attackers, later met and publicly reconciled with the APLA attackers.
On 27 August 2002, Gcinikhaya Makoma was arrested along with six others following a cash - in - transit heist of a Standard Bank cash van in Constantia, Cape Town, in which R1. 8 million was stolen. He and the others were later acquitted, with the magistrate finding that the prosecution case had been badly put together and that documents had been falsified by an investigating officer. Makoma was eventually convicted on 16 February 2012 of murder and robbery and sentenced to life and 46 years in prison for his role in a December 2007 cash van heist in Parow, Cape Town.
In October 2004, Charl Van Wyk became a founding member of Gun Owners of South Africa (GOSA), an online civilian gun rights ownership group, which is involved in public demonstrations against the Firearms Control Act.
Coordinates: 33 ° 59 ′ 33 '' S 18 ° 28 ′ 37 '' E / 33.992387 ° S 18.47697 ° E / - 33.992387; 18.47697
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what came first vampire diaries or the originals | Original vampires (the Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
The Original vampires, in the universe of The Vampire Diaries and The Originals, are a family of vampires from which all current vampires descend, as well as being the most powerful and indestructible of their kind. In Autumn 1001 AD, after the death of her youngest son Henrik at the hands of werewolves, the powerful witch Esther performed an occult blood ritual in order to protect her five remaining children -- (Finn, Elijah, Niklaus, Kol, and Rebekah) -- and her husband, Mikael. The ritual formed her family into the first vampires. Then the whole family scattered across the world.
The family comes from 10th century Viking - era Europe, from the Kingdom of Norway where a young witch named Esther and her sister Dahlia were captured by Viking raiders. They were the only survivors and were kept alive so Dahlia could aid them by using her witchcraft. Esther was allowed to live freely. She turned her back on her magical heritage to marry Mikael, a wealthy landowner and powerful Viking warrior. She and her sister Dahlia, who since childhood had been her best friend, had sworn an oath to protect each other always and forever. They used to hum the song of the starlings together. Dahlia was distraught that Esther would rather lay with their captors than escape with her, as she lived like a slave. A year later Esther discovers she is barren, and her desire for children ended in failure. Desperate, Esther turned for help to her sister. Dahlia performed the ritual at a high price, and Esther became fertile. She gave birth to a daughter named Freya, who was quickly followed by a boy named Finn. By the time they left the Old World for the New World, Esther was pregnant with their third child, a boy named Elijah. Mikael was a good husband and a doting father, who adored his children but especially loved his daughter Freya. However, during Esther 's third pregnancy and while Mikael was away, Dahlia came to collect her price; the first child of the first generation, just as Esther had promised. She had also promised that she would give up every first child for every generation to come. Dahlia took Freya, and Esther lied to Mikael, telling him their daughter died of the plague and that she burned the body to stop its spread.
Not wanting to lose any other children to Dahlia, Mikael and Esther, along with Finn, unborn Elijah, and Esther 's friend and mentor Ayana, left Europe for the Americas, where several Viking colonies already existed. There, they settled in a village on the location of the future town of Mystic Falls in Virginia. Their neighbours were powerful werewolf warriors, and they quickly became a part of the society. Mikael became a fierce warrior who helped the werewolves in battle while Ayana became the village healer and taught Esther how to use her magic. Esther quickly became a very powerful witch, even considered by some as being the most powerful of her time. However, the loss of Freya had badly hurt Mikael, and he grew distant from his wife. Eventually, Esther took a liking to the young werewolf leader of the village, Ansel. The two begun an affair, as Mikael still neglected Esther. Esther eventually became pregnant with Ansel 's child; and, realizing what Mikael would do to them if he ever found out, she returned to her husband. When she gave birth to a third boy, Niklaus, it renewed his hope for a family. Three more children would be born to Mikael and Esther; two sons, Kol and Henrik, and a daughter, Rebekah. However, Mikael had become harsher as a result of Freya 's loss. While he loved his children he wanted them to be fierce warriors, and his children came to fear him. To prevent Mikael from finding out her wedlock son 's nature, Esther gave Klaus a cursed pendant, which weakened him and prevented him from triggering his curse. This led him to be viewed badly by Mikael, and he suffered the brunt of his violence. Esther also forbade Ansel from seeing their son; but the werewolf remained close, knowing that Klaus would one day trigger his curse and need him. Despite Mikael 's contempt for Klaus, the family was a close one. When Klaus was abused Esther taught him to hum a song, sung by the starlings she 'd brought to the new world long ago, the song that her sister Dahlia and she used to hum.
However, the family 's happiness came to an end when Klaus and Henrik, fascinated by the werewolves, snuck out of the caves to see them turn on the full moon, which was forbidden by their village 's laws. Henrik was killed by the turned wolves. Desperate to protect their remaining children but refusing to run again, Mikael and Esther planned to use magic to prevent them from being hurt. Mikael had Esther turn him and their children into beings faster and stronger than werewolves, with their own fangs to attack, and heightened senses, and unable to be truly killed. Esther, upon her husband 's request, called on the power of the sun for life, and the ancient white oak tree for immortality to make her children stronger and immortal while also using the magically spelled blood of a doppelganger to allow them to be reborn as a powerful new species. Mikael and his five remaining children turned while Esther remained a witch. However, for every new strength, a weakness plagued them, the sun that granted life would burn them and keep them inside until dark, vervain that grew on the white oak tree could burn them and prevent mind compulsion, while neighbors who had once invited them into their homes could now keep them out unless they are invited, and wood from the white oak tree is the one thing that can take their immortal lives away, by killing them. The worst of the weaknesses was the terrible hunger for blood (as the thing that had made them vampires, it was the thing they craved above all else). They had become the first of the vampire. In their hunger, they massacred half of their village. When Klaus made his first human kill, he triggered his werewolf curse, revealing his mother 's infidelity. In his rage, Mikael slaughtered half the village before killing Ansel himself. He then forced his wife to suppress Klaus 's werewolf side by using the blood of the doppelganger. Furious at his mother 's betrayal, Klaus killed her and blamed his step - father for her death. Mikael fled from their village in his rage, followed by Finn and Kol. After burying their mother, Elijah, Klaus and Rebekah also left their hometown.
Despite originating in 10th century pre-Christianized Norway, most members of the family (all but Freya, Finn, Kol, and Henrik) carry non-Scandinavian names. The rest, apart from Niklaus, carry biblical Hebrew names: Mikael, Esther, Elijah, and Rebekah. The name Mikaelson, or any variants, would likely be anachronistic in 10th century Norway.
Mikael is the patriarch of the Mikaelson family. He is portrayed by Sebastian Roché.
Mikael was searching for Klaus and the rest of his family for a thousand years. He desired to kill Klaus, in order to get revenge for the murder of his wife and him being framed for it. He always had a bad relationship with Klaus, but caring enough to save him by turning him into a vampire but otherwise being hard on him when he was growing up. Unlike the rest of children who fell inline, Klaus was the black sheep of the family and acted differently, this was because he was the product of an affair Klaus ' mother had with a werewolf. As such, Mikael was condescending, cold and abusive towards Klaus for no apparent reason, though Mikael tried to justify this by claiming he was trying to toughen Klaus up. This treatment contributed greatly to Klaus ' narcissism, hunger for power, paranoia and psychosis.
Mikael was imprisoned in a coffin by Bonnie 's mother Abby, when he came to Mystic Falls looking for Elena when she was a small child. He wanted to kill the Petrova doppelgänger in order to prevent Klaus from breaking the curse and creating a hybrid army. Katherine awoke him in order to get information on how to kill Klaus.
Klaus eventually killed Mikael using the white oak stake after being saved by Stefan.
When the Original Vampires throw a ball in order to introduce themselves to the Mystic Falls community, they use the last name "Mikaelson '', as a tribute to the patriarch. Ironically, Klaus also refers to himself as Mikaelson, despite his deep resentment of Mikael.
Mikael 's ghost appears in New Orleans and convinces Davina to resurrect him, which is successful but found himself bound to Davina via a mystical bracelet or at least until Kol Mikaelson released him while Davina was knocked out.
Mikael is the oldest of the Original Family and considered the strongest and most powerful vampire in existence, although after Klaus breaks the sun and moon curse and became a hybrid it is likely that margin was somewhat narrowed, given they faced each other twice after that and Klaus prevails in the first encounter and gains the upper hand in the second only to be thwarted in an attempt to save Camille.
Klaus kills Mikael a second time in a surprise attempt to use his Viking ashes for a spell to defeat his Aunt Dahlia.
Esther is the matriarch of the Mikaelson family. She is portrayed by a British actress Alice Evans in The Vampire Diaries and was played by Natalie Dreyfuss in The Originals while possessing Cassie 's body. She was played by Sonja Sohn while possessing Lenore 's body. She was stuck in Lenore 's body as a vampire.
She was not a vampire, but was a powerful witch. She was the apprentice of a very powerful Bennett witch, Ayanna, during her first years in the New World. Esther was responsible for turning her family into vampires. She did so by summoning life from the sun and immortality from a white oak tree, then making them drink the blood of Tatia, one of Amara 's doppelgängers, before having Mikael kill them.
She was referred to as "The Original Witch '', though she was not the first witch in the world. This was a reference to the fact that she was the witch who was a part of the Original Family.
Esther was murdered by Klaus in the early 11th century, because she used her powers, and those of some other fellow witches, to suppress his werewolf abilities and bind them to the moonstone through the use of a curse, and for making him the target of Mikael 's hatred through her affair. Esther comes back to life in the 21st century, when she was awakened by Bonnie and Abby Bennett. Esther tries to kill all of her vampire children, whom she now believes to be abominations after seeing the violence that they embody. She obtains the help of her son Finn, who becomes willing to be sacrificed in order to end the pain that his siblings bring to the world. Esther also seeks the help of Bonnie Bennett and her mother Abby (descendants of the powerful ancient witch Ayanna) by channeling them and their bloodline, in order to gain more power to perform the spell that will kill her children. However, Esther 's son Elijah finds out about the plan, and teams up with his siblings to force the Salvatore brothers to prevent his mother from killing the family by kidnapping Elena and threatening to kill her if the Salvatores do not stop Esther 's endeavors. Damon ends up turning Bonnie 's mother into a vampire, which ends her witch abilities and thus destroys the spell. Esther then flees from Mystic Falls to avoid her family.
In the season three episode, "Heart of Darkness '', Esther returns to Mystic Falls. She tells Rebekah that she was dying, and wanted to see her daughter one last time; however, she had ulterior motives for returning. She grabs Rebekah 's hands, and performs a spell in order to switch bodies with Rebekah, using her as a cover for safety. Esther was desperate to stay safe from Klaus and her other Original Vampire children who want her dead after learning of her plans to kill them all and ending the vampire race. After she returns to her own body, she was killed by Alaric 's normal self, but not before she successfully performs the ritual on his dark side, and her body was put back into its coffin by Klaus.
Esther 's remains are consecrated in New Orleans and as a result, she becomes a New Orleans witch, a witch that has or can use the collective power of all the dead New Orleans witches. She eventually becomes the leader of the Ancestors, the spirits of the dead witches who give their power to the living witches.
She is portrayed by an American - Canadian actress Riley Voelkel.
Mikael and Esther 's firstborn child was a daughter. It was originally believed that she died in Europe at a very young age as the result of a plague that had struck their homeland. In reality, Esther 's sister Dahlia took the child (and all firstborns from Esther 's bloodline) as the price for the magic used to allow Esther to bear children. Esther lies to Mikael, and Freya 's supposed death is what caused Mikael and Esther to move to a village in a "mystical land '' far away in the New World, which was later called Mystic Falls.
Dahlia took Freya and taught her many of her secrets and, over the years, she became a very powerful witch. Eventually, Dahlia cast a spell on both of them which would provide them with "the next best thing '' to immortality: they would slumber for one hundred years before waking for a year of aging. Eventually, Freya escaped from Dahlia, later telling her brothers, Klaus and Elijah, that it had n't been easy and that she had lost something in the process. Freya hid from Dahlia 's wrath and, eventually, ended up in New Orleans where she wanted to meet her family. Invited to a party thrown by her brothers and her sister as her brother Kol 's date, she witnessed Klaus daggering Kol. As his date, she was imprisoned in a cottage which had become an asylum for mad witches since Klaus had a spell placed on it which prevented witches from leaving. Once inside the asylum, Freya returned to her slumber, remaining as such for a hundred years.
As her slumber came to an end, Freya discovered that her sister, Rebekah, had been imprisoned in the asylum when her spirit was placed in a witch body by a vengeful Kol. Pretending to be another inmate, she finally met her sister properly, admiring her bravery when she stood up to the Kindred witches who ran the asylum. Later, when Rebekah planned to draw on Freya (not knowing she was her sister) to break the spell on the asylum, the Kindred tried to stop her but Freya arrived and easily dispatched the Kindred with her magic before breaking the spell that contained the witches. Revealing her true identity to Rebekah, she told her that she would soon come to see their brothers. The first of them she met was her brother Finn, whom she had been close to as a child. Revealing what had happened to her after the kidnapping, Freya also learnt that her younger brother, Klaus, had fathered a daughter, something that would draw Dahlia once she found out. Helping Finn to kill Hope, she cast a spell to protect her brother for his upcoming confrontation with Elijah, who was protecting Hope. She later brought Finn back thanks to her spell when he was killed by Elijah. She also told him that, once Hope started doing magic, Dahlia would sense it and come for what was hers.
Sometime afterwards, once Finn was strong enough, Freya asked him to take her to Mikael, their father, who Finn had been using as a sacrificial power source in his battle with their brothers. Although Mikael was sceptical at first, he eventually recognized his long - lost daughter, and father and daughter happily reunited. Telling Mikael about the truth behind her disappearance and the threat posed by Dahlia, Freya then met with her brothers Klaus and Elijah, who had confronted Finn in the City of the Dead. Removing Finn 's spirit from his host and placing him in her pendant, Freya told her brothers that Hope had nothing to fear from her or from Finn now that he was neutralized. She then told them that they needed to ally if they wanted to stop Dahlia, who was far more powerful than any witch they had ever come across. Although Klaus refused her help, especially when he learnt of her alliance with Mikael, Elijah was willing to hear her out and even ally with her but he told her that he did not trust her. Freya hoped that she would be able to one day win her younger brother 's trust.
Freya is one of the most powerful witches to ever walk the earth, along with Dahlia, her niece Hope and her mother Esther. However, Hope 's power seems even greater than Freya 's and Esther 's, as she is capable of accomplishing feats even Esther and Freya could not. Even Rebekah, whose knowledge of magic was quite limited, knew that Freya was far more powerful than any other witch she had encountered. Freya knew and mastered a vast number of spells and could accomplish them at a greater degree than other witches; namely, she could locate someone despite them being protected by a cloaking spell. She could also use her magic in a fight, something that not even a Harvest witch like Davina can do.
He is portrayed by a British actor Casper Zafer and was played by American actor Yusuf Gatewood while possessing Vincent Griffith 's body.
Finn is Mikael and Esther 's second born child and was the oldest living Mikaelson family member (he was also the only person to know the truth of Freya 's "death, '' as he was there), until his elder sister Freya woke up. He is shown to be even more noble and moral than Elijah, but is more distant to his siblings since he views them as monsters. Finn once had a loving relationship with his siblings, but that changed after they became vampires, and after seeing how they acted he emotionally distanced himself. He still cared about them enough that he stayed with them but held a judgemental attitude towards them, especially Niklaus, whose relationship with Finn became hostile. This made Klaus decide to leave the White Oak Ash Dagger in Finn after The Brotherhood of the Five attacked them. However 900 years later, after Elijah un-daggered him, he conspired with Esther to link all the remaining Original Vampires so they could all be destroyed.
Finn was responsible for turning the 900 - year - old vampire, Sage, with whom he is in love. Sage and Finn reunite shortly before his death.
He is killed in the season 3 episode "The Murder of One '', when Stefan, Elena and Matt kill him, thinking that it will kill all of the Originals due to their "linked '' status. However, Klaus manages to force Bonnie into unlinking the siblings moments before Finn is killed. It is revealed through Finn 's death that when an Original dies, all vampires of his or her bloodline die as well.
As was revealed in the season finale of The Originals, Finn returns along with his mother Esther and brother Kol in another body of a male witch named Vincent.
He is portrayed by New Zealand actor Daniel Gillies
Elijah first appears in episode eight of season two, entitled "Rose ''. Elijah is brought into the circle by two vampires named Rose and Trevor. They make a deal to be allowed immunity from Elijah and the Originals if they hand over Elena Gilbert, the new Petrova doppelgänger. It is later revealed that Rose and Trevor were the vampires who failed to keep Katerina Petrova (Katherine Pierce) alive for Klaus to sacrifice in the ritual required to become a vampire / werewolf Hybrid. They were subsequently hunted by Klaus and Elijah for centuries.
Elijah had feelings for Katerina in 1492 (perhaps due to her resemblance to Tatia, a former doppelgänger he was in love with), and tried to save her from Klaus; however, she did not trust Elijah and chose to flee. Later, he would punish her for her betrayal by compelling her to stay in a tomb until he said otherwise.
Elena is rescued by the Salvatore brothers not long after Elijah kills Trevor, who had betrayed Elijah in the past by helping Katerina escape. The Salvatores attack Elijah and succeed in staking him; however, he comes back to life at the end of the episode because he is an Original Vampire who can not be killed by any wooden stake. Only wood from the ancient White Oak Tree, which his family burned when they became vampires, can kill Originals. Elijah then works with a witch to locate Elena.
The witch is able to locate her, so he goes to Mystic Falls to confront her, where he ends up saving her from a group of vampires who also wanted to take Elena. It is revealed that those vampires wanted to hand her over to Klaus. When Elijah discovers this, he makes peace with Elena and her friends, because he wants to use Elena as bait to draw out Klaus and kill him. He thus makes a deal with Elena that if she helps him kill Klaus, he will leave her family and her friends alone and keep them safe. However, he intends for Elena to be successfully sacrificed, as once Klaus breaks the curse and starts transforming, he will be left vulnerable enough to be killed. During a series of events, Elijah is temporarily "killed '' when Elena stabs him with a mystical dagger that can kill an Original when dipped in ash from the White Oak Tree.
When Klaus comes to town, Elena un-daggers Elijah because she needs his help, and he then reveals to her his family 's history, and the fact that Klaus killed the rest of his siblings. Elijah thus at first tries to help Elena and her friends kill Klaus, but ends up saving him instead in the Season 2 finale episode, because Klaus promises to take Elijah to their family (Elijah had assumed Klaus had hidden their "dead '' bodies deep in the ocean) if Elijah spares him. In season two 's finale however, it is revealed that Klaus double - crossed Elijah once again, and daggered him to keep him close to him, like the rest of his daggered siblings.
Damon undaggers Elijah later in season 3 to help him find a way to kill Klaus. When Elijah awakes, he undaggers the rest of his siblings who were located in similar coffins in the same room. They begin to plot their revenge against Klaus; however, before they can make their move, their mother Esther, thought to be dead, reappears and convinces the siblings to be a family again (which later turns out to be a front for her true motives; she wants to link her children 's lives together and kill one of them to kill the rest, rendering vampires extinct).
After Elijah foils his mother 's plans to kill him and his siblings, he leaves Mystic Falls a tortured soul, ashamed of his own barbaric actions and those of his family 's. He is shown to be one of the most sophisticated and peaceful of the Original siblings, alongside his older brother Finn. He is the most compromising regarding Elena and her friends. Elijah and Elena develop a sort of understanding, and Elena comes to be fond of Elijah 's company. She thus feels especially betrayed when earlier Elijah threatened to allow Rebekah to kill Elena if the Salvatore brothers are not able to stop Esther Mikaelson from killing the Original Family. However, in the 18th episode of season 3, Elena professes that she hopes that her vampire friends are descended from Elijah 's bloodline, so that he can be spared. Elijah returns to town in the season three finale episode, "The Departed '', in order to make a deal with Elena and her friends. Elijah proposes that he be allowed to take Klaus 's desiccated (by witch Bonnie and help from the Salvatores and Tyler) body with him and his siblings and leave town, and in exchange, he would make sure that Klaus would not be resurrected within Elena 's lifetime or even that of her children, stating: "perhaps that will teach him some manners ''. However, Klaus is staked, and Elijah and Rebekah believe him to be dead, even though Klaus actually possessed Tyler Lockwood 's body and lives on.
In season four, Elijah reappears as Katherine 's lover, and is making a deal with Katherine for her to be granted her freedom from Klaus in exchange for the cure for immortality, which Klaus wants to give to Silas, the world 's first and most dangerous immortal being, to avoid Silas ' psychic torture. Elijah refuses Klaus the cure for Rebekah to take before Silas re-claims it, denying Katherine 's freedom. Elijah breaks up with Katherine when he learns Klaus has fathered a child and returns to New Orleans to keep Klaus ' unborn baby safe and help his brother.
He follows his brother Klaus to New Orleans and finds out that Hayley is pregnant with Klaus ' child. He begins to have feelings for Hayley and throughout ' The Originals ' the two make their feelings for each other clear. When Esther returns, she reveals the truth about how Elijah 's first love, Tatia, was killed, proving it was in fact himself who had fed on her when they had newly been vampires. During one of Finn 's spells Elijah is trapped in a room with animal heads which represent each brother of the family. To escape, Elijah discovers you must ruin the representation of each other, thus causing him to share with Klaus that he killed Tatia. When Klaus proves he is capable of forgiveness the spell is broken and they are free.
Niklaus Mikaelson (more commonly called Klaus) is physically the most powerful immortal supernatural being in The Vampire Diaries and The Originals universe. He is shown to be cruel, sadistic, ruthless, and yet he finds love in Caroline Forbes. He 's portrayed by British actor Joseph Morgan. After the Original couple moved to the Americas, Klaus 's mother had an affair with a member of the neighboring werewolf tribe. Klaus was born as a result. The mother 's infidelity was later revealed. His illegitimate birth as well as his perceived weaknesses made him the target of his step - father 's ruthless hatred, emotional neglect, abuse, and contempt.
When Esther turned the family into vampires, Klaus 's blood - lust became particularly strong and he transitioned into a hybrid after his first kill, due to his werewolf gene. Esther later bound his werewolf powers to the moonstone, due to her believing that his hybrid status made him an abomination. In order to obtain his werewolf abilities, Klaus had to perform a ritual in which a werewolf, a vampire and a Petrova doppelganger had to be sacrificed. Klaus first hunted Katerina Petrova, later known as Katherine Pierce, who was from the line of supernatural Petrova doppelgangers. In order to avoid being sacrificed by Klaus and allowing him to gain his werewolf powers, Katerina drinks the blood of a vampire and then kills herself in order to transition into a vampire. She then becomes useless to Klaus because his ritual requires a human doppelganger. Katherine subsequently spends centuries on the run from Klaus, who is enraged at her actions. As a result, Klaus kills her entire family and continues to hunt her obsessively.
Continuing his quest to release his werewolf abilities, Klaus compels Isobel Saltzman to locate the latest Petrova doppelganger, Elena Gilbert, her own daughter. Klaus is then able to perform the ritual. He sacrifices Tyler Lockwood 's werewolf friend, Jules, and turns Jenna Sommers into a vampire before killing her. Finally, Klaus drains Elena of blood (though she lives thanks to a ritualistic sacrifice made by her biological father, John Gilbert) and thus completes the ritual, becoming a fully functional vampire - werewolf hybrid.
A major plot line of the show is Klaus ' quest to create a hybrid army. Klaus can only sire other hybrids by using the blood of the supernatural Petrova doppelgänger, Elena Gilbert. Thus, he is often a threat to Elena and is a major kill target for the Salvatore brothers.
At one point, Klaus blackmails Stefan into helping him create more hybrids, by threatening to kill his brother Damon. Klaus forces Stefan to return to his old, deadly ways, and returns Stefan to the Salvatores ' former sociopathic persona, known as "The Ripper ''. When Klaus discovers that he needs Elena 's blood to create his hybrid army, he sends Stefan back to Mystic Falls to keep an eye on her, but also forces Stefan to turn off his emotions (an ability that all vampires have). Tyler Lockwood ends up becoming Klaus ' first successful hybridized victim.
It 's also revealed that Klaus murdered his own mother, because she suppressed his werewolf powers through a curse, and because he blames her for making him the target of Mikael 's hatred by her conception of him through an affair. When his half - sister Rebekah learns of this, she initially disowns him. However, when Elena 's friends release Klaus 's family from their coffins, Rebekah forgives him, though only after their mother convinces them that she wants them to reunite as a family.
Klaus ' humanity (emotions) is rarely shown. His affection for Caroline Forbes represents a more human side to Klaus, such as when he invites her to his family 's ball, sending her a gown to wear. Glimpses of his humanity can also be seen in regard to his half - siblings, such as when he saves his half - sister 's life when Kol was about to stab her with the white oak stake, in spite of the fact that he had previously disowned her and the two were at odds, or when he became infuriated over his half - brother Kol 's death. There are also small instances when it 's revealed how deeply he cares for his unborn child, and even the child 's mother Hayley.
In the season three episode, "Before Sunset '', Klaus is temporarily "killed '' by the Salvatores and Tyler Lockwood. He tries to kill Elena by draining her of all her blood in order to kill two birds with one stone; (1) have a supply of her blood with which to create a hybrid army, (2) kill the vampire form of the vampire - hating Alaric Saltzman, who desires to kill Klaus, all other vampires and whose life is tied to Elena 's by the witch Esther. Subsequently, Elena 's friends neutralize Klaus in order to protect her. Instead of staking him, which could potentially kill them all (see "Mythology '' section), the Salavatore brothers use Bonnie 's magic and a dark spell to stop Klaus ' heart, which "desiccates '' him and leaves him immobile and starved of blood, and thus in a seemingly "dead '' state. A similar spell was performed on Klaus 's step - father, Mikael, by Bonnie 's mother, Abby Bennett. In the season three finale episode "The Departed '', Klaus is staked in his coffin by the vampire form of Alaric Saltzman and subsequently, his body burns to ashes, (see "Mythology '' section). However, Klaus lives on by switching bodies with Tyler Lockwood, through a spell which Bonnie Bennett performs.
In "Bring It On '' Klaus sleeps with Hayley Marshall and provides her with information in regards to her family, because he noticed a crescent moon shaped birthmark on her shoulder.
In "The Originals '', the backdoor pilot for the spin - off show, Klaus is told by a group of witches, who are blackmailing him, that Hayley is carrying his child. They threaten to kill the child and Hayley if he does n't. Klaus decides he wants this child, so he vows to protect Hayley and their unborn child, whatever it takes.
In "500 Years of Solitude '', Klaus returns to Mystic Falls when he hears that Katerina Petrova is on her death bed. At first, he came back to gloat over her corpse, but when Caroline asks him not to, he obeys. Later, he asks Caroline for her confession about her feelings for him, and the two have a one - night stand in the forest, after which he promises to leave and never return. Caroline does not come back until late at night.
As the Original Vampire - Werewolf Hybrid, Klaus is the strongest of the original vampires, despite not being the eldest, he grows stronger and faster with age due to his vampirism and when he is using his lycanthrope enhancement, also increase in strength when enraged; due to his werewolf side.
In Klaus 's confrontations against the - then Enhanced Original Vampire Alaric Saltzman, his step - father Mikael, and the Upgraded Original Vampires Lucien Castle and Marcel Gerard respectively, the latters ' are apparently proven to be physically stronger than Klaus, however, it should be noted in each of these confrontations, the Original Hybrid never truly used his full strength, as his physical attributes (such as strength and speed) are at their peaks when he is fully transformed into his werewolf form.
Although stronger than his Original Vampire maternal half - siblings due to his werewolf heritage, some of his half - siblings have been shown to be able to fight with him almost equal terms; not enough to actually defeat Klaus, as the latter always quickly turns the tables on his half - siblings in the end.
His supernatural and physical attributes aside, Klaus ' greatest asset is his sharp intellect. His penchant for strategies and forming contingencies way ahead of time and surpasses Elijah 's penchant for strategies and forming contingencies; as he has outsmarted Elijah on several occasions and rarely is outsmarted by the latter. According to Dahlia, Klaus is the most intelligent of his maternal half - siblings.
Kol is the youngest surviving son of the Original Family, since the death of his younger brother Henrik and the second youngest child still living, being older than Rebekah. He is portrayed by Australian actor Nathaniel Buzolic and was played by British actor Daniel Sharman while possessing Kaleb 's body.
He tries to kill Matt Donovan for entertainment during the Originals ' family ball, but is stopped by Damon Salvatore.
In the season three episode, "Heart of Darkness '', Kol appears in Denver, Colorado, where Elena and Damon had sent Jeremy, to get him away from Mystic Falls and protect his life. He threatens to hurt Jeremy, in order to prevent Elena and Damon from trying to find out the history of Damon 's blood line; (if they managed to do so, they might find out that Elena 's friends are not descended from Kol, which would allow them to kill him -- see "Mythology '' section). Damon drives a baseball bat through Kol 's body in order to debilitate him so that he, Elena, and Jeremy can escape. Kol later appears at the house of Mary Porter, the vampire who sired Rose. Kol kills Mary, so that she is not able to tell Elena and Damon about the history of her bloodline, which could lead them to find out which Original vampire Damon, Stefan, Caroline and Abby Bennett are descended from; Mary sired Rose, Katherine Pierce forced Rose to sire her, and Katherine later sired Damon and Stefan.
In season four, Kol returns to aid Rebekah in finding the rumoured "cure '' for vampirism. He tortures Professor Shane, who supposedly knows how to get the cure. When Kol realizes that Shane plans to release Silas, the first and most dangerous immortal being of all time, Kol stabs Shane through the torso with a wooden object, killing him. However, Bonnie is able to save Shane 's life through an "expression '', or dark magic spell.
Kol compels Damon to kill Jeremy so that they can not find Silas, but Stefan locks Damon away so that he can not. Elena and Jeremy decide to try and kill Kol because he is trying to stop them from getting the cure. Since Jeremy needs to kill vampires to complete the map to the cure, they conclude that if they kill Kol, which also kills his whole line of vampires, the map will be complete.
Elena lures Kol into the house and waits for Jeremy to bring Bonnie, but he does not make it in time. Elena and Jeremy are talking later when Kol appears, storms into the house and tries to cut off Jeremy 's hunting arm. Elena corners him and showers him in water mixed with vervain. Jeremy stabs Kol with the white oak stake and he dies. Meanwhile, Klaus is watching furiously in the doorway, unable to help his brother because he has not been invited in. He vows to avenge his brother 's death, swearing to kill Jeremy, Elena and anyone else involved.
Kol returned in the season four episode "The Walking Dead '', along with several deceased characters as ghosts, longing for revenge against their killers and the residents of Mystic Falls. He clashes once more Matt Donovan, wounding him by throwing a glass bottle at his shoulder and taunting his sister, angered at her brief grieving period, before proceeding to attack Elena, grieving for her brother at his grave. His neck is snapped by Stefan before he managed to kill Elena, however appears in the next episode, "Graduation '', threatening Bonnie into completely destroying the veil so he could return to life. Bonnie plays along with his plan, however deceives him by luring him into a trap, so he ca n't cause any more harm until the veil is returned.
Kol later appears to Matt Donovan while Matt is temporarily trapped on the Other Side. After Matt witnesses his sister Vicky being sucked into oblivion, Kol reveals that the Other Side is unraveling, slowly taking one spirit after the other. Soon, every spirit of the supernatural kind will be gone. Kol begs Matt for his help, before he, too, will be swept away. However, upon awaking, Matt does n't remember. Soon, the Other Side completely disintegrates, and Kol 's fate is left unknown.
Some time later in season 2 of The Originals, a young man named Kaleb appears in New Orleans, flirting with the young but powerful witch Davina Claire. He later meets up with Cassie and Vincent, two witches whose bodies have been taken over by Esther and Finn. It 's revealed that Kaleb is actually Kol, having taken possession of a body as well. Kol continues his relationship with Davina Claire, originally because his mother told him to but develops feelings for her. He chooses to side with Davina over his mother Esther who he helps stop along with his siblings. However, this leads to his brother Finn casting a spell on him which eventually kills him, leaving Davina heartbroken. In season 3 Davina works to resurrect Kol which she succeeds in doing by aligning herself with the Strix to get the power she needed. Kol is later resurrected by Davina through the energy that was used in un-siring Klaus.
Rebekah is currently the youngest member of the original family since Henrik died over a thousand years ago. She is portrayed by Australian actress Claire Holt and was played by British actress Maisie Richardson - Sellers while possessing Eva Sinclair 's body.
She and her living siblings, Elijah, Finn, Klaus and Kol were turned into vampires by their parents, Esther and Mikael Mikaelson. They made them drink the blood of Tatia, one of Amara 's doppelgängers, before having Mikael kill them. Esther, their mother who is an original witch, performed a spell using white oak ash for eternal life. When they woke, their father forced them to drink human blood. With the intention of turning them into vampires was so that they could survive in their village and to be stronger, faster and even more vigilant than the werewolves, who killed their youngest brother. However, the great hunger and lust for blood was a bad effect that their parents did n't plan on. Vervain, a plant by the white oak tree, burned them as did sunlight, which caused them to be forced to wear daylight rings or necklaces. The only thing that can really kill an Original is a stake made of the actual white oak tree used to turn them, while a dagger dipped in the ash of the white oak can place them in a deathlike trance until the dagger is pulled out.
Rebekah shares a deep bond with her brother Klaus, and was the only family member that remained loyal to him throughout his vicious behavior. Klaus thus kept her by his side, while he kept the rest of his family daggered and stored in coffins for hundreds of years.
She had a romantic interest in Stefan Salvatore during their encounters in the early 1920s. During that time period, Klaus and Rebekah are once again forced to go on the run after the arrival of their vengeful father Mikael. Consequently, Rebekah professes an interest to stop running and desires to live a stable life with Stefan by her side. Klaus forces her to choose between himself and Stefan. She chooses the latter, leading Klaus to dagger her. He brings her back to life shortly thereafter, in order to obtain her necklace, which was originally Esther 's. The same necklace is gifted to Elena by Stefan during the series first season. Rebekah and Klaus thus head to Mystic Falls. Rebekah develops a deep hatred and envy of Elena, and continually tries to hurt, kill, and emotionally distress her, until her brother makes her stop. Later on, Rebekah tries to be Elena 's friend and helps with her and her friends ' plan to kill Klaus once she found out he killed her mother, but is betrayed, and daggered by Elena, to simplify the Salvatore 's plan to killing Klaus. In season three, Klaus makes Elena reveal Rebekah 's location, and takes her body with him. She is eventually un-daggered by Elijah.
During her time in Mystic Falls, Rebekah enrolls at the local high school, much to the disgust of Elena and her friends. There, she at first makes romantic advances towards Tyler Lockwood, Caroline Forbes ' boyfriend. She later develops a fondness for Matt Donovan, and invites him to her family 's ball.
Rebekah is shown to be lonely and insecure, though she hides this by being cruel and violent. This is demonstrated quite well through her sexual rendezvouses with Damon Salvatore, an enemy of her family, and the subsequent torture she makes him endure after being betrayed and used by him.
Her mother Esther comes back and tells Rebekah and her siblings she wants them to unite and become a family again. However, she really came to kill them all by linking them with a spell that would cause each sibling to die only by killing one of them. Klaus forces Bonnie to undo the spell, but Elena, the Salvatore 's and others kill Finn, Rebekah 's brother.
Rebekkah 's body is temporarily taken over by her witch mother, Esther, through a spell which Esther performs. She invades Rebekah 's body in order to be able to go unnoticed while scheming to kill all of her Original children (who are out for her blood, ever since they discovered that she tried to kill them by a blood - linking spell at the family ball). Esther later leaves Rebekah 's body and stakes her; however, Klaus restores Rebekah by removing the stake.
Rebekah supposedly leaves Mystic Falls in the season three episode "Before Sunset '', in order to avoid the vampiric version of Alaric Saltzman, who wants to kill her and all other vampires. However, she then returns to Mystic Falls after witnessing the supposed "death '' of her brother. Grief - stricken, she decides to kill Elena, therefore killing Alaric and taking away the last threat to her and her family therefore saving her family. She causes both Elena and Matt Donovan to drive off of the Wickery Bridge and into the lake to drown, and Elena dies, along with Alaric. However, Elena had vampire blood in her system, something Rebekah was unaware of.
In season four, Rebekah is yet again daggered by Klaus, after he believes she will be an obstacle in finding The Cure. However, she is then un-daggered by April Young, and sets upon finding it herself. After developing a ' no strings attached ' relationship with Stefan, she reveals she wants to be human, feeling miserable as a vampire.
In season two of The Originals, after Klaus 's child is born she returns to New Orleans and is named the caretaker of Klaus 's child. She promises to get a strong witch to protect her and her niece from Esther, who wants to kill the baby In season 3 Rebekah makes a return.
Henrik was the child of Esther and Mikael. He was killed by werewolves a thousand years ago, before the family had been turned into vampires. He is portrayed by Devon Allowitz in season three.
His death created a war between the werewolf clan and his own family, causing his mother to turn the family into vampires, so they could defend themselves against the lycanthropic beasts.
Hope is portrayed by Alexandria and Victoria Collins in "Rebirth '', later by toddlers in seasons 2 and 3, by Summer Fontana in season 4, and by Danielle Rose Russell in season 5.
Hope Andrea Mikaelson is the daughter of Klaus and the former - werewolf Hayley Marshall. Hope is the result of a one - night stand between her parents, and after her birth her family agreed to fake her death to protect her from all those who wish her harm. Klaus, after promising to get Hope back one day, gives her to the only person he can trust to protect and raise his daughter: his sister, Rebekah. Hope is returned to her parents later in Season 2.
Hope is extremely powerful who, apart from being a vampire - werewolf hybrid, is also a witch of the Mikaelson bloodline which is one of the most powerful witch lineages in the TVD Universe. Moreover, her vampire side is that of an original, making her almost invincible and more powerful than average vampires and her werewolf side is that of an alpha, through Hayley, making her royalty among the werewolves, the Princess of the Crescent pack and probably even next - in - line to lead the pack.
At the end of season 4, Hope is sent to Mystic Falls to study magic at the Salvatore Boarding School.
She is portrayed by Australian actress Claudia Black.
The sister of Esther, and first - born witch of that generation of their family, Dahlia is one of the most powerful witches in history, far more than that of her sister, already regarded as one of the most powerful. Dahlia was taken, along with Esther from her homeland, which was destroyed by the Vikings who locked her away as a slave to do magic whilst allowing Esther to roam freely. When Ester decides to marry one of their captors instead of escape with her sister and best friend, Dahlia becomes a hate - filled woman. Years later Esther discovers she is infertile and in desperation seeks out her sister. Dahlia agrees to perform a ritual that will give her fertility, if Esther agrees to give her the first - born child of every generation, all of whom, like Dahlia, would possess immense magical power. Esther obliges and Dahlia comments that she would be able to help herself if Esther had n't given up magic. Years later Dahlia contacts her sister wishing to collect her fee, 5 - year old Freya Mikaelson. Esther, upset, begs her sister not to take her daughter, and swears to grow in power until she is more powerful than Dahlia, claiming she did not know the love of a parent to a child when she made the deal. Dahlia commands Esther to tell Mikael that their daughter died from the bubonic plague and her body was burned.
Described by Freya as the most powerful witch she has ever seen, Dahlia first gained her enhanced powers by linking her magic to the magic possessed by her then five - year - old niece Freya. Once Freya reached adulthood, Dahlia then cast a spell that allows them both to gain pseudo-immortality by leap - frogging through time; the women were put into a magically - induced sleep for nearly a century, only to awaken for one single year of life and aging with all of the magic they accrued over their hundred - year - long slumber, before they would once again return to their sleep after the year had passed.
Dahlia 's understanding of magic after so many years of study is extensive enough that she was able to create her own form of connective magic in the 10th century. She also has the ability to sense the magic of other witches, especially those of the first - born children of her and her sister Esther 's bloodline, as the first - born witches of their lineage possess devastating amounts of power. According to Freya, Dahlia aims to be truly immortal without having to sleep for centuries, and she will not hesitate to come and claim the first - born Mikaelson witches to achieve this goal, even if it means destroying anyone who stands in her way.
Being the oldest and most powerful vampires, the Original Vampires are stronger and faster than all normal vampires, though it is implied they do not get stronger with age due to being created at the zenith of vampiric physical prowess. (Alaric was just as strong, if not stronger, than the other Original Vampires despite being a day old. So too was Lucien, strong enough to kill Finn). It is possible that the spell used to make the Original Vampires, gives them the peak powers of vampirism. Also, werewolves prove little to no challenge for them, though they can be challenging in their wolf form (where they are at their strongest) as a pack of four can defeat an Original Vampire (Rebekah) and two human form werewolves with moonrings (which allows them to use the full power of their condition) overpowered Elijah. Also, Original Vampires are somewhat immune to werewolf venom, which is fatal to normal vampires but it still affects Original Vampires, though they only experience weakness and hallucinations. Original Vampires have the power to "compel '' or hypnotize ordinary vampires in addition to humans, though they can not compel each other.
Nothing can kill an Original Vampire, except for a heart - aimed stake made only of the ancient white oak tree or the immense power of a very powerful witch, though channeling that much power will also kill the witch. If an Original Vampire is stabbed by a white oak stake, he or she will die and burn to ashes. Using a silver dagger dipped in the ashes of the white oak tree will cause the Original Vampires to be neutralized as long as the dagger remains within them; however, that type of dagger would not work on Klaus due to his hybrid nature, and only a pure white oak stake could kill him. However, Davina and Kol had created a gold dagger with the ability to subdue Klaus. Other stakes temporarily disable Original Vampires, but they recuperate in hours. This was demonstrated when Elijah pulled out the wooden stake that Damon had plunged into his chest when attempting to rescue Elena from Rose and Trevor.
When an Original Vampire dies, all of the vampires from his or her bloodline die as well. This is demonstrated when Damon, Stefan, Elena and Matt kill Finn, resulting in the deaths of Sage and Troy, (Finn had sired Sage and Sage had sired Troy, thus creating a blood line). Thus, if all Original Vampires were to be killed, the entire vampire species would be rendered extinct, since all the vampires in the world are descended from the Original Vampires. However, in season 3 of the Originals, Klaus and his sireline are unlinked, meaning that if Klaus were to die, his sireline would continue to live on. It is unknown if any new Vampires that Klaus sired would be linked to him, or if they would also be unlinked, it is also unknown if Klaus ' sireline can be relinked to him again.
However, it is necessary for the Original Vampire 's spirit to cross the veil, in order for his or her bloodline to follow suit. In the season three finale episode "The Departed '', Klaus manages to switch bodies with Tyler Lockwood before being staked and lives on; thus, even though his body supposedly burnt to ashes, none of his bloodline is affected.
In season four it was revealed that the spell Esther used to create the Original Vampires is a variation of the spell Qetsiyah, the ancestor of her friend Ayana, used to create the immortality elixir.
Klaus, the Original hybrid, was fertile due to his werewolf nature and thus impregnates Hayley, giving him a daughter named Hope. She has only shown witch powers and presumably would be a werewolf if she killed anyone, but her blood can create hybrids sired to her. She has created a new sire line by turning her mother. While initially it was unknown if her death would result in the death of her "descendants '' like for any other original vampires, Hayley was later described as an "Unsired Vampire '', meaning that any hybrid or vampire that Hope sires would continue to live on if she were to be killed.
On January 11, 2013, it was announced that a back - door pilot focused on the Originals, starring Joseph Morgan as Klaus titled The Originals would air April 25 for a potential series pick - up for the 2013 - 2014 season. This second spin - off attempt is carried out by Julie Plec. There is no involvement by Kevin Williamson.
In February 2013, it was announced that Daniella Pineda was cast as the witch Sophie for episode 4x20 of The Vampire Diaries. This episode serves as a backdoor - pilot for the spin - off series, revolving around the Originals and taking place in the French Quarter of New Orleans. She was a regular cast member for first thirteen episodes of the series.
On February 11, 2013 it was announced that Leah Pipes was cast as the human Camille. Although there has been talk of a love triangle between Marcel and Klaus with this bartender / college student, there is n't any evidence to support this. However the character was in a small love triangle for couple episodes, but is n't anymore.
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where is the louvre museum located in paris | Louvre - Wikipedia
7.3 million (2016)
The Louvre (US: / ˈluːv, ˈluːvrə /) or the Louvre Museum (French: Musée du Louvre, pronounced (myze dy luvʁ) (listen)) is the world 's largest art museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the city 's 1st arrondissement (district or ward). Approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres (782,910 square feet). The Louvre in 2016 was the world 's most visited art museum, receiving 7.3 million visitors.
The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II. Remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the urban expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and, in 1546, was converted by Francis I into the main residence of the French Kings. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1682, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. In 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years. During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nation 's masterpieces.
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum was renamed Musée Napoléon, but after Napoleon 's abdication many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic. The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints and Drawings.
The Louvre Palace, which houses the museum, was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century to protect the city from possible Viking attacks, with remnants of this building still visible in the crypt. Whether this was the first building on that spot is not known; it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara). In the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her "Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris '' to a monastery.; this territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, however.
The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style. Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre 's holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed; however, the move permitted the Louvre to be used as a residence for artists.
By the mid-18th century there were an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery, with the art critic La Font de Saint - Yenne publishing, in 1747, a call for a display of the royal collection. On 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. A hall was opened by Le Normant de Tournehem and the Marquis de Marigny for public viewing of the Tableaux du Roy on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and contained Andrea del Sarto 's Charity and works by Raphael; Titian; Veronese; Rembrandt; Poussin or Van Dyck, until its closing in 1780 as a result of the gift of the palace to the Count of Provence (the future king, Louis XVIII) by the king in 1778. Under Louis XVI, the royal museum idea became policy. The comte d'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre -- which contained maps -- into the "French Museum ''. Many proposals were offered for the Louvre 's renovation into a museum; however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution.
During the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be "a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts ''. On 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property. Because of fear of vandalism or theft, on 19 August, the National Assembly pronounced the museum 's preparation as urgent. In October, a committee to "preserve the national memory '' began assembling the collection for display.
The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the monarchy 's demise. The public was given free access on three days per week, which was "perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated ''. The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art. Three quarters were derived from the royal collections, the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property (biens nationaux). To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year. In 1794, France 's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from Northern Europe, augmented after the Treaty of Tolentino (1797) by works from the Vatican, such as Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a "sign of popular sovereignty ''.
The early days were hectic; privileged artists continued to live in residence, and the unlabelled paintings hung "frame to frame from floor to ceiling ''. The structure itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns.
Under Napoleon I, a northern wing paralleling the Grande Galerie was begun, and the collection grew through successful military campaigns. Following the Egyptian campaign of 1798 -- 1801, Napoléon appointed the museum 's first director, Dominique Vivant Denon. In tribute, the museum was renamed the "Musée Napoléon '' in 1803, and acquisitions were made of Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works, either as spoils or through treaties such as the Treaty of Tolentino. At the end of Napoleon 's First Italian Campaign in 1797, the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed with Count Philipp von Cobenzl of the Austrian Monarchy. This treaty not only marked the completion of Napoleon 's conquest of Italy, but also the end of the first phases of the French Revolutionary Wars. Under this treaty, Italian cities were required to contribute pieces of art and patrimony to take part in Napoleon 's "parades of booty '' through Paris before being put into the Louvre Museum. One of the most famous pieces taken under this program was the Horses of Saint Mark. The four antique bronze horses, which had adorned the basilica of San Marco in Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204, were brought to Paris to reside atop Napoleon 's Arc du Carrousel in Paris in 1797.
Several churches and palaces, including Saint Mark 's Basilica, were looted by the French, which outraged the Italians and their artistic and cultural sensibilities. In 1797, the Treaty of Tolentino was signed by Napoleon, and two statues, the Nile and Tiber, were taken to Paris. These statues had previously been in the Vatican, and both were housed in the Louvre until 1815. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Nile was returned to Italy. However, the Tiber remained in the Louvre Museum and can be seen in the collections today.
The Italian Peninsula was not the only region from which Napoleon took art. Under the Directory government of the 1790s, Napoleon (then a General) led an expedition to Egypt. The campaign was an expansionist effort on the part of the government, but the Directory had another goal to make Paris the center of art, science, and culture. The Directory wanted France to assume responsibility for liberating the works of art they deemed in danger in order to protect and nationalize the heritage and culture of their subjects. As a result, there were teams of artists and scientists who accompanied the armies into battle equipped with lists of paintings, sculptures, and other pieces of patrimony that would be collected, crated, and shipped back to France.
Dominique Vivant Denon was Napoleon 's art advisor, and accompanied him on the expedition to Egypt. Through his initiative, the Valley of the Kings in Egypt was discovered and studied extensively. As a result, he was later installed by Napoleon as the director of Musée Napoléon, formerly the Louvre, cementing the status of the museum as a center for global patrimony and storehouse for cultural heritage.
One of the most important discoveries made during Napoleon 's campaign in Egypt was the Rosetta Stone. It was discovered in 1799, and eventually led to the ability to decipher ancient hieroglyphs. Although the Rosetta Stone was discovered by the French, it actually never made it to the Louvre Museum. It was seized by British Forces following the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Alexandria in 1801. It is now on display at the British Museum.
After the French defeat at Waterloo, the works ' former owners sought their return. The Louvre 's administrators were loath to comply and hid many works in their private collections. In response, foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, even some that had been restored by the Louvre. In 1815 Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with the Austrian government for the keeping of pieces such as Veronese 's Wedding at Cana which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the repurchase of the Albani collection.
During the Restoration (1814 -- 30), Louis XVIII and Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of 720,000 francs and created the department of Egyptian antiquities curated by Champollion, increased by more than 7,000 works with the acquisition of antiquities in the Edme - Antoine Durand, the Egyptian collection of Henry Salt or the second collection former by Bernardino Drovetti. This was less than the amount given for rehabilitation of Versailles, and the Louvre suffered relative to the rest of Paris. After the creation of the French Second Republic in 1848, the new government allocated two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon, the Salon Carré, and the Grande Galérie. In 1861, Louis - Napoléon Bonaparte bought 11,835 artworks including 641 paintings, Greek gold and other antiquities of the Campana collection. During the Second French Empire, between 1852 and 1870, the French economy grew; by 1870 the museum had added 20,000 new pieces to its collections, and the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galérie were remodelled under architects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel.
The Louvre was damaged during the suppression of the Paris Commune. On 23 May 1871, as the French Army advanced into Paris, a force of Communard soldiers led by Jules Bergeret set fire to the adjoining Tuileries Palace. The fire burned for forty - eight hours, entirely destroying the interior of the palace and spreading to the museum next to it. The library of the museum and some of the adjoining halls were destroyed, but the museum was saved by the efforts of Paris firemen and museum employees.
During the Third Republic (1870 -- 1940) the Louvre acquired new pieces mainly via donations and gifts. The Société des Amis du Louvre donated the Pietà of Villeneuve - lès - Avignon, and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea. This piece, though heavily damaged, has been prominently displayed since 1884. The 583 - item Collection La Caze donated in 1869, included works by Chardin; Fragonard; Rembrandt -- such as Bathsheba at Her Bath -- and Gilles by Watteau.
Museum expansion slowed after World War I, and the collection did not acquire many significant new works; exceptions were Georges de La Tour 's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond de Rothschild 's (1845 -- 1934) 1935 donation of 4,000 engravings, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books. During World War II the museum removed most of the art and hid valuable pieces. When Germany occupied the Sudetenland, many important artworks such as the Mona Lisa were temporarily moved to the Château de Chambord. When war was formally declared a year later, most of the museum 's paintings were sent there as well. Select sculptures such as Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Venus de Milo were sent to the Château de Valençay. On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were too heavy and "unimportant paintings (that) were left in the basement ''. In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began returning to the Louvre.
By 1874, the Louvre Palace had achieved its present form of an almost rectangular structure with the Sully Wing to the east containing the Cour Carrée (Square Court) and the oldest parts of the Louvre; and two wings which wrap the Cour Napoléon, the Richelieu Wing to the north and the Denon Wing, which borders the Seine to the south. In 1983, French President François Mitterrand proposed, as one of his Grands Projets, the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Ministry, allowing displays throughout the building. Architect I.M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass pyramid to stand over a new entrance in the main court, the Cour Napoléon. The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988; the pyramid was completed in 1989. The second phase of the Grand Louvre plan, La Pyramide Inversée (The Inverted Pyramid), was completed in 1993. As of 2002, attendance had doubled since completion.
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60,600 square metres (652,000 sq ft) dedicated to the permanent collection. The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds. It is the world 's most visited museum, averaging 15,000 visitors per day, 65 percent of whom are foreign tourists.
After architects Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti had won an international competition to create its new galleries for Islamic art, the new 3,000 sq m pavilion eventually opened in 2012, consisting of ground - and lower - ground - level interior spaces topped by a golden, undulating roof (fashioned from almost 9,000 steel tubes that form an interior web) that seems to float within the neo-Classical Visconti Courtyard in the middle of the Louvre 's south wing. The galleries, which the museum had initially hoped to open by 2009, represent the first major architectural intervention at the Louvre since the addition of I.M. Pei 's glass pyramid in 1989.
On 5 February 2015, about one hundred archaeologists, protesting against commercial private involvement to protect France 's heritage, blocked Louvre 's ticket desks to facilitate free access to the museum. At least one announcement reading "Free entrance offered by the archeologists '' has been attached to the ticket desk and a number of people visited the museum free of charge.
The Louvre is owned by the French government; however, since the 1990s it has become more independent. Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for projects. By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent. Every year, the Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state, about € 122 million. The government pays for operating costs (salaries, safety and maintenance), while the rest -- new wings, refurbishments, acquisitions -- is up to the museum to finance. A further € 3 million to € 5 million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions that it curates for other museums, while the host museum keeps the ticket money. As the Louvre became a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book, the museum earned $2.5 million by allowing filming in its galleries. In 2008, the French government provided $180 million of the Louvre 's yearly $350 million budget; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales.
The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director Jean - Luc Martinez, who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications. Martinez replaced Henri Loyrette in April 2013. Under Loyrette, who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before. In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and received a $6.9 million payment to be used for renovations.
In 2012, the Louvre and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a five - year collaboration on exhibitions, publications, art conservation and educational programming. The € 98.5 million expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012 received state funding of € 31 million, as well as € 17 million from the Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by the eponymous Saudi prince. The republic of Azerbaijan, the Emir of Kuwait, the Sultan of Oman and King Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total € 26 million. In addition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi is supposed to provide € 400 million over the course of 30 years for its use of the museum 's prestigious brand. Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that "20 % of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions ''. He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily, as opposed to 80 percent previously. He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to $36 million from $4.5 million.
In 2004, French officials decided to build a satellite museum on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former mining town of Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre, increase total museum visits, and improve the industrial north 's economy. Six cities were considered for the project: Amiens, Arras, Boulogne - sur - Mer, Calais, Lens, and Valenciennes. In 2004, French Prime Minister Jean - Pierre Raffarin chose Lens to be the site of the new building, the Louvre - Lens. Japanese architects SANAA were selected to design the Lens project in 2005. Museum officials predicted that the new building, capable of receiving about 600 works of art, would attract up to 500,000 visitors a year when it opened in 2012.
In March 2007, the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum would be completed by 2016 in Abu Dhabi. A 30 - year agreement, signed by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan, will establish the museum on Saadiyat Island in Abu Dhabi in exchange for € 832,000,000 (US $1.3 billion). The Louvre Abu Dhabi, designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and the engineering firm of Buro Happold, will occupy 24,000 square metres (260,000 sq ft) and will be covered by a roof shaped like a flying saucer. France agreed to rotate between 200 and 300 artworks during a 10 - year period; to provide management expertise; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for 15 years. The art will come from multiple museums, including the Louvre, the Georges Pompidou Centre, the Musée d'Orsay, Versailles, the Musée Guimet, the Musée Rodin, and the Musée du quai Branly.
In 2009, Minister of Culture Frédéric Mitterrand approved a plan that would have created a storage facility 30 km northwest of Paris to hold objects from the Louvre and two other national museums in Paris 's flood zone, the Musée du Quai Branly and the Musée d'Orsay; the plan was later scrapped. In 2013, his successor Aurélie Filippetti announced that the Louvre would move more than 250,000 works of art held in a 20,000 square metres (220,000 sq ft) basement storage area in Liévin; the cost of the project, estimated at € 60 million, will be split between the region (49 %) and the Louvre (51 %). The Louvre will be the sole owner and manager of the store. In July 2015, a team led by British firm Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners was selected to design the complex, which will have light - filled work spaces under one vast, green roof.
The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I, as well as during World War II by the Nazis. During Nazi occupation, thousands of artworks were stolen. But after the war, 61,233 articles of more than 150,000 seized artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Louvre 's Office des Biens Privés. In 1949, it entrusted 2,130 unclaimed pieces (including 1,001 paintings) to the Direction des Musées de France in order to keep them under appropriate conditions of conservation until their restitution and meanwhile classified them as MNRs (Musées Nationaux Recuperation or, in English, the National Museums of Recovered Artwork). Some 10 % to 35 % of the pieces are believed to come from Jewish spoliations and until the identification of their rightful owners, which declined at the end of the 1960s, they are registered indefinitely on separate inventories from the museum 's collections.
They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the public during four years (1950 -- 1954) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties, then stored or displayed, according to their interest, in several French museums including the Louvre. From 1951 to 1965, about 37 pieces were restituted. Since November 1996, the partly illustrated catalogue of 1947 -- 1949 has been accessible online and completed. In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission, headed by Jean Mattéoli, to investigate the matter and according to the government, the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful owners. During the late 1990s, the comparison of the American war archives, which had not been done before, with the French and German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled some of the heirs ' rights (Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families) allowed more accurate investigations. Since 1996, the restitutions, according sometimes to less formal criteria, concerned 47 more pieces (26 paintings, with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo), until the last claims of French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006.
According to Serge Klarsfeld, since the now complete and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996, the majority of the French Jewish community is nevertheless in favour of the return to the normal French civil rule of prescription acquisitive of any unclaimed good after another long period of time and consequently to their ultimate integration into the common French heritage instead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during World War II.
In June 2015, the Louvre was accused of discriminating against Israeli students.
Napoleon 's campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties, as war reparations, and Northern European pieces as spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt, though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum. On the other hand, the Dendera zodiac is, like the Rosetta stone, claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821, before the Egyptian Anti-export legislation of 1835. The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item despite requests by Egypt for its return. The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO 's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin. The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments of frescoes (30 cm x 15 cm each) whose existence of the tomb of origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in 2008, eight to five years after their good - faith acquisition by the museum from two private collections and after the necessary respect of the procedure of déclassement from French public collections before the Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de France.
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments.
The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces, includes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4,000 BC to the 4th century AD. The collection, among the world 's largest, overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and Byzantine periods.
The department 's origins lie in the royal collection, but it was augmented by Napoleon 's 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre. After Jean - François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, formed by Edmé - Antoine Durand, Henry Salt and Bernardino Drovet; these additions added 7,000 works. Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds including The Seated Scribe.
Guarded by the Large Sphinx (c. 2000 BC), the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include art, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, games, musical instruments, and weapons. Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel el - Arak Knife from 3400 BC, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, "known for its gold work and statues '', moved from realism to idealization; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer. The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth.
Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and "first settlements '', before the arrival of Islam. The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia (Iraq), and Persia (Iran). The collection 's development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul - Émile Botta 's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II 's palace. These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum, the precursor to today 's department.
The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash 's Stele of the Vultures from 2450 BC and the stele erected by Naram - Sin, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains. The 2.25 - metre (7.38 ft) Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead their ignorance. The 18th - century BC mural of the Investiture of Zimrilim and the 25th - century BC Statue of Ebih - Il found in the ancient city - state of Mari are also on display at the museum.
The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I. This section also contains rare objects from Persepolis which were also lent to the British Museum for its Ancient Persia exhibition in 2005.
The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century. The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire. This department is one of the museum 's oldest; it began with appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under Francis I. Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo. Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I 's fall in 1815. In the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection, bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque nationale.
The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre, from 640 BC; and the cylindrical Hera of Samos, circa 570 -- 560 BC. After the 4th century BC, focus on the human form increased, exemplified by the Borghese Gladiator. The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BC) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art. The long Galerie Campana displays an outstanding collection of more than one thousand Greek potteries. In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museum 's Roman sculpture is displayed. The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino.
The Islamic art collection, the museum 's newest, spans "thirteen centuries and three continents ''. These exhibits, comprising ceramics, glass, metalware, wood, ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than 5,000 works and 1,000 shards. Originally part of the decorative arts department, the holdings became separate in 2003. Among the works are the Pyxide d'al - Mughira, a 10th century ivory box from Andalusia; the Baptistery of Saint - Louis, an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14th century Mamluk period; and the 10th century Shroud of Saint - Josse from Iran. The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh, an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase.
The sculpture department comprises work created before 1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman department. The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo 's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave. Initially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It remained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given control of the department. Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga door, respectively. The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider representation of French works. In 1986, all post-1850 works were relocated to the new Musée d'Orsay. The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu wing, and foreign works in the Denon wing.
The collection 's overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th - century Daniel in the Lions ' Den and the 12th - century Virgin of Auvergne. In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean Goujon 's bas - reliefs, and Germain Pilon 's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Gian Lorenzo Bernini 's 1640 -- 1 Bust of Cardinal Richelieu, Étienne Maurice Falconet 's Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant, and François Anguier 's obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova 's Psyche Revived by Cupid 's Kiss (1787). The 18th and 19th centuries are represented by the French sculptor Alfred Barye.
The Objets d'art collection spans the time from the Middle Ages to the mid-19th century. The department began as a subset of the sculpture department, based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint - Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France. Among the budding collection 's most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collection 's 1825 acquisition added "ceramics, enamels, and stained glass '', and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil. The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded the department with 1,500 middle - age and faïence works. In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries.
The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing 's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme. The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV, Charles V 's sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase. The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna 's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the tapestry Maximillian 's Hunt. From later periods, highlights include Madame de Pompadour 's Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III 's apartments.
In September 2000, the Louvre Museum dedicated the Gilbert Chagoury and Rose - Marie Chagoury Gallery to display tapestries donated by the Chagourys, including a 16th - century six - part tapestry suite, sewn with gold and silver threads representing sea divinities, which was commissioned in Paris for Colbert de Seignelay, Secretary of State for the Navy.
The painting collection has more than 7,500 works from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collection 's display. Nearly two - thirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern European. The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV 's collections, others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era, and some were bought. The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court. After the French Revolution, the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre. When the d'Orsay train station was converted into the Musée d'Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum. French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour Carrée; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon wing.
Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pietà of Enguerrand Quarton; the anonymous painting of King Jean le Bon (c. 1360), possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era; Hyacinthe Rigaud 's Louis XIV; Jacques - Louis David 's The Coronation of Napoleon; and Eugène Delacroix 's Liberty Leading the People.
Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer 's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer; Caspar David Friedrich 's The Tree of Crows; Rembrandt 's The Supper at Emmaus, Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox.
The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection. The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini 's Calvarys, which reflect realism and detail "meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world ''. The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa, Virgin and Child with St. Anne, St. John the Baptist, and Madonna of the Rocks. Caravaggio is represented by The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin. From 16th century Venice, the Louvre displays Titian 's Le Concert Champetre, The Entombment and The Crowning with Thorns.
The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze, was the largest contribution of a person in the history of the Louvre. La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum. The bequest included Antoine Watteau 's Commedia dell'arte player of Pierrot ("Gilles ''). In 2007, this bequest was the topic of the exhibition "1869: Watteau, Chardin... entrent au Louvre. La collection La Caze ''.
Some of the best known paintings of the museum have been digitized by the French Center for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France.
The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper. The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci 's collection in 1806, and donations. The department opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is organized into three sections: the core Cabinet du Roi, 14,000 royal copper printing - plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time.
The museum lies in the center of Paris on the Right Bank. The neighborhood, known as the 1st arrondissement, was home to the former Tuileries Palace, which closed off the western end of the Louvre entrance courtyard, but was heavily damaged by fire during the Paris Commune of 1871 and later demolished. The adjacent Tuileries Gardens, created in 1564 by Catherine de ' Medici, was designed in 1664 by André Le Nôtre. The gardens house the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, a contemporary art exhibition space which was used to store confiscated Jewish cultural property during the 1940 to 1944 German occupation of France. Parallel to the Jeu de Paume is the Orangerie, home to the famous Water Lilies paintings by Claude Monet.
The Louvre is slightly askew of the Historic Axis (Axe historique), a roughly eight - kilometre (five - mile) architectural line bisecting the city. It begins on the east in the Louvre courtyard and runs west along the Champs - Élysées. In 1871, the burning of the Tuileries Palace by the Paris Commune revealed that the Louvre was slightly askew of the Axe despite past appearances to the contrary. The Louvre can be reached by the Palais Royal -- Musée du Louvre Métro or the Louvre - Rivoli stations.
The Louvre has three entrances: the main entrance at the pyramid, an entrance from the Carrousel du Louvre underground shopping mall, and an entrance at the Porte des Lions (near the western end of the Denon wing).
Under the main entrance to the museum is the Carrousel du Louvre, a shopping mall operated by Unibail - Rodamco. Among other stores, it has the first Apple Store in France, and a McDonald 's restaurant, the presence of which has created controversy.
The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside, but flash photography is forbidden.
Cycladic, a votive head, 2700 -- 2300 BC
Egyptian, stele, Priest burning incense before Ra - Horakhty - Atum, ca. 900 BC
Ancient Persia, the Ibex Rhyton, 600 -- 300 BC
Ancient Greek, Athens, The Rampin Rider,
Etruscan amphora, Diomedes and Polyxena, ca. 540 -- 530 BC
Hellenic Near East, The Eros Medallion, ca. 250 -- 200 BC
Fayum Egyptian, Fayum mummy portrait
Roman, portrait of Marcus Agrippa, 25 BC
Frankish, ivory, Christ between two apostles, 5th century
Islamic art from Iraq, terracotta cup, 9th century
Romanesque art from Maastricht, Reliquary, 11th century
Romanesque architecture from France, St Michael and the Devil, 12th century
Italian Renaissance painting, St Francis receiving the stigmata, Giotto, c. 1300
Early Netherlandish painting, The Annunciation, Rogier van der Weyden, 1435
Gothic art from France, The Pieta of Villeneuve les Avignon, Enguerrand Quarton, 1460
Italian Renaissance painting, Portrait of an old man and his grandson, Ghirlandaio, 1488
Flemish painting, The Money Changer and His Wife, Quentin Massys, 1514
Italian Renaissance painting, Baltasar de Castiglione, Raphael, c. 1515
Italian Renaissance sculpture, Dying Slave, Michelangelo, 1513 -- 16
Venetian Mannerist painting, The Crucifixion, Paolo Veronese, c. 1550
Italian Baroque painting, The Fortune Teller, Caravaggio, c. 1600
English painting, Charles I at the Hunt, van Dyck, 1635
Dutch Baroque, The Lacemaker, Vermeer, 1664
Spanish painting, Infanta María Margarita, Velázquez, 1655
French Classicism, The Shepherds of Arcadia, Poussin, c. 1640
French Rococo, Diana bathing, Boucher, 1742
French Classical painting, The Bather, Ingres, 1808
French Romantic art, Liberty Leading the People, Delacroix, 1830
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which of the following is a composition for an orchestral ensemble | Concert band - wikipedia
A concert band, also called wind ensemble, symphonic band, wind symphony, wind orchestra, wind band, symphonic winds, symphony band, or symphonic wind ensemble, is a performing ensemble consisting of members of the woodwind, brass, and percussion families of instruments, along with the double bass or bass guitar. On rare occasions, additional non traditional instruments may be added to such ensembles such as piano, harp, synthesizer, or electric guitar.
A concert band 's repertoire includes original wind compositions, transcriptions / arrangements of orchestral compositions, light music, and popular tunes. Though the instrumentation is similar, a concert band is distinguished from the marching band in that its primary function is as a concert ensemble. The standard repertoire for the concert band does, however, contain concert marches.
During the 19th century, large ensembles of wind and percussion instruments in the English and American traditions existed mainly in the form of the military band for ceremonial and festive occasions, and the works performed consisted mostly of marches. The only time wind bands were used in a concert setting comparable to that of a symphony orchestra was when transcriptions of orchestral or operatic pieces were arranged and performed, as there were comparatively few original concert works for a large wind ensemble. One notable and influential original symphonic work for band was Gustav Holst 's First Suite in E-Flat, written in 1909 yet first performed in 1920, considered to this day the classic work of symphonic band. Following Holst, a variety of British, American, Canadian and Australian composers wrote for the medium, including contemporaries such as Percy Grainger, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Alfred Reed, and Clifton Williams.
Prior to the 1950s, wind ensembles varied in the combinations of instruments included. The modern "standard '' instrumentation of the wind ensemble was more or less established by Frederick Fennell at Eastman School of Music as the Eastman Wind Ensemble in 1952 after the model of the orchestra: a pool of players from which a composer can select in order to create different sonorities. The wind ensemble could be said to be modeled on the wind section of a "Wagner orchestra, '' an important difference being the addition of saxophones and baritone / euphonium. (The American Wind Symphony Orchestra, which uses neither of these, adheres more strictly to the "expanded orchestral wind section '' model.) While many people consider the wind ensemble to be one player on a part, this is only practical in true chamber music. Full band pieces usually require doubling or tripling of the clarinet parts, and six trumpeters is typical in a wind ensemble. According to Fennell, the wind ensemble was not revolutionary, but developed naturally out of the music that led him to the concept.
A military band is a group of personnel that performs musical duties for military functions, usually for the armed forces. A typical military band consists mostly of wind and percussion instruments. The conductor of a band commonly bears the title of Bandmaster or Director of Music. Ottoman military bands are thought to be the oldest variety of military marching band in the world, dating from the 13th century.
The military band should be capable of playing ceremonial and marching music, including the national anthems and patriotic songs of not only their own nation but others as well, both while stationary and as a marching band. Military bands also play a part in military funeral ceremonies.
There are two types of historical traditions in military bands. The first is military field music. This type of music includes bugles (or other natural instruments such as natural trumpets or natural horns), bagpipes, or fifes and almost always drums (see military drums). This type of music was used to control troops on the battlefield as well as for entertainment. Following the development of instruments such as the keyed trumpet or the saxhorn family of brass instruments, a second tradition of the brass and woodwind military band was formed.
Professional concert bands not associated with the military are rare, and most do not offer full - time positions. Examples of professional non-military concert bands include:
A community band is a concert band or brass band ensemble composed of volunteer (non-paid) amateur musicians in a particular geographic area. It may be sponsored by the local (municipal) government or self - supporting. These groups rehearse regularly and perform at least once a year. Some bands are also marching bands, participating in parades and other outdoor events. Although they are volunteer musical organizations, community bands may employ an Artistic Director (conductor) or various operational staff.
Notable community bands currently include:
U.S.A.
United Kingdom
Canada
Australia
New Zealand
Norway
Portugal
Finland
A school band is a group of student musicians who rehearse and perform instrumental music together. A concert band is usually under the direction of one or more conductors (band directors). A school band consists of woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, although upper level bands may also have string basses or bass guitar.
Instrumentation for the wind band is not completely standardized; composers will frequently add or omit parts. Instruments and parts in parentheses are less common but still often used; due to the fact that some bands are missing these instruments, important lines for these instruments are often cued into other parts.
Instrumentation differs depending on the type of ensemble. Middle school and high school bands frequently have more limited instrumentation and fewer parts (for example, no double reeds, or only two horn parts instead of four). This is both to limit the difficulty for inexperienced players and because schools frequently do not have access to the less common instruments.
The standard concert band will have several players on each part depending on available personnel and the preference of the conductor. A concert band can theoretically have as many as 200 members from a set of only 35 parts. The wind ensemble, on the other hand, will have very little doubling, if any; commonly, clarinets or flutes may be doubled, especially to handle any divisi passages, and others will have one player per part, as dictated by the requirements of a specific composition. Also, it is common to see two tubas playing the same part in a wind ensemble. Some people have observed that this distinction is antiquated and the terms "concert band, '' "wind ensemble, '' "wind symphony '' and the like are now more or less interchangeable.
Complicated percussion parts are common in concert band pieces, often requiring many percussionists. Many believe this is a major difference between the orchestra (which usually lacks a large battery of percussion) and the concert band. While in older transcriptions and concert works, the timpani were treated as its own section as in the orchestra, today, in bands, the timpani are considered part of the percussion section. Consequently, the timpani player often will double on other percussion instruments.
Contemporary compositions often call on players to use unusual instruments or effects. For example, several pieces call on the use of a siren while others will ask players to play recorders, whirly tubes, or to sing, hum, snap, clap or even crinkle sheets of paper. The wind band 's diverse instrumentation and large number of players makes it a very flexible ensemble, capable of producing a variety of sonic effects.
Until early in the 20th century, there was little music written specifically for the wind band, which led to an extensive repertoire of pieces transcribed from orchestral works, or arranged from other sources. However, as the wind band moved out of the sole domain of the military marching ensemble and into the concert hall, it has gained favor with composers, and now many works are being written specifically for the concert band and the wind ensemble. While today there are composers who write exclusively for band, it is worth noting that many composers famous for their work in other genres have given their talents to composition for wind bands as well. This is especially true in Japan, where an enormous market can be found for wind band compositions, which is largely due to commissions by the All - Japan Band Association and leading professional ensembles such as the Tokyo Kosei Wind Orchestra and Osaka Municipal Symphonic Band, as well as the Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma Commissioning Program, the longest - running commissioning series for wind band in the United States.
Some of the most important names in establishing literature written specifically for concert band in the early and middle 20th century were:
Over the last forty years, many composers have written major new works for wind ensemble. Some of these composers have risen to the forefront as being particularly important in the concert band 's development. Among these include:
Throughout much of their history, wind bands have been promoted through regional and national music competitions and festivals. Other large competitions include the World Music Competition, held in the Netherlands; and the Southeast Asia Concert Band Festival, held in Hong Kong.
Some notable band associations include:
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who was priscilla queen of the desert based on | The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert - Wikipedia
The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert is a 1994 Australian comedy - drama film written and directed by Stephan Elliott. The plot follows two drag queens played by Hugo Weaving and Guy Pearce and a transgender woman, played by Terence Stamp, as they journey across the Australian Outback from Sydney to Alice Springs in a tour bus that they have named "Priscilla '', along the way encountering various groups and individuals. The film 's title references the slang term "queen '' for a drag queen or female impersonator.
The film was a surprise worldwide hit and its positive portrayal of LGBT individuals helped to introduce LGBT themes to a mainstream audience. It received predominantly positive reviews and won an Academy Award for Best Costume Design at the 67th Academy Awards. It was screened in the Un Certain Regard section of the 1994 Cannes Film Festival and became a cult classic in both Australia and abroad. Priscilla subsequently provided the basis for a musical, Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, which opened in 2006 in Sydney before travelling to New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Canada and Broadway.
Anthony "Tick '' Belrose (Hugo Weaving), using the drag pseudonym of Mitzi Del Bra, is a Sydney based drag queen who accepts an offer to perform his drag act at Lasseter 's Hotel Casino Resort managed by his estranged wife Marion in Alice Springs, a remote town in central Australia. After persuading his friends and fellow performers, Bernadette Bassenger (Terence Stamp), a recently bereaved transgender woman, and Adam Whitely (Guy Pearce), a flamboyant and obnoxious younger drag queen who goes under the drag name Felicia Jollygoodfellow, to join him, the three set out for a four - week run at the casino in a large tour bus, which Adam christens "Priscilla, Queen of the Desert ''.
While on the long journey through remote lands bordering the Simpson Desert, they meet a variety of characters, including a group of friendly Aboriginal Australians for whom they perform, the less accepting attitudes of rural Australia in such towns as Coober Pedy, and are subjected to homophobic abuse, violence, including having their tour bus vandalized with homophobic graffiti.
When the tour bus breaks down in the middle of the desert, Adam spends the whole day repainting it lavender to cover up the vandalism. The trio later meet Bob, a middle - aged mechanic from a small outback town who joins them on their journey. Before they arrive at Alice Springs, Tick reveals that Marion is actually his wife, as they never divorced, and that they are actually going there as a favour to her. Continuing their journey, Adam is almost mutilated by a homophobic gang before he is saved by Bob and Bernadette. Adam is shaken and Bernadette comforts him, allowing them to reach an understanding. Likewise, the others come to terms with the secret of Tick 's marriage and resolve their differences. Together, they fulfill a long - held dream of Adam 's, which, in the original plan, is to climb King 's Canyon in full drag regalia.
Upon arrival at the hotel, it is revealed that Tick and Marion also have an eight - year - old son, Benjamin, whom Tick has not seen for many years. Tick is nervous about exposing his son to his drag profession and anxious about revealing his homosexuality, though he is surprised to discover that Benjamin already knows and is fully supportive of his father 's sexuality and career. By the time their contract at the resort is over, Tick and Adam head back to Sydney, taking Benjamin back with them, so that Tick can get to know his son. However, Bernadette decides to remain at the resort for a while with Bob, who has decided to work at the hotel after the two of them had become close.
The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert had originally been conceived by filmmakers Stephan Elliott and Andrena Finlay, who were at the time in production of a film called Frauds. They initially tried to pitch Priscilla to various financiers at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival, but were unsuccessful, and so instead took the film 's concept to PolyGram and, with the backing of the Australian Film Finance Corporation, were able to begin production of the film on a relatively low budget of 2.7 million Australian dollars.
Elliott and the film 's producers, Michael Hamlyn and Al Clark, the latter of whom was the husband of Finlay, all agreed to work for $50,000 each, a relatively low fee for filmmakers at the time, while the lack of funding meant that the crew agreed to receive takings of the film 's eventual profits in compensation for their low salaries. Due to the involvement of the Australian FFC, only one non-Australian actor was allowed to appear in the film, and Clark initially considered David Bowie, whom he had known back in the 1980s, and later briefly thought of John Hurt, although neither was available.
In May 1993, after travelling around the Australian Outback searching for appropriate sites to film in, Priscilla 's creators attended the Cannes to advertise their project, despite the fact that they had not yet confirmed any actors for the roles. Their primary choice for the role of Bernadette was Tony Curtis, who read and approved of the script, but eventually became unavailable. They then approached John Cleese, who was not interested.
For the part of Tick, they had initially wanted Rupert Everett and for Adam they wanted Jason Donovan. However, at a pre-production casting meeting held at Cannes, Everett and Donovan did not get on well with one another and were found to be openly hostile toward the production staff. In light of this, it was readily agreed that they would not be suitable for the parts and the search for their three leading men would resume. However, Donovan would go on to play Tick in the West End musical adaptation of the film.
After unsuccessfully lobbying Colin Firth to play the role, producers eventually awarded the part to Hugo Weaving. Initially considering Tim Curry for the part of Bernadette, they cast Terence Stamp, who was initially anxious about the role because it was unlike anything that he had performed previously, although he eventually came on board with the concept. Stamp himself suggested Bill Hunter for the role of Bob, who accepted the role without even reading the script or being told anything about the greater concept of the film other than the basic character description, while Australian actor Guy Pearce was hired at the eleventh hour direct from the Australian soap opera Snowy River to portray the sassy but sprite Adam.
Al Clark
Many scenes, including one where Bernadette encounters a butch, bigoted, Australian woman named Shirley, were filmed at the Outback town of Broken Hill in New South Wales, largely in a hotel known as Mario 's Palace, also small scenes filmed in the All Nations Hotel, which Al Clark believed was "drag queen heaven ''. They also decided to film at Coober Pedy, a rough - and - tumble mining town in Central Australia featured prominently in the film.
Initially, they tried to get permission to film upon the geological formation formerly known as Ayers Rock or "the Rock '' (Uluru), but this was rejected by organizations responsible for the monument, such as the Uluru Board of Management, as it would have been in violation of Indigenous Australian religious beliefs. Instead, the scene was filmed in King 's Canyon. Dialogue from the scene was rewritten slightly to accommodate the new location.
With filming over, the director and producers began editing the footage, repeatedly travelling to both London and to Los Angeles, which had then just been hit by the 1994 Northridge earthquake. On the advice of early viewers, the film was shortened and scenes such as Adam 's flashback about his paedophilic uncle were edited.
The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert took $18,459,245 at the box office in Australia, which is equivalent to $28,529,000 in 2010.
Being an Australian film, not an American - produced Hollywood blockbuster, Priscilla was released as a minor commercial product in North America and other English - speaking nations.
Director Elliott noted that the audiences viewing the film in Australia, the United States, and France all reacted to it differently, going on to state that "At a screening we had for an Australian audience, they laughed at all the Aussieisms. The Americans laughed too, but at different jokes. There is a line where Tick says, ' Bernadette has left her cake out in the rain... ' (The French audience) did n't get it, whereas the Americans laughed for ten minutes. '' Tom O'Regan, a scholar of film studies, remarked that the film actually carried different meanings for members of different nationalities and subcultural groups, with LGBT Americans believing that the film was "the big one that will bring gay lifestyles into the mainstream '', while Australians tended to "embrace it as just another successful Australian film ''.
On Rotten Tomatoes, Priscilla has a 93 % "fresh '' rating based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1 / 10; the consensus states: "While its premise is ripe for comedy -- and it certainly delivers its fair share of laughs --, Priscilla is also a surprisingly tender and thoughtful road movie with some outstanding performances. '' Metacritic reports a 68 out of 100 rating, based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
American film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times felt that Bernadette was the key part of the film, stating that "the real subject of the movie is not homosexuality, not drag queens, not showbiz, but simply the life of a middle - aged person trapped in a job that has become tiresome. '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote "The Adventures of Priscilla Queen of the Desert presents a defiant culture clash in generous, warmly entertaining ways. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone commented "In this roaringly comic and powerfully affecting road movie, Terence Stamp gives one of the year 's best performances. '' Kenneth Turan from the Los Angeles Times wrote "The comic pizazz and bawdy dazzle of this film 's vision of gaudy drag performers trekking across the Australian outback certainly has a boisterous, addictive way about it. ''
The film was ranked 7th on Logo 's 50 Greatest Films with an LGBT theme, and # 10 on AfterElton 's Fifty Greatest Gay Movies list.
Priscilla, along with other contemporary Australian films Young Einstein (1988), Sweetie (1989), Strictly Ballroom (1992), and Muriel 's Wedding (1994), provided Australian cinema with a reputation for "quirkiness '', "eccentricity '' and "individuality '' across the world. Both Priscilla and Muriel 's Wedding (which had also featured a soundtrack containing ABBA songs) in particular became cult classics, not only in their native Australia, but also in the United Kingdom, where a wave of Australian influences, such as the soap operas Neighbours and Home and Away, had made their mark in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
In 1995, an American film, To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar, was released, featuring three drag queens who travel across the United States. According to Al Clark, the creators of Priscilla heard about the film while shooting theirs, and "for a moment (were) troubled '' until they read the script of To Wong Foo, when they decided that it was sufficiently different from Priscilla to not be a commercial and critical threat. To Wong Foo proved to be critically far less successful than Priscilla, only gaining a 41 % fresh score on Rotten Tomatoes. Financially however, To Wong Foo did better at the box office making three times as much in the U.S. with over 36 million dollars.
During the Closing Ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Priscilla was part of a parade of images of Australian popular culture. A 1980 Ford Denning (resembling the bus used in the film) featuring a giant steel stiletto heel which extended from and retracted into the roof -- inspired by scenes from the film -- paraded around the Olympic Stadium. The bus was accompanied by several stiletto heel tricycle floats and drag queens in big wigs in tribute to the film 's international success and the local Sydney gay community. The music video for Iggy Azalea 's 2013 single "Work '' paid homage to scenes from the film.
The film has come under criticism for alleged racist and sexist elements, particularly in the portrayal of the Filipina character, Cynthia. Melba Margison of the Centre for Filipino Concerns stated that Cynthia was portrayed as "a gold - digger, a prostitute, an entertainer whose expertise is popping out ping - pong balls from her sex - organ, a manic depressive, loud and vulgar. The worst stereotype of the Filipina. '' She argued that, by portraying Cynthia in this manner, the filmmakers were "violently kill (ing) '' the dignity of Filipina women, something that she feared would lead to "more violence against us ''. An editor writing in The Age echoed these concerns, highlighting that "It is perhaps a pity that a film with a message of tolerance and acceptance for homosexuals should feel the need of what looks very much to us like a racist and sexist stereotype. '' Similarly, in his study of bisexuality in cinema, Wayne M. Bryant argued that while it was "an excellent film '', The Adventures of Priscilla was marred by "instances of gratuitous sexism ''.
Producer Clark defended the film against these accusations, arguing that while Cynthia was a stereotype, it was not the purpose of filmmakers to avoid the portrayal of "vulnerable characters '' from specific minority backgrounds. He stated that she was "a misfit like the three protagonists are, and just about everybody else in the film is, and her presence is no more a statement about Filipino women than having three drag queens is a statement about Australian men. '' Tom O'Regan noted that as a result of this controversy, the film gained "an ambiguous reputation. ''
The film featured a soundtrack made up of pre-existing "camp classics '' (pop music songs that have a particular fanbase in the LGBT community). The original plan by the film 's creators was to have a Kylie Minogue song in the finale, although it was later decided that an ABBA song would be more appropriate because its "tacky qualities '' were "more timeless '' (although in the musical adaptation, the character Adam performs a medley of Kylie Minogue songs atop Uluru). The film itself featured four main songs, which were performed by two or more of the drag queens as a part of their show within the film; "I 've Never Been to Me '' by Charlene, "I Will Survive '' by Gloria Gaynor, "Finally '' by CeCe Peniston, and "Mamma Mia '' by ABBA. On 23 August 1994, Fontana Island released the soundtrack on CD.
Original music for the soundtrack was composed by Guy Gross, with choral arrangements by Derek Williams, and released separately on CD.
On 14 November 1995, the film was released on VHS. On 7 October 1997, it was released on DVD with a collectible trivia booklet.
In 2004, a 10th Anniversary Collector 's Edition was released on DVD in Australia with the following special features: a feature - length audio commentary with writer / director Stephan Elliott, three deleted scenes, two featurettes: "Behind the Bus: Priscilla with Her Pants Down '' and "Ladies Please '', cast and crew biographies, the original Australian theatrical trailer, US theatrical and teaser trailers, and a number of hidden features
In 2006, it was re-released on DVD in Australia with the following special features: a feature - length audio commentary with writer / director Elliott, "Birth of a Queen '' (featurette), deleted scenes, tidbits from the Set, "The Bus from Blooperville '' -- Gag reel documentary, a photo gallery, and US theatrical and teaser trailers.
On 5 June 2007, it was re-released in the United States as the "Extra Frills Edition '' DVD. This edition includes the same special features as the Australian 2006 re-release. On 7 June 2011, it was released for US Blu - ray.
In Australia, it is available on the subscription streaming platform Stan.
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which influences have united the region of latin america | Latin American culture - wikipedia
Latin American culture is the formal or informal expression of the people of Latin America and includes both high culture (literature and high art) and popular culture (music, folk art, and dance) as well as religion and other customary practices. Latin America also has many races.
Definitions of Latin America vary. From a cultural perspective, Latin America generally includes those parts of the Americas where Spanish, French, or Portuguese prevail: Mexico, most of Central America, and South America. There is also an important Latin American cultural presence in the United States (such as in California and the Southwest, and cities such as New York City, and Miami). There is also increasing attention to the relations between Latin America and the Caribbean as a whole. See further discussion of definitions at Latin America.
The richness of Latin American culture is the product of many influences, including:
Latin America has a very diverse population with many ethnic groups and different ancestries. Only in three countries, do the Amerindians make up the majority of the population. This is the case of Peru, Guatemala and Bolivia. In the rest of the continent, most of the Native American descendants are of mixed race ancestry.
In the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries there was a flow of Iberian emigrants who left for Latin America. It was never a large movement of people but over the long period of time it had a major impact on Latin American populations: the Portuguese left for Brazil and the Spaniards left for the rest of the vast region. Of the European immigrants, men greatly outnumbered women and many married natives. This resulted in a mixing of the Amerindians and Europeans and today their descendants are known as mestizos. Even Latin Americans who are considered "European '' usually have some native ancestry. Today, mestizos make up the majority of Latin America 's population.
Starting in the late 16th century, a large number of African slaves were brought to Latin America, especially to Brazil and the Caribbean. Nowadays, Blacks make up the majority of the population in most Caribbean. Many of the African slaves in Latin America mixed with the Europeans and their descendants (known as Mulattoes) make up the majority of the population in some countries, such as the Dominican Republic, and large percentages in Brazil, Colombia, etc. Mixes between the Blacks and Amerindians also occurred, and their descendants are known as Zambos. Many Latin American countries also have a substantial tri-racial population, which ancestry is a mix of Amerindians, Europeans and Africans.
Large numbers of European immigrants arrived in Latin America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most of them settling in the Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and southern Brazil) and Northern Mexico. Nowadays the Southern Cone has a majority of people of largely European descent and in all more than 80 % of Latin America 's European population, which is mostly descended from five groups of immigrants: Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Germans and, to a lesser extent, Irish, Poles, Greeks, Croats, Russians, Welsh, Ukrainians, etc.
In this same period, immigrants came from the Middle East and Asia, including Indians, Lebanese, Syrians, and, more recently, Koreans, Chinese and Japanese, mainly to Brazil. These people only make up a small percentage of Latin America 's population but they have communities in the major cities.
This diversity has profoundly influenced religion, music and politics. This cultural heritage is (arguably improperly) called Latin or Latino in United States ' English. Outside of the U.S., and in many languages (especially romance ones) "Latino '' just means "Latin '', referring to cultures and peoples that can trace their heritage back to the ancient Roman Empire. Latin American is the proper term.
Spanish is the language in the majority of the countries (See Spanish language in the Americas). Portuguese is spoken primarily in Brazil (See Brazilian Portuguese), where it is both the official and the national language. French is also spoken in smaller countries, in the Caribbean, and French Guiana.
Several nations, especially in the Caribbean, have their own Creole languages, derived from European languages and various African tongues. Native American languages are spoken in many Latin American nations, mainly Peru, Panama, Ecuador, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Mexico. Nahuatl is one of the most spoken indigenous languages with more than a million speakers in Mexico, which is officially confirmed by a government 's census. Although Mexico has almost 80 native languages across the country, the government nor the constitution specify an official language (not even Spanish), also, some regions of the nation do not speak any modern way of language and still preserve their ancient dialect without knowing any other language. Guaraní is, along with Spanish, the official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population.
Other European languages spoken include Italian in Brazil and Argentina, German in southern Brazil, southern Chile and Argentina, and Welsh in southern Argentina.
The primary religion throughout Latin America is Christianity (90 %), mostly Roman Catholicism. Latin America, and in particular Brazil, were active in developing the quasi-socialist Roman Catholic movement known as Liberation Theology. Practitioners of the Protestant, Pentecostal, Evangelical, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Mormon, Buddhist, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Bahá'í, and indigenous denominations and religions exist. Various Afro - Latin American traditions, such as Santería, and Macumba, a tribal - voodoo religion, are also practiced. Evangelicalism in particular is increasing in popularity.
In long - term perspective, Britain 's influence in Latin America was enormous after independence came in the 1820s. Britain deliberately sought to replace the Spanish in economic and cultural affairs. Military issues and colonization were minor factors. The influence was exerted through diplomacy, trade, banking, and investment in railways and mines. The English language and British cultural norms were transmitted by energetic young British business agents on temporary assignment in the major commercial centers, where they inviting locals into the British leisure activities, such as organized sports, and into their transplanted cultural institutions such as schools and clubs. The British role never disappeared, but it faded rapidly after 1914 as the British cashed in their investments to pay for their Great War, and the United States moved into the region with overwhelming force and similar cultural norms.
The British impact on sports was overwhelming, as Latin America enthusiastically took up football ((called fútbol in Spanish)). In Argentina, rugby, polo, tennis and golf became important in middle - class leisure. Cricket was ignored.
In some parts of the Caribbean and Central America baseball outshined soccer in terms of popularity. The sport started in the late 19th century when sugar companies imported cane cutters from the British Caribbean. During their free time, the workers would play cricket, but later, during the long period of US military occupation, cricket gave way to baseball, which rapidly assumed widespread popularity, although cricket remains the favorite in the British Caribbean. Baseball had the greatest following in those nations occupied at length by the US military, especially the Dominican Republic and Cuba, as well as Nicaragua, Panama, and Puerto Rico. All of these countries have emerged as sources of baseball talent, since many players hone their skills on local teams, or in "academies '' managed by the US Major Leagues to cultivate the most promising young men for their own teams.
Beyond the rich tradition of indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italian Masters. In general, this artistic Eurocentrism began to fade in the early 20th century, as Latin - Americans began to acknowledge the uniqueness of their condition and started to follow their own path.
From the early 20th century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement. The Constructivist Movement was founded in Russia around 1913 by Vladimir Tatlin. The Movement quickly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America. Joaquín Torres García and Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.
An important artistic movement generated in Latin America is Muralism represented by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Rufino Tamayo and many others in Mexico and Santiago Martinez Delgado, Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia. Candido Portinari represented the monumentality of Muralism in his paintings, making chronicles the Brazilian people and their realities. Some of the most impressive muralist works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Philadelphia.
Mexican painter Frida Kahlo remains by far the most known and famous Latin American artist. She painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Kahlo 's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings.
Pre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, though the Aztecs and Mayans, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua - speaking population of Peru and the Quiché of Guatemala.
From the very moment of Europe 's "discovery '' of the continent, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experience -- such as Columbus 's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo 's description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. Towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi 's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816).
The 19th century was a period of "foundational fictions '' (in critic Doris Sommer 's words), novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the indigenous question or the dichotomy of "civilization or barbarism '' (for which see, say, Domingo Sarmiento 's Facundo (1845), Juan León Mera 's Cumandá (1879), or Euclides da Cunha 's Os Sertões (1902)).
At the turn of the 20th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Rubén Darío 's Azul (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.
However, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar 's Rayuela (1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The Boom 's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez 's Cien años de soledad (1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic realism, though other important writers of the period such as Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this framework. Arguably, the Boom 's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos 's monumental Yo, el supremo (1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis Borges were also rediscovered.
Contemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best - selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant - garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Giannina Braschi, Diamela Eltit, Ricardo Piglia, Roberto Bolaño or Daniel Sada. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimony, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel.
The region boasts six Nobel Prizewinners: in addition to the Colombian García Márquez (1982), also the Chilean poet Gabriela Mistral (1945), the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1967), the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda (1971), the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1990), and the Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa (2010).
In the 1870 - 1930 period, the philosophy of positivism or "cientificismo '' associated with Auguste Comte in France and Herbert Spencer in England exerted a strong influence on intellectuals, experts and writers in most of the region.
Intellectuals embraced positivism with enthusiasm as they say it as the key to modernization of their economies and societies and a weapon to break the old colonial patterns that still survived. Positivism influenced government policy; In Mexico, for example, the administration of President Porfirio Díaz (1876 to 1911) relied heavily on a group of scientific and technocratic advisors who reflected Positivist thinking.
Latin American music comes in many varieties, from the simple, rural conjunto music of northern Mexico to the sophisticated habanera of Cuba, from the symphonies of Heitor Villa - Lobos to the simple and moving Andean flute. Music has played an important part in Latin America 's turbulent recent history, for example the nueva canción movement. Latin music is very diverse, with the only truly unifying thread being the use of the Spanish language or, in Brazil, its close cousin the Portuguese language.
Latin America can be divided into several musical areas. Andean music, for example, includes the countries of western South America, typically Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Ecuador, Chile and Venezuela; Central American music includes Nicaragua, El Salvador, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica. Caribbean music includes the Caribbean coast of Colombia, Panama, and many Spanish and French - speaking islands in the Caribbean, including Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the less noted Martinique and Guadeloupe. The inclusion of the French West Indies varies by scholars. Brazil perhaps constitutes its own musical area, both because of its large size and incredible diversity as well as its unique history as a Portuguese colony. Although Spain is n't a part of Latin America, Spanish music (and Portuguese music) and Latin American music strongly cross-fertilized each other, but Latin music also absorbed influences from the Anglo - Saxon world, and particularly, African music.
One of the main characteristics of Latin American music is its diversity, from the lively rhythms of Central America and the Caribbean to the more austere sounds of southern South America. Another feature of Latin American music is its original blending of the variety of styles that arrived in The Americas and became influential, from the early Spanish and European Baroque to the different beats of the African rhythms.
Latino - Caribbean music, such as salsa, merengue, bachata, etc., are styles of music that have been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies.
Other musical genres of Latin America include the Argentine and Uruguayan tango, the Colombian cumbia and vallenato, Mexican bolero, ranchera, Nicaraguan palo de mayo, Uruguayan Candombe, the Panamanian cumbia, tamborito, saloma and pasillo, and the various styles of music from Pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in the Andean region. In Brazil, samba, American jazz, European classical music and choro combined into bossa nova. Recently the Haitian kompa has become increasingly popular.
The classical composer Heitor Villa - Lobos (1887 -- 1959) worked on the recording of native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works. Also notable is the much recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer and guitar work of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the Paraguayan Agustín Barrios.
Arguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed. Musicians such as Atahualpa Yupanqui, Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara, Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Negrete, Caetano Veloso, Yma Sumac and others gave magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach, for example: the Uruguayan born and first Latin American musician to win an OSCAR prize, Jorge Drexler.
Latin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and roll).
Latin American film is both rich and diverse. But the main centers of production have been Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba.
Latin American cinema flourished after the introduction of sound, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border. The 1950s and 1960s saw a movement towards Third Cinema, led by the Argentine filmmakers Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino. More recently, a new style of directing and stories filmed as been tagged as "New Latin American Cinema. ''
Mexican movies from the Golden Era in the 1940s are significant examples of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood of those years. More recently movies such as Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá también (2001) have been successful in creating universal stories about contemporary subjects, and were internationally recognised. Nonetheless, the country has also witnsessed the rise of experimental filmmakers such as Carlos Reygadas and Fernando Eimbicke who focus on more universal themes and characters. Other important Mexican directors are Arturo Ripstein and Guillermo del Toro.
Argentine cinema was a big industry in the first half of the 20th century. After a series of military governments that shackled culture in general, the industry re-emerged after the 1976 -- 1983 military dictatorship to produce the Academy Award winner The Official Story in 1985. The Argentine economic crisis affected the production of films in the late 1990s and early 2000s, but many Argentine movies produced during those years were internationally acclaimed, including Plata Quemada (2000), Nueve reinas (2000), El abrazo partido (2004) and Roma (2004).
In Brazil, the Cinema Novo movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, a clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States. Movies like Central do Brasil (1999) and Cidade de Deus (2003) have fans around the world, and its directors have taken part in American and European film projects.
Cuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution, and important filmmakers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea.
Latin America has a strong tradition of evolving dance styles. Some of its dance and music is considered to emphasize sexuality, and have become popular outside of their countries of origin. Salsa and the more popular Latin dances were created and embraced into the culture in the early and middle 1900s and has since been able to retain its significance both in and outside the Americas. The mariachi bands of Mexico stirred up quick paced rhythms and playful movements at the same time that Cuba embraced similar musical and dance styles. Traditional dances were blended with new, modern ways of moving, evolving into a blended, more contemporary forms.
Ballroom studios teach lessons on many Latin American dances. One can even find the cha - cha being done in honky - tonk country bars. Miami has been a large contributor of the United States ' involvement in Latin dancing. With such a huge Puerto Rican and Cuban population one can find Latin dancing and music in the streets at any time of day or night.
Some of the dances of Latin America are derived from and named for the type of music they are danced to. For example, mambo, salsa, cha - cha - cha, rumba, merengue, samba, flamenco, bachata, and, probably most recognizable, the tango are among the most popular. Each of the types of music has specific steps that go with the music, the counts, the rhythms, and the style.
Modern Latin American dancing is very energetic. These dances primarily are performed with a partner as a social dance, but solo variations exist. The dances emphasize passionate hip movements and the connection between partners. Many of the dances are done in a close embrace while others are more traditional and similar to ballroom dancing, holding a stronger frame between the partners.
Theatre in Latin America existed before the Europeans came to the continent. The natives of Latin America had their own rituals, festivals, and ceremonies. They involved dance, singing of poetry, song, theatrical skits, mime, acrobatics, and magic shows. The performers were trained; they wore costumes, masks, makeup, wigs. Platforms had been erected to enhance visibility. The ' sets ' were decorated with branches from trees and other natural objects.
The Europeans used this to their advantage. For the first fifty years after the Conquest the missionaries used theatre widely to spread the Christian doctrine to a population accustomed to the visual and oral quality of spectacle and thus maintaining a form of cultural hegemony. It was more effective to use the indigenous forms of communication than to put an end to the ' pagan ' practices, the conquerors took out the content of the spectacles, retained the trappings, and used them to convey their own message.
Pre-Hispanic rituals were how the indigenous came in contact with the divine. Spaniards used plays to Christianize and colonize the indigenous peoples of the Americas in the 16th century. Theatre was a potent tool in manipulating a population already accustomed to spectacle. Theatre became a tool for political hold on Latin America by colonialist theatre by using indigenous performance practices to manipulate the population.
Theatre provided a way for the indigenous people were forced to participate in the drama of their own defeat. In 1599, the Jesuits even used cadavers of Native Americans to portray the dead in the staging of the final judgment.
While the plays were promoting a new sacred order, their first priority was to support the new secular, political order. Theatre under the colonizers primarily at the service of the administration.
After the large decrease in the native population, the indigenous consciousness and identity in theatre disappeared, though pieces did have indigenous elements to them. The theatre that progressed in Latin America is argued to be theatre that the conquerors brought to the Americas, not the theatre of the Americas.
Progression in Postcolonial Latin American Theatre
Internal strife and external interference have been the drive behind Latin American history which applies the same to theatre.
1959 -- 1968: dramaturgical structures and structures of social projects leaned more toward constructing a more native Latin American base called the "Nuestra America ''
1968 -- 1974: Theatre tries to claim a more homogenous definition which brings in more European models. At this point, Latin American Theatre tried to connect to its historical roots.
1974 -- 1984: The search for expression rooted in the history of Latin America became victims of exile and death.
Latin American cuisine is a phrase that refers to typical foods, beverages, and cooking styles common to many of the countries and cultures in Latin America. It should be noted that Latin America is a very diverse area of land that holds various cuisines that vary from nation to nation.
Some items typical of Latin American cuisine include maize - based dishes (tortillas, tamales, pupusas) and various salsas and other condiments (guacamole, pico de gallo, mole). These spices are generally what give the Latin American cuisines a distinct flavor in penors; yet, each country of Latin America tends to use a different spice and those that share spices tend to use them at different quantities. Thus, this leads for a variety across the land. Meat is also greatly consumed and constitutes one of the main dishes in many Latin American countries where they 're considered specialties, referred to as Asado or Churrasco.
Latin American beverages are just as distinct as their foods. Some of the beverages can even date back to the times of the Native Americans. Some popular beverages include mate, Pisco Sour, horchata, chicha, atole, cacao and aguas frescas.
Desserts in Latin America include dulce de leche, alfajor, arroz con leche, tres leches cake, Teja and flan.
Traditionally, Mexicans have struggled with the creation of a united identity. The issue is the main topic of Mexican Nobel Prize winner Octavio Paz 's book The Labyrinth of Solitude. Mexico is a large country with a large population, therefore having many cultural traits found only in some parts of the country. The north of Mexico is the least culturally diverse due to its very low Native American population and high density of those of European descent. Northern Mexicans are also more americanized due to the common border with the United States. Central and southern Mexico is where many well - known traditions find their origin, therefore the people from this area are in a way the most traditional, but their collective personality ca n't be generalized. People from Puebla, for instance, are thought to be conservative and reserved, and just a few kilometers away, the people from Veracruz have the fame of being very outgoing and liberal. Chilangos (Mexico City natives) are believed to be a bit aggressive, and self - centered. The regiomontanos (from Monterrey) are thought to be rather proud, regardless of their social status. Almost every Mexican state has its own accent, making it fairly easy to distinguish the origin of someone by their use of language.
The derogatory term naco was forged by the middle and upper class Mexicans to refer to the native or mestizo population. The term allegedly comes from the word totonaco, which is one of the ethnic groups in Valle de Mexico. Its use has been made popular even among the poorest classes. Mexicans differ in opinion about the meaning of the word. Some would use it for a person who dresses in a tacky or tasteless manner, some use it to refer to the natives, some to the poor classes, and other for people with less education or culture and other ideology. The term fresa is in some terms the opposite of naco, and it is not always derogatory and means always some relative high economical status of the person termed in that way. Traditionally, people with more European looks and belonging to the middle or high classes are called fresas.
Dancing and singing are commonly part of family gatherings, bringing the old and young together, no matter what kind of music is being played, like cumbia, salsa, merengue or the more Mexican banda. Dancing is a strong part of the culture.
Mexicans in places like Guadalajara, Puebla, Monterrey, Mexico City, and most middle sized cities, enjoy a great variety of options for leisure. Shopping centers are a favorite among families, since there has been an increasing number of new malls that cater to people of all ages and interests. A large number of them, have multiplex cinemas, international and local restaurants, food courts, cafes, bars, bookstores and most of the international renowned clothing brands are found too. Mexicans are prone to travel within their own country, making short weekend trips to a neighbouring city or town.
The standard of living in Mexico is higher than most of other countries in Latin America attracting migrants in search for better opportunities. With the recent economic growth, many high income families live in single houses, commonly found within a gated community, called "fraccionamiento ''. The reason these places are the most popular among the middle and upper classes is that they offer a sense of security and provide social status. Swimming pools or golf clubs, and / or some other commodities are found in these fraccionamientos. Poorer Mexicans, by contrast, live a harsh life, although they share the importance they grant to family, friends and cultural habits.
Two of the major television networks based in Mexico are Televisa and TV Azteca. Soap operas (telenovelas) are translated to many languages and seen all over the world with renown names like Verónica Castro, Lucía Méndez, Lucero, and Thalía. Even Gael García Bernal and Diego Luna from Y tu mamá también and current Zegna model act in some of them. Some of their TV shows are modeled after American counterparts like Family Feud (100 Mexicanos Dijeron or "A hundred Mexicans said '' in Spanish), Big Brother, American Idol, Saturday Night Live and others. Nationwide news shows like Las Noticias por Adela on Televisa resemble a hybrid between Donahue and Nightline. Local news shows are modeled after American counterparts like the Eyewitness News and Action News formats.
Mexico 's national sports are charreria and bullfighting. Ancient Mexicans played a ball game which still exists in Northwest Mexico (Sinaloa, the game is called Ulama), though it is not a popular sport any more. Most Mexicans enjoy watching bullfights. Almost all large cities have bullrings. Mexico city has the largest bullring in the world, which seats 55,000 people. But the favorite sport remains football (soccer) while baseball is also popular especially in the northern states because of the American influence, and a number of Mexicans have become stars in the US Major Leagues. Professional wrestling is shown on shows like Lucha Libre. American football is practiced at the major universities like UNAM. Basketball has also been gaining popularity, with a number of Mexican players having been drafted to play in the National Basketball Association.
The culture of Guatemala reflects strong Mayan and Spanish influences and continues to be defined as a contrast between poor Mayan villagers in the rural highlands, and the urbanized and wealthy mestizos population who occupy the cities and surrounding agricultural plains.
The cuisine of Guatemala reflects the multicultural nature of Guatemala, in that it involves food that differs in taste depending on the region. Guatemala has 22 departments (or divisions), each of which has very different food varieties. For example, Antigua Guatemala is well known for its candy which makes use of many local ingredients fruits, seeds and nuts along with honey, condensed milk and other traditional sweeteners. Antigua 's candy is very popular when tourists visit the country for the first time, and is a great choice in the search for new and interesting flavors. Many traditional foods are based on Maya cuisine and prominently feature corn, chiles and beans as key ingredients. Various dishes may have the same name as a dish from a neighboring country, but may in fact be quite different for example the enchilada or quesadilla, which are nothing like their Mexican counterparts.
The music of Guatemala is diverse. Guatemala 's national instrument is the marimba, an idiophone from the family of the xylophones, which is played all over the country, even in the remotest corners. Towns also have wind and percussion bands - week processions, as well as on other occasions. The Garifuna people of Afro - Caribbean descent, who are spread thinly on the northeastern Caribbean coast, have their own distinct varieties of popular and folk music. Cumbia, from the Colombian variety, is also very popular especially among the lower classes. Dozens of Rock bands have emerged in the last two decades, making rock music quite popular among young people. Guatemala also has an almost five - century - old tradition of art music, spanning from the first liturgical chant and polyphony introduced in 1524 to contemporary art music. Much of the music composed in Guatemala from the 16th century to the 19th century has only recently been unearthed by scholars and is being revived by performers.
Guatemalan literature is famous around the world whether in the indigenous languages present in the country or in Spanish. Though there was likely literature in Guatemala before the arrival of the Spanish, all the texts that exist today were written after their arrival. The Popol Vuh is the most significant work of Guatemalan literature in the Quiché language, and one of the most important of Pre-Columbian American literature. It is a compendium of Mayan stories and legends, aimed to preserve Mayan traditions. The first known version of this text dates from the 16th century and is written in Quiché transcribed in Latin characters. It was translated into Spanish by the Dominican priest Francisco Ximénez in the beginning of the 18th century. Due to its combination of historical, mythical, and religious elements, it has been called the Mayan Bible. It is a vital document for understanding the culture of pre-Columbian America. The Rabinal Achí is a dramatic work consisting of dance and text that is preserved as it was originally represented. It is thought to date from the 15th century and narrates the mythical and dynastic origins of the Kek'chi ' people, and their relationships with neighboring peoples. The Rabinal Achí is performed during the Rabinal festival of January 25, the day of Saint Paul. It was declared a masterpiece of oral tradition of humanity by UNESCO in 2005. The 16th century saw the first native - born Guatemalan writers that wrote in Spanish. Major writers of this era include Sor Juana de Maldonado, considered the first poet playwright of colonial Central America, and the historian Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán. The Jesuit Rafael Landívar (1731 -- 1793) is considered as the first great Guatemalan poet. He was forced into exile by Carlos III. He traveled to Mexico and later to Italy, where he did. He originally wrote his Rusticatio Mexicana and his poems praising the bishop Figueredo y Victoria in Latin.
The Maya people are known for their brightly colored yarn - based textiles, which are woven into capes, shirts, blouses, huipiles and dresses. Each village has its own distinctive pattern, making it possible to distinguish a person 's home town on sight. Women 's clothing consists of a shirt and a long skirt.
Roman Catholicism combined with the indigenous Maya religion are the unique syncretic religion which prevailed throughout the country and still does in the rural regions. Beginning from negligible roots prior to 1960, however, Protestant Pentecostalism has grown to become the predominant religion of Guatemala City and other urban centers and down to mid-sized towns. The unique religion is reflected in the local saint, Maximón, who is associated with the subterranean force of masculine fertility and prostitution. Always depicted in black, he wears a black hat and sits on a chair, often with a cigar placed in his mouth and a gun in his hand, with offerings of tobacco, alcohol and Coca - Cola at his feet. The locals know him as San Simon of Guatemala.
Nicaraguan culture has several distinct strands. The Pacific coast has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by European culture but enriched with Amerindian sounds and flavors. The Pacific coast of the country was colonized by Spain and has a similar culture to other Spanish - speaking Latin American countries. The Caribbean coast of the country, on the other hand, was once a British protectorate. English is still predominant in this region and spoken domestically along with Spanish and indigenous languages. Its culture is similar to that of Caribbean nations that were or are British possessions, such as Jamaica, Belize, The Cayman Islands, etc.
Nicaraguan music is a mixture of indigenous and European, especially Spanish and to a lesser extent German, influences. The latter was a result of the German migration to the central - north regions of Las Segovias where Germans settled and brought with them polka music which influenced and evolved into Nicaraguan mazurka, polka and waltz. The Germans that migrated to Nicaragua are speculated to have been from the regions of Germany which were annexed to present - day Poland following the Second World War; hence the genres of mazurka, polka in addition to the waltz. One of the more famous composers of classical music and Nicaraguan waltz was Jose de la Cruz Mena who was actually not from the northern regions of Nicaragua but rather from the city of Leon in Nicaragua.
More nationally identified however, are musical instruments such as the marimba which is also common across Central America. The marimba of Nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding the instrument on his knees. It is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle, guitar and guitarrilla (a small guitar like a mandolin). This music is played at social functions as a sort of background music. The marimba is made with hardwood plates, placed over bamboo or metal tubes of varying lengths. It is played with two or four hammers. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua is known for a lively, sensual form of dance music called Palo de Mayo. It is especially loud and celebrated during the Palo de Mayo festival in May The Garifuna community exists in Nicaragua and is known for its popular music called Punta.
Literature of Nicaragua can be traced to pre-Columbian times with the myths and oral literature that formed the cosmogonic view of the world that indigenous people had. Some of these stories are still know in Nicaragua. Like many Latin American countries, the Spanish conquerors have had the most effect on both the culture and the literature. Nicaraguan literature is among the most important in Spanish language, with world - famous writers such as Rubén Darío who is regarded as the most important literary figure in Nicaragua, referred to as the "Father of Modernism '' for leading the modernismo literary movement at the end of the 19th century.
El Güegüense is a satirical drama and was the first literary work of post-Columbian Nicaragua. It is regarded as one of Latin America 's most distinctive colonial - era expressions and as Nicaragua 's signature folkloric masterpiece combining music, dance and theater. The theatrical play was written by an anonymous author in the 16th century, making it one of the oldest indigenous theatrical / dance works of the Western Hemisphere. The story was published in a book in 1942 after many centuries.
The Andes Region comprises roughly much of what is now Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, and was the seat of the Inca Empire in the pre-Columbian era. As such, many of the traditions date back to Incan traditions.
During the independization of the Americas many countries including Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador and Panama formed what was known as Gran Colombia, a federal republic that later dissolved, however the people in these countries believe each other to be their brothers and sisters and as such share many traditions and festivals. Peru and Bolivia were also one single country until Bolivia declared its independence, nevertheless both nations are close neighbors that have somewhat similar cultures.
Bolivia and Peru both still have significant Native American populations (primarily Quechua and Aymara) which mixed Spanish cultural elements with their ancestors ' traditions. The Spanish - speaking population mainly follows the Western customs. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major Bolivian ruins include Tiwanaku, Samaipata, Incallajta, and Iskanwaya.
The majority of the Ecuadorian population is mestizo, a mixture of both European and Amerindian ancestry, and much like their ancestry, the national culture is also a blend of these two sources, along with influences from slaves from Africa in the coastal region. 95 % of Ecuadorians are Roman Catholic.
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions, though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups.
Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque art dominated in colonial times, though it was modified by native traditions. During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.
Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century, and colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma. In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría, José María Arguedas, and César Vallejo. During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.
Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, humitas, and pachamanca. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking. Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and techniques.
Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots. In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments. Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango. African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument. Peruvian folk dances include the marinera, tondero and huayno.
The culture of Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America. Thanks partly to geography, Colombian culture has been heavily fragmented into five major cultural regions. Rural to urban migration and globalization have changed how many Colombians live and express themselves as large cities become melting pots of people (many of whom are refugees) from the various provinces. According to a study in late 2004 by the Erasmus University in Rotterdam, Colombians are one of the happiest people in the world; this despite its four - decade long armed conflict involving the government, paramilitaries, drug lords, corruption and guerrillas like the FARC and ELN.
Many aspects of Colombian culture can be traced back to the culture of Spain of the 16th century and its collision with Colombia 's native civilizations (see: Muisca, Tayrona). The Spanish brought Catholicism, African slaves, the feudal encomienda system, and a caste system that favored European - born whites. After independence from Spain, the criollos struggled to establish a pluralistic political system between conservative and liberal ideals.
Ethno - racial groups maintained their ancestral heritage culture: whites tried to keep themselves, despite the growing number of illegitimate children of mixed African or indigenous ancestry. These people were labeled with any number of descriptive names, derived from the casta system, such as mulato and moreno. Blacks and indigenous people of Colombia also mixed to form zambos creating a new ethno - racial group in society. This mix also created a fusion of cultures. Carnivals for example became an opportunity for all classes and colors to congregate without prejudice. The introduction of the bill of rights of men and the abolishment of slavery (1850) eased the segregationist tensions between the races, but the dominance of the whites prevailed and prevails to some extent to this day.
The industrial revolution arrived relatively late at the beginning of the 20th century with the establishment of the Republic of Colombia. Colombians had a period of almost 50 years of relative peace interrupted only by a short armed conflict with Peru over the town of Leticia in 1932.
Bogotá, the principal city, was the World Book Capital in 2007, in 2008 by the Iberoamerican Theatrum Festival Bogotá has been proclaimed as the world capital of theatre.
Venezuelan culture has been shaped by indigenous, African and especially European Spanish. Before this period, indigenous culture was expressed in art (petroglyphs), crafts, architecture (shabonos), and social organization. Aboriginal culture was subsequently assimilated by Spaniards; over the years, the hybrid culture had diversified by region.
At present the Indian influence is limited to a few words of vocabulary and gastronomy. The African influence in the same way, in addition to musical instruments like the drum. The Spanish influence was more important and in particular came from the regions of Andalusia and Extremadura, places of origin of most settlers in the Caribbean during the colonial era. As an example of this can include buildings, part of the music, the Catholic religion and language. Spanish influences are evident bullfights and certain features of the cuisine. Venezuela also enriched by other streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th century, especially France. In the last stage of the great cities and regions entered the U.S. oil source and demonstrations of the new immigration of Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, increasing the already complex cultural mosaic. For example: From the United States comes the influence of the taste of baseball and modern architectural structures
Venezuelan art is gaining prominence. Initially dominated by religious motifs, it began emphasizing historical and heroic representations in the late 19th century, a move led by Martín Tovar y Tovar. Modernism took over in the 20th century. Notable Venezuelan artists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas, Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré, the kinetic artists Jesús - Rafael Soto and Carlos Cruz - Diez. Since the middle of the 20th century, artists such as Jacobo Borges, Régulo Perez, Pedro León Zapata, Harry Abend, Mario Abreu, Pancho Quilici, Carmelo Niño and Angel Peña emerged. They created a new plastic language. The 80s produced artist as Carlos Zerpa, Ernesto León, Miguel Von Dangel, Mateo Manaure, Patricia Van Dalen, Mercedes Elena González, Zacarías García and Manuel Quintana Castillo. In more recent times, Venezuela produced a new a diverse generation of innovating painters. Some of them are: Alejandro Bello, Edgard Álvarez Estrada, Gloria Fiallo, Felipe Herrera, Alberto Guacache and Morella Jurado.
Venezuelan literature originated soon after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate indigenous societies; it was dominated by Spanish influences. Following the rise of political literature during the War of Independence, Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre in the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro. Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos, Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano González León, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. The great poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an educator and intellectual. Others, such as Laureano Vallenilla Lanz and José Gil Fortoul, contributed to Venezuelan Positivism.
Carlos Raúl Villanueva was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include the Capitol, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge.
Baseball and football are Venezuela 's most popular sports, and the Venezuela national football team, is passionately followed. Famous Venezuelan baseball players include Luis Aparicio (inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame), David (Dave) Concepción, Oswaldo (Ozzie) Guillén (current White Sox manager, World Series champion in 2005), Freddy Garcia, Andrés Galarraga, Omar Vizquel (an eleven - time Gold Glove winner), Luis Sojo, Miguel Cabrera, Bobby Abreu, Félix Hernández, Magglio Ordóñez, Ugueth Urbina, and Johan Santana (a two - time unanimously selected Cy Young Award winner).
In the 19th century, Brazilian theatre began with romanticism along with a fervor for political independence. During this time, racial issues were discussed in contradictory terms, but even so there were some significant plays, including a series of popular comedies by Martins Penna, Franqa Junior, and Arthur Azevedo.
In the 20th century, the two most important production centers for professional theatre were São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. They were centers of industrial and economic development. Even with the development of these two theatres, World War I brought an end to tours by European theatres so there were no productions in Brazil during this time.
In November 1927, Alvaro Moreyra founded the Toy Theatre (Teatro de Brinquedo). Like this company, it was in the late 1920s when the first stable theatre companies formed around well - known actors. These actors were able to practice authentic Brazilian gestures gradually freed from Portuguese influence. Except for some political criticism in the low comedies, the dramas of this period were not popular. Occasionally the question of dependence on Europe or North America was raised. Even with more Latin American influence of theatre starting to filter in, its theatre still was under heavy influence of Europe.
The Brazilian Comedy Theatre (Teatro Brasileiro de Comédia) was created in 1948
Oswald de Andrade wrote three plays; The King of the Candle (O Rei da Vela, 1933), The Man and the Horse (O Homem eo Cavalo, 1934). and The Dead Woman (A Morta, 1937). They were an attempt to deal with political themes, nationalism, and anti-imperialism. His theatre was inspired by Meyerhold 's and Brecht 's theories, with a political sarcasm like Mayakovsky.
1943 at The Comedians: Polish director and refugee from the Nazis, Zbigniew Ziembinsky, staged in expressionist style Nelson Rodrigues ' A Bride 's Gown (Vestido de Noiva). With this production, Brazilian theatre moved into the modem period. World War II saw Brazil gain several foreign directors, especially from Italy, who wanted to make a theatre free from nationalistic overtones. Paradoxically, this led to a second renewal which engaged popular forms and sentiments; a renewal that was decidedly nationalistic with social and even communist leanings.
During this time, the Stanislavsky system of acting was most popular and widely used. Stanislavski himself came to Brazil via Eugenio Kusnet, a Russian actor who had met him at the Moscow Art Theatre.
The next phase was from 1958 to the signing of the Institutional Act Number Five in 1968. It marked the end of freedom and democracy. These ten years were the most productive of the century. During these years dramaturgy matured through the plays of Guarnieri, Vianinha, Boal, Dias Gomes, and Chico de Assis, as did mis - en - scene in the work of Boal, Jost Celso Martinez Correa, Flivio Rangel, and Antunes Filho. During this decade a generation accepted theatre as an activity with social responsibility.
At its height, this phase of Brazilian theatre was characterized by an affirmation of national values. Actors and directors became political activists who risked their jobs and lives daily.
Through this growth of Latin America politically and the influence of European theatre, an identity of what is theatre in Latin America stemmed out of it.
Modern painting was born in Brazil in Modern Art Week in 1922. Among the artists who have excelled in the 20th century, are Tarsila do Amaral and his cubist influence, as Di Cavalcanti, Candido Portinari also influenced by Cubism and Expressionism is the great names of Brazilian art and is the painter of War and Peace, a panel at the United Nations in New York.
Brazilian contemporary photography is one of the most creative in Latin America, growing an international prominence each year with exhibitions and publications. Names like Miguel Rio Branco, Vik Muniz, Sebastião Salgado, Guy Veloso, and others, get strong.
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states that were countries before joining the union | Admission to the Union - wikipedia
The Admission to the Union Clause of the United States Constitution, oftentimes called the New States Clause, and found at Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1, authorizes the Congress to admit new states into the United States beyond the thirteen already in existence at the time the Constitution went into effect.
The Constitution went into effect on June 21, 1788, after ratification by 9 of the 13 states, and the federal government began operations under it on March 4, 1789. Since then, 37 additional states have been admitted into the Union. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with those already in existence.
Of the 37 states admitted to the Union by Congress, all but six have been established within an existing U.S. organized incorporated territory. A state so created might encompass all or a portion of a territory. When the people of a territory or a region thereof would make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, in most cases Congress passed an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory or region to frame a proposed state constitution as a step toward admission to the Union. Although the use of an enabling act was a common historic practice, a number of states were admitted to the Union without one.
In many instances, an enabling act would detail the mechanism by which the territory would be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of such an act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. The broad outline for this process was established by the Land Ordinance of 1784 and the 1787 Northwest Ordinance, both of which predate the present U.S. Constitution.
The Admission to the Union Clause also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. The primary intent of this caveat was to give Eastern states that still had western land claims (there were four at that time) a veto over whether their western counties could become states. This clause has served the same function since, each time a proposal to partition an existing state or states has arisen.
New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.
Between 1781 and 1789 the United States was governed by a unicameral Congress, the Congress of the Confederation, which operated under authority granted to it by the Articles of Confederation, the nation 's first constitution. The 11th Article authorized Congress to admit new states to the Union provided nine states consented. Under the Articles, each state cast one vote on each proposed measure in Congress.
During this period, the Confederation Congress enacted two ordinances governing the admission of new states into the Union. The first such ordinance was the Land Ordinance of 1784, enacted April 23, 1784. Thomas Jefferson was its principal author. The Ordinance called for the land (recently confirmed as part of the United States by the Treaty of Paris) west of the Appalachian Mountains, north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River to eventually be divided into ten separate states. Once a given area reached 20,000 inhabitants, it could call a constitutional convention and form a provisional government. Then, upon enacting a state constitution which affirmed that the new state would forever be part of the Confederation, would be subject to the Articles of Confederation and acts of Congress, would be subject to payment for federal debts and would not tax federal properties within the state border or tax non-residents at a rate higher than residents, and would have a republican form of government, and also after reaching a population equal to that of the least - populated of the established states, it would be admitted, on an equal footing with all other states, based on a majority vote in Congress. Jefferson 's original draft of the ordinance gave names to the proposed states, and also contained a provision that "After the year 1800 there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of them. ''
The 1784 ordinance was superseded three years later by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. Enacted by the Confederation Congress on July 13, 1787, it created the Northwest Territory, the first organized incorporated territory of the United States. The Northwest Ordinance (Article V) provided for the admission of several new states from within its bounds:
There shall be formed in the said territory, not less than three nor more than five States... And, whenever any of the said States shall have sixty thousand free inhabitants therein, such State shall be admitted, by its delegates, into the Congress of the United States, on an equal footing with the original States in all respects whatever, and shall be at liberty to form a permanent constitution and State government: Provided, the constitution and government so to be formed, shall be republican, and in conformity to the principles contained in these articles; and, so far as it can be consistent with the general interest of the confederacy, such admission shall be allowed at an earlier period, and when there may be a less number of free inhabitants in the State than sixty thousand.
Considered one of the most important legislative acts of the Confederation Congress, it established the precedent by which the Federal government would be sovereign and expand westward with the admission of new states, rather than with the expansion of existing states and their established sovereignty under the Articles of Confederation.
No new states were formed in the Northwest Territory under either ordinance. In August, 1789, the ordinance was replaced by the Northwest Ordinance of 1789, in which the new Congress (under the present Constitution) reaffirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications. The territory itself remained in existence until 1803, when the southeastern portion of it was admitted to the Union as the State of Ohio, and the remainder was reorganized.
While the articles of Confederation were in effect, the Congress considered various ordinances admitting particular new states into the Union:
As a result, no new states were admitted to the Union while the Articles of Confederation was in effect.
At the 1787 Constitutional Convention, a proposal to include the phrase, "new States shall be admitted on the same terms with the original States '', in the new states clause was defeated. That proposal would have taken the policy articulated in the Ordinance of 1784 and made it a constitutional imperative. Many delegates objected to including the phrase however, fearing that the political power of future new western states would ultimately overwhelm that of the established eastern states.
Delegates, understanding that the number of states would inevitably increase, did agree to include wording into this clause to preclude formation of a new state out of an established one without the consent of the established state as well as the Congress. It was anticipated that Kentucky (which was a part of Virginia), Franklin (which was a part of North Carolina, and later became part of the Southwest Territory), Vermont (to which New York asserted a disputed claim), and Maine (which was a part of Massachusetts), would become states. As a result of this compromise, new breakaway states are permitted to join the Union, but only with the proper consents.
Shortly after the new Constitution went into effect Congress admitted Vermont and Kentucky on equal terms with the existing 13 states, and thereafter formalized the condition in its acts of admission for subsequent states. Thus the Congress, utilizing the discretion allowed by the framers, adopted a policy of equal status for all newly admitted states. The constitutional principle derived from these actions is known as the equal footing doctrine. With the growth of states ' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.
Historically, most new states brought into being by Congress have been established from an organized incorporated U.S. territory, created and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory became a state; in others some part of a territory became a state. In most cases, the organized government of a territory made known the sentiment of its population in favor of statehood, usually by referendum. Congress then directed that government to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution. Upon acceptance of that constitution, by the people of the territory and then by Congress, would adopt a joint resolution granting statehood and the President would issue a proclamation announcing that a new state has been added to the Union. While Congress, which has ultimate authority over the admission of new states, has usually followed this procedure, there have been occasions (due to unique case - specific circumstances) where it did not.
Congress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress. In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory was incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907.
Some U.S. territories existed only a short time before becoming states, while others remained territories for decades. The shortest - lived was Alabama Territory at 2 years, while New Mexico and Hawaii territories both were in existence for more than 50 years. The entry of several states into the Union has been delayed due to complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute with the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. Also, statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854 -- 61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions.
Once established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Notable exceptions include: the various portions (the Western land claims) of several original states ceded over a period of several years to the federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory, Southwest Territory, and Mississippi Territory; the 1791 cession by Maryland and Virginia of land to create the District of Columbia (Virginia 's portion was returned in 1847); and the creation, on at least three separate occasions, of a new state (Kentucky, Maine and West Virginia) from a region of an existing state (Vermont was created from what was disputedly claimed to be a part of New York and was not admitted until New York consented); two large additions to Nevada, which became a state in 1864, were made in 1866 and 1867. However, there have been numerous minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes. One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York, in which New Jersey won roughly 90 % of Ellis Island from New York in 1998.
In addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never part of an organized incorporated U.S. territory. Kentucky, Maine, and West Virginia were each set off from already existing states. Texas and Vermont both entered the Union after having been sovereign states (only de facto sovereignty in Vermont 's case, as the region was claimed by New York). California was set off from unorganized land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 at the end of the Mexican -- American War.
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where do the arizona diamondbacks have spring training | Salt River Fields at Talking Stick - wikipedia
Salt River Fields at Talking Stick is a stadium complex located in the Salt River Pima -- Maricopa Indian Community near Scottsdale, Arizona, at the former site of the Indian Bend Country Club. It serves as the Major League Baseball spring - training facility for the Arizona Diamondbacks and the Colorado Rockies, replacing Tucson Electric Park for the Diamondbacks and Hi Corbett Field for the Rockies. The complex represents the first MLB park to be built on Native American Indian land.
In 2009 after the Chicago White Sox moved their spring - training facilities from Tucson to Phoenix, the Diamondbacks and Rockies expressed their desire to leave Tucson. The teams began negotiations with multiple valley cities and Indian communities, with the Salt River Pima -- Maricopa Indian Community coming out on top with a 20 - year commitment from the teams to the facility. Construction began on November 17, 2009, with a ground - breaking ceremony by Diamondbacks President and CEO Derrick Hall, as an aggressive, fast - tracked schedule -- to get the stadium done by the 2011 spring - training season -- began.
The field turf is made up of a specially engineered Tifway 419 Bermuda Grass grown in Eloy, Arizona. There are 7,000 fixed seats in the grandstand and 4,000 lawn seats for a total estimated seating capacity of 11,000, but March 24, 2013 drew a crowd given as 12,864. Luxury suites, three party pavilions, and a kids zone are further amenities. Each team has an 85,000 - square - foot (7,900 m) clubhouse (with offices, fitness, and locker rooms), six full - size practice fields (one with the same dimensions as the respective team 's home stadium), two infield - only practice diamonds, and batting cages. The Diamondbacks occupy the facilities along the left field and the Rockies are in the right - field area. Several points of access to the stadium bring visitors in through the middle of the practice fields and batting facilities. The complex also has two lit soccer fields and a 3 - acre man - made lake which is home to 17,000 fish.
The stadium was completed on time, with the first game being played between the Diamondbacks and Rockies on February 26, 2011. The ceremonial first pitch was delivered by Salt River Pima -- Maricopa Indian Tribal President Diane Enos and Vice President Martin Harvier. The national anthem was performed by the Salt River Elementary School choir. The Rockies won the first game, 8 - 7, after 10 innings of play. It has opened to rave reviews from the athletes, fans, and critics. Major League Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig said "Everyone told me it was remarkable. It 's even better than that. ''
According to the Arizona Republic, the Cactus League generates more than $300 million a year in economic impact to the greater Phoenix metropolitan - area economy. The new Salt River Fields at Talking Stick complex is the latest of eight new stadiums built in the Valley of the Sun over the past 20 years. The Arizona Republic newspaper reports that more than $500 million has been spent on "building eight new stadiums and renovating two others for the 15 teams in the Valley. ''
Attendance set a new record at 2011 Cactus League games with 1.59 million attending games at the various stadiums in the Phoenix metro area. Much of the attendance surge is attributed to the new Salt Rivers Fields at Talking Stick venue that accounted for 22 % of the Cactus League attendance. In the inaugural spring - training season at the park, the Arizona Diamondbacks enjoyed a record - breaking 189,737 spectators at 17 spring - training games, with an average of 11,161 spectators per game, up more than 90 % from 2010.
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what is another term for persistent vegetative state | Persistent vegetative state - wikipedia
A persistent vegetative state (PVS) is a disorder of consciousness in which patients with severe brain damage are in a state of partial arousal rather than true awareness. After four weeks in a vegetative state (VS), the patient is classified as in a persistent vegetative state. This diagnosis is classified as a permanent vegetative state some months (3 in the US and 6 in the UK) after a non-traumatic brain injury or one year after a traumatic injury. Nowadays, more doctors and neuroscientists prefer to call the state of consciousness an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome, primarily because of ethical questions about whether a patient can be called "vegetative '' or not.
There are several definitions that vary by technical versus layman 's usage. There are different legal implications in different countries.
A wakeful unconscious state that lasts longer than a few weeks is referred to as a persistent (or ' continuing ') vegetative state.
Unlike brain death, permanent vegetative state (PVS) is recognized by statute law as death in very few legal systems. In the US, courts have required petitions before termination of life support that demonstrate that any recovery of cognitive functions above a vegetative state is assessed as impossible by authoritative medical opinion. In England and Wales the legal precedent for withdrawal of clinically assisted nutrition and hydration in cases of patients in a PVS was set in 1993 in the case of Tony Bland, who sustained catastrophic anoxic brain injury in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster. An application to the Court of Protection is no longer required before nutrition and hydration can be withdrawn or withheld from PVS (or ' minimally conscious ' - MCS) patients.
This legal grey area has led to vocal advocates that those in PVS should be allowed to die. Others are equally determined that, if recovery is at all possible, care should continue. The existence of a small number of diagnosed PVS cases that have eventually resulted in improvement makes defining recovery as "impossible '' particularly difficult in a legal sense. This legal and ethical issue raises questions about autonomy, quality of life, appropriate use of resources, the wishes of family members, and professional responsibilities.
The vegetative state is a chronic or long - term condition. This condition differs from a coma: a coma is a state that lacks both awareness and wakefulness. Patients in a vegetative state may have awoken from a coma, but still have not regained awareness. In the vegetative state patients can open their eyelids occasionally and demonstrate sleep - wake cycles, but completely lack cognitive function. The vegetative state is also called a "coma vigil ''. The chances of regaining awareness diminish considerably as the time spent in the vegetative state increases.
Persistent vegetative state is the standard usage (except in the UK) for a medical diagnosis, made after numerous neurological and other tests, that due to extensive and irreversible brain damage a patient is highly unlikely ever to achieve higher functions above a vegetative state. This diagnosis does not mean that a doctor has diagnosed improvement as impossible, but does open the possibility, in the US, for a judicial request to end life support. Informal guidelines hold that this diagnosis can be made after four weeks in a vegetative state. US caselaw has shown that successful petitions for termination have been made after a diagnosis of a persistent vegetative state, although in some cases, such as that of Terri Schiavo, such rulings have generated widespread controversy.
In the UK, the term ' persistent vegetative state ' is discouraged in favor of two more precisely defined terms that have been strongly recommended by the Royal College of Physicians (RCP). These guidelines recommend using a continuous vegetative state for patients in a vegetative state for more than four weeks. A medical definition of a permanent vegetative state can be made if, after exhaustive testing and a customary 12 months of observation, a medical diagnosis that it is impossible by any informed medical expectations that the mental condition will ever improve. Hence, a "continuous vegetative state '' in the UK may remain the diagnosis in cases that would be called "persistent '' in the US or elsewhere.
While the actual testing criteria for a diagnosis of "permanent '' in the UK are quite similar to the criteria for a diagnosis of "persistent '' in the US, the semantic difference imparts in the UK a legal presumption that is commonly used in court applications for ending life support. The UK diagnosis is generally only made after 12 months of observing a static vegetative state. A diagnosis of a persistent vegetative state in the US usually still requires a petitioner to prove in court that recovery is impossible by informed medical opinion, while in the UK the "permanent '' diagnosis already gives the petitioner this presumption and may make the legal process less time - consuming.
In common usage, the "permanent '' and "persistent '' definitions are sometimes conflated and used interchangeably. However, the acronym "PVS '' is intended to define a "persistent vegetative state '', without necessarily the connotations of permanence, and is used as such throughout this article.
Bryan Jennett, who originally coined the term "persistent vegetative state '', has now recommended using the UK division between continuous and permanent in his most recent book The Vegetative State. This is one for purposes of precision, on the grounds that "the ' persistent ' component of this term... may seem to suggest irreversibility ''.
The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council has suggested "post coma unresponsiveness '' as an alternative term for "vegetative state '' in general.
Most PVS patients are unresponsive to external stimuli and their conditions are associated with different levels of consciousness. Some level of consciousness means a person can still respond, in varying degrees, to stimulation. A person in a coma, however, can not. In addition, PVS patients often open their eyes in response to feeding, which has to be done by others; they are capable of swallowing, whereas patients in a coma subsist with their eyes closed (Emmett, 1989).
PVS patients ' eyes might be in a relatively fixed position, or track moving objects, or move in a disconjugate (i.e., completely unsynchronized) manner. They may experience sleep - wake cycles, or be in a state of chronic wakefulness. They may exhibit some behaviors that can be construed as arising from partial consciousness, such as grinding their teeth, swallowing, smiling, shedding tears, grunting, moaning, or screaming without any apparent external stimulus.
Individuals in PVS are seldom on any life - sustaining equipment other than a feeding tube because the brainstem, the center of vegetative functions (such as heart rate and rhythm, respiration, and gastrointestinal activity) is relatively intact (Emmett, 1989).
Many people emerge spontaneously from a vegetative state within a few weeks. The chances of recovery depend on the extent of injury to the brain and the patient 's age -- younger patients having a better chance of recovery than older patients. A 1994 report found that of those who were in a vegetative state a month after a trauma, 54 % had regained consciousness by a year after the trauma, whereas 28 % had died and 18 % were still in the vegetative state. But for non-traumatic injuries such as strokes, only 14 % had recovered consciousness at one year, 47 % had died, and 39 % were still vegetative. Patients who were vegetative six months after the initial event were much less likely to have recovered consciousness a year after the event than in the case of those who were simply reported vegetative at one month. A New Scientist article from 2000 gives a pair of graphs showing changes of patient status during the first 12 months after head injury and after incidents depriving the brain of oxygen. After a year, the chances that a PVS patient will regain consciousness are very low and most patients who do recover consciousness experience significant disability. The longer a patient is in a PVS, the more severe the resulting disabilities are likely to be. Rehabilitation can contribute to recovery, but many patients never progress to the point of being able to take care of themselves.
There are two dimensions of recovery from a persistent vegetative state: recovery of consciousness and recovery of function. Recovery of consciousness can be verified by reliable evidence of awareness of self and the environment, consistent voluntary behavioral responses to visual and auditory stimuli, and interaction with others. Recovery of function is characterized by communication, the ability to learn and to perform adaptive tasks, mobility, self - care, and participation in recreational or vocational activities. Recovery of consciousness may occur without functional recovery, but functional recovery can not occur without recovery of consciousness (Ashwal, 1994).
There are three main causes of PVS (persistent vegetative state):
Medical books (such as Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins. (2007). In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms) describe several potential causes of PVS, which are as follows:
In addition, these authors claim that doctors sometimes use the mnemonic device AEIOU - TIPS to recall portions of the differential diagnosis: Alcohol ingestion and acidosis, Epilepsy and encephalopathy, Infection, Opiates, Uremia, Trauma, Insulin overdose or inflammatory disorders, Poisoning and psychogenic causes, and Shock.
Despite converging agreement about the definition of persistent vegetative state, recent reports have raised concerns about the accuracy of diagnosis in some patients, and the extent to which, in a selection of cases, residual cognitive functions may remain undetected and patients are diagnosed as being in a persistent vegetative state. Objective assessment of residual cognitive function can be extremely difficult as motor responses may be minimal, inconsistent, and difficult to document in many patients, or may be undetectable in others because no cognitive output is possible (Owen et al., 2002). In recent years, a number of studies have demonstrated an important role for functional neuroimaging in the identification of residual cognitive function in persistent vegetative state; this technology is providing new insights into cerebral activity in patients with severe brain damage. Such studies, when successful, may be particularly useful where there is concern about the accuracy of the diagnosis and the possibility that residual cognitive function has remained undetected.
Researchers have begun to use functional neuroimaging studies to study implicit cognitive processing in patients with a clinical diagnosis of persistent vegetative state. Activations in response to sensory stimuli with positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and electrophysiological methods can provide information on the presence, degree, and location of any residual brain function. However, use of these techniques in people with severe brain damage is methodologically, clinically, and theoretically complex and needs careful quantitative analysis and interpretation.
For example, PET studies have shown the identification of residual cognitive function in persistent vegetative state. That is, an external stimulation, such as a painful stimulus, still activates "primary '' sensory cortices in these patients but these areas are functionally disconnected from "higher order '' associative areas needed for awareness. These results show that parts of the cortex are indeed still functioning in "vegetative '' patients (Matsuda et al., 2003).
In addition, other PET studies have revealed preserved and consistent responses in predicted regions of auditory cortex in response to intelligible speech stimuli. Moreover, a preliminary fMRI examination revealed partially intact responses to semantically ambiguous stimuli, which are known to tap higher aspects of speech comprehension (Boly, 2004).
Furthermore, several studies have used PET to assess the central processing of noxious somatosensory stimuli in patients in PVS. Noxious somatosensory stimulation activated midbrain, contralateral thalamus, and primary somatosensory cortex in each and every PVS patient, even in the absence of detectable cortical evoked potentials. In conclusion, somatosensory stimulation of PVS patients, at intensities that elicited pain in controls, resulted in increased neuronal activity in primary somatosensory cortex, even if resting brain metabolism was severely impaired. However, this activation of primary cortex seems to be isolated and dissociated from higher - order associative cortices (Laureys et al., 2002).
Also, there is evidence of partially functional cerebral regions in catastrophically injured brains. To study five patients in PVS with different behavioral features, researchers employed PET, MRI and magnetoencephalographic (MEG) responses to sensory stimulation. In three of the five patients, co-registered PET / MRI correlate areas of relatively preserved brain metabolism with isolated fragments of behavior. Two patients had suffered anoxic injuries and demonstrated marked decreases in overall cerebral metabolism to 30 -- 40 % of normal. Two other patients with non-anoxic, multifocal brain injuries demonstrated several isolated brain regions with higher metabolic rates, that ranged up to 50 -- 80 % of normal. Nevertheless, their global metabolic rates remained < 50 % of normal. MEG recordings from three PVS patients provide clear evidence for the absence, abnormality or reduction of evoked responses. Despite major abnormalities, however, these data also provide evidence for localized residual activity at the cortical level. Each patient partially preserved restricted sensory representations, as evidenced by slow evoked magnetic fields and gamma band activity. In two patients, these activations correlate with isolated behavioral patterns and metabolic activity. Remaining active regions identified in the three PVS patients with behavioral fragments appear to consist of segregated corticothalamic networks that retain connectivity and partial functional integrity. A single patient who suffered severe injury to the tegmental mesencephalon and paramedian thalamus showed widely preserved cortical metabolism, and a global average metabolic rate of 65 % of normal. The relatively high preservation of cortical metabolism in this patient defines the first functional correlate of clinical -- pathological reports associating permanent unconsciousness with structural damage to these regions. The specific patterns of preserved metabolic activity identified in these patients reflect novel evidence of the modular nature of individual functional networks that underlie conscious brain function. The variations in cerebral metabolism in chronic PVS patients indicate that some cerebral regions can retain partial function in catastrophically injured brains (Schiff et al., 2002).
Statistical PVS misdiagnosis is n't uncommon. An example study with 40 patients in the United Kingdom reported 43 % of their patients classified as PVS were believed so and another 33 % had recovered whilst the study was underway. Some PVS cases may actually be a misdiagnosis of patients being in an undiagnosed minimally conscious state. Since the exact diagnostic criteria of the minimally conscious state were only formulated in 2002, there may be chronic patients diagnosed as PVS before the secondary notion of the minimally conscious state became known.
Whether or not there is any conscious awareness with a patient 's vegetative state is a prominent issue. Three completely different aspects of this should be distinguished. First, some patients can be conscious simply because they are misdiagnosed (see above). In fact, they are not in vegetative states. Second, sometimes a patient was correctly diagnosed but is then examined during the early stages of recovery. Third, perhaps some day the notion itself of vegetative states will change so to include elements of conscious awareness. Inability to disentangle these three example cases causes confusion. An example of such confusion is the response to a recent experiment using functional magnetic resonance imaging which revealed that a woman diagnosed with PVS was able to activate predictable portions of her brain in response to the tester 's requests that she imagine herself playing tennis or moving from room to room in her house. The brain activity in response to these instructions was indistinguishable from those of healthy patients.
In 2010, Martin Monti and fellow researchers, working at the MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit at the University of Cambridge, reported in an article in the New England Journal of Medicine that some patients in persistent vegetative states responded to verbal instructions by displaying different patterns of brain activity on fMRI scans. Five out of a total of 54 diagnosed patients were apparently able to respond when instructed to think about one of two different physical activities. One of these five was also able to "answer '' yes or no questions, again by imagining one of these two activities. It is unclear, however, whether the fact that portions of the patients ' brains light up on fMRI could help these patients assume their own medical decision making.
In November 2011, a publication in The Lancet presented bedside EEG apparatus and indicated that its signal could be used to detect awareness in three of 16 patients diagnosed in the vegetative state.
Currently no treatment for vegetative state exists that would satisfy the efficacy criteria of evidence - based medicine. Several methods have been proposed which can roughly be subdivided into four categories: pharmacological methods, surgery, physical therapy, and various stimulation techniques. Pharmacological therapy mainly uses activating substances such as tricyclic antidepressants or methylphenidate. Mixed results have been reported using dopaminergic drugs such as amantadine and bromocriptine and stimulants such as dextroamphetamine. Surgical methods such as deep brain stimulation are used less frequently due to the invasiveness of the procedures. Stimulation techniques include sensory stimulation, sensory regulation, music and musicokinetic therapy, social - tactile interaction, and cortical stimulation.
There is limited evidence that the hypnotic drug zolpidem has an effect. The results of the few scientific studies that have been published so far on the effectiveness of zolpidem have been contradictory.
In the United States, it is estimated that there may be between 15,000 and 40,000 patients who are in a persistent vegetative state, but due to poor nursing home records exact figures are hard to determine.
The syndrome was first described in 1940 by Ernst Kretschmer who called it apallic syndrome. The term persistent vegetative state was coined in 1972 by Scottish spinal surgeon Bryan Jennett and American neurologist Fred Plum to describe a syndrome that seemed to have been made possible by medicine 's increased capacities to keep patients ' bodies alive.
An ongoing debate exists as to how much care, if any, patients in a persistent vegetative state should receive in health systems plagued by limited resources. In a case before the New Jersey Superior Court, Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital, a community hospital sought a ruling that dialysis and CPR for such a patient constitutes futile care. An American bioethicist, Jacob M. Appel, argued that any money spent treating PVS patients would be better spent on other patients with a higher likelihood of recovery. The patient died naturally prior to a decision in the case, resulting in the court finding the issue moot.
In 2010, British and Belgian researchers reported in an article in the New England Journal of Medicine that some patients in persistent vegetative states actually had enough consciousness to "answer '' yes or no questions on fMRI scans. However, it is unclear whether the fact that portions of the patients ' brains light up on fMRI will help these patient assume their own medical decision making. Professor Geraint Rees, Director of the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London, responded to the study by observing that, "As a clinician, it would be important to satisfy oneself that the individual that you are communicating with is competent to make those decisions. At the moment it is premature to conclude that the individual able to answer 5 out of 6 yes / no questions is fully conscious like you or I. '' In contrast, Jacob M. Appel of the Mount Sinai Hospital told the Telegraph that this development could be a welcome step toward clarifying the wishes of such patients. Appel stated: "I see no reason why, if we are truly convinced such patients are communicating, society should not honour their wishes. In fact, as a physician, I think a compelling case can be made that doctors have an ethical obligation to assist such patients by removing treatment. I suspect that, if such individuals are indeed trapped in their bodies, they may be living in great torment and will request to have their care terminated or even active euthanasia. ''
This article contains text from the NINDS public domain pages on TBI. (1) and (2).
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a series of unfortunate events movie justice strauss | A Series of Unfortunate Events (TV Series) - wikipedia
Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events, or simply A Series of Unfortunate Events, is an American black comedy - drama web television series from Netflix, developed by Mark Hudis and Barry Sonnenfeld, based on the children 's novel series of the same name by Lemony Snicket. It stars Neil Patrick Harris, Patrick Warburton, Malina Weissman, Louis Hynes, K. Todd Freeman, and Presley Smith with Lucy Punch, Avi Lake, and Dylan Kingwell joining the cast in the second season.
The first season, which premiered on January 13, 2017, consists of eight episodes and adapts the first four books of the series. The second season was ordered in March 2017 and released on March 30, 2018. A Series of Unfortunate Events was renewed for a third season in April 2017, which will consist of seven episodes and adapt the remaining four books.
When a mysterious fire kills their parents, the Baudelaire children are placed into the care of their distant relative Count Olaf, an actor who is determined to claim the family fortune for himself. Following Olaf 's failed attempt and his plot being exposed, the Baudelaires set out to elude Olaf and uncover the mystery behind a secret society from their parents ' past.
Daniel Handler cameos as a fish head salesperson at Lake Lachrymose. Barry Sonnenfeld does a picture cameo as the late Ike Anwhistle in "The Wide Window '' and appears as him in a flashback scene in "The Carnivorous Carnival '' Pt. 1.
The first season adapts the first four books of the novel series: The Bad Beginning, The Reptile Room, The Wide Window and The Miserable Mill.
The second season adapts books five through nine of the novel series: The Austere Academy, The Ersatz Elevator, The Vile Village, The Hostile Hospital, and The Carnivorous Carnival.
The third season will adapt the final four books of the novel series in seven episodes: The Slippery Slope, The Grim Grotto and The Penultimate Peril will be adapted into two episodes each, and The End will conclude the series with a longer single episode. Barry Sonnenfeld will direct the episodes for The Penultimate Peril. Liza Johnson and Jonathan Teplitzky will also direct episodes in the season.
The thirteen A Series of Unfortunate Events novels, written by Daniel Handler under the pen name Lemony Snicket from 1999 to 2006, achieved success in young adult fiction around the same time as the Harry Potter novels. As such, the Snicket books had been optioned to be filmed before they were published. This led to the development of a 2004 feature film, Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events, which covered the narratives of the first three novels in the series. Barry Sonnenfeld, who has expressed his love for the series, was originally slated to direct the feature film, and had hired Handler to write the screenplay. About 10 months into production, shortly after the casting of Jim Carrey as Olaf, there was a "big crisis '', according to Handler, which caused producer Scott Rudin to walk away and Sonnenfeld left the production under unclear terms. With the film 's completion in flux, its producing studios Paramount Pictures and DreamWorks fired Handler. While the film was eventually completed and released, sequels which would adapt the other novels in the series became unlikely due to "corporate shakeups '' within DreamWorks, according to Handler, and the child actors that portrayed the Baudelaire children grew too old to star in a sequel.
In November 2014, Netflix, in association with Paramount Television, announced its plans to adapt the novels into an original television series, with the author of the series, Daniel Handler, serving as executive producer.
In September 2015, it was announced that Barry Sonnenfeld and Mark Hudis had agreed to helm the series. Hudis would serve as showrunner, Sonnenfeld as director, and both as executive producers, with Handler writing some of the scripts along with working with the series ' writing team. However, in January 2016, Netflix announced that Hudis had left the project, with a replacement showrunner not named at the time.
The first season consists of eight episodes, with two episodes adapting each of the first four books of the series. Handler considered this more in line with how he had written the books in the manner of a serialized melodrama, citing The Perils of Pauline as one of his influences in writing the book series. In January 2017, Handler revealed that he was writing the series ' second season, to consist of ten episodes adapting the fifth through ninth books of the series. A third season would adapt the remaining novels of the series, which Handler hoped "to get the go - ahead to do '' since "given how quickly young actors age and change, we 're trying to film everything as quickly as possible. '' In March 2017, Netflix revealed the series had been renewed for a second season by releasing a video on their social media pointing to a viral marketing website, where a letter written by Snicket revealed the decision. A month later, the series was "quietly '' renewed for a third season, which Harris confirmed would be the final one for the series.
On December 3, 2015, an open casting call was announced for the roles of Violet and Klaus Baudelaire. In January 2016, Netflix announced that Neil Patrick Harris had been cast as Count Olaf and Malina Weissman and Louis Hynes were cast as Violet and Klaus. Handler had first considered Harris for the role of Olaf after seeing him perform the opening number "It 's Not Just for Gays Anymore '', at the 65th Tony Awards in 2011, noting "I just immediately saw someone who could pull off a million things at once '' as was necessary for the character of Olaf, who utilizes various disguises and accents in his quest to steal the Baudelaire fortune.
In March 2016, K. Todd Freeman was cast as Mr. Poe, followed shortly after by the casting of Patrick Warburton as Lemony Snicket, and Aasif Mandvi as Uncle Monty. In September 2016, it was revealed that Dylan Kingwell and Avi Lake were cast as the Quagmire siblings, Duncan and Isadora, respectively. In November 2016, Handler revealed Catherine O'Hara, Don Johnson, and Alfre Woodard had been cast as Dr. Georgina Orwell, Sir, and Aunt Josephine, respectively; O'Hara had previously portrayed Justice Strauss in the 2004 film adaptation of A Series of Unfortunate Events. It was also revealed that Presley Smith would play Sunny Baudelaire, whose quasi-nonsensical lines are voiced by Tara Strong, and Rhys Darby would play Charles, Sir 's partner.
Production began in May 2016 in Vancouver, British Columbia, and in August 2016 several cast members expressed through social media that filming had finished. Filming for the second season began in April 2017. The third season began filming on January 5, 2018.
One aspect of the series of books that the production team wanted to be captured in the series was the notion of a lack of specific time period or geography for the settings; Handler stated that he wrote enough for establishing set pieces, but purposely left more specific details vague "in order for young readers to fill in the blanks themselves. '' Sonnenfeld wanted to capture that same sense of ambiguous time and place, and he and his team worked to try to define a set of subjective rules of what elements could be included. Sonnenfeld brought on Bo Welch, production designer for Edward Scissorhands, which Handler considered to capture the same sense of a "familiar but completely imaginary '' suburban setting he had in mind for his books. While the production team used computer - generated imagery where needed, they attempted to avoid this use where possible, such as by using large painted backdrops, by key scenic artist John E. Wilcox, rather than employing green screen filming.
In April 2016, Nick Urata was initially reported to be composing music for the series. Once the first season was released, it was revealed that Urata collaborated with Daniel Handler to compose the main title theme, "Look Away '', as well as various original songs that appear throughout the series, with Handler contributing the lyrics. The first season 's original score was composed by James Newton Howard, with his frequent collaborators Sven Faulconer and Chris Bacon filling in to score certain episodes. In the second season, Jim Dooley joined the production as composer and subsequently wrote the music for all ten episodes.
"Look Away '', the theme song for the opening titles of the series, is performed by Neil Patrick Harris. In keeping with the tone of the book series, the song warns the viewer against continuing to watch the unpleasant story any further. The lyrics of one verse of the song change for each pair of episodes, comprising a brief synopsis of those episodes ' premise.
Zoic Studios created visual effects for the series, including the effects for many of Sunny Baudelaire 's actions. Tippett Studio also did work on the series, including the effects for the destruction of Josephine 's house, landscape shots of Lake Lachrymose and some of the more movement heavy Sunny Baudelaire shots.
All eight episodes of the first season of A Series of Unfortunate Events were released worldwide on Netflix on January 13, 2017, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season was released on March 30, 2018.
On July 5, 2015 a video titled "An Unfortunate Teaser '' was uploaded to YouTube by a user named "Eleanora Poe ''. Netflix quickly released a statement saying "This was not released from Netflix. '' Media outlets were almost unanimous in agreement that the trailer was fan - made. However, Caitlin Petrakovitz of CNET argued that the trailer may be real and that Netflix 's carefully worded denial was a marketing campaign, noting the user name "Eleanora Poe '' being the same as a character from the series, and that a vinyl record seen in the trailer was of The Gothic Archies, a band who provided the theme music for the audio books of A Series of Unfortunate Events. The trailer was later revealed to be a spec promo, similar to a spec script, by an independent commercial director, whom Netflix contracted to make a title sequence for the series after the video 's popularity, though they did not go ahead with the concept.
In October 2016, Netflix released the first teaser trailer for A Series of Unfortunate Events, where Warburton narrates the events of the series as Lemony Snicket. A trailer, featuring footage from the series and Neil Patrick Harris 's character, Count Olaf, was released by Netflix in November 2016, followed shortly by the first full trailer. The second trailer was released in December 2016, followed by a "holiday - themed '' trailer from Count Olaf leading fans to a viral marketing website for the fictional Valorous Farms Dairy, which featured four holiday e-cards for download.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the first season based on people using software on their devices that measure television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, 3.755 million viewers age 18 - 49 were watching an episode of A Series of Unfortunate Events over the average minute in its first weekend of release.
The first season of A Series of Unfortunate Events received critical acclaim. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 94 % based on 62 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Enjoyably dark, A Series of Unfortunate Events matches the source material 's narrative as well as its tone, leaving viewers with a wonderfully weird, dry, gothic comedy. '' On Metacritic the season has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the season a B and praised it for treating "mature themes like grief, loss, and disappointment with sardonic honesty. '' Adams compared the program positively to the Adam West Batman series, calling it "kids stuff with adult sophistication, driven by two - part stories, outrageous visuals, and the scenery - chewing of big - name guest stars ''. Ben Travers of Indiewire gave the series an A -, saying that it "proves as inspirational and endearing as it claims to be forlorn and heartbreaking ''. Brian Lowry of CNN praised the showrunners for "infusing the show with a lemony - fresh feel, conjuring a series similar to the fantastical tone of Pushing Daisies ''. Lowry wrote that "the show proves a good deal of fun '' and that "Harris dives into his over-the - top character with considerable gusto. '' He also argued that the series improved upon the 2004 film.
Several critics praised the television series as a better adaptation of the books than the 2004 feature film, which starred Jim Carrey as Count Olaf. Kelly Lawler of USA Today felt the television format gave the stories more room to develop, the addition of Warburton as the fourth wall - breaking Snicket helped to convey some of the wordplay humor used in the books, and Harris 's portrayal of Olaf was "much more dynamic, and creepier '' than Carrey 's version. The Verge 's Chaim Gartenburg said that the show follows the books much more faithfully than the film, and "nails down the tone that made the stories so special ''. Los Angeles Times writer Robert Lloyd felt that the backgrounds of Sonnenfeld and Welch made them "the right people for this job, set in a milieu that is hard to fix in time, except to say it is not now '', in capturing the tones of the book compared to the feature film.
Nick Allen of RogerEbert.com, on the other hand, gave the series a negative review, calling it "an unfunny parody of sadness '' that is "never as clever as it wants to be '' and would only appeal to fans of the books. Caroline Framke of Vox Media praised the series for its unique and weird visuals, but found the show 's tone, pacing and performances to be haphazard and considered the show to be "literally, a series of unfortunate events ''.
As with the first season, the second season of A Series of Unfortunate Events received critical acclaim. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the second season an approval rating of 100 % based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8 / 10. Clarisse Loughrey of The Independent praised the show as one that "essentially deals with thoughtful, intelligent young people battling to speak up against an illogical world. '' While observing that the "show may revel in the miserable '', she opined "that the purpose of its own morbidity is to offer the assurance that hope lives in even the darkest of places. '' Loughrey also credited the show 's expanded storyline for the Baudelaires ' adult allies for "plumping up '' the episodes ' narrative arcs and deepening the show 's emotional impact.
Tristram Fane Saunders of The Telegraph awarded the second season four out of five stars. He described the show as a "gothic treat (that) also offers a wicked line in absurdist humour, and the most gorgeously toybox - like set designs you 'll find anywhere outside a Wes Anderson film. '' Radio Times reviewer Huw Fullerton praised the series for its faithfulness to the original novels. While praising the improved CGI used to make Presley Smith 's character Sunny Baudelaire react better to situations, he criticized the addition of supporting "good '' characters such as Nathan Fillion 's Jacques Snicket and Sara Canning 's Jacquelyn for "undercutting the bleakness and loneliness that characterized the novels. ''
Rohan Naahar of the Hindustan Times described A Series of Unfortunate Events as "one of the most lavish originals in Netflix 's bottomless catalogue, created by fans, for fans. '' He also praised Neil Patrick Harris ' performance as Count Olaf. The Den of Geek reviewer Michael Ahr praised tortoise - shell ' amphibiophones ' and stone marimbas score for giving the television series its primal sound. IGN reviewer Jonathon Dornbush criticized the second season 's formulaic plot structure and lack of the insightful observations compared to the first season. He also praised several of the second season 's episodes particularly "The Ersatz Elevator '', "The Hostile Hospital '', and "The Carnivorous Carnival '' for smartly twisting the story formula and deepening the novel series ' mythology. Dornbush also praised the performance of guest stars such as Lucy Punch and Patrick Warburton and awarded the second season 7.2 stars.
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who built the first film studio in hollywood | Film studio - wikipedia
A film studio (also known as movie studio or simply studio) is a major entertainment company or motion picture company that has its own privately owned studio facility or facilities that are used to make films, which is handled by the production company. The majority of firms in the entertainment industry have never owned their own studios, but have rented space from other companies.
There are also independently owned studio facilities, who have never produced a motion picture of their own because they are not entertainment companies or motion picture companies; they are companies who sell only studio space.
The largest film studio in the world is Ramoji Film City, in Hyderabad, India.
In 1893, Thomas Edison built the first movie studio in the United States when he constructed the Black Maria, a tarpaper - covered structure near his laboratories in West Orange, New Jersey, and asked circus, vaudeville, and dramatic actors to perform for the camera. He distributed these movies at vaudeville theaters, penny arcades, wax museums, and fairgrounds. The pioneering Thanhouser film studio was founded in New Rochelle, New York in 1909 by American theatrical impresario Edwin Thanhouser. The company produced and released 1,086 films between 1910 and 1917, successfully distributing them around the world. The first film serial ever, The Million Dollar Mystery, was released by the Thanhouser company in 1914.
In the early 1900s, companies started moving to Los Angeles, California. Although electric lights were by then widely available, none were yet powerful enough to adequately expose film; the best source of illumination for motion picture production was natural sunlight. Some movies were shot on the roofs of buildings in Downtown Los Angeles. Early movie producers also relocated to Southern California to escape Edison 's Motion Picture Patents Company, which controlled almost all the patents relevant to movie production at the time.
The first movie studio in the Hollywood area was Nestor Studios, opened in 1911 by Al Christie for David Horsley. In the same year, another 15 independents settled in Hollywood. Other production companies eventually settled in the Los Angeles area in places such as Culver City, Burbank, and what would soon become known as Studio City in the San Fernando Valley.
The Big 5
By the mid-1920s, the evolution of a handful of American production companies into wealthy motion picture industry conglomerates that owned their own studios, distribution divisions, and theaters, and contracted with performers and other filmmaking personnel, led to the sometimes confusing equation of "studio '' with "production company '' in industry slang. Five large companies, 20th Century Fox, RKO Pictures, Paramount Pictures, Warner Bros., and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer came to be known as the "Big Five, '' the "majors, '' or "the Studios '' in trade publications such as Variety, and their management structures and practices collectively came to be known as the "studio system. ''
The Little 3
Although they owned few or no theaters to guarantee sales of their films, Universal Pictures, Columbia Pictures, and United Artists also fell under these rubrics, making a total of eight generally recognized "major studios ''. United Artists, although its controlling partners owned not one but two production studios during the Golden Age, had an often - tenuous hold on the title of "major '' and operated mainly as a backer and distributor of independently produced films.
Smaller studios operated simultaneously with "the majors. '' These included operations such as Republic Pictures, active from 1935, which produced films that occasionally matched the scale and ambition of the larger studio, and Monogram Pictures, which specialized in series and genre releases. Together with smaller outfits such as PRC TKO and Grand National, the minor studios filled the demand for B movies and are sometimes collectively referred to as Poverty Row.
The Big Five 's ownership of movie theaters was eventually opposed by eight independent producers, including Samuel Goldwyn, David O. Selznick, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, and Walter Wanger. In 1948, the federal government won a case against Paramount in the Supreme Court, which ruled that the vertically integrated structure of the movie industry constituted an illegal monopoly. This decision, reached after twelve years of litigation, hastened the end of the studio system and Hollywood 's "Golden Age ''.
By the 1950s, the physical components of a typical major film studio had become standardized. Since then, a major film studio has usually been housed inside a physically secure compound with a high wall, which protects filmmaking operations from unwanted interference from paparazzi and crazed fans of leading movie stars. Movement in and out of the studio is normally limited to specific gates (often capped with grand decorative arches), where visitors must stop at a boom barrier and explain the purpose of their visit to a security guard. Studio premises generally feature multiple sound stages along with an outside backlot, as well as offices for studio executives and production companies. There is normally a studio "commissary '', which is the traditional term in the film industry for what other industries call a company cafeteria. Early nitrate film was notoriously flammable, and sets were and are still very flammable, which is why film studios built in the early - to - mid 20th century have water towers to facilitate firefighting.
Halfway through the 1950s, with television proving to be a lucrative enterprise not destined to disappear any time soon -- as many in the film industry had once hoped -- movie studios were increasingly being used to produce programming for the burgeoning medium. Some midsize film companies, such as Republic Pictures, eventually sold their studios to TV production concerns, which were eventually bought by larger studios, such as the American Broadcasting Company which was purchased by The Walt Disney Company in 1996.
With the growing diversification of studios into such fields as video games, television, theme parks, home video and publishing, they have become multi-national corporations. As the studios increased in size they began to rely on production companies, like J.J. Abrams ' Bad Robot Productions, to handle many of the creative and physical production details of their feature films. Instead the studios transformed into financing and distribution entities for the films made by their affiliated production companies. With the decreasing cost of CG and visual effects, many studios sold large chunks of their once massive studio spaces or backlots to private real - estate developers. Century City in Los Angeles was once part of the 20th Century Fox backlot, which was among the largest and most famous of the studio lots. In most cases portions of the backlots were retained and are available for rental by various film and television productions. Some studios offer tours of their backlots, while Universal Pictures allows visitors to its adjacent Universal Studios Hollywood theme park to take a tram tour of the backlot where films such as Psycho and Back to the Future were once shot.
In the 1980s and 90s, as the cost of professional 16mm film equipment decreased, along with the emergence of non-film innovations such as S - VHS and Mini-DV cameras, many young filmmakers began to make films outside the "studio system ''. Filmmakers such as Jim Jarmusch, Robert Rodriguez, Steven Soderbergh, Quentin Tarantino, Kevin Smith and Richard Linklater made films that pushed boundaries in ways the studios were then reluctant to do. In response to these films, many distributed by "mini-studios '' like Miramax, the "majors '' created their own in - house mini-studios meant to focus on edgier "independent '' content. Focus Features was created by Universal Pictures and Fox Searchlight was created by 20th Century Fox for this purpose.
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what was the lowest score at the masters | List of Masters tournament champions - wikipedia
The Masters Tournament is a golf competition that was established in 1934, with Horton Smith winning the inaugural tournament. The Masters is the first of four major championships to be played each year, with the final round of the Masters always being scheduled for the second Sunday in April. The Masters is the only one of the four majors to use the same course every year; the Augusta National Golf Club. Masters champions are automatically invited to play in the other three majors (the U.S. Open, the Open Championship (British Open), and the PGA Championship) for the next five years, and earn a lifetime invitation to the Masters. They also receive membership on the PGA Tour for the following five seasons and invitations to the Players Championship for the five years following their victory. The champion also receives the "Green Jacket '', the first one being won by Sam Snead in 1949. The champion takes the jacket home for a year and returns it thereafter. A multiple - time champion will only have one jacket unless his size changes dramatically.
Jack Nicklaus holds the record for the most Masters victories, winning the tournament six times during his career. Nicklaus is also the oldest winner of the Masters: he was 46 years 82 days old when he won in 1986. Nicklaus, Nick Faldo, and Tiger Woods co-hold the record for most consecutive victories with two. Woods was the youngest winner of the Masters, 21 years 104 days old when he won in 1997. Woods also set the record for the widest winning margin (12 strokes), and the lowest winning score, with 270, 18 below par (- 18) in 1997. The latter was equaled by Jordan Spieth in 2015.
The highest winning score of 289 (+ 1) was originally set by Sam Snead in 1954, it was equalled by Jack Burke Jr. in 1956, and Zach Johnson in 2007. Five golfers have won the Masters wire - to - wire; Craig Wood in 1941, Arnold Palmer in 1960, Nicklaus in 1972, Raymond Floyd in 1976, and Jordan Spieth in 2015. Other players have led wire - to - wire if ties after a round are included, most recently Trevor Immelman in the 2008 Masters Tournament.
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what are the goals of second language acquisition | Second - language acquisition - wikipedia
Second - language acquisition (SLA), second - language learning, or L2 (language 2) acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. Second - language acquisition is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. The field of second - language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, but also receives research attention from a variety of other disciplines, such as psychology and education.
A central theme in SLA research is that of interlanguage, the idea that the language that learners use is not simply the result of differences between the languages that they already know and the language that they are learning, but that it is a complete language system in its own right, with its own systematic rules. This interlanguage gradually develops as learners are exposed to the targeted language. The order in which learners acquire features of their new language stays remarkably constant, even for learners with different native languages, and regardless of whether they have had language instruction. However, languages that learners already know can have a significant influence on the process of learning a new one. This influence is known as language transfer.
The primary factor driving SLA appears to be the language input that learners receive. Learners become more advanced the longer they are immersed in the language they are learning, and the more time they spend doing free voluntary reading. The input hypothesis developed by linguist Stephen Krashen makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning (acquisition -- learning distinction), claiming that acquisition is a subconscious process, whereas learning is a conscious one. According to this hypothesis, the acquisition process in L2 (Language 2) is the same as L1 (Language 1) acquisition. The learning process is consciously learning and inputting the language being learned. However, this goes as far as to state that input is all that is required for acquisition. Subsequent work, such as the interaction hypothesis and the comprehensible output hypothesis, has suggested that opportunities for output and for interaction may also be necessary for learners to reach more advanced levels.
Research on how exactly learners acquire a new language spans a number of different areas. Focus is directed toward providing proof of whether basic linguistic skills are innate (nature), acquired (nurture), or a combination of the two attributes. Cognitive approaches to SLA research deal with the processes in the brain that underpin language acquisition, for example how paying attention to language affects the ability to learn it, or how language acquisition is related to short - term and long - term memory. Sociocultural approaches reject the notion that SLA is a purely psychological phenomenon, and attempt to explain it in a social context. Some key social factors that influence SLA are the level of immersion, connection to the L2 community, and gender. Linguistic approaches consider language separately from other kinds of knowledge, and attempt to use findings from the wider study of linguistics to explain SLA. There is also a considerable body of research about how SLA can be affected by individual factors such as age and learning strategies. A commonly discussed topic regarding age in SLA is the critical period hypothesis, which suggests that individuals lose the ability to fully learn a language after a particular age in childhood. Another topic of interest in SLA is the differences between adult and child learners. Learning strategies are commonly categorized as learning or communicative strategies, and are developed to improve their respective acquisition skills. Affective factors are emotional factors that influence an individual 's ability to learn a new language. Common affective factors that influence acquisition are anxiety, personality, social attitudes, and motivation.
Individuals may also lose a language through a process called second - language attrition. This is often caused by lack of use or exposure to a language over time. The severity of attrition depends on a variety of factors including level of proficiency, age, social factors, and motivation at the time of acquisition. Finally, classroom research deals with the effect that language instruction has on acquisition.
Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person 's first language; although the concept is named second - language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subsequent languages. Second - language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching, although teaching can affect acquisition. The term acquisition was originally used to emphasize the non-conscious nature of the learning process, but in recent years learning and acquisition have become largely synonymous.
SLA can incorporate heritage language learning, but it does not usually incorporate bilingualism. Most SLA researchers see bilingualism as being the end result of learning a language, not the process itself, and see the term as referring to native - like fluency. Writers in fields such as education and psychology, however, often use bilingualism loosely to refer to all forms of multilingualism. SLA is also not to be contrasted with the acquisition of a foreign language; rather, the learning of second languages and the learning of foreign languages involve the same fundamental processes in different situations.
The academic discipline of second - language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics. It is broad - based and relatively new. As well as the various branches of linguistics, second - language acquisition is also closely related to psychology, cognitive psychology, and education. To separate the academic discipline from the learning process itself, the terms second - language acquisition research, second - language studies, and second - language acquisition studies are also used.
SLA research began as an interdisciplinary field, and because of this it is difficult to identify a precise starting date. However, two papers in particular are seen as instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: Pit Corder 's 1967 essay The Significance of Learners ' Errors, and Larry Selinker 's 1972 article Interlanguage. The field saw a great deal of development in the following decades. Since the 1980s, SLA has been studied from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, and theoretical perspectives. In the early 2000s, some research suggested an equivalence between the acquisition of human languages and that of computer languages (e.g. Java) by children in the 5 to 11 year age window, though this has not been widely accepted among educators. Significant approaches in the field today are: systemic functional linguistics, sociocultural theory, cognitive linguistics, Noam Chomsky 's universal grammar, skill acquisition theory and connectionism.
There has been much debate about exactly how language is learned, and many issues are still unresolved. There are many theories of second - language acquisition, but none are accepted as a complete explanation by all SLA researchers. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field of SLA, this is not expected to happen in the foreseeable future. Although attempts have been made to provide a more unified account that tries to bridge first language acquisition and second language learning research.
Stephen Krashen divides the process of second - language acquisition into five stages: preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency. The first stage, preproduction, is also known as the silent period. Learners at this stage have a receptive vocabulary of up to 500 words, but they do not yet speak their second language. Not all learners go through a silent period. Some learners start speaking straight away, although their output may consist of imitation rather than creative language use. Others may be required to speak from the start as part of a language course. For learners that do go through a silent period, it may last around three to six months.
The second of Krashen 's stages of acquisition is early production, during which learners are able to speak in short phrases of one or two words. They can also memorize chunks of language, although they may make mistakes when using them. Learners typically have both an active and receptive vocabulary of around 1000 words. This stage normally lasts for around six months.
The third stage is speech emergence. Learners ' vocabularies increase to around 3000 words during this stage, and they can communicate using simple questions and phrases. They may often make grammatical errors.
The fourth stage is intermediate fluency. At this stage, learners have a vocabulary of around 6000 words, and can use more complicated sentence structures. They are also able to share their thoughts and opinions. Learners may make frequent errors with more complicated sentence structures.
The final stage is advanced fluency, which is typically reached somewhere between five and ten years of learning the language. Learners at this stage can function at a level close to native speakers.
Krashen has also developed a number of hypotheses discussing the nature of second language learners ' thought processes and the development of self - awareness during second language acquisition. The most prominent of these hypotheses are Monitor Theory and the Affective Filter hypothesis.
The time taken to reach a high level of proficiency can vary depending on the language learned. In the case of native English speakers, some estimates were provided by the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) of the U.S. Department of State, which compiled approximate learning expectations for a number of languages for their professional staff (native English speakers who generally already know other languages). Of the 63 languages analyzed, the five most difficult languages to reach proficiency in speaking and reading, requiring 88 weeks (2200 class hours), are Arabic, Cantonese, Mandarin, Japanese, and Korean. The Foreign Service Institute and the National Virtual Translation Center both note that Japanese is typically more difficult to learn than other languages in this group.
Adults who learn a second language differ from children learning their first language in at least three ways: children are still developing their brains whereas adults have mature minds, and adults have at least a first language that orients their thinking and speaking. Although some adult second - language learners reach very high levels of proficiency, pronunciation tends to be non-native. This lack of native pronunciation in adult learners is explained by the critical period hypothesis. When a learner 's speech plateaus, it is known as fossilization.
Some errors that second - language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English may say "Is raining '' rather than "It is raining '', leaving out the subject of the sentence. This kind of influence of the first language on the second is known as negative language transfer. French speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake of leaving out "it '' in "It is raining. '' This is because pronominal and impersonal sentence subjects can be omitted (or as in this case, are not used in the first place) in Spanish but not in French. The French speaker knowing to use a pronominal sentence subject when speaking English is an example of positive language transfer. It is important to note that not all errors occur in the same ways; even two individuals with the same native language learning the same second language still have the potential to utilize different parts of their native language. Likewise, these same two individuals may develop near - native fluency in different forms of grammar.
Also, when people learn a second language, the way they speak their first language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to the gestures the learner makes and the language features they tend to notice. For example, French speakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the / t / sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers. This kind of change in pronunciation has been found even at the onset of second - language acquisition; for example, English speakers pronounced the English / ptk / sounds, as well as English vowels, differently after they began to learn Korean. These effects of the second language on the first led Vivian Cook to propose the idea of multi-competence, which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind.
Learner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second - language acquisition research. Much research in second - language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yet possible to inspect these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners ' speech or writing.
Originally, attempts to describe learner language were based on comparing different languages and on analyzing learners ' errors. However, these approaches were n't able to predict all the errors that learners made when in the process of learning a second language. For example, Serbo - Croat speakers learning English may say "What does Pat doing now? '', although this is not a valid sentence in either language.
To explain this kind of systematic error, the idea of the interlanguage was developed. An interlanguage is an emerging language system in the mind of a second - language learner. A learner 's interlanguage is not a deficient version of the language being learned filled with random errors, nor is it a language purely based on errors introduced from the learner 's first language. Rather, it is a language in its own right, with its own systematic rules. It is possible to view most aspects of language from an interlanguage perspective, including grammar, phonology, lexicon, and pragmatics.
There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguages:
The concept of interlanguage has become very widespread in SLA research, and is often a basic assumption made by researchers.
In the 1970s, several studies investigated the order in which learners acquired different grammatical structures. These studies showed that there was little change in this order among learners with different first languages. Furthermore, it showed that the order was the same for adults and children, and that it did not even change if the learner had language lessons. This supported the idea that there were factors other than language transfer involved in learning second languages, and was a strong confirmation of the concept of interlanguage.
However, the studies did not find that the orders were exactly the same. Although there were remarkable similarities in the order in which all learners learned second - language grammar, there were still some differences among individuals and among learners with different first languages. It is also difficult to tell when exactly a grammatical structure has been learned, as learners may use structures correctly in some situations but not in others. Thus it is more accurate to speak of sequences of acquisition, in which specific grammatical features in a language are acquired before or after certain others but the overall order of acquisition is less rigid. For example, if neither feature B nor feature D can be acquired until feature A has been acquired and if feature C can not be acquired until feature B has been acquired but if the acquisition of feature D does not require the possession of feature B (or, therefore, of feature C), then both acquisition order (A, B, C, D) and acquisition order (A, D, B, C) are possible.
Although second - language acquisition proceeds in discrete sequences, it does not progress from one step of a sequence to the next in an orderly fashion. There can be considerable variability in features of learners ' interlanguage while progressing from one stage to the next. For example, in one study by Rod Ellis a learner used both "No look my card '' and "Do n't look my card '' while playing a game of bingo. A small fraction of variation in interlanguage is free variation, when the learner uses two forms interchangeably. However, most variation is systemic variation, variation that depends on the context of utterances the learner makes. Forms can vary depending on linguistic context, such as whether the subject of a sentence is a pronoun or a noun; they can vary depending on social context, such as using formal expressions with superiors and informal expressions with friends; and also, they can vary depending on psycholinguistic context, or in other words, on whether learners have the chance to plan what they are going to say. The causes of variability are a matter of great debate among SLA researchers.
One important difference between first - language acquisition and second - language acquisition is that the process of second - language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows. This influence is known as language transfer. Language transfer is a complex phenomenon resulting from interaction between learners ' prior linguistic knowledge, the target - language input they encounter, and their cognitive processes. Language transfer is not always from the learner 's native language; it can also be from a second language, or a third. Neither is it limited to any particular domain of language; language transfer can occur in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, discourse, and reading.
Language transfer often occurs when learners sense a similarity between a feature of a language they already know and a feature of the interlanguage they have developed. If this happens, the acquisition of more complicated language forms may be delayed in favor of simpler language forms that resemble those of the language the learner is familiar with. Learners may also decline to use some language forms at all if they are perceived as being too distant from their first language.
Language transfer has been the subject of several studies, and many aspects of it remain unexplained. Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain language transfer, but there is no single widely accepted explanation of why it occurs.
The primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the input that the learner receives. Stephen Krashen took a very strong position on the importance of input, asserting that comprehensible input is all that is necessary for second - language acquisition. Krashen pointed to studies showing that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners ' vocabulary, grammar, and writing. Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the universal grammar model.
The type of input may also be important. One tenet of Krashen 's theory is that input should not be grammatically sequenced. He claims that such sequencing, as found in language classrooms where lessons involve practicing a "structure of the day '', is not necessary, and may even be harmful.
While input is of vital importance, Krashen 's assertion that only input matters in second - language acquisition has been contradicted by more recent research. For example, students enrolled in French - language immersion programs in Canada still produced non-native - like grammar when they spoke, even though they had years of meaning - focused lessons and their listening skills were statistically native - level. Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge. These processes have been codified in the theory of comprehensible output.
Researchers have also pointed to interaction in the second language as being important for acquisition. According to Long 's interaction hypothesis the conditions for acquisition are especially good when interacting in the second language; specifically, conditions are good when a breakdown in communication occurs and learners must negotiate for meaning. The modifications to speech arising from interactions like this help make input more comprehensible, provide feedback to the learner, and push learners to modify their speech.
Much modern research in second - language acquisition has taken a cognitive approach. Cognitive research is concerned with the mental processes involved in language acquisition, and how they can explain the nature of learners ' language knowledge. This area of research is based in the more general area of cognitive science, and uses many concepts and models used in more general cognitive theories of learning. As such, cognitive theories view second - language acquisition as a special case of more general learning mechanisms in the brain. This puts them in direct contrast with linguistic theories, which posit that language acquisition uses a unique process different from other types of learning.
The dominant model in cognitive approaches to second - language acquisition, and indeed in all second - language acquisition research, is the computational model. The computational model involves three stages. In the first stage, learners retain certain features of the language input in short - term memory. (This retained input is known as intake.) Then, learners convert some of this intake into second - language knowledge, which is stored in long - term memory. Finally, learners use this second - language knowledge to produce spoken output. Cognitive theories attempt to codify both the nature of the mental representations of intake and language knowledge, and the mental processes that underlie these stages.
In the early days of second - language acquisition research on interlanguage was seen as the basic representation of second - language knowledge; however, more recent research has taken a number of different approaches in characterizing the mental representation of language knowledge. There are theories that hypothesize that learner language is inherently variable, and there is the functionalist perspective that sees acquisition of language as intimately tied to the function it provides. Some researchers make the distinction between implicit and explicit language knowledge, and some between declarative and procedural language knowledge. There have also been approaches that argue for a dual - mode system in which some language knowledge is stored as rules, and other language knowledge as items.
The mental processes that underlie second - language acquisition can be broken down into micro-processes and macro-processes. Micro-processes include attention; working memory; integration and restructuring. Restructuring is the process by which learners change their interlanguage systems; and monitoring is the conscious attending of learners to their own language output. Macro-processes include the distinction between intentional learning and incidental learning; and also the distinction between explicit and implicit learning. Some of the notable cognitive theories of second - language acquisition include the nativization model, the multidimensional model and processability theory, emergentist models, the competition model, and skill - acquisition theories.
Other cognitive approaches have looked at learners ' speech production, particularly learners ' speech planning and communication strategies. Speech planning can have an effect on learners ' spoken output, and research in this area has focused on how planning affects three aspects of speech: complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Of these three, planning effects on fluency has had the most research attention. Communication strategies are conscious strategies that learners employ to get around any instances of communication breakdown they may experience. Their effect on second - language acquisition is unclear, with some researchers claiming they help it, and others claiming the opposite.
From the early days of the discipline researchers have also acknowledged that social aspects play an important role. There have been many different approaches to sociolinguistic study of second - language acquisition, and indeed, according to Rod Ellis, this plurality has meant that "sociolinguistic SLA is replete with a bewildering set of terms referring to the social aspects of L2 acquisition ''. Common to each of these approaches, however, is a rejection of language as a purely psychological phenomenon; instead, sociolinguistic research views the social context in which language is learned as essential for a proper understanding of the acquisition process.
Ellis identifies three types of social structure that affect acquisition of second languages: sociolinguistic setting, specific social factors, and situational factors. Sociolinguistic setting refers to the role of the second language in society, such as whether it is spoken by a majority or a minority of the population, whether its use is widespread or restricted to a few functional roles, or whether the society is predominantly bilingual or monolingual. Ellis also includes the distinction of whether the second language is learned in a natural or an educational setting. Specific social factors that can affect second - language acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic identity, with ethnic identity being the one that has received most research attention. Situational factors are those that vary between each social interaction. For example, a learner may use more polite language when talking to someone of higher social status, but more informal language when talking with friends.
Immersion programs provide a sociolinguistic setting that facilitates second - language acquisition. Immersion programs are educational programs where children are instructed in an L2 language. Although the language of instruction is the L2 language, the curriculum parallels that of non-immersion programs and clear support exists in the L1 language, as the teachers are all bilingual. The goal of these programs is to develop a high level of proficiency in both the L1 and L2 languages. Students in immersion programs have been shown to have greater levels of proficiency in their second language than students who receive second language education only as a subject in school. This is especially true in terms of their receptive skills. Also, students who join immersion programs earlier generally have greater second - language proficiency than their peers who join later. However, students who join later have been shown to gain native - like proficiency. Although immersion students ' receptive skills are especially strong, their productive skills may suffer if they spend the majority of their time listening to instruction only. Grammatical skills and the ability to have precise vocabulary are particular areas of struggle. It is argued that immersion is necessary, but not sufficient for the development of native - like proficiency in a second language. Opportunities to engage in sustained conversation, and assignments that encourage syntactical, as well as semantic development help develop the productive skills necessary for bilingual proficiency.
A learner 's sense of connection to their in - group, as well as to the community of the target language emphasize the influence of the sociolinguistic setting, as well as social factors within the second - language acquisition process. Social Identity Theory argues that an important factor for second language acquisition is the learner 's perceived identity in relation to the community of the language being learned, as well as how the community of the target language perceives the learner. Whether or not a learner feels a sense of connection to the community or culture of the target language helps determine their social distance from the target culture. A smaller social distance is likely to encourage learners to acquire the second language, as their investment in the learning process is greater. Conversely, a greater social distance discourages attempts to acquire the target language. However, negative views not only come from the learner, but the community of the target language might feel greater social distance to the learner, limiting the learner 's ability to learn the language. Whether or not bilingualism is valued by the culture or community of the learner is an important indicator for the motivation to learn a language.
Gender, as a social factor, also influences SLA. Females have been found to have higher motivation and more positive attitudes than males for second - language acquisition. However, females are also more likely to present higher levels of anxiety, which may inhibit their ability to efficiently learn a new language.
There have been several models developed to explain social effects on language acquisition. Schumann 's Acculturation Model proposes that learners ' rate of development and ultimate level of language achievement is a function of the "social distance '' and the "psychological distance '' between learners and the second - language community. In Schumann 's model the social factors are most important, but the degree to which learners are comfortable with learning the second language also plays a role. Another sociolinguistic model is Gardner 's socio - educational model, which was designed to explain classroom language acquisition. Gardner 's model focuses on the emotional aspects of SLA, arguing that positive motivation contributes to an individuals willingness to learn L2; furthermore, the goal of an individual to learn a L2 is based on the idea that the individual has a desire to be part of a culture, in other words, part of a (the targeted language) mono - linguistic community. Factors, such as integrativeness and attitudes towards the learning situation drive motivation. The outcome of positive motivation is not only linguistic, but non-linguistic, such that the learner has met the desired goal. Although there are many critics of Gardner 's model, nonetheless many of these critics have been influenced by the merits that his model holds. The inter-group model proposes "ethnolinguistic vitality '' as a key construct for second - language acquisition. Language socialization is an approach with the premise that "linguistic and cultural knowledge are constructed through each other '', and saw increased attention after the year 2000. Finally, Norton 's theory of social identity is an attempt to codify the relationship between power, identity, and language acquisition.
A unique approach to SLA is Sociocultural theory. It was originally developed by Lev Vygotsky and his followers. Central to Vygotsky 's theory is the concept of a zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD notion states that social interaction with more advanced target language users allows one to learn language at a higher level than if they were to learn language independently. Sociocultural theory has a fundamentally different set of assumptions to approaches to second - language acquisition based on the computational model. Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of mind and not of general social explanations of language acquisition. According to Ellis, "It is important to recognize... that this paradigm, despite the label ' sociocultural ' does not seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how knowledge of an L2 is internalized through experiences of a sociocultural nature. ''
Linguistic approaches to explaining second - language acquisition spring from the wider study of linguistics. They differ from cognitive approaches and sociocultural approaches in that they consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other type of knowledge. The linguistic research tradition in second - language acquisition has developed in relative isolation from the cognitive and sociocultural research traditions, and as of 2010 the influence from the wider field of linguistics was still strong. Two main strands of research can be identified in the linguistic tradition: approaches informed by universal grammar, and typological approaches.
Typological universals are principles that hold for all the world 's languages. They are found empirically, by surveying different languages and deducing which aspects of them could be universal; these aspects are then checked against other languages to verify the findings. The interlanguages of second - language learners have been shown to obey typological universals, and some researchers have suggested that typological universals may constrain interlanguage development.
The theory of universal grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and has enjoyed considerable popularity in the field of linguistics. It focuses on describing the linguistic competence of an individual. He believed that children not only acquire language by learning descriptive rules of grammar; he claimed that children creatively play and form words as they learn language, creating meaning of these words, as opposed to the mechanism of memorizing language. It consists of a set of principles, which are universal and constant, and a set of parameters, which can be set differently for different languages. The "universals '' in universal grammar differ from typological universals in that they are a mental construct derived by researchers, whereas typological universals are readily verifiable by data from world languages. It is widely accepted among researchers in the universal grammar framework that all first - language learners have access to universal grammar; this is not the case for second - language learners, however, and much research in the context of second - language acquisition has focused on what level of access learners may have.
Universal grammar theory can account for some of the observations of SLA research. For example, L2 - users often display knowledge about their L2 that they have not been exposed to. L2 - users are often aware of ambiguous or ungrammatical L2 units that they have not learned from any external source, nor from their pre-existing L1 knowledge. This unsourced knowledge suggests the existence of a universal grammar.
There is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near - native level of competence, but others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the good language learner studies in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals ' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long - standing debate.
The issue of age was first addressed with the critical period hypothesis. The strict version of this hypothesis states that there is a cut - off age at about 12, after which learners lose the ability to fully learn a language. However, the exact age marking the end of the critical period is debated, and ranges from age 6 to 13, with many arguing that it is around the onset of puberty. This strict version has since been rejected for second - language acquisition, as some adult learners have been observed who reach native - like levels of pronunciation and general fluency. However, in general, adult learners of a second - language rarely achieve the native - like fluency that children display, despite often progressing faster in the initial stages. This has led to speculation that age is indirectly related to other, more central factors that affect language learning.
Children who acquire two languages from birth are called simultaneous bilinguals. In these cases, both languages are spoken to the children by their parents or caregivers and they grow up knowing the two languages. These children generally reach linguistic milestones at the same time as their monolingual peers. Children who do not learn two languages from infancy, but learn one language from birth, and another at some point during childhood, are referred to as sequential bilinguals. People often assume that a sequential bilingual 's first language is their most proficient language, but this is not always the case. Over time and experience, a child 's second language may become his or her strongest. This is especially likely to happen if a child 's first language is a minority language spoken at home, and the child 's second language is the majority language learned at school or in the community before the age of five. Proficiency for both simultaneous and sequential bilinguals is dependent upon the child 's opportunities to engage in meaningful conversations in a variety of contexts.
Often simultaneous bilinguals are more proficient in their languages than sequential bilinguals. One argument for this is that simultaneous bilinguals develop more distinct representations of their languages, especially with regards to phonological and semantic levels of processing. This would cause learners to have more differentiation between the languages, leading them to be able to recognize the subtle differences between the languages that less proficient learners would struggle to recognize. Learning a language earlier in life would help develop these distinct representations of language, as the learner 's first language would be less established. Conversely, learning a language later in life would lead to more similar semantic representations.
Although child learners more often acquire native - like proficiency, older child and adult learners often progress faster in the initial stages of learning. Older child and adult learners are quicker at acquiring the initial grammar knowledge than child learners, however, with enough time and exposure to the language, children surpass their older peers. Once surpassed, older learners often display clear language deficiencies compared to child learners. This has been attributed to having a solid grasp on the first language or mother tongue they were first immersed into. Having this cognitive ability already developed can aid the process of learning a second language since there is a better understanding of how language works. For this same reason interaction with family and further development of the first language is encouraged along with positive reinforcement. The exact language deficiencies that occur past a certain age are not unanimously agreed upon. Some believe that only pronunciation is affected, while others believe other abilities are affected as well. However, some differences that are generally agreed upon include older learners having a noticeable accent, a smaller vocabulary, and making several linguistic errors.
One explanation for this difference in proficiency between older learners and younger learners involves Universal Grammar. Universal Grammar is a debated theory that suggests that people have innate knowledge of universal linguistic principles that is present from birth. These principles guide children as they learn a language, but its parameters vary from language to language. The theory assumes that, while Universal Grammar remains into adulthood, the ability to reset the parameters set for each language is lost, making it more difficult to learn a new language proficiently. Since adults have an already established native language, the language acquisition process is much different for them, than young learners. The rules and principles that guide the use of the learners ' native language plays a role in the way the second language is developed.
Some nonbiological explanations for second - language acquisition age differences include variations in social and psychological factors, such as motivation; the learner 's linguistic environment; and the level of exposure. Even with less advantageous nonbiological influences, many child learners attain a greater level of proficiency than adult learners with more advantageous nonbiological influences.
Considerable attention has been paid to the strategies learners use to learn a second language. Strategies have been found to be of critical importance, so much so that strategic competence has been suggested as a major component of communicative competence. Strategies are commonly divided into learning strategies and communicative strategies, although there are other ways of categorizing them. Learning strategies are techniques used to improve learning, such as mnemonics or using a dictionary. Communicative strategies are strategies a learner uses to convey meaning even when he or she does n't have access to the correct form, such as using pro-forms like thing, or using non-verbal means such as gestures. If learning strategies and communicative strategies are used properly language acquisition is successful. Some points to keep in mind while learning an additional language are: providing information that is of interest to the student, offering opportunities for the student to share their knowledge and teaching appropriate techniques for the uses of the learning resources available.
Another strategy may include intentional ways to acquire or improve official their second language skills. Adult immigrants and / or second language learners seeking to acquire a second language can engage in different activities to receive and share knowledge as well improve their learning; some of these include:
The learner 's attitude to the learning process has also been identified as being critically important to second - language acquisition. Anxiety in language - learning situations has been almost unanimously shown to be detrimental to successful learning. Anxiety interferes with the mental processing of language because the demands of anxiety - related thoughts create competition for mental resources. This results in less available storage and energy for tasks required for language processing. Not only this, but anxiety is also usually accompanied by self - deprecating thoughts and fear of failure, which can be detrimental to an individual 's ability to learn a new language. Learning a new language provides a unique situation that may even produce a specific type of anxiety, called language anxiety, that affects the quality of acquisition. Also, anxiety may be detrimental for SLA because it can influence a learner 's ability to attend to, concentrate on, and encode language information. It may affect speed and accuracy of learning. Further, the apprehension created as a result of anxiety inhibits the learner 's ability to retrieve and produce the correct information.
A related factor, personality, has also received attention. There has been discussion about the effects of extravert and introvert personalities. Extraverted qualities may help learners seek out opportunities and people to assist with L2 learning, whereas introverts may find it more difficult to seek out such opportunities for interaction. However, it has also been suggested that, while extraverts might experience greater fluency, introverts are likely to make fewer linguistic errors. Further, while extraversion might be beneficial through its encouragement of learning autonomously, it may also present challenges as learners may find reflective and time - management skills to be difficult. However, one study has found that there were no significant differences between extraverts and introverts on the way they achieve success in a second language.
Other personality factors, such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness influence self - regulation, which helps L2 learners engage, process meaning, and adapt their thoughts, feelings, and actions to benefit the acquisition process. SLA research has shown conscientiousness to be associated with time - management skills, metacognition, analytic learning, and persistence; agreeableness to effort; and openness to elaborative learning, intelligence, and metacognition. Both genetics and the learner 's environment impact the personality of the learner, either facilitating or hindering an individual 's ability to learn.
Social attitudes such as gender roles and community views toward language learning have also proven critical. Language learning can be severely hampered by cultural attitudes, with a frequently cited example being the difficulty of Navajo children in learning English.
Also, the motivation of the individual learner is of vital importance to the success of language learning. Motivation is influenced by goal salience, valence, and self - efficacy. In this context, goal salience is the importance of the L2 learner 's goal, as well as how often the goal is pursued; valence is the value the L2 learner places on SLA, determined by desire to learn and attitudes about learning the L2; and self - efficacy is the learner 's own belief that he or she is capable of achieving the linguistic goal. Studies have consistently shown that intrinsic motivation, or a genuine interest in the language itself, is more effective over the long term than extrinsic motivation, as in learning a language for a reward such as high grades or praise. However, motivation is dynamic and, as a L2 learner 's fluency develops, their extrinsic motivation may evolve to become more intrinsic. Learner motivation can develop through contact with the L2 community and culture, as learners often desire to communicate and identify with individuals in the L2 community. Further, a supportive learning environment facilitates motivation through the increase in self - confidence and autonomy. Learners in a supportive environment are more often willing to take on challenging tasks, thus encouraging L2 development.
Attrition is the loss of proficiency in a language caused by a lack of exposure to or use of a language. It is a natural part of the language experience as it exists within a dynamic environment. As the environment changes, the language adapts. One way it does this is by using L1 as a tool to navigate the periods of change associated with acquisition and attrition. A learner 's L2 is not suddenly lost with disuse, but its communicative functions are slowly replaced by those of the L1.
Similar to second - language acquisition, second - language attrition occurs in stages. However, according to the regression hypothesis, the stages of attrition occur in reverse order of acquisition. With acquisition, receptive skills develop first, and then productive skills, and with attrition, productive skills are lost first, and then receptive skills.
Age, proficiency level, and social factors play a role in the way attrition occurs. Most often younger children are quicker than adults to lose their L2 when it is left unused. However, if a child has established a high level of proficiency, it may take him or her several years to lose the language. Proficiency level seems to play the largest role in the extent of attrition. For very proficient individuals, there is a period of time where very little, if any, attrition is observed. For some, residual learning might even occur, which is the apparent improvement within the L2. Within the first five years of language disuse, the total percentage of language knowledge lost is less for a proficient individual than for someone less proficient. A cognitive psychological explanation for this suggests that a higher level of proficiency involves the use of schemas, or mental representations for linguistic structures. Schemas involve deeper mental processes for mental retrieval that are resistant to attrition. As a result, information that is tied to this system is less likely to experience less extreme attrition than information that is not. Finally, social factors may play an indirect role in attrition. In particular, motivation and attitude influence the process. Higher levels of motivation, and a positive attitude toward the language and the corresponding community may lessen attrition. This is likely due to the higher level of competence achieved in L2 when the learner is motivated and has a positive attitude.
While considerable SLA research has been devoted to language learning in a natural setting, there have also been efforts made to investigate second - language acquisition in the classroom. This kind of research has a significant overlap with language education, and it is mainly concerned with the effect that instruction has on the learner. It also explores what teachers do, the classroom context, the dynamics of classroom communication. It is both qualitative and quantitative research.
The research has been wide - ranging. There have been attempts made to systematically measure the effectiveness of language teaching practices for every level of language, from phonetics to pragmatics, and for almost every current teaching methodology. This research has indicated that many traditional language - teaching techniques are extremely inefficient. cited in Ellis 1994 It is generally agreed that pedagogy restricted to teaching grammar rules and vocabulary lists does not give students the ability to use the L2 with accuracy and fluency. Rather, to become proficient in the second language, the learner must be given opportunities to use it for communicative purposes.
Another area of research has been on the effects of corrective feedback in assisting learners. This has been shown to vary depending on the technique used to make the correction, and the overall focus of the classroom, whether on formal accuracy or on communication of meaningful content. There is also considerable interest in supplementing published research with approaches that engage language teachers in action research on learner language in their own classrooms. As teachers become aware of the features of learner language produced by their students, they can refine their pedagogical intervention to maximize interlanguage development.
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when was the first electric car made in the usa | History of the electric vehicle - wikipedia
Electric vehicles first appeared in the mid-19th century. An electric vehicle held the vehicular land speed record until around 1900. The high cost, low top speed, and short range of battery electric vehicles, compared to later internal combustion engine vehicles, led to a worldwide decline in their use; although electric vehicles have continued to be used in the form of electric trains and other niche uses.
At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in electric and other alternative fuel vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with hydrocarbon - fueled vehicles, including damage to the environment caused by their emissions, and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon - based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology. Since 2010, combined sales of all - electric cars and utility vans achieved 1 million units delivered globally in September 2016.
The invention of the first model electric vehicle is attributed to various people. In 1828, Ányos Jedlik, a Hungarian who invented an early type of electric motor, created a small model car powered by his new motor. In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport built a similar contraption which operated on a short, circular, electrified track. In 1834, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small - scale electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.
The first known electric car was built in 1837, in Scotland by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen. It was powered by galvanic cells (batteries). Davidson later built a larger locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The 7,100 - kilogram (7 - long - ton) vehicle had two direct - drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple commutators. It hauled a load of 6,100 kilograms (6 long tons) at 6.4 kilometres per hour (4 mph) for a distance of 2.4 km (1.5 miles). It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their security of employment.
Between 1832 and 1839, Scottish inventor Robert Anderson also invented a crude electrical carriage. A patent for the use of rails as conductors of electric current was granted in England in 1840, and similar patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in the United States in 1847.
Rechargeable batteries that provided a viable means for storing electricity on board a vehicle did not come into being until 1859, with the invention of the lead -- acid battery by French physicist Gaston Planté. Camille Alphonse Faure, another French scientist, significantly improved the design of the battery in 1881; his improvements greatly increased the capacity of such batteries and led directly to their manufacture on an industrial scale.
An early electric - powered two - wheel cycle was put on display at the 1867 World Exposition in Paris by the Austrian inventor Franz Kravogl, but it was regarded as a curiosity and could not drive reliably in the street. Another cycle, this time with three wheels, was tested along a Paris street in April 1881 by French inventor Gustave Trouvé
English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the London Underground, overhead tramways in Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel coalite, built the first production electric car in London in 1884, using his own specially designed high - capacity rechargeable batteries. Parker 's long - held interest in the construction of more fuel - efficient vehicles led him to experiment with electric vehicles. He also may have been concerned about the malign effects smoke and pollution were having in London.
Production of the car was in the hands of the Elwell - Parker Company, established in 1882 for the construction and sale of electric trams. The company merged with other rivals in 1888 to form the Electric Construction Corporation; this company had a virtual monopoly on the British electric car market in the 1890s. The company manufactured the first electric ' dog cart ' in 1896.
France and the United Kingdom were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles. The first electric car in Germany was built by the engineer Andreas Flocken in 1888.
Electric trains were also used to transport coal out of mines, as their motors did not use up precious oxygen. Before the pre-eminence of internal combustion engines, electric automobiles also held many speed and distance records. Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km / h (62 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on 29 April 1899 in his ' rocket - shaped ' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km / h (65.79 mph). Also notable was Ferdinand Porsche 's design and construction of an all - wheel drive electric car, powered by a motor in each hub, which also set several records in the hands of its owner E.W. Hart.
The first electric car in the United States was developed in 1890 - 91 by William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa; the vehicle was a six - passenger wagon capable of reaching a speed of 23 kilometres per hour (14 mph). It was not until 1895 that consumers began to devote attention to electric vehicles, after A.L. Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S., by which point Europeans had been making use of electric tricycles, bicycles, and cars for almost 15 years.
Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly in the late 1890s and early 1900s. Electric battery - powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. In London, Walter C. Bersey designed a fleet of such cabs and introduced them to the streets of London in 1897. They were soon nicknamed "Hummingbirds '' due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made. In the same year in New York City, the Samuel 's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric hansom cabs. The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company.
Electric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early - 1900s competitors. They did not have the vibration, smell, and noise associated with gasoline cars. They also did not require gear changes. (While steam - powered cars also had no gear shifting, they suffered from long start - up times of up to 45 minutes on cold mornings.) The cars were also preferred because they did not require a manual effort to start, as did gasoline cars which featured a hand crank to start the engine.
Electric cars found popularity among well - heeled customers who used them as city cars, where their limited range proved to be even less of a disadvantage. Electric cars were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their ease of operation; in fact, early electric cars were stigmatized by the perception that they were "women 's cars '', leading some companies to affix radiators to the front to disguise the car 's propulsion system.
Acceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. In the United States by the turn of the century, 40 percent of automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. A total of 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, and America became the country where electric cars had gained the most acceptance. Most early electric vehicles were massive, ornate carriages designed for the upper - class customers that made them popular. They featured luxurious interiors and were replete with expensive materials. Sales of electric cars peaked in the early 1910s.
In order to overcome the limited operating range of electric vehicles, and the lack of recharging infrastructure, an exchangeable battery service was first proposed as early as 1896. The concept was first put into practice by Hartford Electric Light Company through the GeVeCo battery service and initially available for electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle from General Vehicle Company (GVC, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company) without a battery and the electricity was purchased from Hartford Electric through an exchangeable battery. The owner paid a variable per - mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover maintenance and storage of the truck. Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The service was provided between 1910 and 1924 and during that period covered more than 6 million miles. Beginning in 1917 a similar successful service was operated in Chicago for owners of Milburn Wagon Company cars who also could buy the vehicle without the batteries.
After enjoying success at the beginning of the 20th century, the electric car began to lose its position in the automobile market. A number of developments contributed to this situation. By the 1920s an improved road infrastructure required vehicles with a greater range than that offered by electric cars. Worldwide discoveries of large petroleum reserves led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline, making gas - powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric cars were limited to urban use by their slow speed (no more than 24 -- 32 km / h or 15 -- 20 mph.) and low range (30 -- 40 miles or 50 -- 65 km), and gasoline cars were now able to travel farther and faster than equivalent electrics.
Gasoline cars became even easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler, which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. Finally, the initiation of mass production of gas - powered vehicles by Henry Ford brought their price down. By contrast, the price of similar electric vehicles continued to rise; by 1912, an electric car sold for almost double the price of a gasoline car.
Most electric car makers stopped production at some point in the 1910s. Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where their limited range did not pose major problems. Forklift trucks were electrically powered when they were introduced by Yale in 1923. In Europe, especially the United Kingdom, milk floats were powered by electricity, and for most of the 20th century the majority of the world 's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats. Electric golf carts were produced by Lektro as early as 1954. By the 1920s, the early heyday of electric cars had passed, and a decade later, the electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. Michael Brian examines the social and technological reasons for the failure of electric cars in his book Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America.
Years passed without a major revival in the use of electric cars. Fuel - starved European countries fighting in World War II experimented with electric cars such as the British milk floats and the French Breguet Aviation car, but overall, while ICE development progressed at a brisk pace, electric vehicle technology stagnated. In the late 1950s, Henney Coachworks and the National Union Electric Company, makers of Exide batteries, formed a joint venture to produce a new electric car, the Henney Kilowatt, based on the French Renault Dauphine. The car was produced in 36 - volt and 72 - volt configurations; the 72 - volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km / h (60 mph) and could travel for nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt 's improved performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it too expensive compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production ended in 1961.
In 1959, American Motors Corporation (AMC) and Sonotone Corporation announced a joint research effort to consider producing an electric car powered by a "self - charging '' battery. AMC had a reputation for innovation in economical cars while Sonotone had technology for making sintered plate nickel - cadmium batteries that could be recharged rapidly and weighed less than traditional lead - acid versions. That same year, Nu - Way Industries showed an experimental electric car with a one - piece plastic body that was to begin production in early 1960.
In the mid 1960s a few battery - electric concept cars appeared, such as the Scottish Aviation Scamp (1965), and an electric version of General Motors gasoline car, the Electrovair (1966). None of them entered production. The 1966 Enfield 8000 did make it into small - scale production, 112 were eventually produced.In 1967, AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on lithium and a speed controller designed by Victor Wouk. A nickel - cadmium battery supplied power to an all - electric 1969 Rambler American station wagon. Other "plug - in '' experimental AMC vehicles developed with Gulton included the Amitron (1967) and the similar Electron (1977).
On 31 July 1971, an electric car received the unique distinction of becoming the first manned vehicle to drive on the Moon; that car was the Lunar rover, which was first deployed during the Apollo 15 mission. The "moon buggy '' was developed by Boeing and GM subsidiary Delco Electronics (co-founded by Kettering) featured a DC drive motor in each wheel, and a pair of 36 - volt silver - zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries.
After years outside the limelight, the energy crises of the 1970s and 1980s brought about renewed interest in the perceived independence electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market. General Motors created a concept car of another of their gasoline cars, the Electrovette (1976). At the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show, General Motors President Roger Smith unveiled the GM Impact electric concept car, along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.
In the early 1990s, the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the government of California 's "clean air agency '', began a push for more fuel - efficient, lower - emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero - emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles. In response, automakers developed electric models, including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1 and S10 EV pickup, Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan lithium - battery Altra EV miniwagon and Toyota RAV4 EV. The automakers were accused of pandering to the wishes of CARB in order to continue to be allowed to sell cars in the lucrative Californian market, while failing to adequately promote their electric vehicles in order to create the impression that the consumers were not interested in the cars, all the while joining oil industry lobbyists in vigorously protesting CARB 's mandate. GM 's program came under particular scrutiny; in an unusual move, consumers were not allowed to purchase EV1s, but were instead asked to sign closed - end leases, meaning that the cars had to be returned to GM at the end of the lease period, with no option to purchase, despite leasee interest in continuing to own the cars. Chrysler, Toyota, and a group of GM dealers sued CARB in Federal court, leading to the eventual neutering of CARB 's ZEV Mandate.
After public protests by EV drivers ' groups upset by the repossession of their cars, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4 - EVs for sale to the general public during six months, up until 22 November 2002. Almost all other production electric cars were withdrawn from the market and were in some cases seen to have been destroyed by their manufacturers. Toyota continues to support the several hundred Toyota RAV4 - EV in the hands of the general public and in fleet usage. GM famously de-activated the few EV1s that were donated to engineering schools and museums.
Throughout the 1990s, interest in fuel - efficient or environmentally friendly cars declined among consumers in the United States, who instead favored sport utility vehicles, which were affordable to operate despite their poor fuel efficiency thanks to lower gasoline prices. Domestic U.S. automakers chose to focus their product lines around the truck - based vehicles, which enjoyed larger profit margins than the smaller cars which were preferred in places like Europe or Japan.
Most electric vehicles on the world roads are low - speed, low - range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs). Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011. As of July 2006, there were between 60,000 and 76,000 low - speed battery - powered vehicles in use in the United States, up from about 56,000 in 2004. North America 's top selling NEV is the Global Electric Motorcars (GEM) vehicles, with more than 50,000 units sold worldwide by mid 2014. The world 's two largest NEV markets in 2011 were the United States, with 14,737 units sold, and France, with 2,231 units. Other micro electric cars sold in Europe was the Kewet, since 1991, and replaced by the Buddy, launched in 2008. Also the Th! nk City was launched in 2008 but production was halted due to financial difficulties. Production restarted in Finland in December 2009. The Th! nk was sold in several European countries and the U.S. In June 2011 Think Global filed for bankruptcy and production was halted. Worldwide sales reached 1,045 units by March 2011. A total of 200,000 low - speed small electric cars were sold in China in 2013, most of which are powered by lead - acid batteries. These electric vehicles are not considered by the government as new energy vehicles due to safety and environmental concerns, and consequently, do not enjoy the same benefits as highway legal plug - in electric cars.
California electric car maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, which was first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all - electric car to use lithium - ion battery cells, and the first production all - electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge. Since 2008, Tesla sold approximately 2,450 Roadsters in over 30 countries through December 2012. Tesla sold the Roadster until early 2012, when its supply of Lotus Elise gliders ran out, as its contract with Lotus Cars for 2,500 gliders expired at the end of 2011. Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August 2011, and the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in Europe, Asia and Australia. The next Tesla vehicle, the Model S, was released in the U.S. on 22 June 2012 and the first delivery of a Model S to a retail customer in Europe took place on 7 August 2013. Deliveries in China began on 22 April 2014. The next model was the Tesla Model X. In November 2014 Tesla delayed one more time the start of deliveries to retail customers, and announced the company expects Model X deliveries to begin in the third quarter of 2015.
The Mitsubishi i - MiEV was launched in Japan for fleet customers in July 2009, and for individual customers in April 2010, followed by sales to the public in Hong Kong in May 2010, and Australia in July 2010 via leasing. The i - MiEV was launched in Europe in December 2010, including a rebadged version sold in Europe as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C - Zero. The market launch in the Americas began in Costa Rica in February 2011, followed by Chile in May 2011. Fleet and retail customer deliveries in the U.S. and Canada began in December 2011. Accounting for all vehicles of the iMiEV brand, Mitsubishi reports around 27,200 units sold or exported since 2009 through December 2012, including the minicab MiEVs sold in Japan, and the units rebadged and sold as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C - Zero in the European market.
Senior leaders at several large automakers, including Nissan and General Motors, have stated that the Roadster was a catalyst which demonstrated that there is pent - up consumer demand for more efficient vehicles. In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, GM vice-chairman Bob Lutz was quoted as saying, "All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium - ion technology is 10 years away, and Toyota agreed with us -- and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, ' How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know nothing about the car business, can do this, and we ca n't? ' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam. ''
The Nissan Leaf, introduced in Japan and the United States in December 2010, became the first modern all - electric, zero tailpipe emission five door family hatchback to be produced for the mass market from a major manufacturer. As of January 2013, the Leaf is also available in Australia, Canada and 17 European countries.
The Better Place network was the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model. The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the first mass production electric car enable with switchable battery technology and sold for the Better Place network in Israel and Denmark. Better Place launched its first battery - swapping station in Israel, in Kiryat Ekron, near Rehovot in March 2011. The battery exchange process took five minutes. As of December 2012, there were 17 battery switch stations fully operational in Denmark enabling customers to drive anywhere across the country in an electric car. By late 2012 the company began to suffer financial difficulties, and decided to put on hold the roll out in Australia and reduce its non-core activities in North America, as the company decided to concentrate its resources on its two existing markets. On 26 May 2013, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel. The company 's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US $850 million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.
The Smart electric drive, Wheego Whip LiFe, Mia electric, Volvo C30 Electric, and the Ford Focus Electric were launched for retail customers during 2011. The BYD e6, released initially for fleet customers in 2010, began reatail sales in Shenzhen, China in October 2011. The Bolloré Bluecar was released in December 2011 and deployed for use in the Autolib ' carsharing service in Paris. Leasing to individual and corporate customers began in October 2012 and is limited to the Île - de-France area. In February 2011, the Mitsubishi i MiEV became the first electric car to sell more than of more than 10,000 units, including the models badged in Europe as Citroën C - Zero and Peugeot. The record was officially registered by Guinness World Records. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf overtook the i MiEV as the best selling all - electric car ever, and by February 2013 global sales of the Leaf reached the 50,000 unit mark.
Models released to the market in 2012 and 2013 include the BMW ActiveE, Coda, Renault Fluence Z.E., Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV, Toyota RAV4 EV, Renault Zoe, Roewe E50, Mahindra e2o, Chevrolet Spark EV, Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive, Fiat 500e, Volkswagen e-Up!, BMW i3, and Kandi EV. Toyota released the Scion iQ EV in the U.S. (Toyota eQ in Japan) in 2013. The car production is limited to 100 units. The first 30 units were delivered to the University of California, Irvine in March 2013 for use in its Zero Emission Vehicle - Network Enabled Transport (ZEV - NET) carsharing fleet. Toyota announced that 90 out of the 100 vehicles produced globally will be placed in carsharing demonstration projects in the United States and the rest in Japan.
The Coda sedan went out of production in 2013, after selling only about 100 units in California. Its manufacturer, Coda Automotive, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on 1 May 2013. The company stated that it expects to emerge from the bankruptcy process to focus on energy storage solutions as it has decided to abandon car manufacturing.
The Tesla Model S ranked as the top selling plug - in electric car in North America during the first quarter of 2013 with 4,900 cars sold, ahead of the Chevrolet Volt (4,421) and the Nissan Leaf (3,695). European retail deliveries of the Tesla Model S began in Oslo in August 2013, and during its first full month in the market, the Model S ranked as the top selling car in Norway with 616 units delivered, representing a market share of 5.1 % of all the new cars sold in the country in September 2013, becoming the first electric car to top the new car sales ranking in any country, and contributing to a record all - electric car market share of 8.6 % of new car sales during that month. In October 2013, an electric car was the best selling car in the country for a second month in a row. This time was the Nissan Leaf with 716 units sold, representing a 5.6 % of new car sales that month.
The Renault -- Nissan Alliance reached global sales of 100,000 all - electric vehicles in July 2013. The 100,000 th customer was a U.S. student who bought a Nissan Leaf. In mid January 2014, global sales of the Nissan Leaf reached the 100,000 unit milestone, representing a 45 % market share of worldwide pure electric vehicles sold since 2010. The 100,000 th car was delivered to a British customer.
As of June 2014, there were over 500,000 plug - in electric passenger cars and utility vans in the world, with the U.S. leading plug - in electric car sales with a 45 % share of global sales. In September 2014, sales of plug - in electric cars in the United States reached the 250,000 unit milestone. Global cumulative sales of the Tesla Model S passed the 50,000 unit milestone in October 2014. In November 2014 the Renault -- Nissan Alliance reached 200,000 all - electric vehicles delivered globally, representing a 58 % share of the global light - duty all - electric market segment.
The world 's top selling all - electric cars in 2014 were the Nissan Leaf (61,507), Tesla Model S (31,655), BMW i3 (16,052), and the Renault Zoe (11,323). Accounting for plug - in hybrids, the Leaf and the Model S also ranked first and second correspondinly among the world 's top 10 selling plug - in electric cars. All - electric models released to the retail customers in 2014 include the BMW Brilliance Zinoro 1E, Chery eQ, Geely - Kandi Panda EV, Zotye Zhidou E20, Kia Soul EV, Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes - Benz B - Class Electric Drive, and Venucia e30.
General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Bolt EV concept car at the 2015 North American International Auto Show. The Bolt is scheduled for availability in late 2016 as a model year 2017. GM anticipates the Bolt will deliver an all - electric range more than 320 km (200 miles), with pricing starting at US $37,500 before any applicable government incentives. The European version, marketed as the Opel Ampera - e, will go into production in 2017. In May 2015, global sales of highway legal all - electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles passed the 500,000 unit milestone, accounting for sales since 2008. Out these, Nissan accounts for about 35 %, Tesla Motors about 15 %, and Mitsubishi about 10 %. Also in May 2015, the Renault Zoe and the BMW i3 passed the 25,000 unit global sales milestone. In June 2015, worldwide sales of the Model S passed the 75,000 unit milestone in June 2015.
By early June 2015, the Renault -- Nissan Alliance continued as the leading all - electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of over 250,000 pure electric vehicles representing about half of the global light - duty all - electric market segment. Nissan sales totaled 185,000 units, which includes the Nissan Leaf and the e-NV200 van. Renault has sold 65,000 electric vehicles, and its line - up includes the ZOE passenger car, the Kangoo Z.E. van, the SM3 Z.E. (previously Fluence Z.E.) sedan and the Twizy heavy quadricycle.
By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug - in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone, with the pure electrics capturing about 62 % of global sales. The United States is the plug - in segment market leader with a stock of over 363,000 plug - in electric cars delivered since 2008 through August 2015, representing 36.3 % of global sales. The tate of California is the largest plug - in car regional market, with more than 158,000 units sold between December 2010 and June 2015, representing 46.5 % of all plug - in cars sold in the U.S. Until December 2014, California not only had more plug - in electric vehicles than any other state in the nation, but also more than any other country.
As of August 2015, China ranked as the world 's second top selling country plug - in market, with over 157,000 units sold since 2011 (15.7 %), followed by Japan with more than 120,000 plug - in units sold since 2009 (12.1 %). As of June 2015, over 310,000 light - duty plug - in electric vehicles have been registered in the European market since 2010. European sales are led by Norway, followed by the Netherlands, and France. In the heavy - duty segment, China is the world 's leader, with over 65,000 buses and other commercial vehicles sold through August 2015.
As of December 2015, global sales of electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf with over 200,000 units sold making the Leaf the world 's top selling highway - capable electric car in history. The Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of more than 100,000 units, is the world 's second best selling all - electric car of all - time. The Model S ranked as the world 's best selling plug - in electric vehicle in 2015, up from second best in 2014. The Model S was also the top selling plug - in car in the U.S. in 2015. Most models released in the world 's markets to retail customers during 2015 were plug - in hybrids. The only new series production all - electric cars launched up to October 2015 were the BYD e5 and the Tesla Model X, together with several variants of the Tesla Model S line - up.
The Tesla Model 3 was unveiled on 31 March 2016. With pricing starting at US $35,000 and an all - electric range of 345 km (215 miles), the Model 3 is Tesla Motors first vehicle aimed for the mass market. Before the unveiling event, over 115,000 people had reserved the Model 3. As of 7 April 2016, one week after the event, Tesla Motors reported over 325,000 reservations, more than triple the 107,000 Model S cars Tesla had sold by the end of 2015. These reservations represent potential sales of over US $14 billion. As of 31 March 2016, Tesla Motors has sold almost 125,000 electric cars worldwide since delivery of its first Tesla Roadster in 2008. Tesla reported the number of net reservations totaled about 373,000 as of 15 May 2016, after about 8,000 customer cancellations and about 4,200 reservations canceled by the automaker because these appeared to be duplicates from speculators.
The Hyundai Ioniq Electric was released in South Korea in July 2016, and sold over 1,000 units during its first two months in the market. The Renault - Nissan Alliance achieved the milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold globally in August 2016, and also set an industry record of 100,000 electric vehicle sold in a single year. Nissan global electric vehicle sales passed the 250,000 unit milestone also in August 2016. Renault global electric vehicle sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in early September 2016. Global sales of the Tesla Model X passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States.
Cumulative global sales of pure electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the 1 million unit milestone in September 2016. Global sales of the Tesla Model S achieved the 150,000 unit milestone in November 2016, four years and five months after its introduction, and just five more months than it took the Nissan Leaf to achieve the same milestone. Norway achieved the milestone of 100,000 all - electric vehicles registered in December 2016. Retail deliveries of the 383 km (238 miles) Chevrolet Bolt EV began in the San Francisco Bay Area on 13 December 2016. In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion km (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016, saving the equivalent of nearly 500 million kg (1,100 million lb) of CO emissions. Global Nissan Leaf sales passed 250,000 units delivered in December 2016. The Tesla Model S was the world 's best - selling plug - in electric car in 2016 for the second year running, with 50,931 units delivered globally.
In December 2016, Norway became the first country where 5 % of all registered passenger cars was a plug - in electric. When new car sales in Norway are breakdown by powertrain or fuel, nine of the top ten best - selling models in 2016 were electric - drive models. The Norwegian electric - drive segment achieved a combined market share of 40.2 % of new passenger car sales in 2016, consisting of 15.7 % for all - electric cars, 13.4 % for plug - in hybrids, and 11.2 % for conventional hybris. The highest - ever monthly market share for the plug - in electric passenger segment in any country was achieved in Norway in January 2017 with 37.5 % of new car sales; the plug - in hybrid segment reached a 20.0 % market share of new passenger cars, and the all - electric car segment had a 17.5 % market share. Also in January 2017, the electrified passenger car segment, consisting of plug - in hybrids, all - electric cars and conventional hybrids, for the first time ever surpassed combined sales of cars with a conventional diesel or gasoline engine, with a market share of 51.4 % of new car sales that month. For many years Norwegian electric vehicles have been subsidised by approximately 50 %, and have several other benefits, such as use of bus lanes and free parking. Many of these perks have been extended to 2020.
In February 2017 Consumer Reports named Tesla as the top car brand in the United States and ranked it 8th among global carmakers. Global sales of the Nissan Leaf achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018.
The principal manufacturer of e-bikes globally is China, with 2009 seeing the manufacturer of 22.2 million units. In the world Geoby is the leading manufacturers of E-bikes. Pedego is the best selling in the U.S. China accounts for nearly 92 % of the market worldwide. In China the number of electric bicycles on the road was 120 million in 2010. Jiangsu Yadea, an electric bicycle producer of renown in China, leads the ranking of China National Light Industry Council (CNLIC) electric bicycle industry for three years. It retains capacity of nearly 6 million electric bicycles a year.
In 1997, Charger Electric Bicycle was the first U.S. company to come out with a pedelec.
Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):
US $29,120 base price (2017)
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how many stations does the jerusalem light rail have | Jerusalem light rail - wikipedia
The Jerusalem Light Rail (Hebrew: הרכבת הקלה בירושלים , HaRakevet HaKala Birushalayim) is a light rail system in Jerusalem. Currently, the Red Line is the only one in operation, the first of several light rail lines planned in Jerusalem.
Construction on the Red line began in 2002 and ended in 2010, when the testing phase began. It was built by the CityPass consortium, which has a 30 - year concession to operate it. The project required construction of the Jerusalem Chords Bridge as well as other renovation projects around Jerusalem.
After repeated delays due to archaeological discoveries and technical issues, service began, initially free of charge, on August 19, 2011. It became fully operational on December 1, 2011. The line is 13.9 kilometers (8.6 mi) long with 23 stops. Extensions to the red line are currently under construction to the northern suburb of Neve Yaakov and to Hadassah Ein Kerem Hospital to the southwest. When completed in 2018, these will extend the line 's length to 22.5 km.
With a total estimated cost for the Red Line 's initial section of ₪ 3.8 billion (approx. US $1.1 billion), the project was criticized for budget overruns, for its route serving Jewish neighborhoods in East Jerusalem and for contributing to air and noise pollution during construction.
The Green line 's plans have been approved by the city of Jerusalem, with right - of - way clearing works underway and construction tenders, including those for the red line extension, currently in the bidding process, while the approval process on the Blue line has started.
In ancient times, Jerusalem was a point on the Ridge Route, also known as the Way of the Patriarchs, centrally located between the Via Maris (along the coast to the west) and the King 's Highway (east of the River Jordan). The primary roads led to the gates of the Old City, such as the Jaffa Gate and the Damascus Gate. It was along these roads that the city grew when it expanded beyond the walls of the Old City in the 19th century, the major thoroughfares of the city thus becoming the Jaffa Road, leading to the west in the direction of the coastal plain, the watershed routes (Ridge Route) leading north to Ramallah, Nablus, and Damascus, and south to Bethlehem and Hebron, and one to the east to Jericho.
Early plans for an electric tramway were drawn up by a Greek Lebanese engineer, George Franjieh, in 1892, who had been involved in planning the Jaffa -- Jerusalem railway. The tram would connect the city with Ein Karem and Bethlehem. In 1910, a tender for a tramway was published by the Ottoman authorities.
In 1918, the British Army built a rail system linking the German Colony with Al - Bireh, on the outskirts of Ramallah, traversing Jerusalem along a winding route. It was built by Rail Builders Company 272 of the British Royal Engineers, commanded by Colonel Jordan Bell, with some 850 Egyptian and local Arab laborers, about half of them women. The railway was used by the British army, and for a few months it supplied Allenby 's troops. It was dismantled shortly after the front moved northward in late 1918. Some of the city 's streets may have been paved along its route.
In the 1970s, when traffic congestion mounted in the city center, proposals were discussed for widening the main roads. In 1996, the government approved new plans for an integrated network relying on rapid transit, including a light rail system and bus rapid transit.
In the 1990s, a light rail system was proposed as a means of providing faster and less polluting public transit through the heart of the city, and reversing the decline of certain central areas. CityPass, a specially formed consortium, won a 30 - year concession to build and operate Line 1 (the "Red Line ''). CityPass consists of financiers Harel (20 %), Polar Investments (17.5 %) and the Israel Infrastructure Fund (10 %), constructors Ashtrom (27.5 %) and engineers Alstom (20 %), plus service operators -- Connex (5 %).
However, the principal agreement with the Dan Bus Company did not materialize. Veolia entered another principal agreement with Egged. Veolia sold its stake in CityPass and its shares in the contract for the maintenance of the light rail to Egged. The contract stipulates that Veolia would provide consultancy services to Egged until the company acquired the necessary expertise. Dan Bus Company has taken Veolia to court for exiting the principal agreement.
Construction of Line 1 began in 2002 by DTC (Dutch tramway company). Dubbed the "Red Line '', it initially has 23 stations on a new 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ⁄ in) (standard gauge) twin - track 13.8 kilometres (8.6 mi) alignment. It runs from Pisgat Ze'ev in north - east Jerusalem, south along Road 1 (intercity) to Jaffa Road (Rehov Yaffo). From there, it runs along Jaffa Road westward to the Jerusalem Central Bus Station, and continues to the southwest, crossing the Chords Bridge along Herzl Boulevard to the Beit HaKerem neighborhood, finishing just beyond Mount Herzl at the northern edge of Bayit VeGan. The first test run for this route was on February 24, 2010. The laying of the railroad tracks was completed on June 15, 2010.
Inauguration of the light rail service was postponed four times. The initial date was January 2009, deferred to August 2010 due to funding problems and lack of staff. When it was announced that signals for the trains was not compatible with Israeli stop light systems, CityPass was given until April 2011, but after the problem persisted and other safety issues were not resolved, an August 2011 date was settled on, and service was to begin without giving priority to trains at traffic lights. As a result, travel time for the full route began at 80 minutes instead of the planned 42, until final synchronization of the lights is completed. When the light rail started operating on Friday, August 19, 2011, there were also air conditioning issues and electrical and communications problems, one of them making trains suddenly "disappear '' and then "reappear '' on the screens of the control center near French Hill. In addition to these mishaps, the computerized ticketing system collapsed a few days before the inauguration. After arbitration between CityPass and government officials, it was decided that the trains would begin limited operation as scheduled. During the trial period, only 14 of the 21 trains were put into operation, departing every 21 minutes, and travel was free of charge. Full revenue service began on December 1, 2011.
As part of the light rail project, CityPass plans to install blind - friendly traffic lights along the route, and has developed a number of sites along the route, such as Davidka Square. In late 2009, trees were planted along the line. The species selected were deemed suitable to the Jerusalem climate, hardy enough to withstand the city 's cold winters while providing shade in summer. Over 3,500 trees were planted along the route in 2009 -- 11. The genera include platanus, ash and types of oak. In March 2011, however, the Ministry of Transportation objected to having trees adjacent to the route, due to visibility problems.
The Chords Bridge is a cantilever spar cable - stayed bridge designed by the Spanish architect and engineer Santiago Calatrava, built for the light rail, close to the most frequently used entrance to Jerusalem, in the neighborhood of Kiryat Moshe. The bridge carries the trams in a grade separated manner over a busy road intersection. Incorporated in the bridge is a glass - sided pedestrian crossing, enabling pedestrians to cross unimpeded from the Kiryat Moshe area to the Central Bus Station grounds. The bridge, which cost about $70 million (NIS 246 million), was inaugurated on June 25, 2008.
The Jerusalem Central Bus Station is slated to become a major passenger transportation hub. The Jerusalem Binyanei HaUma Railway Station is being built for the new high - speed railway to Jerusalem from Tel Aviv and Ben Gurion Airport. Passengers will also be able to board the existing intercity bus services at the station.
A park and ride facility was built near Mount Herzl, consisting of a multi-storey car park with the first line terminal on its roof, which is actually at the street level of Herzl Boulevard. An additional parking lot was erected adjacent to the Ammunition Hill stop.
The Jerusalem Municipality has plans to build eight bus rapid transit (BRT) and light rail lines across the city. Extensions of the red line are under construction in both directions: to Neve Yaakov in the North and to Kiryat Menachem in the South. A further extension to the Ein Kerem campus of Hadassah Medical Center is planned. This extension will include an underground section without stops west of Ora junction.
Initial extensions to the Red Line were planned to the neighborhoods of Neve Yaakov in northern East Jerusalem and Ein Karem (near Hadassah Hospital) in the southwest. Former mayor Uri Lupolianski stated that they would be completed at the same time as the rest of the line. In 2008, French company Egis Rail won an 11.9 million Euro contract to carry out some of the design work. However, in March 2009, CityPass turned down implementing the project. In May 2010 the Jerusalem Municipality announced that the extensions would be built by the state authorities rather than a private company. The extension to Hadassah Hospital from Mount Herzl is particularly challenging and will involve a complex path with complicated bridging works. As of summer 2012, while works on the extension have not begun, the line 's final terminal station, next to Hadassah 's new inpatient building is nevertheless being built during the construction of the inpatient building -- in order not to disrupt hospital operations later after the new building will be completed. Also planned are branches to the Red Line that would create a "campus line '' connecting the Mount Scopus and Givat Ram campuses of the Hebrew University.
The blue line from Ramot to Gilo is currently served by buses moving on a dedicated bus lane, and is planned to be converted to light rail. It will include an underground section in the city center with three underground stops: Mea Shearim, Tzfania and Bar Ilan. The 23 km Blue Line will run from the Ramot district in the northwest, through the city centre up to Talpiot and Gilo, with branches to Malkha and Mount Scopus. It will have 42 stops and ridership is predicted at 250 000 passengers / day. The Blue line, scheduled to open in 2023, was approved on December 3, 2017 by the district committee for planning and construction.
The 19 6 km Green line will link the two campuses of the Hebrew University and continue south via Pat junction to Gilo. It will pass the Binyanei - Hauma terminus of the A1 fast line railway, then cross the existing Red Line tram route and run to Mount Scopus. There would be 36 stops, and ridership is predicted at 200 000 passengers / day. The line was approved by the Jerusalem city council in June 2016. Infrastructure tenders have been issued.
The first bus rapid transit (BRT) line, a feeder line to the Light Rail, is a dedicated bus line running along Hebron Road in south Jerusalem, northwards to Keren HaYesod Street, and from there to King George V Street, where it crosses the path of the light rail and continues along Straus Street towards Kikar HaShabbat to Yehezkel Street and Shmuel HaNavi Street, towards Golda Meir Boulevard in the direction of Ramot. Buses on this route are operated by the Egged Transportation Cooperative. Tour buses, Arab buses and mini-buses that run from the Damascus Gate also use the line.
The bus stops on this route have been designed to match the tram stops on the Red Line.
Initial rolling stock consists of 46 Citadis 302 100 % low - floor five - module units manufactured at Alstom 's Aytré factory. All axles are driven to handle gradients up to 9 %. The first car was delivered via the Port of Ashdod in September 2007.
The maintenance and storage depot is on a 10 acres (40,000 m) site near French Hill in northern East Jerusalem. The route and vehicles are monitored from the control center, and trams are driven under line - of - sight principles with built - in priority at many road intersections. The fare collection and ticketing system is supplied by Affiliated Computer Services.
The French - based company Veolia Transport, which held 5 % of CityPass 's shares, was originally meant to operate the light rail. However, due to pressure from groups united in the Derail Veolia campaign, operating within the context of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions campaign, in September 2009 Veolia agreed to sell part of its share in the project to the Dan Bus Company for $15 -- 20 million. The sale was however unsuccessful, and Veolia agreed in October 2010 to sell its stake to Egged instead. As of December 2011, the sale to Egged was reported to have been held up by the Israeli state.
Travel over the complete Red line is due to take 42 minutes from Pisgat Ze'ev at one end to Mount Herzl at the other (as of August 2012, the travel time is 46 minutes). The line operates Sunday through Thursday, from 5: 30 am to 11: 30 pm, on Friday up to an hour before sundown and not during the Shabbat or Jewish holidays, resuming half an hour after Shabbat or the Holiday ends. Commencing August 2, 2015, frequency will be every 3 minutes during rush hours and every 6 minutes in the daytime and at night. It is expected to carry up to 23,000 passengers an hour during peak morning rush hours. The light rail operates at a maximum speed of 50 km / h (31 mph). New regulations were passed by the government in regard to vehicle behavior vis - a-vis the light rail.
Operations were affected by a labor dispute in 2011. In May 2012, security personnel complained of poor working condition and lack of transparency from their employers -- allegations which were denied by the security company.
Standard fares in Shekels are:
Reduced fares are available for senior citizens (men 65 +, women 60 +), youth (under 18 or who are studying in class XII to the end of the school year), students owned "Student pass '' (of other regions in Israel), the blind and those with approval by the Ministry of Welfare. One child under 5 with an adult rides for free. Israeli soldiers travel for free, under a special agreement between the Defense Ministry and the railway 's operator, as do uniformed police officers. Fare required for un-collapsible baby carriages between 7 -- 10 am and 3 -- 7 pm and all day Fridays and holiday eves. Collapsible bicycles are permitted at all hours. Muzzled small dogs capable of sitting in rider 's lap or being held are permitted.
(million passengers)
The financial management of the project was criticized in May 2008 by State Comptroller Micha Lindenstrauss, who reported a 128 % deviation in funds, from an estimated NIS 500 million to NIS 1.14 billion. It was also noted that the government had spent NIS 1.2 billion on the project up to 2007, which pointed to a further deviation. The total cost of the initial line (not including the planned extensions) is estimated at 3.8 billion NIS (approx. US $1.1 billion).
In 2002, the government of Israel signed an agreement with the operator, CityPass, regarding the future operation of the light rail. The agreement was made public in 2012, and generated controversy over a clause where the government pledged to remove competition to the light rail from other public transportation. For instance, there would not be two consecutive bus stops on the same line adjacent to the light rail 's route. CityPass stated that before the light rail there had not been competition either, with all public transportation being operated by Egged.
Upon buying a ticket, each traveler is required to validate it inside the rail car, and the fine for not doing so (or not buying a ticket) is NIS 186. This has created considerable controversy, and CityPass has been accused of handing out fines indiscriminately in order to raise its income -- the company made NIS 2.4 million in the first half year on fines. Litigative and legislative efforts have been made to curb CityPass 's power in this regard. An appeal committee will be created to deal with requests to cancel fines.
In 2012 Haviv Rettig Gur criticized CityPass for automatically expiring single ride tickets at the end of the day they were purchased even if they were never used. CityPass does not provide refunds. Rettig Gur wrote "Though I have no proof, I am convinced the expiration policy is intentional. '' As of 2015 this policy still remains in place. Pinchas M. Orbach identified a technical issue where a customer would not be able to use a legitimate transfer. He wrote "The CityPass Rav Kav system is unable to properly read a ' 90 minute transfer from Egged ' if a new virtual punch card was purchased on the Rav Kav in between the original Egged ride and the Light Rail ride. '' Therefore, even if a passenger was traveling within the 90 minutes allowed for free transfers an inspector using CityPass equipment to read the Rav Kav would erroneously believe the fare was not paid and issue a fine. CityPass did not respond to the report nor fix the problem.
The project was also criticized for increasing air pollution in Jerusalem during construction. However, it was credited with reducing air pollution on Jaffa Road by 80 % when the latter was converted to an LRT - only way. In October 2010, residents of Jerusalem filed a NIS 1.2 billion class - action lawsuit against CityPass for the effects of the traffic congestion that the project 's construction created, but the Jerusalem district court ruled that the company could only be sued for air and noise pollution. Nir Barkat, mayor of Jerusalem, was also critical of the congestion. In March 2009, he proposed canceling the project after the first two lines were completed and replacing the rest of the planned rail network with buses. The closure of Jaffa Street has diverted the bus traffic to a nearby street causing a rise in traffic accidents there.
The project was criticized because the Red Line route passes through territories Israel has held under occupation since the Six - Day War to service Israeli settlements such as French Hill and Pisgat Ze'ev. In consequence, Dutch bank ASN divested from Veolia Environnement. Both Veolia and Alstom were sued by the Palestine Liberation Organisation and French advocacy group Association France - Palestine Solidarité in the French courts. In 2013, the Versailles Court of Appeals ruled in favor of the French companies, and ordered the Palestinian groups to pay $117,000 in legal costs to the French companies. In the 32 - page verdict, the judges ruled that the light rail did not violate international law. A large proportion of the train 's passengers are Arabs.
In May 2009 it was reported that the Palestinian Authority had been urging Saudi Arabia through back channels to pressure Alstom and Veolia to abandon the project in return for the multi-billion dollar Haramain High Speed Rail Project and the $25 billion Gulf Railway project. The contract for the Haramain project was eventually awarded to a rival bidder. In November 2009, under the banner of Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS), Palestinian organizations launched a campaign on the six Gulf Cooperation Council states to withhold lucrative contracts for the Gulf railway project from the two companies unless they comply with demands to withdraw from the Jerusalem project. Veolia decided to sell its interests in the light railway, first to Dan Bus Company in 2009, and later to Egged, as part of a strategy to exit the transportation market. Veolia 's interest in the Jerusalem Light Rail, together with its other transport business, was injected in 2011 in new subsidiary Veolia Transdev, jointly owned by Veolia and French financial institution Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations. After poor financial results, Veolia announced in December 2011 that it intended to exit the transport sector altogether and sell its stake in Veolia Transdev.
In a 2009 report, the United Nations Human Rights Council described the Jerusalem Light Rail as infrastructure servicing Israeli settlements. The following year, the Human Rights Council condemned the decision to operate a tramway between west Jerusalem and Pisgat Ze'ev "in violation of international law '' and relevant United Nations resolutions. The Council resolution was adopted with 46 votes in favor and 1 against (USA).
In the United Kingdom, an Early Day Motion was tabled in parliament in 2012 against the financing of illegal activity in the West Bank. After referring to the Jerusalem Light Rail, the motion called on the UK government to support EU legislation to ensure "that economic operators aiding and abetting the building, maintenance or servicing of illegal Israeli settlements be excluded from public contracts in the EU ''.
In July 2014, Arab rioters caused substantial damage to three stations in Arab neighborhoods as well as other system infrastructure, and left graffiti with "Death to the Jews '' and other slogans. Rioting and incessant "rock attacks '' inflicted on trains in the Beit Hanina and Shuafat areas have made the train route subject to closures restricting passengers to stations south of Givat HaMivtar. Damage to trains caused two - thirds of CityPass ' fleet to be taken offline in an ongoing basis through October, 2014.
While tracks for the light rail were being laid in Shuafat, the remains of an ancient Roman -- Jewish settlement were discovered. The settlement was described as a "sophisticated community impeccably planned by the Roman authorities, with orderly rows of houses and two fine public bathhouses to the north ''. The findings are said be the first indication of active Jewish settlement in the Jerusalem area after the city fell in 70 CE.
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who gets the golden ticket in zumbos just desserts | Zumbo 's Just Desserts - Wikipedia
Zumbo 's Just Desserts is an Australian baking reality competition television program on the Seven Network. The program was developed by the creators of My Kitchen Rules. The program is hosted by Adriano Zumbo and Rachel Khoo, with Gigi Falanga as assistant. The series was won by Kate, who received $100,000 prize money.
In January 2016, it was reported that the Seven Network was preparing to launch a then unnamed baking program, very similar to The Great Australian Bake Off. The following month, the title of the program was revealed along with naming Zumbo as host. Khoo was named as co-host in April 2016. In June 2016, Falanga was announced as joining the program as assistant and timekeeper and promos were released, advising the show would air after the 2016 Summer Olympics.
The series aired after the Seven Network 's coverage of the 2016 Olympic Games on 22 August 2016. As of April 2018, the series is streaming on Netflix.
Ratings data is from OzTAM and represents the average viewership from the 5 largest Australian metropolitan centres (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide).
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what is the name of little mix's debut album | Little Mix - wikipedia
Little Mix are a British girl group formed in 2011 during the eighth series of the UK version of The X Factor. They were the first group to win the competition, and following their victory, they signed with Simon Cowell 's record label Syco Music and released a cover of Damien Rice 's "Cannonball '' as their winner 's single. The members are Jade Thirlwall, Perrie Edwards, Leigh - Anne Pinnock, and Jesy Nelson.
Little Mix released their debut album DNA in 2012, which peaked inside the top 10 in ten countries including the UK and US. This made Little Mix the first girl group since the Pussycat Dolls to reach the US top five with their debut album, as well as earning the highest debut US chart position for a British girl group 's first release, breaking the record previously held by the Spice Girls. The group 's second album Salute (2013) became their second album to debut inside the top 10 in both the UK and US. Their third album Get Weird was released in 2015. Their fourth album Glory Days (2016) became their first number one album in the UK, and also achieved the longest - reigning girl group number one album since the Spice Girls ' debut album 20 years earlier, and the highest first week UK album sales for a girl band since 1997. In the UK, the group has earned four number - one singles, including "Wings '', "Black Magic '' and "Shout Out to My Ex ''.
The group won Best British Single for "Shout Out to My Ex '' at the 2017 Brit Awards; they have also received several other awards during their career, including two MTV Europe Music Awards, two Teen Choice Awards and two Glamour Awards. As of October 2016, the group has achieved four platinum certified albums and twelve certified singles in the UK. Little Mix appeared on Debrett 's 2017 list of the most influential people in the UK.
In 2011, Edwards, Thirlwall, Pinnock, and Nelson individually auditioned successfully as soloists for the eighth series of the UK version of The X Factor, but failed the first challenge of the "bootcamp '' section. They were allowed another chance to compete when they were placed in two separate ensembles by the judges during the "group bootcamp '' stage, with Edwards and Nelson in four - member group Faux Pas and Thirlwall and Pinnock in three - member group Orion. Both groups failed to make it through to the next stage. A later decision recalled two members from each group to form the four - piece group Rhythmix, sending them through to the "judges ' houses '' section.
They reached the live shows section and were mentored by Tulisa Contostavlos. During the first live show on 8 October 2011, Rhythmix performed Super Bass by American recording artist Nicki Minaj. Their rendition was praised by the judges with Gary Barlow calling them the "best girl band that 's ever been on The X Factor. '' On 26 October 2011, the band announced that they would change their name following a dispute with Rhythmix, a Brighton - based children 's music charity of the same name, after the programme tried to trademark "Rhythmix ''. A spokesman for The X Factor said, "At the request of the charity Rhythmix, the members of the girl group Rhythmix have decided to change their name, a decision which has the support of Syco and TalkbackTHAMES. '' It was reported that the group decided to make the change, with no legal requirement to do so, to avoid any difficulties for the charity. On 28 October 2011, it was announced that the group 's new name would be "Little Mix ''.
On 20 November 2011, Little Mix became the first girl group in the show 's eight - year history to progress past the seventh live show. The previous longest - surviving girl groups were The Conway Sisters (series 2) and Hope (series 4), who had both lasted until week 7. Through the remaining course of the competition the group generally received positive feedback. During the semi-final stage of the show, Little Mix performed The Supremes 's "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' as well as Beyoncé 's hit "If I Were a Boy ''. Their performance of "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' received mostly negative feedback from the judges with Louis Walsh stating that they "lost their mojo '' and Kelly Rowland telling the girl group she had seen them do "better vocal performances. '' Their second performance of the night, "If I Were a Boy '', was generally acclaimed by the judges with Walsh telling them they have "amazing potential '' and calling them the "next big girl band. '' Rowland also told them they could be "incredibly dynamic '' and "change the world '' when they find the strength within each other. The group advanced through to the final live shows along with Marcus Collins and Amelia Lily following the public vote.
On 11 December, Little Mix were announced as the winners, the first time a group had won the British version of the show and the second (of five) in the worldwide franchise (after Random on the first series of the Australian version, Alex & Sierra on the third series of the United States version, Rak - Su on the fourteenth series of the UK version and 4 Magic on the fifth series of the Bulgarian version). Their winner 's single was a cover of Damien Rice 's song "Cannonball '', which was released via digital download on 11 December 2011, and on CD on 14 December 2011. The Xtra Factor: The Winner 's Story was shown on ITV2 on 17 December 2011. Their debut single topped the UK Singles Chart on 18 December 2011. They made the Christmas number one spot on the Irish Singles Chart, beating novelty songs by The Saw Doctors and Ryan Sheridan.
On 25 January 2012, Little Mix made an appearance at the National Television Awards and performed the En Vogue song "Do n't Let Go (Love) ''. They also accompanied fellow judges Gary Barlow and Tulisa Contostavlos on stage to receive the Best Talent Show award that had been won by The X Factor. In May 2012, Little Mix reportedly signed a deal with Vivid and Bravado to release signature products including dolls, puzzles, accessories and games. Prior to their debut single release, the band covered an a cappella version of Beyoncé 's "End of Time '' and uploaded it on YouTube; the cover was publicly praised, especially for the group 's impressive harmonies. Later in August, they also uploaded another cover, this time an acoustic cover of "We Are Young '' by Fun ft. Janelle Monáe which again received positive feedback, generally, for the group 's harmonies. On 1 June, a snippet of their debut single "Wings '' previewed on chat show Alan Carr: Chatty Man before its later release date in August.
Little Mix performed their debut single "Wings '' for the first time at the T4 on the Beach concert on 1 July. The single debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart. On 31 August 2012, the group 's autobiography, titled Ready to Fly, was released by Harper Collins. In October 2012, the group went on a promotional visit to Australia due to their expanding fan base there, destinations included Melbourne and Sydney. The trip lasted a week and the group visited radio stations to promote the single and debut album. They performed their single "Wings '' on The X Factor Australia and on Australian breakfast - television show Sunrise. "Wings '' subsequently reached number 2 on the Australian iTunes chart and number 3 on the ARIA charts. Their debut album, DNA, was released in November 2012. Nicola Roberts co-penned a track called "Going Nowhere. '' on the DNA album The album reached # 3 in both Ireland and the UK. A second single, "DNA '', was released in October, and in January 2013 they signed a record deal with Columbia Records in North America. "Wings '' was released as their debut single in America on 5 February 2013. On 3 February 2013, they released "Change Your Life '' as the album 's third single, which charted at number 12 on the UK Singles Chart. On 4 March 2013, it was announced that "How Ya Doin '? '' would be released as the fourth and final single from their debut album.
On 21 March, they announced that their next single, "How Ya Doin '? '', would feature Grammy Award - winning musician Missy Elliott. On 4 April 2013, the group revealed that Schwarzkopf hair dye Live Colour XXL would be promoted through their music video for "How Ya Doin '? '' in a new sponsorship deal. "How Ya Doin '? '' debuted at number 57 on the UK Singles Chart on 20 April 2013, before ascending to number 23 the week after. In its third week, the song peaked at number 16, marking Little Mix 's fifth consecutive UK top 20 hit. It charted for a further seven weeks. "How Ya Doin '? '' sold 120,000 copies in the UK. The single debuted at number 55 on the Irish Singles Chart on 11 April 2013. It then climbed the chart to peak at number 26. Consequently, "How Ya Doin '? '' became Little Mix 's first single to miss the top 20 in Ireland, but spent a total of seven weeks on the chart. The single peaked at number 16 on the Scottish Singles Chart on 11 May 2013, marking the group 's fifth consecutive top 20 hit in Scotland.
In March 2013, Little Mix began their first promotional campaign in the US. In an interview with Digital Spy in March 2013, they stated that they wanted their second album to have a more R&B sound. Nelson added: "I personally want to put a lot more dancey stuff in there. As in, one of the songs that comes on in a club that makes you want to dance. Not that David Guetta sound, but more R&B -- a bit like Eve and Gwen Stefani 's "Let Me Blow Ya Mind ''. They also revealed that they would be starting to write material for the new album in the coming months. On 4 October, they uploaded a video to their official YouTube page, announcing that their second album would be called Salute and would be available for pre-order on 7 October. The album was released on 11 November 2013 in the United Kingdom and was released in the United States on 4 February 2014. Throughout the recording process, Little Mix worked with several producers, including TMS, Future Cut, Fred Ball, Duvall and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. The album was largely co-written by Little Mix, who stated that they were more involved in the development of this album than with their debut.
On 23 September 2013, "Move '' was premiered on BBC Radio 1. For the single, Little Mix worked with Nathan Duvall, an up - and - coming R&B producer and Maegan Cottone the girl 's vocal coach. "Move '' was released on 7 October in Australia and New Zealand. It was later released in the UK and Ireland on 3 November. It was sent to Mainstream Radio in the US on 18 February 2014 and reached number 38 on that chart. The song peaked at number three in the UK, number 5 in Ireland, number 19 in Japan and number 12 in New Zealand. The single also charted in Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands and Slovakia. Since then, "Move '' has been certified gold in Australia for sales of 35,000 and silver in the UK for sales of 200,000. "Little Me '' was selected as the second single from the album. The song was co-written by TMS and Iain James, and produced by TMS. On 21 November 2013, Little Mix revealed via a YouTube video message that they decided to release it as the second single because it held a lot meaning to them and was written with their fans in mind. The song reached number 14 in the UK, number fifteen in Iceland and number 16 in the Netherlands. It also charted in Australia, Ireland and Lebanon. The band released a cover version of Cameo 's song "Word Up! '' as the official single for Sport Relief 2014. The song reached number six in the UK and number thirteen in Ireland while also charting in Australia, Austria, Denmark and France.
Little Mix announced on 5 April 2014 that the title track "Salute '' will be released as the album 's third single. It impacted UK radio on 28 April 2014. The official music video premiered on 2 May and received over one million views within 24 hours. It was released on 1 June. In December 2013, the group announced the UK and Ireland dates for their second headlining concert tour, The Salute Tour, North American dates were added in April 2014. The tour began on 16 May 2014 in Birmingham, England at the LG Arena and ended on 27 July 2014 in Scarborough, North Yorkshire at the Scarborough Open Air Theatre. Little Mix were expected to begin the North American leg of the tour in September 2014, but it was cancelled due to them wanting to work on their next album.
At the 2015 Brit Awards, the group confirmed that their album was completed, describing it as having a "whole new sound '' and projecting the release for sometime in 2015. Having written over 100 songs for their forthcoming album, In May 2015 Little Mix released the lead single "Black Magic '' from their third studio album. The song debuted at number one in the UK and remained at the top of the chart for three weeks, becoming the first single by a girl group to do so since Sugababes 's "About You Now '' in October 2007. The single also reached number eight in Australia and number 67 in the US, becoming their highest peaking single on Billboard Hot 100. The group performed the song for the first time in June 2015 for Capital 's Summertime Ball at the Wembley Stadium along with some of their previous hits. "Black Magic '' was also performed the song at the Teen Choice Awards in August 2015, after they received the award as Breakout Artist. Little Mix also co-wrote Britney Spears ' single "Pretty Girls '', which was also released in May 2015.
On 15 July 2015 Little Mix officially announced on Twitter that their third studio album would be titled Get Weird, and would be available for pre-order in the UK from the following day, with a global release date set for 6 November 2015. On 25 September the group released "Love Me Like You '' as the second single from the album, it was released as a single only in the UK, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. The group performed the song for the first time at X Factor Australia in October 2015, then at the Royal Albert Hall in December 2015 and at the Capital Jingle Bell Ball. The group 's third studio album Get Weird debuted at number two in the UK becoming their highest charting album there. In the US the album peaked at number thirteen on Billboard 200 making Little Mix the only girl group from the UK to have their first three albums debut in the top fifteen of the Billboard 200. The album has been certified double platinum in the UK and has sold over 600,000 units there as of August 2016, making it their best selling album yet. The group performed a medley of "Black Magic '' and "Sax '' with the former UK X Factor contestant Fleur East on the season finale of X Factor. On 5 December the group announced on Twitter that "Secret Love Song '' featuring the American R&B singer Jason Derulo would be released as the albums third single. The single reached number six on the UK Singles Chart. On 24 February 2016 the group performed "Black Magic '' at the 2016 Brit Awards, where they were nominated for Best British Single and British Artist Video.
On 13 March 2016 Little Mix embarked on The Get Weird Tour to promote the album, the arena tour consist of 60 dates across Europe, Australia and Asia. The Get Weird tour holds the record for being the highest selling UK arena tour of 2016 with over 300,000 tickets sold in the UK alone. On 11 April 2016, the group announced that "Hair '' would serve as the fourth single from Get Weird, and would feature newly recorded guest vocals from reggae pop recording artist Sean Paul. The single was released on 15 April 2016 and reached number 11 on the UK chart while peaking at number 10 in Australia making it their fourth top 10 single there.
On 21 June 2016 it was revealed that the group had begun work on their fourth studio album; they later confirmed that they would be releasing new music "before Christmas ''. In an interview at V Festival in Chelmsford, the group announced that the lead single from their fourth studio album would be released in October 2016. On 13 October 2016, Little Mix announced the song 's title as "Shout Out to My Ex '' and that their fourth studio album would be called Glory Days. "Shout Out to My Ex '' was released on 16 October 2016, following the first live performance of the song on The X Factor. The song debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart becoming their fourth chart topping single there. It sold 67,000 downloads in its opening week, becoming the biggest opening week download sales for a song in 2016 in the UK. Glory Days was released on 18 November 2016, and debuted at number one on the UK album chart, becoming the group 's first UK number one album. The album sold 96,000 copies in combined sales in the first week which is the highest first week sales for a UK girl group number one album since the Spice Girls in 1997 and the fastest - selling number one album by any girl group in 15 years, since Destiny 's Child 's Survivor in 2001. Glory Days has spent five weeks at number one on the UK album chart as of 13 January 2017, making it the longest reigning girl group number one since Spice Girls ' debut 20 years ago, surpassing Destiny 's Child 's Survivor. The album has reached number - one in Ireland, and debuted at number - two in Australia, and in the top 10 in the Netherlands, New Zealand and Spain.
Little Mix announced on 5 December 2016 that "Touch '' would be released as the second single from Glory Days. It was released on 18 December 2016, and reached number four in the UK At the 2017 Brit Awards the group was nominated for three awards, winning Best British Single for "Shout Out to My Ex '', which they also performed on the awards show. "No More Sad Songs '' was released on 3 March 2017, as the third single from "Glory Days ''.
From February to April 2017 Little Mix toured North America as one of the opening acts for Ariana Grande on her Dangerous Woman Tour. The group then embarked on their own headlining The Glory Days Tour which began on 24 May 2017 in Europe, with the first UK date being on 9 October in Scotland. "Power '' was released on 26 May 2017, as the fourth single from "Glory Days ''.
In August 2017, Little Mix and Latin American boy band CNCO collaborated on a remixed version of the latter group 's song "Reggaetón Lento (Bailemos) ''. The song was included on the reissue of Glory Days, which was released on 24 November 2017, and featured a revised track listing of four remixed songs and three new songs, as well as a bonus documentary. As of November 2017, Glory Days has sold over 1.6 million copies worldwide.
The group announced on 27 November 2017 that they would be undertaking the Summer Hits Tour 2018, with tickets going on sale on 30 November. It began on 24 March 2018 in Chiba, Japan, by headlining the POPSPRING Festival 2018. This is the group 's first stadium tour.
In February 2018, Pinnock announced that the group were working on their fifth album, set for release in 2018, and that there would be a tour to accompany the album.
On 14 June 2018, it was revealed that a song by Little Mix and American DJ trio Cheat Codes, "Only You '', would be part of the compilation album The Pool Party, to be released on 6 July 2018 by Ministry of Sound. The song was released on 22 June 2018.
Little Mix is mainly a pop, R&B, and dance - pop girl group. Their songs also include influences from other genres such as tropical house, latin pop and electronic.
Perrie Edwards cites Christina Aguilera, Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, Michael Jackson and Steve Perry from the American rock band Journey as her musical influences. Jesy Nelson said to be inspired by Spice Girls, TLC and Missy Elliott. Leigh Anne Pinnock cites Mariah Carey as her biggest influence and Jade Thirlwall references Diana Ross as her favourite singer. Little Mix cite Beyoncé, Michael Jackson, Destiny 's Child, En Vogue and Rihanna as their musical influences.
In May 2012, Little Mix launched a Union Flag - themed pack of M&M 's and performed at the M&M 's World store in London. That year they also released their first book, called Ready to Fly. The title is a reference to their debut single "Wings ''. The book was published through HarperCollins and documents the group 's journey since auditioning for The X Factor. The girl group signed a joint deal with toymaker Vivid and music merchandiser Bravado to release a range of products including dolls, puzzles, accessories and games in November.
During 2012, Little Mix also unveiled a children 's clothing range with clothing retailer Primark. The line is aimed to 7 -- 13 year olds and comprises accessories, T - shirts, leggings and nightwear. In 2013, the group promoted Schwarzkopf hair dye Live Colour XXL through their music video for "How Ya Doin '? ''. That year the group also launched a range of nails and nail wraps in partnership with Elegant Touch and New Look. In early 2014, Little Mix launched their new range of nails with Elegant Touch as a result of the previous success. In September 2013, Little Mix launched their first makeup line with Collection. During May 2014, the group teamed up with Vibe Audio to bring out Little Mix zip cable headphones. In June 2015, Little Mix launched their debut fragrance "Gold Magic ''. In December 2015, it was announced that Little Mix would be the new global ambassadors for the women 's fitness brand USA Pro. They are currently designing their own collection for the brand. In July 2016, Little Mix launched their second fragrance "Wishmaker ''.
Little Mix took part in the recording of the 2011 X Factor charity single along with the finalists of the X Factor 2011 and previous X Factor contestants JLS and One Direction. They covered the 1978 hit single "Wishing on a Star '' by Rose Royce. All proceeds from the single went to the children 's charity Together for Short Lives, which provides ongoing care and support for seriously and terminally ill children, young people and their families from the moment of diagnosis. The song debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart with first - week sales of 98,932 copies. In 2012, the band performed their single "Change Your Life '' on the Children In Need 2012 broadcast appeal show, helping raise over £ 26,757,446 for the cause which helps disadvantaged children in the UK. Little Mix also appeared at the two - part charity concert Children in Need Rocks 2013 to raise money for the campaign, performing a medley of their singles "Change Your Life '', "DNA '' and "Wings ''. They performed alongside Kings of Leon, Ellie Goulding, Robbie Williams and other artists. The concert was broadcast on BBC One during the Children In Need week.
In March 2014, Little Mix teamed up with BeatBullying, the largest anti-bullying organisation in Europe. The quartet is backing the anti-bullying media campaign "The Big March '' and the # DeleteCyberbullying project. The campaign is urging the European Commission to introduce new laws to protect children from bullying and cyberbullying, for 77 million euros (£ 57m) to be set aside for services that protect them and for an annual awareness day to promote the movement. Pinnock said: "Myself and the girls have all experienced being bullied at some point in our life. When we see on Twitter that some of our fans are going through it now we find it so upsetting and that 's the reason we feel so passionate about this campaign and the work that BeatBullying does. '' In March 2014, Little Mix released a cover of Cameo 's single "Word Up! '' as the official single for Sport Relief 2014. They performed it live during the Sport Relief telethon which raised a record - breaking £ 51,242,186 on the night it was broadcast. The group also visited Liberia to witness the good work paid for by the Sport Relief donations. Each member recorded a video diary in which they visited local hospitals and described their experiences.
Perrie Louise Edwards was born on (1993 - 07 - 10) 10 July 1993 (age 25), and raised in the Whiteleas neighbourhood of South Shields, Tyne and Wear, to parents Alexander Edwards and Deborah Duffy. She has an older brother named Jonnie, and a younger half - sister named Caitlin Edwards, on her father 's side. Her first audition was "You Oughta Know '' by Alanis Morissette. Edwards attended Radipole Primary School in Weymouth, Dorset before moving back to South Shields. She is a graduate of St. Peter and Paul RC Primary School, in South Shields, and attended Mortimer Community College, also in South Shields, for five years, where she excelled in both academic and performance subjects. Edwards transferred and graduated from Newcastle College, where she received a BTEC in Performing Arts. She began dating UK singer and former One Direction member Zayn Malik in May 2012. The couple got engaged in August 2013 but broke up in August 2015. In February 2017, it was confirmed that she has been dating English professional footballer Alex Oxlade - Chamberlain. She has Esophageal atresia, which is responsible for a bisectional scar on her stomach, and Anosmia.
Jessica Louise Nelson was born on (1991 - 06 - 14) 14 June 1991 (age 27), and raised in Romford, east London to parents John Nelson and Janice White. She has an older sister Jade and two brothers, Joseph and Jonathan. Her first audition was "Bust Your Windows '' by Jazmine Sullivan. Since joining Little Mix, she has faced cyber-bullying and struggled to cope during her time on The X Factor. Nelson attended secondary school Jo Richardson Community School and Abbs Cross Academy and Arts College (in Hornchurch, Essex), was noted for being a dedicated drama and music student by her teachers. She also attended Sylvia Young and Yvonne Rhodes Theatre Schools. In 2014, Nelson began dating Rixton lead singer, Jake Roche. The couple became engaged on 19 July 2015, but broke up in November 2016. She has been dating former rapper Harry James since early 2017.
Leigh - Anne Pinnock was born on (1991 - 10 - 04) 4 October 1991 (age 26), and raised in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire. Pinnock is of Barbadian and Jamaican ancestry. Before joining Little Mix, she worked as a waitress in Pizza Hut. Her first audition was "Only Girl (In the World) '' by Rihanna. In February 2015, Pinnock launched a Tumblr fashion blog called "Leigh Loves ''. She announced in December 2016 that she was dating Watford FC footballer Andre Gray.
Jade Amelia Thirlwall was born on (1992 - 12 - 26) 26 December 1992 (age 25), and raised in the Laygate neighbourhood of South Shields, Tyne and Wear. She has one - quarter Egyptian ancestry and one - quarter Yemeni ancestry. She also auditioned for The X Factor in 2008 and 2010 but got eliminated at Bootcamp stage. She attended performing arts college South Tyneside, where she studied a range of courses. She revealed in the group 's book, Our World, that she struggled with anorexia nervosa after experiencing bullying at school, and the death of her grandfather. Jade is a supporter of the LGBT community, and she considers RuPaul her idol. She has been in a relationship with The Struts bassist Jed Elliot since January 2016.
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what happened to rodney from only fools and horses | Nicholas Lyndhurst - wikipedia
Nicholas Simon Lyndhurst (born 20 April 1961) is an English actor. He played Rodney Trotter in Only Fools and Horses, Gary Sparrow in Goodnight Sweetheart, Dan Griffin in the BBC drama New Tricks and Adam Parkinson in Carla Lane 's series Butterflies. Lyndhurst also starred as Ashley Philips in The Two of Us, as Fletch 's son Raymond in Going Straight, the sequel to the classic British sitcom Porridge, Jimmy Venables in After You 've Gone, and Freddie ' The Frog ' Robdal in the Only Fools and Horses prequel Rock & Chips.
Lyndhurst was born in Emsworth, Hampshire, where he also grew up. He attended, as a child student, the Corona Theatre School.
He appeared in various television adverts and children 's films in the late 1970s, before landing a main character role in The Prince and the Pauper in 1976.
Lyndhurst first gained national recognition at the age of seventeen in the sitcom Butterflies written by Carla Lane, in which he played Adam Parkinson. He then played Raymond Fletcher, the teenage son of Norman Stanley Fletcher played by Ronnie Barker in Going Straight, followed by Dobson in the BBC TV series To Serve Them All My Days.
He achieved national stardom in the series Only Fools and Horses in which he played Rodney Trotter, the younger brother of the main character Derek "Del Boy '' Trotter. Only Fools and Horses started as a small comedy in 1981 and rapidly grew in popularity until it reached its peak in 1996 with its Christmas Day show in the UK. In a BBC poll in 2004, it was voted No. 1 British sitcom ever. Lyndhurst appeared in the show from the very start, right up to its final airing at Christmas 2003.
In 1986, he had a minor part in the film Gunbus / SkyBandits. The film went straight to video and was never seen in British cinemas. During the 1990s, Lyndhurst also appeared in ITV 's The Two of Us with Janet Dibley and The Piglet Files, as well as in a number of stage performances.
Between 1993 and 1999, he played the complex lead character of Gary Sparrow in the fantasy sitcom Goodnight Sweetheart. At around the same time, he was the face and voice on the TV and radio commercials for the telecommunications chain People 's Phone. Lyndhurst also admits declining an opportunity to play the lead role of Gary in the 1997 British film The Full Monty, but has no regrets.
Between 1997 and 1999, Lyndhurst was the public face of the stationery chain store WH Smith, starring in their adverts as all four members of one family. He won a BAFTA for his acting in the adverts. In 1999, he played the villainous Uriah Heep opposite Harry Potter actor Daniel Radcliffe and Dame Maggie Smith in David Copperfield.
In 2006, he appeared as Cruella de Vil 's chauffeur, Reg Farnsworth, at the Children 's Party at the Palace.
In 2007, Lyndhurst returned to the BBC with his first new sitcom in fourteen years, After You 've Gone, in which he plays a divorced dad moving back into the marital home to look after his daughter (Dani Harmer) and son (Ryan Sampson) together with his mother - in - law, played by Celia Imrie, after his ex-wife goes to work as a recovery nurse on a third world disaster relief mission.
Lyndhurst played Freddie Robdal, the 1960s gangster father of Rodney Trotter, in Rock & Chips, the prequel to Only Fools and Horses. The show centres around Del Boy, Robdal and Joan Trotter in early 1960s Peckham. It was first broadcast on 24 January 2010, with another special transmitted on 29 December 2010, and the final episode at Easter 2011.
Lyndhurst 's stage performances have been relatively few, but he received good critical notices for his performance as Norman in Sir Ronald Harwood 's The Dresser, directed by Peter Hall, and for his Trinculo in The Tempest.
In 2013, he joined the cast as a regular of Series 10 of New Tricks.
In 2014, Lyndhurst revived his Only Fools and Horses character Rodney Trotter in a return Sport Relief Special, which aired on 21 March 2014.
In 2016, Lyndhurst revived his Goodnight Sweetheart character Gary Sparrow in a one - off special episode, which aired on 2 September 2016.
He lives in West Sussex with his wife Lucy, a former ballet dancer (married in Chichester, West Sussex, 1999). They have a son, Archie. Lyndhurst 's hobbies include underwater diving, beekeeping and piloting his own aeroplanes. Lyndhurst is the grandson of Francis Lyndhurst, a theatrical scenery painter and film director, who set up an early film studio at Shoreham Fort, Shoreham - by - Sea.
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in which season do chandler and monica get married | The one with Monica and Chandler 's wedding - wikipedia
"The One with Monica and Chandler 's Wedding '' is a double length episode of the television sitcom Friends. It first aired on May 17, 2001 as the finale of season seven. It is usually broadcast in a one - hour slot and presented on DVD as one complete episode, but when the episodes are split the two parts are differentiated by the suffixes Part 1 and Part 2. For his guest appearance, Gary Oldman was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.
Monica is making a list of things which are most likely to go wrong which seems to be all Rachel 's chores when suddenly Joey appears telling them that he got a part in the movie which he wanted, which is related to World War I.
At the studios, Joey has started shooting with Richard Crosby (Gary Oldman) who keeps spitting while saying his lines which annoys Joey. When he ca n't stand it anymore, he talks to Richard about it, when Richard tells him that all good actors spit while saying their lines. Therefore, when they shoot the next scene, Joey and Richard both constantly spit at each other while saying their lines. When their scenes are over for the day, Joey is given lines for scenes for the next day. However, Joey ca n't come the next day since he is performing Monica and Chandler 's wedding. Because he 's still in the mood of saying the lines, he accidentally spits on the man who gave him the lines, while telling him that he has important plans due to which he ca n't come.
Back at Monica 's apartment, Chandler and Monica are going to their wedding rehearsal. Chandler listens to the answering machine after Monica leaves, when he realizes they 're becoming "The Bings ''. At the rehearsal things are going smoothly until Chandler 's parents come and things go crazy. When Chandler 's mom, Nora Tyler - Bing (played by Morgan Fairchild), is introduced to Monica 's parents Jack and Judy Geller, Jack embarrasses himself by asking her "so... are you Chandler 's mom or dad? '' Chandler 's mom and Chandler 's dad, Charles Bing (played by Kathleen Turner), keep having arguments. As a consequence, Rachel is told by Monica to keep them away from each other. Since Rachel does n't know what Chandler 's dad looks like, Monica describes him, saying "a man in the black dress ''. When Rachel looks around, she spots a woman in a black dress having a drink nearby, and assumes that she is Chandler 's dad. When both of them introduce themselves, the woman says her name is Amanda and Rachel replies "Oh, I get it - a-man - duh! '', embarrassing herself.
When they return to their apartments, Rachel, Phoebe and Monica are sitting down at the table in Monica 's apartment. Monica gets up, walks to her wedding dress and asks Rachel and Phoebe if anyone wanted to be in charge of looking after the dress. Rachel volunteers, but Monica ignores her since she obviously thinks Rachel is irresponsible from results in the past. Rachel is hurt when she volunteers twice and Monica does n't give her the responsibility. She states that she can be responsible, leading Monica to feel as if she 's misjudging her. She apologizes to Rachel and hands over the responsibility to her.
Ross continues with his search for Chandler and goes to Rachel 's room. As he is n't there, Ross heads towards the door. However, a yellow piece of paper next to the phone catches his eye. When he unfolds it, he finds a note from Chandler saying "tell Monica I 'm sorry ''. Ross immediately goes across the hall to Monica 's apartment - Rachel opens the door when Monica is in her bedroom, and Ross explains the situation to her. A little while later, Phoebe arrives at the door to find out what 's going on and when Rachel just hands over the note without explaining the situation, Phoebe assumes Ross wrote it and tells him to tell Monica himself that he 's sorry. Ross goes out to search for Chandler but unfortunately fails.
The next morning, Ross arrives at Monica 's apartment and informs Rachel and Phoebe that he still has n't found Chandler. When he leaves, Monica comes out of her room in excitement and starts getting ready. Seeing that Chandler still is n't found and Monica 's so excited and thrilled about her wedding day, Rachel starts to panic and eventually cries. Therefore, Phoebe takes her to the bathroom because Monica ca n't see her in this state or she will know something 's wrong. When they 're in there, Phoebe finds a positive pregnancy test in the garbage and deduces that Monica is pregnant.
Ross tells Rachel to stall Monica so he can have more time to search for Chandler and Phoebe helps him search. When Monica comes back out of her room to begin getting ready for the wedding, Rachel distracts her by saying "I 'm never gon na get married '' and started to cry.
Meanwhile, Ross and Phoebe find a confused Chandler in his office. Ross convinces Chandler to go back to the apartment and begin getting ready, doing one thing at a time, not thinking about the goal. In Monica 's apartment, Rachel tries other less believable tactics to distract Monica and she realizes that something is going on. Rachel decides to tell Monica, and starts saying "We ca n't find Chandler... ''. At this point, Phoebe opens the door and gives a thumbs - up sign to Rachel, who suddenly changes the subject "Chandler... 's vest '', controlling the situation.
At the studios, Joey is stuck shooting an easy scene over and over since Richard is drunk and can barely stay focused. The director made it very clear to Joey that he ca n't leave until the scenes are finished or as long as Richard is on set and conscious, so Joey convinces a confused Richard that they 've completed all of their scenes and sends him home.
At the hotel, everything is ready for the wedding when Joey calls Rachel to warn her that he 'll be late. Meanwhile, Ross is keeping an eye on Chandler since he still has cold feet. Chandler steps out to sneak a cigarette when he suddenly hears Phoebe and Rachel coming, so he ducks into a storeroom to hide. He overhears that Monica 's pregnant and takes off again. Rachel finds another wedding finishing up in the same hotel and convinces the minister to officiate the wedding in case Joey does n't arrive in time. Meanwhile, Ross and Phoebe find Chandler again, who admits that he was indeed running away until he found a small baby outfit in the hotel 's gift store and realized that someone that small ca n't be scary. He then goes with Phoebe and Ross to the wedding.
As the ceremony begins, Joey finally arrives and takes his place between Monica and Chandler, accidentally letting slip that Chandler had second thoughts about the wedding. Monica delivers her self - written vow, while Chandler delivers one from the heart - both speeches are very moving. When the ceremony is over Chandler tells Monica that he knows about her being pregnant and how Phoebe told him she found a pregnancy test in the trash, but she reveals she did n't take a pregnancy test. Phoebe then turns to Rachel and says "And they 're going to have a baby! '' Rachel replies in tears, "Uh huh... '' The camera then zooms in on Rachel showing her looking worried and very emotional, leaving the audience with the knowledge that it is in fact she who 's pregnant.
The show was filmed over two weeks, with all of the scenes featuring Gary Oldman being filmed in the first week. The wedding was filmed in the second week, with the final shot of Rachel filmed after the studio audience had left.
The first part has a 9.1 rating at TV.com with the second having a slightly higher 9.3. Gary Oldman received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his portrayal of Richard Crosby. (1)
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when does the new season of greenhouse academy start | Greenhouse Academy - Wikipedia
Greenhouse Academy is a tween drama television series released by Netflix. Based on the Israeli television series The Greenhouse (Ha - Hamama), created by Giora Chamizer, the series was adapted for international audiences by Chamizer and Paula Yoo. The first season of the series was released on Netflix on September 8, 2017.
Eight months after losing their astronaut mother in a rocket explosion, a brother and a sister enroll at a private boarding school for gifted future leaders. Separately, they join two competing houses within the school and become rivals. Soon, mysterious events draw kids from both competing houses into a secret investigation. The kids uncover a deadly plot to destroy the planet. Only by joining forces and working together, will they be able to save the world.
Greenhouse Academy is a Netflix original series based on the Israeli tween - drama The Greenhouse (Ha - Hamama), which ran on Nickelodeon Israel. Both versions were created by Giora Chamizer and produced by Nutz Productions, a subsidiary of Ananey Communications. Two seasons consisting of a total of 24 episodes were produced. The series was filmed in summer 2016 in Tel Aviv and at other locations in Israel. The first season was released on Netflix on September 8, 2017. Season 2 is scheduled to be released in March 2018.
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ganglia are clusters of nerve cell bodies located in the peripheral nervous system | Ganglion - wikipedia
A ganglion is a nerve cell cluster or a group of nerve cell bodies located in the autonomic nervous system and sensory system. Ganglia house the cell bodies of afferent nerves (input nerve fibers) and efferent nerves (output / motor nerve fibers), or axons.
A pseudoganglion looks like a ganglion, but only has nerve fibers and has no nerve cell bodies.
Ganglia are primarily made up of somata and dendritic structures which are bundled or connected. Ganglia often interconnect with other ganglia to form a complex system of ganglia known as a plexus. Ganglia provide relay points and intermediary connections between different neurological structures in the body, such as the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Among vertebrates there are three major groups of ganglia:
In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the central nervous system to the ganglia are known as preganglionic fibers, while those from the ganglia to the effector organ are called postganglionic fibers.
The term "ganglion '' refers to the peripheral nervous system.
However, in the brain (part of the central nervous system), the "basal ganglia '' is a group of nuclei interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, associated with a variety of functions: motor control, cognition, emotions, and learning.
Partly due to this ambiguity, the Terminologia Anatomica recommends using the term basal nuclei instead of basal ganglia; however, this usage has not been generally adopted.
A pseudoganglion is a localized thickening of the main part or trunk of a nerve that has the appearance of a ganglion but has only nerve fibers and no nerve cell bodies.
Pseudoganglia are found in the teres minor muscle and radial nerve.
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how many amendments are there to the u.s. constitution what are the first 10 named | United states Constitution - Wikipedia
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government. Its first three articles entrench the doctrine of the separation of powers, whereby the federal government is divided into three branches: the legislative, consisting of the bicameral Congress; the executive, consisting of the President; and the judicial, consisting of the Supreme Court and other federal courts. Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure subsequently used by the thirteen States to ratify it.
Since the Constitution came into force in 1789, it has been amended 27 times to meet the changing needs of a nation now profoundly different from the eighteenth - century world in which its creators lived. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty and justice and place restrictions on the powers of government. The majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures. Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U.S. Constitution are written on parchment.
According to the United States Senate: "The Constitution 's first three words -- We the People -- affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. For over two centuries the Constitution has remained in force because its framers wisely separated and balanced governmental powers to safeguard the interests of majority rule and minority rights, of liberty and equality, and of the federal and state governments. ''
The first permanent constitution of its kind, adopted by the people 's representatives for an expansive nation, it is interpreted, supplemented, and implemented by a large body of constitutional law, and has influenced the constitutions of other nations.
From September 5, 1774 to March 1, 1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the provisional government of the United States. Delegates to the First (1774) and then the Second (1775 -- 1781) Continental Congress were chosen largely through the action of committees of correspondence in various colonies rather than through the colonial or later state legislatures. In no formal sense was it a gathering representative of existing colonial governments; it represented the dissatisfied elements of the people, such persons as were sufficiently interested to act, despite the strenuous opposition of the loyalists and the obstruction or disfavor of colonial governors. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a central governing body. Endowed by the people collectively, the Continental Congress alone possessed those attributes of external sovereignty which entitled it to be called a state in the international sense, while the separate states, exercising a limited or internal sovereignty, may rightly be considered a creation of the Continental Congress, which preceded them and brought them into being.
The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States. It was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late - 1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government 's power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.
Although, in a way, the Congressional powers in Article 9 made the "league of states as cohesive and strong as any similar sort of republican confederation in history '', the chief problem was, in the words of George Washington, "no money ''. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless. (A popular phrase of the times called a useless object or person... not worth a Continental, referring to the Continental dollar.) Congress could borrow money, but could n't pay it back. No state paid all their U.S. taxes; some paid nothing. Some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments. By 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due.
Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ' ability to defend its sovereignty. Most of the troops in the 625 - man United States Army were deployed facing -- but not threatening -- British forts on American soil. They had not been paid; some were deserting and others threatening mutiny. Spain closed New Orleans to American commerce; U.S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce; the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom. If any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response.
Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the diverse sentiments and interests of the various states. Although the Treaty of Paris (1783) was signed between Great Britain and the U.S., and named each of the American states, various individual states proceeded blithely to violate it. New York and South Carolina repeatedly prosecuted Loyalists for wartime activity and redistributed their lands. Individual state legislatures independently laid embargoes, negotiated directly with foreign authorities, raised armies, and made war, all violating the letter and the spirit of the Articles.
In September 1786, during an inter -- state convention to discuss and develop a consensus about reversing the protectionist trade barriers that each state had erected, James Madison angrily questioned whether the Articles of Confederation was a binding compact or even a viable government. Connecticut paid nothing and "positively refused '' to pay U.S. assessments for two years. A rumor had it that a "seditious party '' of New York legislators had opened a conversation with the Viceroy of Canada. To the south, the British were said to be openly funding Creek Indian raids on white settlers in Georgia and adjacent territory. Savannah (then - capital of Georgia) had been fortified, and the state of Georgia was under martial law. Additionally, during Shays ' Rebellion (August 1786 -- June 1787) in Massachusetts, Congress could provide no money to support an endangered constituent state. General Benjamin Lincoln was obliged to raise funds from Boston merchants to pay for a volunteer army.
Congress was paralyzed. It could do nothing significant without nine states, and some legislation required all thirteen. When a state produced only one member in attendance, its vote was not counted. If a state 's delegation were evenly divided, its vote could not be counted towards the nine - count requirement. The Articles Congress had "virtually ceased trying to govern ''. The vision of a "respectable nation '' among nations seemed to be fading in the eyes of revolutionaries such as George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Rufus King. Their dream of a republic, a nation without hereditary rulers, with power derived from the people in frequent elections, was in doubt.
On February 21, 1787, the Confederation Congress called a convention of state delegates at Philadelphia to propose a plan of government. Unlike earlier attempts, the convention was not meant for new laws or piecemeal alterations, but for the "sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation ''. The convention was not limited to commerce; rather, it was intended to "render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and the preservation of the Union. '' The proposal might take effect when approved by Congress and the states.
On the appointed day, May 14, 1787, only the Virginia and Pennsylvania delegations were present, and so the convention 's opening meeting was postponed for lack of a quorum. A quorum of seven states met and deliberations began on May 25. Eventually twelve states were represented; 74 delegates were named, 55 attended and 39 signed. The delegates were generally convinced that an effective central government with a wide range of enforceable powers must replace the weaker Congress established by the Articles of Confederation. Their depth of knowledge and experience in self - government was remarkable. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris wrote to John Adams in London, "It really is an assembly of demigods. ''
Delegates used two streams of intellectual tradition, and any one delegate could be found using both or a mixture depending on the subject under discussion: foreign affairs, the economy, national government, or federal relationships among the states. Two plans for structuring the federal government arose at the convention 's outset:
On May 31, the Convention devolved into a "Committee of the Whole '' to consider the Virginia Plan. On June 13, the Virginia resolutions in amended form were reported out of committee. The New Jersey plan was put forward in response to the Virginia Plan.
A "Committee of Eleven '' (one delegate from each state represented) met from July 2 to 16 to work out a compromise on the issue of representation in the federal legislature. All agreed to a republican form of government grounded in representing the people in the states. For the legislature, two issues were to be decided: how the votes were to be allocated among the states in the Congress, and how the representatives should be elected. In its report, now known as the Connecticut Compromise (or "Great Compromise ''), the committee proposed proportional representation for seats in the House of Representatives based on population (with the people voting for representatives), and equal representation for each State in the Senate (with each state 's legislators generally choosing their respective senators), and that all money bills would originate in the House.
The Great Compromise ended the stalemate between "patriots '' and "nationalists '', leading to numerous other compromises in a spirit of accommodation. There were sectional interests to be balanced by the Three - Fifths Compromise; reconciliation on Presidential term, powers, and method of selection; and jurisdiction of the federal judiciary.
On July 24, a "Committee of Detail '' -- John Rutledge (South Carolina), Edmund Randolph (Virginia), Nathaniel Gorham (Massachusetts), Oliver Ellsworth (Connecticut), and James Wilson (Pennsylvania) -- was elected to draft a detailed constitution reflective of the Resolutions passed by the convention up to that point. The Convention recessed from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of this "Committee of Detail ''. Overall, the report of the committee conformed to the resolutions adopted by the Convention, adding some elements. A twenty - three article (plus preamble) constitution was presented.
From August 6 to September 10, the report of the committee of detail was discussed, section by section and clause by clause. Details were attended to, and further compromises were effected. Toward the close of these discussions, on September 8, a "Committee of Style and Arrangement '' -- Alexander Hamilton (New York), William Samuel Johnson (Connecticut), Rufus King (Massachusetts), James Madison (Virginia), and Gouverneur Morris (Pennsylvania) -- was appointed to distill a final draft constitution from the twenty - three approved articles. The final draft, presented to the convention on September 12, contained seven articles, a preamble and a closing endorsement, of which Morris was the primary author. The committee also presented a proposed letter to accompany the constitution when delivered to Congress.
The final document, engrossed by Jacob Shallus, was taken up on Monday, September 17, at the Convention 's final session. Several of the delegates were disappointed in the result, a makeshift series of unfortunate compromises. Some delegates left before the ceremony, and three others refused to sign. Of the thirty - nine signers, Benjamin Franklin summed up, addressing the Convention: "There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. '' He would accept the Constitution, "because I expect no better and because I am not sure that it is not the best ''.
The advocates of the Constitution were anxious to obtain unanimous support of all twelve states represented in the Convention. Their accepted formula for the closing endorsement was "Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present. '' At the end of the convention, the proposal was agreed to by eleven state delegations and the lone remaining delegate from New York, Alexander Hamilton.
Transmitted to the United States in Congress Assembled then sitting in New York City, the new Constitution was forwarded to the states by Congress recommending the ratification process outlined in the Constitution. Each state legislature was to call elections for a "Federal Convention '' to ratify the new Constitution. They expanded the franchise beyond the Constitutional requirement to more nearly embrace "the people ''. Eleven ratified in 1787 or 1788, and all thirteen had done so by 1790. The Congress of the Confederation certified eleven states to begin the new government, and called the states to hold elections to begin operation. It then dissolved itself on March 4, 1789, the day the first session of the Congress of the United States began. George Washington was inaugurated as President two months later.
It was within the power of the old Congress of the Confederation to expedite or block the ratification of the new Constitution. The document that the Philadelphia Convention presented was technically only a revision of the Articles of Confederation. But the last article of the new instrument provided that when ratified by conventions in nine states (or two - thirds at the time), it should go into effect among the States so acting.
Then followed an arduous process of ratification of the Constitution by specially constituted conventions. The need for only nine states ' approval was a controversial decision at the time, since the Articles of Confederation could only be amended by unanimous vote of all the states.
Three members of the Convention -- Madison, Gorham, and King -- were also Members of Congress. They proceeded at once to New York, where Congress was in session, to placate the expected opposition. Aware of their vanishing authority, Congress, on September 28, after some debate, resolved unanimously to submit the Constitution to the States for action, "in conformity to the resolves of the Convention '', but with no recommendation either for or against its adoption.
Two parties soon developed, one in opposition, the Anti-Federalists, and one in support, the Federalists, of the Constitution; and the Constitution was debated, criticized, and expounded upon clause by clause. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, under the name of Publius, wrote a series of commentaries, now known as The Federalist Papers, in support of ratification in the state of New York, at that time a hotbed of anti-Federalism. These commentaries on the Constitution, written during the struggle for ratification, have been frequently cited by the Supreme Court as an authoritative contemporary interpretation of the meaning of its provisions. The dispute over additional powers for the central government was close, and in some states ratification was effected only after a bitter struggle in the state convention itself.
The Continental Congress -- which still functioned at irregular intervals -- passed a resolution on September 13, 1788, to put the new Constitution into operation with eleven states. North Carolina and Rhode Island ratified by May 1790.
Several ideas in the Constitution were new. These were associated with the combination of consolidated government along with federal relationships with constituent states.
The Due Process Clause of the Constitution was partly based on common law and on Magna Carta (1215), which had become a foundation of English liberty against arbitrary power wielded by a ruler.
Among the most prominent political theorists of the late eighteenth century were William Blackstone, John Locke, and Montesquieu.
Both the influence of Edward Coke and William Blackstone were evident at the Convention. In his Institutes of the Lawes of England, Edward Coke interpreted Magna Carta protections and rights to apply not just to nobles, but to all British subjects. In writing the Virginia Charter of 1606, he enabled the King in Parliament to give those to be born in the colonies all rights and liberties as though they were born in England. William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England were the most influential books on law in the new republic.
British political philosopher John Locke following the Glorious Revolution (1688) was a major influence expanding on the contract theory of government advanced by Thomas Hobbes. Locke advanced the principle of consent of the governed in his Two Treatises of Government. Government 's duty under a social contract among the sovereign people was to serve the people by protecting their rights. These basic rights were life, liberty and property.
Montesquieu 's influence on the framers is evident in Madison 's Federalist No. 47 and Hamilton 's Federalist No. 78. Jefferson, Adams, and Mason were known to read Montesquieu. Supreme Court Justices, the ultimate interpreters of the Constitution, have cited to Montesquieu throughout the Court 's history. (See, e.g., Green v. Biddle, 21 U.S. 1, 1, 36 (1823). United States v. Wood, 39 U.S. 430, 438 (1840). Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52, 116 (1926). Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, 433 U.S. 425, 442 (1977). Bank Markazi v. Peterson, 136 U.S. 1310, 1330 (2016).) Montesquieu emphasized the need for balanced forces pushing against each other to prevent tyranny (reflecting the influence of Polybius 's 2nd century BC treatise on the checks and balances of the Roman Republic). In his The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu argues that the separation of state powers should be by its service to the people 's liberty: legislative, executive and judicial.
A substantial body of thought had been developed from the literature of republicanism in the United States, including work by John Adams and applied to the creation of state constitutions.
The constitution was a federal one, and was influenced by the study of other federations, both ancient and extant.
The United States Bill of Rights consists of 10 amendments added to the Constitution in 1791, as supporters of the Constitution had promised critics during the debates of 1788. The English Bill of Rights (1689) was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. Both require jury trials, contain a right to keep and bear arms, prohibit excessive bail and forbid "cruel and unusual punishments ''. Many liberties protected by state constitutions and the Virginia Declaration of Rights were incorporated into the Bill of Rights.
Neither the Convention which drafted the Constitution, nor the Congress which sent it to the thirteen states for ratification in the autumn of 1787, gave it a lead caption. To fill this void, the document was most often titled "A frame of Government '' when it was printed for the convenience of ratifying conventions and the information of the public. This Frame of Government consisted of a preamble, seven articles and a signed closing endorsement.
The preamble to the Constitution serves as an introductory statement of the document 's fundamental purposes and guiding principles. It neither assigns powers to the federal government, nor does it place specific limitations on government action. Rather, it sets out the origin, scope and purpose of the Constitution. Its origin and authority is in "We, the people of the United States ''. This echoes the Declaration of Independence. "One people '' dissolved their connection with another, and assumed among the powers of the earth, a sovereign nation - state. The scope of the Constitution is twofold. First, "to form a more perfect Union '' than had previously existed in the "perpetual Union '' of the Articles of Confederation. Second, to "secure the blessings of liberty '', which were to be enjoyed by not only the first generation, but for all who came after, "our posterity ''.
Article One describes the Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government. Section 1, reads, "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. '' The article establishes the manner of election and the qualifications of members of each body. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, be a citizen of the United States for seven years, and live in the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, be a citizen for nine years, and live in the state they represent.
Article I, Section 8 enumerates the powers delegated to the legislature. Financially, Congress has the power to tax, borrow, pay debt and provide for the common defense and the general welfare; to regulate commerce, bankruptcies, and coin money. To regulate internal affairs, it has the power to regulate and govern military forces and militias, suppress insurrections and repel invasions. It is to provide for naturalization, standards of weights and measures, post offices and roads, and patents; to directly govern the federal district and cessions of land by the states for forts and arsenals. Internationally, Congress has the power to define and punish piracies and offenses against the Law of Nations, to declare war and make rules of war. The final Necessary and Proper Clause, also known as the Elastic Clause, expressly confers incidental powers upon Congress without the Articles ' requirement for express delegation for each and every power. Article I, Section 9 lists eight specific limits on congressional power.
The Supreme Court has sometimes broadly interpreted the Commerce Clause and the Necessary and Proper Clause in Article One to allow Congress to enact legislation that is neither expressly allowed by the enumerated powers nor expressly denied in the limitations on Congress. In McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), the Supreme Court read the Necessary and Proper Clause to permit the federal government to take action that would "enable (it) to perform the high duties assigned to it (by the Constitution) in the manner most beneficial to the people '', even if that action is not itself within the enumerated powers. Chief Justice Marshall clarified: "Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are Constitutional. ''
Article Two describes the office of the President of the United States. The President is head of the executive branch of the federal government, as well as the nation 's head of state and head of government.
Article Two describes the office, qualifications and duties of the President of the United States and the Vice President. It is modified by the 12th Amendment which tacitly acknowledges political parties, and the 25th Amendment relating to office succession. The president is to receive only one compensation from the federal government. The inaugural oath is specified to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution.
The president is the Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces and state militias when they are mobilized. He or she makes treaties with the advice and consent of a two - thirds quorum of the Senate. To administer the federal government, the president commissions all the offices of the federal government as Congress directs; he or she may require the opinions of its principal officers and make "recess appointments '' for vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate. The president is to see that the laws are faithfully executed, though he or she may grant reprieves and pardons except regarding Congressional impeachment of himself or other federal officers. The president reports to Congress on the State of the Union, and by the Recommendation Clause, recommends "necessary and expedient '' national measures. The president may convene and adjourn Congress under special circumstances.
Section 4 provides for removal of the president and other federal officers. The president is removed on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
Article Three describes the court system (the judicial branch), including the Supreme Court. There shall be one court called the Supreme Court. The article describes the kinds of cases the court takes as original jurisdiction. Congress can create lower courts and an appeals process. Congress enacts law defining crimes and providing for punishment. Article Three also protects the right to trial by jury in all criminal cases, and defines the crime of treason.
Section 1 vests the judicial power of the United States in federal courts, and with it, the authority to interpret and apply the law to a particular case. Also included is the power to punish, sentence, and direct future action to resolve conflicts. The Constitution outlines the U.S. judicial system. In the Judiciary Act of 1789, Congress began to fill in details. Currently, Title 28 of the U.S. Code describes judicial powers and administration.
As of the First Congress, the Supreme Court justices rode circuit to sit as panels to hear appeals from the district courts. In 1891, Congress enacted a new system. District courts would have original jurisdiction. Intermediate appellate courts (circuit courts) with exclusive jurisdiction heard regional appeals before consideration by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court holds discretionary jurisdiction, meaning that it does not have to hear every case that is brought to it.
To enforce judicial decisions, the Constitution grants federal courts both criminal contempt and civil contempt powers. The court 's summary punishment for contempt immediately overrides all other punishments applicable to the subject party. Other implied powers include injunctive relief and the habeas corpus remedy. The Court may imprison for contumacy, bad - faith litigation, and failure to obey a writ of mandamus. Judicial power includes that granted by Acts of Congress for rules of law and punishment. Judicial power also extends to areas not covered by statute. Generally, federal courts can not interrupt state court proceedings.
Clause 1 of Section 2 authorizes the federal courts to hear actual cases and controversies only. Their judicial power does not extend to cases which are hypothetical, or which are proscribed due to standing, mootness, or ripeness issues. Generally, a case or controversy requires the presence of adverse parties who have some interest genuinely at stake in the case. Also required is of broad enough concern in the Court 's jurisdiction that a lower court, either federal or state, does not geographically cover all the existing cases before law. Courts following these guidelines exercise judicial restraint. Those making an exception are said to be judicial activist.
Clause 2 of Section 2 provides that the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases involving ambassadors, ministers and consuls, for all cases respecting foreign nation - states, and also in those controversies which are subject to federal judicial power because at least one state is a party. Cases arising under the laws of the United States and its treaties come under the jurisdiction of federal courts. Cases under international maritime law and conflicting land grants of different states come under federal courts. Cases between U.S. citizens in different states, and cases between U.S. citizens and foreign states and their citizens, come under federal jurisdiction. The trials will be in the state where the crime was committed.
No part of the Constitution expressly authorizes judicial review, but the Framers did contemplate the idea. The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. Precedent has since established that the courts could exercise judicial review over the actions of Congress or the executive branch. Two conflicting federal laws are under "pendent '' jurisdiction if one presents a strict constitutional issue. Federal court jurisdiction is rare when a state legislature enacts something as under federal jurisdiction. To establish a federal system of national law, considerable effort goes into developing a spirit of comity between federal government and states. By the doctrine of ' Res judicata ', federal courts give "full faith and credit '' to State Courts. The Supreme Court will decide Constitutional issues of state law only on a case by case basis, and only by strict Constitutional necessity, independent of state legislators motives, their policy outcomes or its national wisdom.
Section 3 bars Congress from changing or modifying Federal law on treason by simple majority statute. Treason is also defined in this section. It 's not enough merely to think a treasonous thought, there must be an overt act of making war or materially helping those at war with the United States. Accusations must be corroborated by at least two witnesses. Congress is a political body and political disagreements routinely encountered should never be considered as treason. This allows for nonviolent resistance to the government because opposition is not a life or death proposition. However, Congress does provide for other less subversive crimes and punishments such as conspiracy.
Article Four outlines the relations among the states and between each state and the federal government. In addition, it provides for such matters as admitting new states and border changes between the states. For instance, it requires states to give "full faith and credit '' to the public acts, records, and court proceedings of the other states. Congress is permitted to regulate the manner in which proof of such acts may be admitted. The "privileges and immunities '' clause prohibits state governments from discriminating against citizens of other states in favor of resident citizens, e.g., having tougher penalties for residents of Ohio convicted of crimes within Michigan.
It also establishes extradition between the states, as well as laying down a legal basis for freedom of movement and travel amongst the states. Today, this provision is sometimes taken for granted, but in the days of the Articles of Confederation, crossing state lines was often arduous and costly. The Territorial Clause gives Congress the power to make rules for disposing of federal property and governing non-state territories of the United States. Finally, the fourth section of Article Four requires the United States to guarantee to each state a republican form of government, and to protect them from invasion and violence.
Article Five outlines the process for amending the Constitution. Eight state constitutions in effect in 1787 included an amendment mechanism. Amendment making power rested with the legislature in three of the states and in the other five it was given to specially elected conventions. The Articles of Confederation provided that amendments were to be proposed by Congress and ratified by the unanimous vote of all thirteen state legislatures. This proved to be a major flaw in the Articles, as it created an insurmountable obstacle to constitutional reform. The amendment process crafted during the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention was, according to The Federalist No. 43, designed to establish a balance between pliancy and rigidity:
It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.
There are two steps in the amendment process. Proposals to amend the Constitution must be properly adopted and ratified before they change the Constitution. First, there are two procedures for adopting the language of a proposed amendment, either by (a) Congress, by two - thirds majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives, or (b) national convention (which shall take place whenever two - thirds of the state legislatures collectively call for one). Second, there are two procedures for ratifying the proposed amendment, which requires three - fourths of the states ' (presently 38 of 50) approval: (a) consent of the state legislatures, or (b) consent of state ratifying conventions. The ratification method is chosen by Congress for each amendment. State ratifying conventions were used only once, for the Twenty - first Amendment.
Presently, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of 1 U.S. Code § 106b. The Archivist submits the proposed amendment to the states for their consideration by sending a letter of notification to each Governor. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state 's legislature. When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state 's action. Ratification documents are examined by the Office of the Federal Register for facial legal sufficiency and an authenticating signature.
Article Five ends by shielding certain clauses in the new frame of government from being amended. Article One, Section 9, Clauses 1 prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808, plus the fourth clause from that same section, which reiterates the Constitutional rule that direct taxes must be apportioned according state populations. These clauses were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On January 1, 1808, the first day it was permitted to do so, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the country. On February 3, 1913, with ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, Congress gained the authority to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census. The third textually entrenched provision is Article One, Section 3, Clauses 1, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate. The shield protecting this clause from the amendment process is less absolute -- "no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate '' -- but permanent.
Article Six establishes the Constitution, and all federal laws and treaties of the United States made according to it, to be the supreme law of the land, and that "the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the laws or constitutions of any state notwithstanding. '' It validates national debt created under the Articles of Confederation and requires that all federal and state legislators, officers, and judges take oaths or affirmations to support the Constitution. This means that the states ' constitutions and laws should not conflict with the laws of the federal constitution and that in case of a conflict, state judges are legally bound to honor the federal laws and constitution over those of any state. Article Six also states "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
Article Seven describes the process for establishing the proposed new frame of government. Anticipating that the influence of many state politicians would be Antifederalist, delegates to the Philadelphia Convention provided for ratification of the Constitution by popularly elected ratifying conventions in each state. The convention method also made it possible that judges, ministers and others ineligible to serve in state legislatures, could be elected to a convention. Suspecting that Rhode Island, at least, might not ratify, delegates decided that the Constitution would go into effect as soon as nine states (two - thirds rounded up) ratified. Once ratified by this minimum number of states, it was anticipated that the proposed Constitution would become this Constitution between the nine or more that signed. It would not cover the four or fewer states that might not have signed.
The Signing of the United States Constitution occurred on September 17, 1787 when 39 delegates to the Constitutional Convention endorsed the constitution created during the convention. In addition to signatures, this closing endorsement, the Constitution 's eschatocol, included a brief declaration that the delegates ' work has been successfully completed and that those whose signatures appear on it subscribe to the final document. Included are, a statement pronouncing the document 's adoption by the states present, a formulaic dating of its adoption, and the signatures of those endorsing it. Additionally, the convention 's secretary, William Jackson, signed the document to authenticate the validity of the delegate signatures. He also made a few secretarial notes.
The language of the concluding endorsement, conceived by Gouverneur Morris and presented to the convention by Benjamin Franklin, was made intentionally ambiguous in hopes of winning over the votes of dissenting delegates. Advocates for the new frame of government, realizing the impending difficulty of obtaining the consent of the states needed to make it operational, were anxious to obtain the unanimous support of the delegations from each state. It was feared that many of the delegates would refuse to give their individual assent to the Constitution. Therefore, in order that the action of the Convention would appear to be unanimous, the formula, Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present... was devised.
The document is dated: "the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord '' 1787, and "of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. '' This two-fold epoch dating serves to place the Constitution in the context of the religious traditions of Western civilization and, at the same time, links it to the regime principles proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence. This dual reference can also be found in the Articles of Confederation and the Northwest Ordinance.
The closing endorsement serves an authentication function only. It neither assigns powers to the federal government nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. It does however, provide essential documentation of the Constitution 's validity, a statement of "This is what was agreed to. '' It records who signed the Constitution, and when and where.
The Constitution has twenty - seven amendments. Structurally, the Constitution 's original text and all prior amendments remain untouched. The precedent for this practice was set in 1789, when Congress considered and proposed the first several Constitutional amendments. Among these, Amendments 1 -- 10 are collectively known as the Bill of Rights, and Amendments 13 -- 15 are known as the Reconstruction Amendments. Excluding the Twenty - seventh Amendment, which was pending before the states for 7004740030000000000 ♠ 202 years, 225 days, the longest pending amendment that was successfully ratified was the Twenty - second Amendment, which took 7003143900000000000 ♠ 3 years, 343 days. The Twenty - sixth Amendment was ratified in the shortest time, 100 days. The average ratification time for the first twenty - six amendments was 1 year, 252 days, for all twenty - seven, 9 years, 48 days.
A proposed amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution as soon as it is ratified by three - fourths of the States (currently 38 of the 50 States). There is no further step. The text requires no additional action by Congress or anyone else after ratification by the required number of states. Thus, when the Office of the Federal Register verifies that it has received the required number of authenticated ratification documents, it drafts a formal proclamation for the Archivist to certify that the amendment is valid and has become part of the nation 's frame of government. This certification is published in the Federal Register and United States Statutes at Large and serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.
The First Amendment (1791) prohibits Congress from obstructing the exercise of certain individual freedoms: freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and right to petition. Its Free Exercise Clause guarantees a person 's right to hold whatever religious beliefs he or she wants, and to freely exercise that belief, and its Establishment Clause prevents the federal government from creating an official national church or favoring one set of religious beliefs over another. The amendment guarantees an individual 's right to express and to be exposed to a wide range of opinions and views. It was intended to ensure a free exchange of ideas, even unpopular ones. It also guarantees an individual 's right to physically gather or associate with others in groups for economic, political or religious purposes. Additionally, it guarantees an individual 's right to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
The Second Amendment (1791) protects the right of individuals to keep and bear arms. Although the Supreme Court has ruled that this right applies to individuals, not merely to collective militias, it has also held that the government may regulate or place some limits on the manufacture, ownership and sale of firearms or other weapons. Requested by several states during the Constitutional ratification debates, the amendment reflected the lingering resentment over the widespread efforts of the British to confiscate the colonists ' firearms at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Patrick Henry had rhetorically asked, shall we be stronger, "when we are totally disarmed, and when a British Guard shall be stationed in every house? ''
The Third Amendment (1791) prohibits the federal government from forcing individuals to provide lodging to soldiers in their homes during peacetime without their consent. Requested by several states during the Constitutional ratification debates, the amendment reflected the lingering resentment over the Quartering Acts passed by the British Parliament during the Revolutionary War, which had allowed British soldiers to take over private homes for their own use.
The Fourth Amendment (1791) protects people against unreasonable searches and seizures of either self or property by government officials. A search can mean everything from a frisking by a police officer or to a demand for a blood test to a search of an individual 's home or car. A seizure occurs when the government takes control of an individual or something in his or her possession. Items that are seized often are used as evidence when the individual is charged with a crime. It also imposes certain limitations on police investigating a crime and prevents the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial.
The Fifth Amendment (1791) establishes the requirement that a trial for a major crime may commence only after an indictment has been handed down by a grand jury; protects individuals from double jeopardy, being tried and put in danger of being punished more than once for the same criminal act; prohibits punishment without due process of law, thus protecting individuals from being imprisoned without fair procedures; and provides that an accused person may not be compelled to reveal to the police, prosecutor, judge, or jury any information that might incriminate or be used against him or her in a court of law. Additionally, the Fifth Amendment also prohibits government from taking private property for public use without "just compensation '', the basis of eminent domain in the United States.
The Sixth Amendment (1791) provides several protections and rights to an individual accused of a crime. The accused has the right to a fair and speedy trial by a local and impartial jury. Likewise, a person has the right to a public trial. This right protects defendants from secret proceedings that might encourage abuse of the justice system, and serves to keep the public informed. This amendment also guarantees a right to legal counsel if accused of a crime, guarantees that the accused may require witnesses to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the accused, and guarantees the accused a right to know the charges against them. In 1966, the Supreme Court ruled that, with the Fifth Amendment, this amendment requires what has become known as the Miranda warning.
The Seventh Amendment (1791) extends the right to a jury trial to federal civil cases, and inhibits courts from overturning a jury 's findings of fact. Although the Seventh Amendment itself says that it is limited to "suits at common law '', meaning cases that triggered the right to a jury under English law, the amendment has been found to apply in lawsuits that are similar to the old common law cases. For example, the right to a jury trial applies to cases brought under federal statutes that prohibit race or gender discrimination in housing or employment. Importantly, this amendment guarantees the right to a jury trial only in federal court, not in state court.
The Eighth Amendment (1791) protects people from having bail or fines set at an amount so high that it would be impossible for all but the richest defendants to pay and also protects people from being subjected to cruel and unusual punishment. Although this phrase originally was intended to outlaw certain gruesome methods of punishment, it has been broadened over the years to protect against punishments that are grossly disproportionate to or too harsh for the particular crime. This provision has also been used to challenge prison conditions such as extremely unsanitary cells, overcrowding, insufficient medical care and deliberate failure by officials to protect inmates from one another.
The Ninth Amendment (1791) declares that individuals have other fundamental rights, in addition to those stated in the Constitution. During the Constitutional ratification debates Anti-Federalists argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. The Federalists opposed it on grounds that a list would necessarily be incomplete but would be taken as explicit and exhaustive, thus enlarging the power of the federal government by implication. The Anti-Federalists persisted, and several state ratification conventions refused to ratify the Constitution without a more specific list of protections, so the First Congress added what became the Ninth Amendment as a compromise. Because the rights protected by the Ninth Amendment are not specified, they are referred to as "unenumerated ''. The Supreme Court has found that unenumerated rights include such important rights as the right to travel, the right to vote, the right to privacy, and the right to make important decisions about one 's health care or body.
The Tenth Amendment (1791) was included in the Bill of Rights to further define the balance of power between the federal government and the states. The amendment states that the federal government has only those powers specifically granted by the Constitution. These powers include the power to declare war, to collect taxes, to regulate interstate business activities and others that are listed in the articles or in subsequent constitutional amendments. Any power not listed is, says the Tenth Amendment, left to the states or the people. While there is no specific list of what these "reserved powers '' may be, the Supreme Court has ruled that laws affecting family relations, commerce within a state 's own borders, and local law enforcement activities, are among those specifically reserved to the states or the people.
The Eleventh Amendment (1795) specifically prohibits federal courts from hearing cases in which a state is sued by an individual from another state or another country, thus extending to the states sovereign immunity protection from certain types of legal liability. Article Three, Section 2, Clause 1 has been affected by this amendment, which also overturned the Supreme Court 's decision in Chisholm v. Georgia.
The Sixteenth Amendment (1913) removed existing Constitutional constraints that limited the power of Congress to lay and collect taxes on income. Specifically, the apportionment constraints delineated in Article 1, Section 9, Clause 4 have been removed by this amendment, which also overturned an 1895 Supreme Court decision, in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co., that declared an unapportioned federal income tax on rents, dividends, and interest unconstitutional. This amendment has become the basis for all subsequent federal income tax legislation and has greatly expanded the scope of federal taxing and spending in the years since.
The Eighteenth Amendment (1919) prohibited the making, transporting, and selling of alcoholic beverages nationwide. It also authorized Congress to enact legislation enforcing this prohibition. Adopted at the urging of a national temperance movement, proponents believed that the use of alcohol was reckless and destructive and that prohibition would reduce crime and corruption, solve social problems, decrease the need for welfare and prisons, and improve the health of all Americans. During prohibition, it is estimated that alcohol consumption and alcohol related deaths declined dramatically. But prohibition had other, more negative consequences. The amendment drove the lucrative alcohol business underground, giving rise to a large and pervasive black market. In addition, prohibition encouraged disrespect for the law and strengthened organized crime. Prohibition came to an end in 1933, when this amendment was repealed.
The Twenty - first Amendment (1933) repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and returned the regulation of alcohol to the states. Each state sets its own rules for the sale and importation of alcohol, including the drinking age. Because a federal law provides federal funds to states that prohibit the sale of alcohol to minors under the age of twenty - one, all fifty states have set their drinking age there. Rules about how alcohol is sold vary greatly from state to state.
The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, and authorized Congress to enforce abolition. Though millions of slaves had been declared free by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post Civil War status was unclear, as was the status of other millions. Congress intended the Thirteenth Amendment to be a proclamation of freedom for all slaves throughout the nation and to take the question of emancipation away from politics. This amendment rendered inoperative or moot several of the original parts of the constitution.
The Fourteenth Amendment (1868) granted United States citizenship to former slaves and to all persons "subject to U.S. jurisdiction ''. It also contained three new limits on state power: a state shall not violate a citizen 's privileges or immunities; shall not deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; and must guarantee all persons equal protection of the laws. These limitations dramatically expanded the protections of the Constitution. This amendment, according to the Supreme Court 's Doctrine of Incorporation, makes most provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to state and local governments as well. The mode of apportionment of representatives delineated in Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 has been superseded by that of this amendment, which also overturned the Supreme Court 's decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford.
The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) prohibits the use of race, color, or previous condition of servitude in determining which citizens may vote. The last of three post Civil War Reconstruction Amendments, it sought to abolish one of the key vestiges of slavery and to advance the civil rights and liberties of former slaves.
The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) prohibits the government from denying women the right to vote on the same terms as men. Prior to the amendment 's adoption, only a few states permitted women to vote and to hold office.
The Twenty - third Amendment (1961) extends the right to vote in presidential elections to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the District electors in the Electoral College, as if it were a state. When first established as the nation 's capital in 1800, the District of Columbia 's five thousand residents had neither a local government, nor the right to vote in federal elections. By 1960 the population of the District had grown to over 760,000 people. However, while its residents had all the responsibilities of citizenship, such as paying federal taxes, and could be drafted to serve in the military, citizens in thirteen states with lower populations had more voting rights than District residents.
The Twenty - fourth Amendment (1964) prohibits a poll tax for voting. Although passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments helped remove many of the discriminatory laws left over from slavery, they did not eliminate all forms of discrimination. Along with literacy tests and durational residency requirements, poll taxes were used to keep low - income (primarily African American) citizens from participating in elections. The Supreme Court has since struck down these discriminatory measures, opening democratic participation to all, regardless of one 's ability to pay.
The Twenty - sixth Amendment (1971) prohibits the government from denying the right of United States citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age. The drive to lower the voting age was driven in large part by the broader student activism movement protesting the Vietnam War. It gained strength following the Supreme Court 's decision in Oregon v. Mitchell, which held that Congress may set requirements for voting in federal elections, but not for state or local elections. The measure, which overturns the Mitchell decision, is another in a line of constitutional changes that expanded the right to vote to more citizens.
The Twelfth Amendment (1804) modifies the way the Electoral College chooses the President and Vice President. It stipulates that each elector must cast a distinct vote for President and Vice President, instead of two votes for President. It also suggests that the President and Vice President should not be from the same state. Article II, Section 1, Clause 3 is superseded by this amendment, which also extends the eligibility requirements to become President to the Vice President.
The Seventeenth Amendment (1913) modifies the way senators are elected. It stipulates that senators are to be elected by direct popular vote. The amendment supersedes Article 1, Section 2, Clauses 1 and 2, under which the two senators from each state were elected by the state legislature. It also allows state legislatures to permit their governors to make temporary appointments until a special election can be held.
The Twentieth Amendment (1933) changes the date on which a new President, Vice President and Congress take office, thus shortening the time between Election Day and the beginning of Presidential, Vice Presidential and Congressional terms. Originally, the Constitution provided that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December unless otherwise provided by law. This meant that, when a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a "lame duck '' Congress convening in the interim. By moving the beginning of the president 's new term from March 4 to January 20 (and in the case of Congress, to January 3), proponents hoped to put an end to lame duck sessions, while allowing for a speedier transition for the new administration and legislators.
The Twenty - second Amendment (1951) limits an elected president to two terms in office, a total of eight years. However, under some circumstances it is possible for an individual to serve more than eight years. Although nothing in the original frame of government limited how many presidential terms one could serve, the nation 's first president, George Washington, declined to run for a third term, suggesting that two terms of four years were enough for any president. This precedent remained an unwritten rule of the presidency until broken by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to a third term as president 1940 and in 1944 to a fourth.
The Twenty - fifth Amendment (1967) clarifies what happens upon the death, removal, or resignation of the President or Vice President and how the Presidency is temporarily filled if the President becomes disabled and can not fulfill the responsibilities of the office. It supersedes the ambiguous succession rule established in Article II, Section 1, Clause 6. A concrete plan of succession has been needed on multiple occasions since 1789. However, for nearly 20 % of U.S. history, there has been no vice president in office who can assume the presidency.
The Twenty - seventh Amendment (1992) prevents members of Congress from granting themselves pay raises during the current session. Rather, any raises that are adopted must take effect during the next session of Congress. Its proponents believed that Federal legislators would be more likely to be cautious about increasing congressional pay if they have no personal stake in the vote. Article One, section 6, Clause 1 has been affected by this amendment, which remained pending for over two centuries as it contained no time limit for ratification.
Collectively, members of the House and Senate typically propose around 200 amendments during each two - year term of Congress. Most however, never get out of the Congressional committees in which they were proposed, and only a fraction of those that do receive enough support to win Congressional approval to actually go through the constitutional ratification process.
Six amendments approved by Congress and proposed to the states for consideration have not been ratified by the required number of states to become part of the Constitution. Four of these are technically still pending, as Congress did not set a time limit (see also Coleman v. Miller) for their ratification. The other two are no longer pending, as both had a time limit attached and in both cases the time period set for their ratification expired.
The way the Constitution is understood is influenced by court decisions, especially those of the Supreme Court. These decisions are referred to as precedents. Judicial review is the power of the Court to examine federal legislation, federal executive, and all state branches of government, to decide their constitutionality, and to strike them down if found unconstitutional.
Judicial review includes the power of the Court to explain the meaning of the Constitution as it applies to particular cases. Over the years, Court decisions on issues ranging from governmental regulation of radio and television to the rights of the accused in criminal cases have changed the way many constitutional clauses are interpreted, without amendment to the actual text of the Constitution.
Legislation passed to implement the Constitution, or to adapt those implementations to changing conditions, broadens and, in subtle ways, changes the meanings given to the words of the Constitution. Up to a point, the rules and regulations of the many federal executive agencies have a similar effect. If an action of Congress or the agencies is challenged, however, it is the court system that ultimately decides whether these actions are permissible under the Constitution.
The Supreme Court has indicated that once the Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the Courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is ''.
Courts established by the Constitution can regulate government under the Constitution, the supreme law of the land. First, they have jurisdiction over actions by an officer of government and state law. Second, federal courts may rule on whether coordinate branches of national government conform to the Constitution. Until the twentieth century, the Supreme Court of the United States may have been the only high tribunal in the world to use a court for constitutional interpretation of fundamental law, others generally depending on their national legislature.
John Jay, 1789 -- 1795 New York co-author The Federalist Papers
John Marshall, 1801 -- 1835 Fauquier County delegate Virginia Ratification Convention
The basic theory of American Judicial review is summarized by constitutional legal scholars and historians as follows: the written Constitution is fundamental law. It can change only by extraordinary legislative process of national proposal, then state ratification. The powers of all departments are limited to enumerated grants found in the Constitution. Courts are expected (a) to enforce provisions of the Constitution as the supreme law of the land, and (b) to refuse to enforce anything in conflict with it.
In Convention. As to judicial review and the Congress, the first proposals by Madison (Va) and Wilson (Pa) called for a supreme court veto over national legislation. In this it resembled the system in New York, where the Constitution of 1777 called for a "Council of Revision '' by the Governor and Justices of the state supreme court. The Council would review and in a way, veto any passed legislation violating the spirit of the Constitution before it went into effect. The nationalist 's proposal in Convention was defeated three times, and replaced by a presidential veto with Congressional over-ride. Judicial review relies on the jurisdictional authority in Article III, and the Supremacy Clause.
The justification for judicial review is to be explicitly found in the open ratifications held in the states and reported in their newspapers. John Marshall in Virginia, James Wilson in Pennsylvania and Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut all argued for Supreme Court judicial review of acts of state legislature. In Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton advocated the doctrine of a written document held as a superior enactment of the people. "A limited constitution can be preserved in practice no other way '' than through courts which can declare void any legislation contrary to the Constitution. The preservation of the people 's authority over legislatures rests "particularly with judges ''.
The Supreme Court was initially made up of jurists who had been intimately connected with the framing of the Constitution and the establishment of its government as law. John Jay (New York), a co-author of The Federalist Papers, served as Chief Justice for the first six years. The second Chief Justice for a term of four years, was Oliver Ellsworth (Connecticut), a delegate in the Constitutional Convention, as was John Rutledge (South Carolina), Washington 's recess appointment as Chief Justice who served in 1795. John Marshall (Virginia), the fourth Chief Justice, had served in the Virginia Ratification Convention in 1788. His service on the Court would extend 34 years over some of the most important rulings to help establish the nation the Constitution had begun. In the first years of the Supreme Court, members of the Constitutional Convention who would serve included James Wilson (Pennsylvania) for ten years, John Blair, Jr. (Virginia) for five, and John Rutledge (South Carolina) for one year as Justice, then Chief Justice in 1795.
When John Marshall followed Oliver Ellsworth as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1801, the federal judiciary had been established by the Judiciary Act, but there were few cases, and less prestige. "The fate of judicial review was in the hands of the Supreme Court itself. '' Review of state legislation and appeals from state supreme courts was understood. But the Court 's life, jurisdiction over state legislation was limited. The Marshall Court 's landmark Barron v. Baltimore held that the Bill of Rights restricted only the federal government, and not the states.
In the landmark Marbury v. Madison case, the Supreme Court asserted its authority of judicial review over Acts of Congress. Its findings were that Marbury and the others had a right to their commissions as judges in the District of Columbia. The law afforded Marbury a remedy at court. Then Marshall, writing the opinion for the majority, announced his discovered conflict between Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 and Article III. In this case, both the Constitution and the statutory law applied to the particulars at the same time. "The very essence of judicial duty '' according to Marshall was to determine which of the two conflicting rules should govern. The Constitution enumerates powers of the judiciary to extend to cases arising "under the Constitution ''. Further, justices take a Constitutional oath to uphold it as "Supreme law of the land ''. Therefore, since the United States government as created by the Constitution is a limited government, the Federal courts were required to choose the Constitution over Congressional law if there were deemed to be a conflict between them.
"This argument has been ratified by time and by practice... '' "Marshall The Supreme Court did not declare another Act of Congress unconstitutional until the disastrous Dred Scott decision in 1857, held after the voided Missouri Compromise statute, had already been repealed. In the eighty years following the Civil War to World War II, the Court voided Congressional statutes in 77 cases, on average almost one a year.
Something of a crisis arose when, in 1935 and 1936, the Supreme Court handed down twelve decisions voiding Acts of Congress relating to the New Deal. President Franklin D. Roosevelt then responded with his abortive "court packing plan ''. Other proposals have suggested a Court super-majority to overturn Congressional legislation, or a Constitutional Amendment to require that the Justices retire at a specified age by law. To date, the Supreme Court 's power of judicial review has persisted.
The power of judicial review could not have been preserved long in a democracy unless it had been "wielded with a reasonable measure of judicial restraint, and with some attention, as Mr. Dooley said, to the election returns. '' Indeed, the Supreme Court has developed a system of doctrine and practice that self - limits its power of judicial review.
The Court controls almost all of its business by choosing what cases to consider, writs of certiorari. In this way, it can avoid opinions on embarrassing or difficult cases. The Supreme Court limits itself by defining for itself what is a "justiciable question. '' First, the Court is fairly consistent in refusing to make any "advisory opinions '' in advance of actual cases. Second, "friendly suits '' between those of the same legal interest are not considered. Third, the Court requires a "personal interest '', not one generally held, and a legally protected right must be immediately threatened by government action. Cases are not taken up if the litigant has no standing to sue. Simply having the money to sue and being injured by government action are not enough.
These three procedural ways of dismissing cases have led critics to charge that the Supreme Court delays decisions by unduly insisting on technicalities in their "standards of litigability ''. Under the Court 's practice, there are cases left unconsidered which are in the public interest, with genuine controversy, and resulting from good faith action. "The Supreme Court is not only a court of law but a court of justice. ''
The Supreme Court balances several pressures to maintain its roles in national government. It seeks to be a co-equal branch of government, but its decrees must be enforceable. The Court seeks to minimize situations where it asserts itself superior to either President or Congress, but federal officers must be held accountable. The Supreme Court assumes power to declare acts of Congress as unconstitutional but it self - limits its passing on constitutional questions. But the Court 's guidance on basic problems of life and governance in a democracy is most effective when American political life reinforce its rulings.
Justice Brandeis summarized four general guidelines that the Supreme Court uses to avoid constitutional decisions relating to Congress: The Court will not anticipate a question of constitutional law nor decide open questions unless a case decision requires it. If it does, a rule of constitutional law is formulated only as the precise facts in the case require. The Court will choose statutes or general law for the basis of its decision if it can without constitutional grounds. If it does, the Court will choose a constitutional construction of an Act of Congress, even if its constitutionality is seriously in doubt.
Likewise with the Executive Department, Edwin Corwin observed that the Court does sometimes rebuff presidential pretensions, but it more often tries to rationalize them. Against Congress, an Act is merely "disallowed ''. In the executive case, exercising judicial review produces "some change in the external world '' beyond the ordinary judicial sphere. The "political question '' doctrine especially applies to questions which present a difficult enforcement issue. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes addressed the Court 's limitation when political process allowed future policy change, but a judicial ruling would "attribute finality ''. Political questions lack "satisfactory criteria for a judicial determination ''.
John Marshall recognized that the president holds "important political powers '' which as Executive privilege allows great discretion. This doctrine was applied in Court rulings on President Grant 's duty to enforce the law during Reconstruction. It extends to the sphere of foreign affairs. Justice Robert Jackson explained, Foreign affairs are inherently political, "wholly confided by our Constitution to the political departments of the government... (and) not subject to judicial intrusion or inquiry. ''
Critics of the Court object in two principal ways to self - restraint in judicial review, deferring as it does as a matter of doctrine to Acts of Congress and Presidential actions.
Supreme Courts under the leadership of subsequent Chief Justices have also used judicial review to interpret the Constitution among individuals, states and federal branches. Notable contributions were made by the Chase Court, the Taft Court, the Warren Court, and the Rehnquist Court.
Salmon P. Chase was a Lincoln appointee, serving as Chief Justice from 1864 to 1873. His career encompassed service as a U.S. Senator and Governor of Ohio. He coined the slogan, "Free soil, free Labor, free men. '' One of Lincoln 's "team of rivals '', he was appointed Secretary of Treasury during the Civil War, issuing "greenbacks ''. To appease radical Republicans, Lincoln appointed him to replace Chief Justice Roger B. Taney of Dred Scott case fame.
In one of his first official acts, Chase admitted John Rock, the first African - American to practice before the Supreme Court. The "Chase Court '' is famous for Texas v. White, which asserted a permanent Union of indestructible states. Veazie Bank v. Fenno upheld the Civil War tax on state banknotes. Hepburn v. Griswold found parts of the Legal Tender Acts unconstitutional, though it was reversed under a late Supreme Court majority.
Salmon P. Chase Union, Reconstruction
William Howard Taft commerce, incorporation
Earl Warren due process, civil rights
William Rehnquist federalism, privacy
William Howard Taft was a Harding appointment to Chief Justice from 1921 to 1930. A Progressive Republican from Ohio, he was a one - term President.
As Chief Justice, he advocated the Judiciary Act of 1925 that brought the Federal District Courts under the administrative jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Taft successfully sought the expansion of Court jurisdiction over non - states such as District of Columbia and Territories of Arizona, New Mexico, Alaska and Hawaii.
In 1925, the Taft Court issued a ruling overturning a Marshall Court ruling on the Bill of Rights. In Gitlow v. New York, the Court established the doctrine of "incorporation which applied the Bill of Rights to the states. Important cases included the Board of Trade of City of Chicago v. Olsen that upheld Congressional regulation of commerce. Olmstead v. United States allowed exclusion of evidence obtained without a warrant based on application of the 14th Amendment proscription against unreasonable searches. Wisconsin v. Illinois ruled the equitable power of the United States can impose positive action on a state to prevent its inaction from damaging another state.
Earl Warren was an Eisenhower nominee, Chief Justice from 1953 to 1969. Warren 's Republican career in the law reached from County Prosecutor, California state attorney general, and three consecutive terms as Governor. His programs stressed progressive efficiency, expanding state education, re-integrating returning veterans, infrastructure and highway construction.
In 1954, the Warren Court overturned a landmark Fuller Court ruling on the Fourteenth Amendment interpreting racial segregation as permissible in government and commerce providing "separate but equal '' services. Warren built a coalition of Justices after 1962 that developed the idea of natural rights as guaranteed in the Constitution. Brown v. Board of Education banned segregation in public schools. Baker v. Carr and Reynolds v. Sims established Court ordered "one - man - one - vote ''. Bill of Rights Amendments were incorporated into the states. Due process was expanded in Gideon v. Wainwright and Miranda v. Arizona. First Amendment rights were addressed in Griswold v. Connecticut concerning privacy, and Engel v. Vitale relative to free speech.
William Rehnquist was a Reagan appointment to Chief Justice, serving from 1986 to 2005. While he would concur with overthrowing a state supreme court 's decision, as in Bush v. Gore, he built a coalition of Justices after 1994 that developed the idea of federalism as provided for in the Tenth Amendment. In the hands of the Supreme Court, the Constitution and its Amendments were to restrain Congress, as in City of Boerne v. Flores.
Nevertheless, the Rehnquist Court was noted in the contemporary "culture wars '' for overturning state laws relating to privacy prohibiting late - term abortions in Stenberg v. Carhart, prohibiting sodomy in Lawrence v. Texas, or ruling so as to protect free speech in Texas v. Johnson or affirmative action in Grutter v. Bollinger.
There is a viewpoint that some Americans have come to see the documents of the Constitution, along with the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights, as being a cornerstone of a type of civil religion. This is suggested by the prominent display of the Constitution, along with the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights, in massive, bronze - framed, bulletproof, moisture - controlled glass containers vacuum - sealed in a rotunda by day and in multi-ton bomb - proof vaults by night at the National Archives Building.
The idea of displaying the documents struck one academic critic looking from the point of view of the 1776 or 1789 America as "idolatrous, and also curiously at odds with the values of the Revolution ''. By 1816, Jefferson wrote that "(s) ome men look at constitutions with sanctimonious reverence and deem them like the Ark of the Covenant, too sacred to be touched ''. But he saw imperfections and imagined that there could potentially be others, believing as he did that "institutions must advance also ''.
Some commentators depict the multi-ethnic, multi-sectarian United States as held together by a political orthodoxy, in contrast with a nation state of people having more "natural '' ties.
José Rizal
Sun Yat - sen
The United States Constitution has been a notable model for governance around the world. Its international influence is found in similarities of phrasing and borrowed passages in other constitutions, as well as in the principles of the rule of law, separation of powers and recognition of individual rights. The American experience of fundamental law with amendments and judicial review has motivated constitutionalists at times when they were considering the possibilities for their nation 's future. It informed Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War, his contemporary and ally Benito Juárez of Mexico, and the second generation of 19th - century constitutional nationalists, José Rizal of the Philippines and Sun Yat - sen of China. Since the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the United States Constitution may be waning as other countries have revised their constitutions with new influences.
The United States Constitution has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1787.
The Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote. Until the Reconstruction Amendments were adopted between 1865 and 1870, the five years immediately following the Civil War, the Constitution did not abolish slavery, nor give citizenship and voting rights to former slaves. These amendments did not include a specific prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sex; it took another amendment -- the Nineteenth, ratified in 1920 -- for the Constitution to prohibit any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex.
Related documents
Earlier written constitutions of independent states exist but were not adopted by bodies elected by the people, such as the Swedish Constitution of 1772, adopted by the king, the Constitution of San Marino of 1600 which is the oldest surviving constitution in the world, or the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk, the first establishing separation of powers.
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the brain contains approximately 10 million neurons that are connected via electrochemical pulses | Brain - wikipedia
The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate 's body. In a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15 -- 33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.
Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment. Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.
The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer, very different in mechanism from an electronic computer, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways.
This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, that are covered in the human brain article.
The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species; others distinguish "advanced '' brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.
The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so - called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.
The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells. Glial cells (also known as glia or neuroglia) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances. They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a pyramidal cell, (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1 -- 100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10 -- 100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials.
Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called synapses. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells. When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell.
Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain. The essential function of the brain is cell - to - cell communication, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million. The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating second messenger systems that change the internal chemistry of their target cells in complex ways. A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that activity - dependent modification of synapses is the brain 's primary mechanism for learning and memory.
Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called nerve fiber tracts. A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of myelin, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light - colored white matter, in contrast to the darker - colored grey matter that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies.
Except for a few primitive organisms such as sponges (which have no nervous system) and cnidarians (which have a nervous system consisting of a diffuse nerve net), all living multicellular animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with a bilaterally symmetric body shape (that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other). All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared early in the Cambrian period, 485 - 540 million years ago, and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body. At a schematic level, that basic worm - shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians, including vertebrates. The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a ganglion) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as nematode worms; in other species, including vertebrates, it is the most complex organ in the body. Some types of worms, such as leeches, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain ''.
There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including echinoderms and tunicates. It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest bilaterians lacked a brain, or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure.
This category includes tardigrades, arthropods, molluscs, and numerous types of worms. The diversity of invertebrate body plans is matched by an equal diversity in brain structures.
Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and others), and cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and similar molluscs). The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain, the supraesophageal ganglion, with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing. Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates.
There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work:
The first vertebrates appeared over 500 million years ago (Mya), during the Cambrian period, and may have resembled the modern hagfish in form. Sharks appeared about 450 Mya, amphibians about 400 Mya, reptiles about 350 Mya, and mammals about 200 Mya. Each species has an equally long evolutionary history, but the brains of modern hagfishes, lampreys, sharks, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components, but many are rudimentary in the hagfish, whereas in mammals the foremost part (the telencephalon) is greatly elaborated and expanded.
Brains are most simply compared in terms of their size. The relationship between brain size, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species. As a rule, brain size increases with body size, but not in a simple linear proportion. In general, smaller animals tend to have larger brains, measured as a fraction of body size. For mammals, the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a power law with an exponent of about 0.75. This formula describes the central tendency, but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree, in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior. For example, primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts. Predators tend to have larger brains than their prey, relative to body size.
All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the neural tube; these swellings eventually become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain (the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon, respectively). At the earliest stages of brain development, the three areas are roughly equal in size. In many classes of vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, the three parts remain similar in size in the adult, but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, and the midbrain becomes very small.
The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue. Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the skull from the brain. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the blood -- brain barrier, which blocks the passage of many toxins and pathogens (though at the same time blocking antibodies and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).
Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.
Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains, some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry, especially in the forebrain area. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way, but in teleost fishes (the great majority of existing fish species), the forebrain has become "everted '', like a sock turned inside out. In birds, there are also major changes in forebrain structure. These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.
Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood:
The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is in terms of size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.
Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure. The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple three - layered structure called the pallium. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six - layered structure called neocortex or isocortex. Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and amygdala, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates.
The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The superior colliculus, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the neocerebellum) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates.
The brains of humans and other primates contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but are generally larger in proportion to body size. The encephalization quotient (EQ) is used to compare brain sizes across species. It takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain - to - body relationship. Humans have an average EQ in the 7 - to - 8 range, while most other primates have an EQ in the 2 - to - 3 range. Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans, but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower.
Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the prefrontal cortex and the parts of the cortex involved in vision. The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex. The prefrontal cortex carries out functions that include planning, working memory, motivation, attention, and executive control. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain.
The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages. It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain stem cells, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain, branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and then the unneeded ones are pruned away.
For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid - filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.
Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding.
The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes, though. In many parts of the brain, axons initially "overgrow '', and then are "pruned '' by mechanisms that depend on neural activity. In the projection from the eye to the midbrain, for example, the structure in the adult contains a very precise mapping, connecting each point on the surface of the retina to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer. In the first stages of development, each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues, but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons. The retina, before birth, contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at a random point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer. These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time; that is, they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons. This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken, and eventually vanish, if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell. The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map, leaving it finally in its precise adult form.
Similar things happen in other brain areas: an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance, but then gradually refined by activity - dependent mechanisms, partly driven by internal dynamics, partly by external sensory inputs. In some cases, as with the retina - midbrain system, activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain, and apparently exist solely to guide development.
In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the body, they are generated throughout the lifespan.
There has long been debate about whether the qualities of mind, personality, and intelligence can be attributed to heredity or to upbringing -- this is the nature and nurture controversy. Although many details remain to be settled, neuroscience research has clearly shown that both factors are important. Genes determine the general form of the brain, and genes determine how the brain reacts to experience. Experience, however, is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections, which in its developed form contains far more information than the genome does. In some respects, all that matters is the presence or absence of experience during critical periods of development. In other respects, the quantity and quality of experience are important; for example, there is substantial evidence that animals raised in enriched environments have thicker cerebral cortices, indicating a higher density of synaptic connections, than animals whose levels of stimulation are restricted.
The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them -- neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse 's target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions, each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as Dale 's principle. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, fluoxetine, chlorpromazine, and many others.
The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and gamma - aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.
There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function. Serotonin, for example -- the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids -- comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the raphe nuclei. Norepinephrine, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus. Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain, but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.
As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic - looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain 's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population - level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology.
All vertebrates have a blood -- brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.
Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain 's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2 % and 8 % of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher -- in humans it rises to 20 -- 25 %. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods of PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen - dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids.
Information from the sense organs is collected in the brain. There it is used to determine what actions the organism is to take. The brain processes the raw data to extract information about the structure of the environment. Next it combines the processed information with information about the current needs of the animal and with memory of past circumstances. Finally, on the basis of the results, it generates motor response patterns. These signal - processing tasks require intricate interplay between a variety of functional subsystems.
The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.
The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, head orientation, limb position, the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses are present, such as the infrared heat - sense of snakes, the magnetic field sense of some birds, or the electric field sense of some types of fish.
Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as light - receptive neurons in the retina of the eye, or vibration - sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a first - order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher - order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way - station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract the relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems.
Motor systems are areas of the brain that are involved in initiating body movements, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.
The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor - related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.
In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system, which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth '' muscles of the gut.
Many animals alternate between sleeping and waking in a daily cycle. Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale by a network of brain areas.
A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body 's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours, circadian rhythms: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes ''. The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), that allows daily light - dark cycles to calibrate the clock.
The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep - wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron - clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity - level - controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.
Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: REM sleep (with dreaming) and NREM (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern.
For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body -- the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it -- is known as homeostasis (Greek for "standing still ''). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set - point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.)
In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.
The individual animals need to express survival - promoting behaviors, such as seeking food, water, shelter, and a mate. The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals, and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise. The motivational system works largely by a reward -- punishment mechanism. When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences, the reward mechanism in the brain is activated, which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later, whenever a similar situation arises. Conversely, when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences, the brain 's punishment mechanism is activated, inducing structural changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future.
Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward -- punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward - punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. The basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision - signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.
Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience -- even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Already in the late 19th century theorists like Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking. In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long - term potentiation: the paper showed clear evidence of activity - induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity - driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain - derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process.
Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways:
The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior, and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders. Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy.
The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large - scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also, functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.
Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures. Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.
Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges, surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood -- brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.
Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units '' that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.
Computational neurogenetic modeling is concerned with the study and development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes.
Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity. The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out '' or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using Cre - Lox recombination it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.
The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni - 1 cave complex. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14 - year - old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.
Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart. Aristotle favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood. Democritus, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three - part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. Hippocrates, the "father of medicine '', came down unequivocally in favor of the brain. In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote:
Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys, delights, laughter and sports, and sorrows, griefs, despondency, and lamentations... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious, and fears and terrors assail us, some by night, and some by day, and dreams and untimely wanderings, and cares that are not suitable, and ignorance of present circumstances, desuetude, and unskillfulness. All these things we endure from the brain, when it is not healthy...
The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon, usually translated as "animal spirits ''. Galen 's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical res cogitans, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.
The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani, who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of Camillo Golgi, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.
In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:
The great topmost sheet of the mass, that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved, becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither. The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning. It is as if the Milky Way entered upon some cosmic dance. Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern, always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one; a shifting harmony of subpatterns.
The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical information theory, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in John von Neumann 's 1958 book, The Computer and the Brain. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.
One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog 's eye tells the frog 's brain: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers ''. A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view -- a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow - up studies in higher - order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.
Theorists have worked to understand these response patterns by constructing mathematical models of neurons and neural networks, which can be simulated using computers. Some useful models are abstract, focusing on the conceptual structure of neural algorithms rather than the details of how they are implemented in the brain; other models attempt to incorporate data about the biophysical properties of real neurons. No model on any level is yet considered to be a fully valid description of brain function, though. The essential difficulty is that sophisticated computation by neural networks requires distributed processing in which hundreds or thousands of neurons work cooperatively -- current methods of brain activity recording are only capable of isolating action potentials from a few dozen neurons at a time.
Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that do n't reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested, with high - profile scientists on both sides of the argument.
In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the "Decade of the Brain '' to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.
In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including multielectrode recording, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time; genetic engineering, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally; genomics, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging.
Animal brains are used as food in numerous cuisines.
Some archaeological evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of European Neanderthals also involved the consumption of the brain.
The Fore people of Papua New Guinea are known to eat human brains. In funerary rituals, those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of immortality. A prion disease called kuru has been traced to this.
The brain can be useful to hunters: most animals have enough brain matter for use in the tanning of their own hides.
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when is game of thrones meant to be set | Game of Thrones - Wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin 's series of fantasy novels, the first of which is A Game of Thrones. It is filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and the United States. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and its seventh season ended on August 27, 2017. The series will conclude with its eighth season premiering in 2019.
Set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, Game of Thrones has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast but centers on three primary story arcs. The first story arc centers on the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms and follows a web of alliances and conflicts among the dynastic noble families either vying to claim the throne or fighting for independence from the throne. The second story arc focuses on the last descendant of the realm 's deposed ruling dynasty, exiled and plotting a return to the throne. The third story arc centers on the longstanding brotherhood charged with defending the realm against the ancient threats of the fierce peoples and legendary creatures that lie far north, and an impending winter that threatens the realm.
Game of Thrones has attracted record viewership on HBO and has a broad, active, international fan base. It has been acclaimed by critics, particularly for its acting, complex characters, story, scope, and production values, although its frequent use of nudity and violence (including sexual violence) has been criticized. The series has received 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series in 2015 and 2016, more than any other primetime scripted television series. Its other awards and nominations include three Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation (2012 -- 2014), a 2011 Peabody Award, and four nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama (2012 and 2015 -- 2017).
Of the ensemble cast, Peter Dinklage has won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (2011 and 2015) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film (2012) for his performance as Tyrion Lannister. Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, Kit Harington, Maisie Williams, Diana Rigg, and Max von Sydow have also received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for their performances in the series.
Game of Thrones is roughly based on the storylines of A Song of Ice and Fire, set in the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros and the continent of Essos. The series chronicles the violent dynastic struggles among the realm 's noble families for the Iron Throne, while other families fight for independence from it. It opens with additional threats in the icy North and Essos in the east.
Showrunner David Benioff jokingly suggested "The Sopranos in Middle - earth '' as Game of Thrones ' tagline, referring to its intrigue - filled plot and dark tone in a fantasy setting of magic and dragons. In a 2012 study of deaths per episode, it ranked second out of 40 recent U.S. TV drama series (with an average of 14).
The series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. George R.R. Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters, believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre. Martin has stated that "the true horrors of human history derive not from orcs and Dark Lords, but from ourselves. ''
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin says does not mirror the real world. Just like people 's capacity for good and for evil in real life, Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change. The show allows the audience to view different characters from their perspective, unlike in many other fantasies, and thus the supposed villains can provide their side of the story. Benioff said, "George brought a measure of harsh realism to high fantasy. He introduced gray tones into a black - and - white universe. ''
In early seasons, under the influence of the A Song of Ice and Fire books, main characters were regularly killed off, and this was credited with developing tension among viewers. Later seasons, however, critics pointed out that certain characters had developed "plot armor '', attributing this to the show 's deviating from the books and becoming more of a traditional television series. The series also reflects the substantial death rates in war.
Although the first season closely follows the events of the first novel, later seasons have made significant changes. According to David Benioff, the show is "about adapting the series as a whole and following the map George laid out for us and hitting the major milestones, but not necessarily each of the stops along the way ''.
Tom Holland of The Guardian believes that the novels and their adaptations base aspects of their settings, characters, and plot on events in European history. Most of Westeros is reminiscent of high medieval Europe, from lands and cultures, to the palace intrigue, feudal system, castles, and knightly tournaments. A principal inspiration for the novels is the English Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 85) between the houses of Lancaster and York, reflected in Martin 's houses of Lannister and Stark. The scheming Cersei Lannister evokes Isabella, the "she - wolf of France '' (1295 -- 1358); Isabella and her family (particularly as portrayed in Maurice Druon 's historical - novel series, The Accursed Kings) were also a main inspiration for Martin.
Holland further proposes that other historical antecedents of series elements include Hadrian 's Wall (which becomes Martin 's Wall), the legend of Atlantis (ancient Valyria), Byzantine Greek fire ("wildfire ''), Icelandic sagas of the Viking Age (the Ironborn), the Mongol hordes (the Dothraki), the Hundred Years ' War (1337 -- 1453) and the Italian Renaissance (c. 1400 -- 1500). The series ' popularity has been attributed, in part, to Martin 's skill at fusing these elements into a seamless, credible version of alternate history. Martin acknowledges, "I take (history) and I file off the serial numbers and I turn it up to 11. ''
Game of Thrones has an ensemble cast estimated to be the largest on television; during its third season, 257 cast names were recorded. In 2014, several actor contracts were renegotiated to include a seventh - season option, with raises which reportedly made them among the highest - paid performers on cable TV. In 2016, several actor contracts were again renegotiated, reportedly increasing the salary of five of the main cast members to £ 2 million per episode for the last two seasons, which would make them the highest paid actors on television. The main cast is listed below.
Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is the head of House Stark, whose members are involved in plot lines throughout most of the series. He and his wife, Catelyn Tully (Michelle Fairley), have five children: Robb (Richard Madden), the eldest, followed by Sansa (Sophie Turner), Arya (Maisie Williams), Bran (Isaac Hempstead - Wright) and Rickon (Art Parkinson), the youngest. Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow (Kit Harington) and his friend, Samwell Tarly (John Bradley), serve in the Night 's Watch under Lord Commander Jeor Mormont (James Cosmo). The Wildlings living north of the Wall include young Gilly (Hannah Murray), and warriors Tormund Giantsbane (Kristofer Hivju) and Ygritte (Rose Leslie).
Others associated with House Stark include Ned 's ward Theon Greyjoy (Alfie Allen), his vassal Roose Bolton (Michael McElhatton), and Bolton 's bastard son, Ramsay Snow (Iwan Rheon). Robb falls in love with the healer Talisa Maegyr (Oona Chaplin), and Arya befriends the blacksmith 's apprentice Gendry (Joe Dempsie) and the assassin Jaqen H'ghar (Tom Wlaschiha). The tall warrior Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie) serves Catelyn and, later, Sansa.
In King 's Landing, the capital, Ned 's friend King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) shares a loveless marriage with Cersei Lannister (Lena Headey), who has taken her twin brother, the "Kingslayer '' Ser Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), as her lover. She loathes her younger brother, the dwarf Tyrion Lannister (Peter Dinklage), who is attended by his mistress Shae (Sibel Kekilli) and the sellsword Bronn (Jerome Flynn). Cersei 's father is Lord Tywin Lannister (Charles Dance). Cersei also has two young sons: Joffrey (Jack Gleeson) and Tommen (Dean - Charles Chapman). Joffrey is guarded by the scar - faced warrior, Sandor "the Hound '' Clegane (Rory McCann).
The king 's Small Council of advisors includes the crafty Master of Coin Lord Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish (Aidan Gillen) and the eunuch spymaster Lord Varys (Conleth Hill). Robert 's brother, Stannis Baratheon (Stephen Dillane), is advised by foreign priestess Melisandre (Carice van Houten) and former smuggler Ser Davos Seaworth (Liam Cunningham). The wealthy Tyrell family is represented at court by Margaery Tyrell (Natalie Dormer). The High Sparrow (Jonathan Pryce) is the capital 's religious leader. In the southern principality of Dorne, Ellaria Sand (Indira Varma) seeks vengeance against the Lannisters.
Across the Narrow Sea, siblings Viserys (Harry Lloyd) and Daenerys Targaryen (Emilia Clarke) -- the exiled children of the last king of the original ruling dynasty, who was overthrown by Robert Baratheon -- are running for their lives and trying to win back the throne. Daenerys has been married to Khal Drogo (Jason Momoa), the leader of the nomadic Dothraki. Her retinue includes the exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont (Iain Glen), her aide Missandei (Nathalie Emmanuel) and the sellsword Daario Naharis (Michiel Huisman).
In January 2006, David Benioff had a phone conversation with George R.R. Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented, and became interested in A Song of Ice and Fire as he had been a fan of fantasy fiction when young but had not read the books before. The literary agent then sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first novel, A Game of Thrones, shared his enthusiasm with D.B. Weiss and suggested that they adapt Martin 's novels into a television series; Weiss finished the first novel in "maybe 36 hours ''. They pitched the series to HBO after a five - hour meeting with Martin (a veteran screenwriter) in a restaurant on Santa Monica Boulevard. According to Benioff, they won Martin over with their answer to his question, "Who is Jon Snow 's mother? ''
-- George R.R. Martin, author
Before being approached by Benioff and Weiss, Martin had had other meetings with other scriptwriters, most of them wanting to turn it into a feature film. Martin, however, deemed it "unfilmable '' and impossible to be done as a feature film, stating that the size of one of his novels is as long as The Lord of the Rings, which had been adapted as three feature films. Similarly, Benioff also said that it would be impossible to turn the novels into a feature film as the scale of the novels is too big for a feature film and dozens of characters would have to be discarded. Benioff added, "a fantasy movie of this scope, financed by a major studio, would almost certainly need a PG - 13 rating. That means no sex, no blood, no profanity. Fuck that. '' Martin himself was pleased with the suggestion that they adapt it as an HBO series, saying that he "never imagined it anywhere else ''. "I knew it could n't be done as a network television series. It 's too adult. The level of sex and violence would never have gone through. ''
The series began development in January 2007. HBO acquired the TV rights to the novels, with Benioff and Weiss as its executive producers, and Martin as a co-executive producer. The intention was for each novel to yield a season 's worth of episodes. Initially, Martin would write one episode per season while Benioff and Weiss would write the rest of the episodes. Jane Espenson and Bryan Cogman were later added to write one episode apiece the first season.
The first and second drafts of the pilot script by Benioff and Weiss were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008, respectively. Although HBO liked both drafts, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008; the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike may have delayed the process. The pilot episode, "Winter Is Coming '', was first shot in 2009; after a poor reception in a private viewing, HBO demanded an extensive re-shoot (about 90 percent of the episode, with cast and directorial changes).
The pilot reportedly cost HBO $5 -- 10 million to produce, while the first season 's budget was estimated at $50 -- 60 million. In the second season, the show received a 15 - percent budget increase for the climactic battle in "Blackwater '' (which had an $8 million budget). Between 2012 and 2015, the average budget per episode increased from $6 million to "at least '' $8 million. The sixth - season budget was over $10 million per episode, for a season total of over $100 million and a series record.
Nina Gold and Robert Sterne are the series ' primary casting directors. Through a process of auditions and readings, the main cast was assembled. The only exceptions were Peter Dinklage and Sean Bean, whom the writers wanted from the start; they were announced as joining the pilot in 2009. Other actors signed for the pilot were Kit Harington as Jon Snow, Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon, Harry Lloyd as Viserys Targaryen and Mark Addy as Robert Baratheon. Addy was, according to showrunners Benioff and Weiss, the easiest actor to cast for the show, being that his audition was on point. Some of the characters in the pilot were recast for the first season: Catelyn Stark was initially played by Jennifer Ehle, but the role was recast with Michelle Fairley. Daenerys Targaryen was also recast, with Emilia Clarke replacing Tamzin Merchant. The rest of the first season 's cast was filled in the second half of 2009.
Although many of the cast returned after the first season, the producers had many new characters to cast for each of the following seasons. Due to the large number of new characters, Benioff and Weiss postponed the introduction of several key characters in the second season and merged several characters into one or assigned plot functions to different characters. Some recurring characters were recast over the years; for example, Gregor Clegane was played by three different actors, while Dean - Charles Chapman who played Tommen Baratheon also played a minor Lannister character.
Game of Thrones used seven writers in six seasons. Series creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the showrunners, write most of the episodes each season.
A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin wrote one episode in each of the first four seasons. Martin did not write an episode for the later seasons, since he wanted to focus on completing the sixth novel (The Winds of Winter). Jane Espenson co-wrote one first - season episode as a freelance writer.
Bryan Cogman, initially a script coordinator for the series, was promoted to producer for the fifth season. Cogman, who wrote at least one episode for the first five seasons, is the only other writer in the writers ' room with Benioff and Weiss. Before his promotion, Vanessa Taylor (a writer during the second and third seasons) worked closely with Benioff and Weiss. Dave Hill joined the writing staff for the fifth season after working as an assistant to Benioff and Weiss. Although Martin is not in the writers ' room, he reads the script outlines and makes comments.
Benioff and Weiss sometimes assign characters to particular writers; for example, Cogman was assigned to Arya Stark for the fourth season. The writers spend several weeks writing a character outline, including what material from the novels to use and the overarching themes. After these individual outlines are complete, they spend another two to three weeks discussing each main character 's individual arc and arranging them episode by episode. A detailed outline is created, with each of the writers working on a portion to create a script for each episode. Cogman, who wrote two episodes for the fifth season, took a month and a half to complete both scripts. They are then read by Benioff and Weiss, who make notes, and parts of the script are rewritten. All ten episodes are written before filming begins, since they are filmed out of order with two units in different countries.
Benioff and Weiss write each of their episodes together, with one of them writing the first half of the script and the other the second half. After that they begin with passing the drafts back and forth to make notes and rewrite parts of it.
Benioff and Weiss originally intended to adapt the entire, still - incomplete A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels for television. After Game of Thrones began outpacing the published novels in the sixth season, the series was based on a plot outline of the future novels provided by Martin and original content. In April 2016, the showrunners ' plan was to shoot 13 more episodes after the sixth season: seven episodes in the seventh season and six episodes in the eighth. Later that month, the series was renewed for a seventh season with a seven - episode order. As of 2017, seven seasons have been ordered and filmed, adapting the novels at a rate of about 48 seconds per page for the first three seasons.
The first two seasons adapted one novel each. For the later seasons, its creators see Game of Thrones as an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire as a whole rather than the individual novels; this enables them to move events across novels, according to screen - adaptation requirements.
Principal photography for the first season was scheduled to begin on July 26, 2010, and the primary location was the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Exterior scenes in Northern Ireland were filmed at Sandy Brae in the Mourne Mountains (standing in for Vaes Dothrak), Castle Ward (Winterfell), Saintfield Estates (the Winterfell godswood), Tollymore Forest (outdoor scenes), Cairncastle (the execution site), the Magheramorne quarry (Castle Black) and Shane 's Castle (the tourney grounds). Doune Castle in Stirling, Scotland, was also used in the original pilot episode for scenes at Winterfell. The producers initially considered filming the whole series in Scotland, but decided on Northern Ireland because of the availability of studio space.
The first season 's southern scenes were filmed in Malta, a change in location from the pilot episode 's Moroccan sets. The city of Mdina was used for King 's Landing. Filming was also done at Fort Manoel (representing the Sept of Baelor), at the Azure Window on the island of Gozo (the Dothraki wedding site) and at San Anton Palace, Fort Ricasoli, Fort St. Angelo and St. Dominic monastery (all used for scenes in the Red Keep).
Filming of the second season 's southern scenes shifted from Malta to Croatia, where the city of Dubrovnik and nearby locations allowed exterior shots of a walled, coastal medieval city. The Walls of Dubrovnik and Fort Lovrijenac were used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. The island of Lokrum, the St. Dominic monastery in the coastal town of Trogir, the Rector 's Palace in Dubrovnik, and the Dubac quarry (a few kilometers east) were used for scenes set in Qarth. Scenes set north of the Wall, in the Frostfangs and at the Fist of the First Men, were filmed in November 2011 in Iceland: on the Vatnajökull glacier near Smyrlabjörg, the Svínafellsjökull glacier near Skaftafell and the Mýrdalsjökull glacier near Vik on Höfðabrekkuheiði.
Third - season production returned to Dubrovnik, with the Walls of Dubrovnik, Fort Lovrijenac and nearby locations again used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. Trsteno Arboretum, a new location, is the garden of the Tyrells in King 's Landing. The third season also returned to Morocco (including the city of Essaouira) to film Daenerys ' scenes in Essos. Dimmuborgir and the Grjótagjá cave in Iceland were used as well. One scene, with a live bear, was filmed in Los Angeles. The production used three units (Dragon, Wolf and Raven) filming in parallel, six directing teams, 257 cast members and 703 crew members.
The fourth season returned to Dubrovnik and included new locations, including Diocletian 's Palace in Split, Klis Fortress north of Split, Perun quarry east of Split, the Mosor mountain range, and Baška Voda further south. Thingvellir National Park in Iceland was used for the fight between Brienne and the Hound. Filming took 136 days and ended on November 21, 2013. The fifth season added Seville, Spain, used for scenes of Dorne, as well as Córdoba.
The sixth season, which began filming in July 2015, returned to Spain and filmed in Navarra, Guadalajara, Seville, Almeria Girona and Peniscola. Filming also returned to Dubrovnik, Croatia.
Filming of the seven episodes of season 7 began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, with other filming in Iceland, Northern Ireland and many locations in Spain. Spain filming locations included Seville, Cáceres, Almodovar del Rio, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. The series also filmed in Dubrovnik, which is used for location of King 's Landing. Filming continued until the end of February 2017 as necessary to ensure winter weather in some of the European locations.
Each ten - episode season of Game of Thrones has four to six directors, who usually direct back - to - back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series ' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: "Blackwater '' and "The Watchers on the Wall ''. Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.
Alik Sakharov was the pilot 's cinematographer. The series has had a number of cinematographers, and has received seven Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series nominations.
Oral Norrey Ottey, Frances Parker, Martin Nicholson, Crispin Green, Tim Porter and Katie Weiland have edited the series for a varying number of episodes. Weiland received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series in 2015.
Michele Clapton was costume designer for Game of Thrones ' first five seasons before she was replaced by April Ferry. Clapton will return to the show as costume designer for the seventh season.
The costumes used in the show drew inspiration from a number of sources, such as Japanese and Persian armour. Dothraki dress resembles that of the Bedouin (one was made out of fish skins to resemble dragon scales), and the Wildlings wear animal skins like the Inuit. Wildling bone armor is made from molds of actual bones, and is assembled with string and latex resembling catgut. Although the extras who play Wildlings and the Night 's Watch often wear hats (normal in a cold climate), members of the principal cast usually do not so viewers can distinguish the main characters. Björk 's Alexander McQueen high - neckline dresses inspired Margaery Tyrell 's funnel - neck outfit, and prostitutes ' dresses are designed for easy removal. All clothing used is aged for two weeks so it appears realistic on high - definition television.
About two dozen wigs are used for the actresses. Made of human hair and up to 2 feet (61 cm) in length, they cost up to $7,000 each and are washed and styled like real hair. Applying the wigs is time - consuming; Emilia Clarke, for example, requires about two hours to style her brunette hair with a platinum - blonde wig and braids. Other actors, such as Jack Gleeson and Sophie Turner, receive frequent hair coloring. For characters such as Daenerys (Clarke) and her Dothraki, their hair, wigs and costumes are processed to appear as if they have not been washed for weeks.
For the first three seasons, Paul Engelen was Game of Thrones ' main makeup designer and prosthetic makeup artist with Melissa Lackersteen, Conor O'Sullivan and Rob Trenton. At the beginning of the fourth season Engelen 's team was replaced by Jane Walker and her crew, composed of Ann McEwan and Barrie and Sarah Gower.
For the series ' large number of visual effects, HBO hired British - based BlueBolt and Irish - based Screen Scene for season one. Most of the environment builds were done as 2.5 D projections, giving viewers perspective while keeping the programming from being overwhelming. In 2011, the season - one finale, "Fire and Blood '', was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects.
Because the effects became more complex in subsequent seasons (including CGI creatures, fire, and water), German - based Pixomondo became the lead visual - effects producer; nine of its twelve facilities contributed to the project for season two, with Stuttgart the lead. Scenes were also produced by British - based Peanut FX, Canadian - based Spin VFX, and U.S. - based Gradient Effects. "Valar Morghulis '' and "Valar Dohaeris '' earned Pixomondo Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Visual Effects in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
For season four, HBO added German - based Mackevision to the project. The season - four finale, "The Children '', won the 2014 Emmy Award for Visual Effects. Additional producers for season four included Canadian - based Rodeo FX, German - based Scanline VFX and U.S. - based BAKED FX. The muscle and wing movements of the adolescent dragons in seasons four and five were based largely on those of a chicken. Pixomondo retained a team of 22 to 30 people which focused solely on visualizing Daenerys Targaryen 's dragons, with the average production time per season of 20 to 22 weeks. For the fifth season, HBO added Canadian - based Image Engine and U.S. - based Crazy Horse Effects to its list of main visual - effects producers.
Unusual for a television series, the sound team receives a rough cut of a full season and approaches it as a ten - hour feature film. Although seasons one and two had different sound teams, one team has been in charge of sound since then. For the show 's blood - and - gore sounds, the team often uses a chamois. For dragon screams, mating tortoises and dolphin, seal, lion and bird sounds have been used.
The series ' title sequence was created by production studio Elastic for HBO. Creative director Angus Wall and his collaborators received the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Main Title Design for the sequence, which depicts a three - dimensional map of the series ' fictional world. The map is projected on the inside of a sphere which is centrally lit by a small sun in an armillary sphere. As the camera moves across the map, focusing on the locations of the episode 's events, clockwork mechanisms intertwine and allow buildings and other structures to emerge from the map. Accompanied by the title music, the names of the principal cast and creative staff appear. The sequence concludes after about 90 seconds with the title card and brief opening credits indicating the episode 's writer (s) and director. Its composition changes as the story progresses, with new locations replacing those featuring less prominently or not at all.
The music for the series was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season 's soundtrack, written in about ten weeks before the show 's premiere, was published by Varèse Sarabande in June 2011. Soundtrack albums for subsequent seasons have been released, with tracks by the National, the Hold Steady and Sigur Rós. Djawadi has composed themes for each of the major houses and also for some of the main characters. The themes may evolve over time, as Daenerys Targaryen 's theme started small and then became more powerful after each season. Her theme started first with a single instrument, a cello, and Djawadi later incorporated more instruments for it.
The Westerosi characters of Game of Thrones speak British - accented English, often (but not consistently) with the accent of the English region corresponding to the character 's Westerosi region; Eddard Stark (Warden of the North) speaks in actor Sean Bean 's native northern accent, and the southern lord Tywin Lannister speaks with a southern accent, while characters from Dorne speak English with a Spanish accent. Characters foreign to Westeros often have a non-British accent.
Although English is the common language of Westeros, the producers charged linguist David J. Peterson with constructing Dothraki and Valyrian languages based on the few words in the novels; Dothraki and Valyrian dialogue is often subtitled in English. It has been reported that during the series these fictional languages have been heard by more people than the Welsh, Irish, and Scots Gaelic languages combined.
Game of Thrones is funded by Northern Ireland Screen, a UK government agency financed by Invest NI and the European Regional Development Fund. As of April 2013, Northern Ireland Screen gave the show £ 9.25 million ($14.37 million); according to government estimates, this has benefited the Northern Ireland economy by £ 65 million ($100.95 million).
Tourism Ireland has a Game of Thrones - themed marketing campaign similar to New Zealand 's Tolkien - related advertising. Invest NI and the Northern Ireland Tourist Board also expect the series to generate tourism revenue. According to Arlene Foster, the series has given Northern Ireland the most non-political publicity in its history. The production of Game of Thrones and other TV series also boosted Northern Ireland 's creative industries, contributing to an estimated 12.4 - percent growth in arts, entertainment and recreation jobs between 2008 and 2013 (compared with 4.3 percent in the rest of the UK during the same period).
Tourism organizations elsewhere reported increases in bookings after their locations appeared in Game of Thrones. In 2012, bookings through LateRooms.com increased by 28 percent in Dubrovnik and 13 percent in Iceland. The following year, bookings doubled in Ouarzazate, Morocco (the location of Daenerys ' season - three scenes). Game of Thrones has been attributed as a significant factor in the boom of tourism in Iceland that had a strong impact on its economy. Tourist numbers increased by 30 % in 2015, followed by another 40 % in 2016, with a final figure of 2.4 million visitors expected for 2016, which is around seven times the population of the country.
Game of Thrones is broadcast by HBO in the United States and by its local subsidiaries or other pay television services in other countries, at the same time as in the U.S. or weeks (or months) later. The series ' broadcast in China on CCTV, begun in 2014, was heavily edited to remove scenes of sex and violence in accordance with a Chinese practice of censoring Western TV series to prevent what the People 's Daily calls "negative effects and hidden security dangers ''. This resulted in viewer complaints about the incoherence of what remained. Broadcasters carrying Game of Thrones include Showcase in Australia; HBO Canada, Super Écran and Showcase in Canada; HBO Latin America in Latin America; SoHo and Prime in New Zealand, and Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
The ten episodes of the first season of Game of Thrones were released as a DVD and Blu - ray box set on March 6, 2012. The box set includes extra background and behind - the - scenes material but no deleted scenes, since nearly all the footage shot for the first season was used in the show. The box set sold over 350,000 copies in the first week after release, the largest first - week DVD sales ever for an HBO series, and the series set an HBO - series record for digital - download sales. A collector 's - edition box set was released in November 2012, combining the DVD and Blu - ray versions of the first season with the first episode of season two. A paperweight in the shape of a dragon egg is included in the set.
DVD - Blu - ray box sets and digital downloads of the second season became available on February 19, 2013. First - day sales broke HBO records, with 241,000 box sets sold and 355,000 episodes downloaded. The third season was made available for purchase as a digital download on the Australian iTunes Store, parallel to the U.S. premiere, and was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 18, 2014. The fourth season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on February 17, 2015, and the fifth season on March 15, 2016. The sixth season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. Beginning in 2016, HBO began issuing Steelbook Blu - ray sets which include both Dolby TrueHD 7.1 and Dolby Atmos audio options.
Game of Thrones has been widely pirated, primarily outside the U.S. According to the file - sharing news website TorrentFreak, Game of Thrones has been the most - pirated TV series since 2012, which means it has held the record for six years in a row. Illegal downloads increased to about seven million in the first quarter of 2015, up 45 percent from 2014. An unnamed episode was downloaded about 4,280,000 times through public BitTorrent trackers in 2012, roughly equal to its number of broadcast viewers. Piracy rates were particularly high in Australia, and U.S. Ambassador to Australia Jeff Bleich issued a statement condemning Australian piracy of the series in 2013.
Delays in availability apart from HBO and its affiliates before 2015 and the cost of subscriptions to these services have been cited as causes of the series ' illegal distribution. According to TorrentFreak, a subscription to a service for Game of Thrones would cost up to $25 per month in the United States, up to £ 26 per episode in the UK and up to $52 per episode in Australia.
For "combating piracy '', HBO said in 2013 that it intended to make its content more widely available within a week of the U.S. premiere (including HBO Go). In 2015, the fifth season was simulcast to 170 countries and to HBO Now users. On April 11, the day before the season premiere, screener copies of the first four episodes of the fifth season leaked to a number of file - sharing websites. Within a day of the leak, the files were downloaded over 800,000 times; in one week the illegal downloads reached 32 million, with the season - five premiere alone ("The Wars to Come '') pirated 13 million times. The season - five finale ("Mother 's Mercy '') was the most simultaneously shared file in the history of the BitTorrent filesharing protocol, with over 250,000 simultaneous sharers and over 1.5 million downloads in eight hours. For the sixth season, HBO did not send screeners to the press, so as to prevent the spread of unlicensed copies and possible spoilers.
Observers, including series director David Petrarca and Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes, said that illegal downloads did not hurt the series ' prospects; it benefited from "buzz '' and social commentary, and the high piracy rate did not significantly translate to lost subscriptions. According to Polygon, HBO 's relaxed attitude towards piracy and the sharing of login credentials amounted to a premium - television "free - to - play '' model. At a 2015 Oxford Union debate, series co-creator David Benioff said that he was just glad that people watched the show; illegally downloaded copies of the show sometimes interested viewers enough to buy a copy of the show, especially in countries where the show was not televised. Co-creator D.B. Weiss had mixed feelings, saying that the show was expensive to produce and "if it does n't make the money back, then it ceases to exist ''. However, he was pleased that so many people "enjoy the show so much they ca n't wait to get their hands on it. '' In 2015, Guinness World Records called Game of Thrones the most - pirated television program.
Beginning on January 23, 2015, the last two episodes of season four were shown in 205 IMAX theaters across the United States; Game of Thrones is the first TV series shown in this format. The show earned $686,000 at the box office on its opening day and $1.5 million during its opening weekend; the week - long release grossed $1,896,092.
Game of Thrones was highly anticipated by fans before its premiere, and has become a critical and commercial success. According to The Guardian, by 2014 it was "the biggest drama '' and "the most talked about show '' on television.
Although Game of Thrones was dismissed by some critics before it began, its success has been credited with an increase in the popularity of fantasy themes. On the eve of the second season 's premiere, a CNN.com blog post by Joel Williams read, "After this weekend, you may be hard pressed to find someone who is n't a fan of some form of epic fantasy '' and cited Ian Bogost as saying that the series continues a trend of successful screen adaptations beginning with Peter Jackson 's 2001 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the Harry Potter films establishing fantasy as a mass - market genre; they are "gateway drugs to fantasy fan culture ''. Its success in the face of its genre was attributed by writers to a longing for escapism in popular culture, frequent female nudity and a skill in balancing lighthearted and serious topics (dragons and politics, for example) which provided it with a prestige enjoyed by conventional, top - tier drama series.
The series ' popularity increased sales of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels (republished in tie - in editions), which remained at the top of bestseller lists for months. According to The Daily Beast, Game of Thrones was a favorite of sitcom writers and the series has been referred to in other TV series. With other fantasy series, it has been cited for an increase in the purchase (and abandonment) of huskies and other wolf - like dogs.
Game of Thrones has added to the popular vocabulary. The first season 's scene in which Petyr Baelish explains his motives (or background) while prostitutes had sex in the background gave rise to the word "sexposition '' for providing exposition with sex and nudity. "Dothraki '', the series ' nomadic horsemen, was ranked fourth in a September 2012 Global Language Monitor list of words from television most used on the Internet. In 2012, the media used "Game of Thrones '' as a figure of speech or comparison for situations of intense conflict and deceit, such as the 2012 United States Supreme Court decision regarding healthcare reform legislation, the Syrian Civil War and the ousting of Bo Xilai from the Chinese government.
"Khaleesi '' has increased in popularity as a name for baby girls in the United States. In the novels and the TV series, the word is a title meaning the wife of a Khal (warlord) in the Dothraki language held by Daenerys Targaryen, and not actually a name.
Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim, although the series ' frequent use of nudity and violence has been criticized. Its seasons have appeared on annual "best of '' lists published by The Washington Post (2011), TIME (2011 and 2012) and The Hollywood Reporter (2012).
The performances of the cast have received immense praise. Peter Dinklage 's "charming, morally ambiguous, and self - aware '' Tyrion, who earned him Emmy and Golden Globe awards, was noted. "In many ways, Game of Thrones belongs to Dinklage '', wrote Mary McNamara of the L.A. Times before Tyrion became the series ' central figure in season two. Several critics highlighted performances by actresses and children. Fourteen - year - old Maisie Williams, noted in the first season for her debut as Arya Stark, was singled out for her season - two work with veteran actor Charles Dance (Tywin Lannister). Stephen Dillane has received positive reviews for his performance as Stannis Baratheon, especially in the fifth season, with one critic noting "Whether you like Stannis or not, you have to admit that Stephen Dillane delivered a monumental performance this season. ''
The series has a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 44 reviews. All episodes had positive reviews of 91 percent or higher on Rotten Tomatoes, and a 97 - percent rating (based on 50 reviews) for the season as a whole. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 95 percent and an average score of 8.6 out of 10 (based on 52 reviews). The season has a rating of 96 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 29 reviews. After the first episode aired, the seventh season held a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 29 reviews.
First - season reviewers said the series had high production values, a fully realized world and compelling characters. According to Variety, "There may be no show more profitable to its network than ' Game of Thrones ' is to HBO. Fully produced by the pay cabler and already a global phenomenon after only one season, the fantasy skein was a gamble that has paid off handsomely ''. The second season was also well received. Entertainment Weekly praised its "vivid, vital, and just plain fun '' storytelling and, according to the Hollywood Reporter, the show made a "strong case for being one of TV 's best series ''; its seriousness made it the only drama comparable to Mad Men or Breaking Bad. The New York Times gave the series a mixed review, criticizing its number of characters, their lack of complexity and a meandering plot.
The third season was extremely well received by critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 91 out of 100 (indicating "universal acclaim ''). The fourth season was similarly praised; Metacritic gave it a score of 94 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, again indicating "universal acclaim ''. The fifth season was also well received by critics and has a score of 91 out of 100 (based on 29 reviews) on Metacritic. The sixth season has been praised by critics, though not as highly as its predecessors. It has a score of 73 on Metacritic (based on nine reviews), indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The seventh season scored 77 out of 100 (based on twelve reviews) and was praised for its action sequences and focused central characters, but received criticism for its breakneck pace and plot developments that "defied logic. ''
Despite its otherwise enthusiastic reception by critics, Game of Thrones has been criticized for the amount of female nudity, violence, and sexual violence (especially against women) it depicts, and for the manner in which it depicts these themes. The Atlantic called the series ' "tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and -- especially -- sexual violence '' of the source material "the defining weakness '' of the adaptation. George R.R. Martin responded that he feels obliged to be truthful about history and human nature, and that rape and sexual violence are common in war; and that omitting them from the narrative would have rung false and undermined one of his novels ' themes, its historical realism. HBO said that they "fully support the vision and artistry of Dan and David 's exceptional work and we feel this work speaks for itself. ''
The amount of sex and nudity in the series, especially in scenes that are incidental to the plot, was the focus of much of the criticism aimed at the series in its first and second seasons. Stephen Dillane, who portrays Stannis Baratheon, likened the series ' frequent explicit scenes to "German porn from the 1970s ''. Charlie Anders wrote in io9 that while the first season was replete with light - hearted "sexposition '', the second season appeared to focus on distasteful, exploitative, and dehumanizing sex with little informational content. According to The Washington Post 's Anna Holmes, the nude scenes appeared to be aimed mainly at titillating heterosexual men, right down to the Brazilian waxes sported by the women in the series ' faux - medieval setting, which made these scenes alienating to other viewers. The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan likewise noted that Game of Thrones mostly presented women naked, rather than men, and that the excess of "random boobage '' undercut any aspirations the series might have to address the oppression of women in a feudal society. Saturday Night Live parodied this aspect of the adaptation in a sketch that portrayed the series as retaining a thirteen - year - old boy as a consultant whose main concern was showing as many breasts as possible.
In the third season, which saw Theon Greyjoy lengthily tortured and eventually emasculated, the series was also criticized for its use of torture. New York magazine called the scene "torture porn. '' Madeleine Davies of Jezebel agreed, saying, "it 's not uncommon that Game of Thrones gets accused of being torture porn -- senseless, objectifying violence combined with senseless, objectifying sexual imagery. '' According to Davies, although the series ' violence tended to serve a narrative purpose, Theon 's torture in "The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' was excessive.
A scene in the fourth season 's episode "Breaker of Chains '', in which Jaime Lannister rapes his sister and lover Cersei, triggered a broad public discussion about the series ' depiction of sexual violence against women. According to Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times, the scene caused outrage, in part because of comments by director Alex Graves that the scene became "consensual by the end ''. Itzkoff also wrote that critics fear that "rape has become so pervasive in the drama that it is almost background noise: a routine and unshocking occurrence ''. Sonia Saraiya of The A.V. Club wrote that the series ' choice to portray this sexual act, and a similar one between Daenerys Targaryen and Khal Drogo in the first season -- both described as consensual in the source novels -- as a rape appeared to be an act of "exploitation for shock value ''.
In the fifth season 's episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken '', Sansa Stark is raped by Ramsay Bolton. Most reviewers, including those from Vanity Fair, Salon, The Atlantic, and The Daily Beast, found the scene gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. For example, Joanna Robinson, writing for Vanity Fair, said that the scene "undercuts all the agency that 's been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. '' In contrast, Sara Stewart of The New York Post wondered why viewers were not similarly upset about the many background and minor characters who 'd undergone similar or worse treatment. In response to the scene, pop culture website The Mary Sue announced that it would cease coverage of the series because of the repeated use of rape as a plot device, and U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill said that she would no longer watch it.
As the sixth and seventh seasons saw Daenerys, Sansa and Cersei assume ruling positions, Alyssa Rosenberg of the Washington Post noted that the series could be seen as a "long - arc revenge fantasy about what happens when women who have been brutalized and raped gain power '' -- namely, that their past leaves them too broken to do anything but commit brutal acts in their own turn, and that their personal liberation does not effect the social change needed to protect others from suffering.
A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones have a broad, active international fan base. In 2012 Vulture.com ranked the series ' fans as the most devoted in popular culture, more so than Lady Gaga 's, Justin Bieber 's, Harry Potter 's or Star Wars '. Fans include political leaders such as former U.S. president Barack Obama, former British prime minister David Cameron, former Australian prime minister Julia Gillard and Dutch foreign minister Frans Timmermans, who framed European politics in quotes from Martin 's novels in a 2013 speech.
BBC News said in 2013 that "the passion and the extreme devotion of fans '' had created a phenomenon unlike anything related to other popular TV series, manifesting itself in fan fiction, Game of Thrones - themed burlesque routines and parents naming their children after series characters; writers quoted attributed this success to the rich detail, moral ambiguity, sexual explicitness and epic scale of the series and novels. The previous year, "Arya '' was the fastest - rising girl 's name in the U.S. after it jumped in popularity from 711th to 413th place.
In 2013 about 58 percent of series viewers were male and 42 percent female, and the average male viewer was 41 years old. According to SBS Broadcasting Group marketing director Helen Kellie, Game of Thrones has a high fan - engagement rate; 5.5 percent of the series ' 2.9 million Facebook fans talked online about the series in 2012, compared to 1.8 percent of the more than ten million fans of True Blood (HBO 's other fantasy series). Vulture.com cited Westeros.org and WinterIsComing.net (news and discussion forums), ToweroftheHand.com (which organizes communal readings of the novels) and Podcastoficeandfire.com as fan sites dedicated to the TV and novel series; and podcasts cover Game of Thrones.
Game of Thrones has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, 5 Screen Actors Guild Award, and a Peabody Award. It holds the Emmy - award record for a scripted television series, ahead of Frasier (which received 37). In 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed Game of Thrones as the 40th "best written '' series in television history. In 2015 The Hollywood Reporter placed it at number four on their "best TV shows ever '' list, while in 2016 the show was placed seventh on Empire 's "The 50 best TV shows ever ''. The same year Rolling Stone named it the twelfth "greatest TV Show of all time ''.
The 2011 first season received 13 nominations (including Outstanding Drama Series), and won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (given to Peter Dinklage for his portrayal of Tyrion Lannister) and Outstanding Main Title Design. Other nominations included Outstanding Directing ("Winter Is Coming '') and Outstanding Writing ("Baelor ''). Dinklage was also named Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globe, Satellite and Scream Awards.
In 2012, the second season received six Creative Arts Emmy Awards from 11 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage).
The 2013 third season received 16 Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Emilia Clarke), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Diana Rigg) and Outstanding Writing ("The Rains of Castamere ''), winning two Creative Arts Emmys.
In 2014 the fourth season received four Creative Arts Emmys from 19 nominations, which included Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Lena Headey), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Rigg), Outstanding Directing ("The Watchers on the Wall '') and Outstanding Writing ("The Children '').
The 2015 fifth season won the most Primetime Emmy Awards for a series in a year (12 awards from 24 nominations), including Outstanding Drama Series; other wins included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Directing ("Mother 's Mercy '') and Outstanding Writing ("Mother 's Mercy ''), and eight were Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
In 2016, the sixth season received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards (23). It won for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), Outstanding Writing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), and nine Creative Arts Emmys. Nominations included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage and Kit Harington), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Clarke, Headey and Maisie Williams), Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Max von Sydow) and Outstanding Directing ("The Door '').
The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday - night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on - demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode. For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most - viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos). For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record. By the sixth season the average per - episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is ''. In season seven, the viewers numbers averaged at over 30 millions per episode across all platforms.
The series set records on pay - television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms) and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).
The following graph indicates first - airing viewer numbers in the US:
The series has inspired four video games based on the TV series and novels. The strategy game Game of Thrones Ascent ties into the HBO series, making characters and settings available to players as they appear on television. Behaviour Interactive is developing a free - to - play strategy game based on the series for mobile devices.
HBO has licensed a variety of merchandise based on Game of Thrones, including games, replica weapons and armor, jewelry, bobblehead dolls by Funko, beer by Ommegang and apparel. High - end merchandise includes a $10,500 Ulysse Nardin wristwatch and a $30,000 resin replica of the Iron Throne. In 2013 and 2014, a traveling exhibition of costumes, props, armor and weapons from the series visited major cities in Europe and the Americas.
Thronecast: The Official Guide to Game of Thrones, a series of podcasts presented by Geoff Lloyd and produced by Koink, has been released on the Sky Atlantic website and the UK iTunes store during the series ' run; a new podcast, with analysis and cast interviews, is released after each episode. In 2014 and 2015 HBO commissioned Catch the Throne, two rap albums about the series.
A companion book, Inside HBO 's Game of Thrones (ISBN 978 - 1 - 4521 - 1010 - 3) by series writer Bryan Cogman, was published on September 27, 2012. The 192 - page book, illustrated with concept art and behind - the - scenes photographs, covers the creation of the series ' first two seasons and its principal characters and families.
After the Thrones is a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series. It airs on HBO Now the Monday after each sixth - season episode. The Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience, a 28 - city orchestral tour which will perform the series ' soundtrack with composer Ramin Djawadi, is scheduled to begin February 15, 2017 in Kansas City, Missouri.
Each season 's Blu - ray and DVD set contains several short animated sequences narrated by the cast as their characters as they detail events in the history of Westeros. For the seventh season, this is to include the animated prequel series Game of Thrones: Conquest & Rebellion, illustrated in a different animation style than previous videos. The series focuses on Aegon Targaryen 's conquest of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros.
After years of speculation about possible successor shows, in May 2017 HBO commissioned five screenwriters -- Max Borenstein, Jane Goldman, Brian Helgeland, Carly Wray and a fifth writer yet to be announced -- to develop individual Game of Thrones successor series. All of the writers are to be working individually with George R.R. Martin. Martin said that all the concepts under discussion are prequels, and some may be set outside Westeros. He also ruled out Robert 's Rebellion (the overthrow of Daenerys 's father by Robert Baratheon) as a possible idea. D.B. Weiss and David Benioff said that they would not be involved with any of the projects, and want to enjoy the successor series as fans. Martin is co-writing two of the four announced scripts. HBO announced in September 2017 that Game of Thrones writer Bryan Cogman would be developing a fifth prequel series.
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who is the new chief minister of tamilnadu | List of Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu - Wikipedia
The complete list of Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu consists of the heads of government in the history of the state of Tamil Nadu in India since 1920. The area under the present - day state of Tamil Nadu has been part of different territorial configurations under Madras Presidency and Madras State in its history.
The Madras Presidency, headquartered in Fort St. George, India, was a province of British India that comprised present day Tamil Nadu, the Malabar region of North Kerala, the coastal and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra Pradesh, and the Bellary, Dakshina Kannada, and Udupi districts of Karnataka. It was established in 1653 to be the headquarters of the English settlements on the Coromandel Coast.
The territory under the presidency comprised only Madraspatnam and surrounding regions. But, after the Anglo - French wars and the consequent alliance between the English East India Company and the Nawab of Arcot, it was expanded to comprise the region from Northern Circars to Cape Comorin. Alongside, the governance structure also evolved from a modest secretariat with a single secretary for the Public Department in 1670 to six departments overseen by a Chief Secretary by 1920.
The Indian Councils Act 1861 set up the Madras Legislative Council as an advisory body, without powers, through which the colonial administration obtained advice and assistance from able and willing Indian business leaders. But membership was selected (not elected) and not representative of the masses. With the enactment of Government of India Act 1919, the first legislature was formed in 1920 after general elections. The term of the legislative council was three years. It had 132 members of whom 34 were nominated by the Governor and the rest were elected. Under the Government of India Act 1935, a bicameral legislature was set up with a legislative assembly consisting of 215 members and a legislative council having 56 members. The first legislative assembly under this act was constituted in July 1937. The legislative council was a permanent body with a third of its members retiring every 3 years with power to decide on bills passed by the assembly
In 1939, the British government declared India 's entrance into World War II without consulting provincial governments. The Indian National Congress protested by asking all its elected representatives to resign from the governments. Congress came back to power in 1946 after new provincial elections.
Madras State, precursor to the present day state of Tamil Nadu, was created after India became a republic on 26 January 1950. It comprised present - day Tamil Nadu and parts of present - day Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The first legislature of the Madras State to be elected on the basis of universal suffrage was constituted on 1 March 1952, after the general elections held in January 1952.
The state was split up along linguistic lines in 1953, carving out Andhra State. Under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, the States of Kerala, and Mysore were carved out of the Madras state. Under the implementation of the Andhra Pradesh and Madras Alteration of Boundaries Act, 1959, with effect from 1 April 1960, Tirutani taluk and Pallipattu sub-taluk of Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh were transferred to Madras State in exchange for territories from the Chingelput and Salem Districts.
Madras State was renamed as Tamil Nadu (Tamil for Tamil country) on 14 January 1969. The legislative assembly adopted a resolution on 14 May 1986, to abolish the legislative council. Thereafter, the legislative council was abolished through an act of Parliament named the Tamil Nadu Legislative Council (Abolition) Act, 1986 with effect from 1 November 1986. The state legislature is unicameral, and consists of 235 members including one nominated member.
The Chief Minister commands most of the executive powers while the Governor has a largely ceremonial role. The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, like other Chief Ministers of India, is elected by legislators of the political party or the coalition which commands a simple majority in the legislative assembly. The tenure of the Chief Minister extends as long as he or she enjoys the confidence of the assembly. The incumbent shall vacate the office in the event of a successful motion of no confidence. Also, the President of India, acting under the recommendations of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Government of India, can dismiss an elected government using certain provisions of Article 356 of the Constitution of India. In 1976, Karunanidhi 's government was dismissed and President 's rule was imposed on the grounds of corruption. If a vacancy is caused to the office of the Chief Minister due to death, demitting, or dismissal, the Governor can invite another person to form the government and request him or her to move a confidence - seeking motion in the Assembly. In the event of no one enjoying majority support, the Assembly is either dissolved or put in suspended animation and the state comes under President 's rule or a caretaker government until fresh elections are held for the assembly. The incumbent shall be disqualified if convicted of a criminal offence with a jail sentence of two years or more. In 2014, Jayalalithaa lost her post due to a special court sentencing her to four years of prison term in the disproportionate assets case.
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who plays the voice of bob from bob's burgers | Bob 's Burgers - wikipedia
Bob 's Burgers is an American animated sitcom created by Loren Bouchard that premiered on Fox on January 9, 2011. The series centers on the Belcher family -- parents Bob and Linda, and their children Tina, Gene, and Louise -- who run a hamburger restaurant. The show was conceived by Bouchard after he developed Home Movies. It is produced and distributed in association with 20th Century Fox Television.
While reviews for the first season were mixed, feedback for subsequent seasons has been much more positive. The series premiere, "Human Flesh '', drew in 9.39 million viewers, making it the highest - rated series premiere of the season, and finishing ninth in the ratings for the week it aired. Reruns began airing on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block Adult Swim on June 23, 2013, and began airing in syndication on local stations in September 2015.
A comic book series based on the show, published by Dynamite Entertainment, began in September 2014, and a soundtrack album was released on May 12, 2017.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked Bob 's Burgers as one of the top 60 Greatest TV Cartoons of All Time. The series has been nominated for several awards, including the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program seven consecutive times, winning in 2014 and 2017.
On October 7, 2015, Fox renewed the series for the seventh and eighth production cycles. The eighth season premiered on October 1, 2017. On March 27, 2018, Fox renewed the series for a ninth season, which will premiere on September 30, 2018. A film adaptation based on the animated TV series is in the works and is scheduled for a July 17, 2020 release.
The show centers on the Belcher family -- Bob, Linda, and their children Tina, Gene, and Louise; who run a burger restaurant on Ocean Avenue in an unnamed seaside community (informally known as "Seymour 's Bay '' among the show 's writing staff). While series creator Loren Bouchard has said that the show 's location was an indeterminate Northeastern United States shore town (calling the setting a "semi-Springfield) '', some critics, particularly after the episode "It Snakes a Village '', have deduced that the unidentified setting appears to actually be southern New Jersey. A bus driver in the episode "Eat, Spray, Linda '' references a stop at Wildwood Wharf, which may refer to Wildwood, New Jersey, a city on the southeastern coast of the state.
Bob 's Burgers is located in a green two - story building which features an apartment on the second floor where the Belcher family lives. The restaurant is sandwiched between two other commercial buildings, one of which houses "It 's Your Funeral Home and Crematorium '', whose owner Mort is a regular at the restaurant. One of the show 's running gags involves the other building, which is generally vacant during episodes but has been home to such businesses as "Uncle Marty 's Breast Pumps '', "Extra Moist Yoga '', "That 's A-Door - A-Bell Doorbells '', and "Tire - Rhea ''.
Success is not easy, as Bob must compete with several other eateries for business. His biggest rival is Jimmy Pesto, who owns an Italian restaurant called "Jimmy Pesto 's Pizzeria '', which is located directly across the street. It attracts many more customers than Bob 's Burgers, creating tension between the two owners. Jimmy particularly enjoys humiliating Bob, an example being in the episode "Burgerboss '', when he got a higher score on an arcade machine than Bob, who had rented the game, and taunted him by putting "BOB SUX '' as his initials. The hatred between Bob and Jimmy is full of humor. Although they dislike each other, Bob 's daughter, Tina, shows obsessive interest toward Pesto 's eldest son, Jimmy Junior. However, it is often unclear how Jimmy Jr. feels toward Tina, although he always tries to get her back when she expresses interest in other boys. He approves of her erotic friend fiction, starring himself, in "Bad Tina '', but tends to forget they are dating because he is always occupied with activities, such as spending time with best friend and wrestling buddy, Zeke, and dancing by himself.
Bob 's restaurant also has seen its fair share of bad luck. For example, in the show 's opening, the property falls victim to a fire, an infestation of vermin, and a broken front window caused by a car knocking down a utility pole. In spite of all this, Bob does have a small but loyal group of regular customers, including the aforementioned Mort, and Teddy, a local handyman.
The Belcher family runs a hamburger restaurant. Bob (H. Jon Benjamin) is the restaurant 's owner and husband to the fun - loving and happy - go - lucky Linda (John Roberts). Their three children are Tina (Dan Mintz), the oldest, Gene (Eugene Mirman), the only boy, and Louise (Kristen Schaal), the youngest. All three children help at the restaurant to some extent. Louise is somewhat of a precocious menace and an instigator of many of the debacles that face the Belcher family. Tina is awkward, but full of heart, and muddles her way through her pubescent experiences, such as leg waxing and strong fixations on neighborhood boys. Gene is the more cheery and carefree type and aspires to be a great musician.
There are various recurring characters in the series including Jimmy Pesto, Sr. (Jay Johnston), Bob 's primary business rival who owns an Italian - themed restaurant across the street, and his sons Jimmy Jr. (Benjamin), Tina 's love interest, and hyperactive and childish twins Andy (Laura Silverman) and Ollie (Sarah Silverman), who are friends of Louise. They get along well, despite the enmity between their fathers. Other friends, and frenemies, of the Belcher kids include Zeke (Bobby Tisdale), Tammy (Jenny Slate), Jocelyn (John Roberts), and Regular - Sized Rudy (Brian Huskey). Mr. Frond (David Herman) is the guidance counselor at their school.
Other recurring characters include customers Teddy (Larry Murphy) and Mort (Andy Kindler), as well as Linda 's eccentric sister Gayle (Megan Mullally), and the Belchers ' sometimes - meddling landlord, Calvin Fischoeder (Kevin Kline) and his brother Felix (Zach Galifianakis). Bob is frequently antagonized by health inspector Hugo (Sam Seder), Linda 's ex-fiancé who holds a grudge against Bob and constantly schemes to get the restaurant shut down, though his plans are often revealed to the Belchers by his easy - going assistant, Ron (Ron Lynch).
Creator Loren Bouchard said Bob 's Burgers came about because Fox 's animation brand centers mostly on family, but he also wanted to dabble in workplace comedy. The show has generally been viewed as a spiritual successor to King of the Hill, which carried less emphasis on shock comedy and focused more on character - driven humor; Bob 's Burgers executive producer Jim Dauterive worked on King of the Hill for nearly its entire run.
Before the show was aired, the team created a proof of concept so Fox Broadcasting Company knew what to expect if they bought the show. Jay Howell had his art featured in a test animation based on Bob forgetting about his and Linda 's wedding anniversary. This proof of concept eventually turned into the pilot episode. It had the same synopsis as the official pilot (aired in 2011) but had both cosmetic and substantial differences. These included:
The original pilot can be seen on the DVD release of the first season, released on April 17, 2012.
Bob 's Burgers first appeared on the development slate at Fox on August 6, 2009. On December 1, 2009, Fox ordered 13 episodes for the first season. On May 17, 2010, Fox placed the series on the primetime slate for the 2010 -- 11 television season. A special preview aired on Thanksgiving on November 25, 2010.
Creator Loren Bouchard serves as the executive producer, alongside developer Jim Dauterive. They have served as executive producers since the first season. Dan Fybel and Rich Rinaldi were promoted to executive producers during season 6.
The team of writers includes Loren Bouchard, Jim Dauterive, Scott Jacobson, Lizzie Molyneux, Wendy Molyneux, Holly Schlesinger, Nora Smith, Steven Davis, Kelvin Yu, Dan Fybel, Rich Rinaldi, Jon Schroeder, and Greg Thompson. Past writers on the show include Kit Boss, Aron Abrams, and Mike Benner. H. Jon Benjamin, Rachel Hastings, Justin Hook, Dan Mintz, and Mike Olsen have also written or co-written episodes. After the writing has been completed, the voice actors read the script as written, but later are allowed to improvise lines. The editors and writer decide what improvised lines make the final cut.
Bob 's Burgers has five main cast members: H. Jon Benjamin as Bob Belcher, John Roberts as Linda Belcher, Dan Mintz as Tina Belcher, Eugene Mirman as Gene Belcher, and Kristen Schaal as Louise Belcher.
The components of a hamburger fall into place on a white screen, and Bob 's hands appear underneath to hold it. The other family members appear around him one at a time, beginning with Linda and ending with Louise. Linda puts her arm around Bob, Tina stands there expressionless, Gene plays a sound effect on his keyboard, and Louise poses for the camera. The restaurant then materializes behind them and the neighboring businesses slide into place, with a funeral parlor at screen left, and the street slides into view in front. A "Grand Opening '' banner is placed over the door, followed by a series of mishaps. First, the restaurant catches on fire. Then, vermin come running toward the restaurant as an exterminator pulls up in a van. Lastly, a car crashes into the utility pole next to the funeral home, which causes the pole to fall through the front window of the restaurant. A new banner is hung up after each event: "Grand Re-Opening, '' "Grand Re-Re - Opening, '' and finally "Grand Re-Re - Re-Opening. '' The camera then zooms in on the cheese on the burger Bob is holding, and the view fades in to the start of the episode.
As with other Fox animated series such as Futurama, The Simpsons, and American Dad!, the show employs the "changing element '' running gag in its opening credits. The gag present on Bob 's Burgers involves the store located to the right of the restaurant, which has a new, humorously named client in every episode (such as "Betty 's Machetes '' in "Purple Rain - Union ''). Additionally, beginning with Season 2, the pest control van in the sequence has the name of a different company on each episode; the van read "Rat 's all Folks! Exterminators '' on all episodes of Season 1. On certain episodes, an element is changed for a special night (a flash frame saying "HAPPY HALLOWEEN '' was shown during the title sequence of "Fort Night '').
In an article written by the writers of the show ranking the best 10 musical numbers of the first three seasons, it is explained by show creator and theme composer Loren Bouchard that the ukulele track heard in the theme is an edited version of the first recording he did as well as the first take in 2008. Bouchard explains that if the EQ is taken off the original track, there is noise audible from the nightclub below the apartment he was living in when he recorded the theme.
The credits sequence of Bob 's Burgers often features the Belcher family at work. The scene is the kitchen of Bob 's Burgers drawn with a black outline over a white background and the characters in full color, with the credits off to the right hand side. The sequence consists of Bob cooking a burger and Louise and Tina doing prep. Bob places the burger on the plate for Louise to give to Linda, who takes it from the window, and a few seconds later Gene walks through the kitchen wearing his burger costume.
Although the kitchen scene is still the main closing sequence the show uses, beginning in season two the producers began to use different elements from the show in the credits. Some examples:
Other times, the scene will play out as usual, but with something from the episode going on in the background, etc. For instance:
Every episode features one or more "Today 's Special '' burgers on a chalk board on the wall behind the counter. The name of the special is usually a play on words that indicates what comes on the burger (ex.: "It 's Fun to Eat at the rYe MCA Burger '': Comes with Rye, Mustard, Cheese, and Avocado). Other "Special '' burgers are also mentioned by the family without being written on their chalkboard. The joke is often that the play on words is overly complex or obscure.
The first season through the current season of the show are available on the iTunes Store for download & Hulu. The first 8 seasons are available from Amazon Video. The first 7 seasons are available from Netflix Canada.
Bob 's Burgers initially received mixed reviews for season 1, with a Metacritic score of 54 out of 100. However, by season 2, the ratings had reached a score of 78 out of 100, proving a rise in popularity with praises about its "daffy comedic momentum '' and how it is "new and fresh. '' Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season a 58 % from the collective critic feedback, admitting while it has potential, it needs to find its "rhythm. '' The Washington Post described the show as "pointlessly vulgar and derivatively dull '', while Reuters stated that "It 's unwise -- and unnecessary -- to launch an animated sitcom on Fox that appears intent to ape the vulgarity quotient of Family Guy. '' USA Today stated that "Bob 's Burgers is n't very tasty '' describing the comedy as just "lop (ing) along, stumbling from one tasteless moment to the next '' The New York Times described the show as having "a lackadaisical vibe; its humor, no matter how anarchic, slides by in a deadpan monotone. ''
However, as the first season progressed and concluded and the second began, critics began giving the series praise. Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club has recalled, "... the show was amusing, yes, and there was certainly potential, but it took half a dozen episodes before it really began to meet that potential. '' Season 2 has a Metacritic score of 78 out 100. The first season is considered by many fans as very rough in comparison to the quality in later seasons.
Entertainment Weekly gave the show an A - grade in its review, remarking that "a comedy this well done is very rare indeed ''. Ai n't It Cool News called Bob 's Burgers "perhaps the funniest half - hour currently airing on broadcast TV. '' In its review, CNN called the show "wickedly funny '' and said there are "too many highlights to list here ''. Speaking about the show during its second season, The A.V. Club reviewer Rowan Kaiser said: "After an uneven start, Bob 's Burgers is becoming one of television 's best comedies! '' Since the debut of season two of the series, the show 's positive reception has increased.
The A.V. Club voted Bob 's Burgers as the 10th best TV show of 2012, the 3rd best show of 2013, the 20th best show of 2014, and the 35th best show of 2015.
After airing, the show became the highest - rated series premiere of the season and also finished 9th in the ratings for the week it aired. Despite this, the ratings went on a slide with ratings expert Bill Gorman of TV by the Numbers calling it a "toss up '' for renewal before the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on March 11, 2012.
Adult Swim acquired the rights to air Bob 's Burgers in 2013. Episodes air six nights a week, with a 1: 30 am airing on Sunday and 8: 30 pm airings Monday through Friday. An additional episode airs every Monday through Thursday at 9: 00 pm. Adult Swim currently has rights to all five seasons of Bob 's Burgers and recently began airing the season five episodes on Mondays.
20th Television began distributing Bob 's Burgers to local stations in 2015. The syndication package began airing on its affiliates on the weekend of September 19 -- 20, 2015, and two episodes air each weekend.
The series also premiered on September 26, 2016 on TBS and airs Mondays afternoons (along with Family Guy, American Dad!, and The Cleveland Show) and on Friday nights.
On January 6, 2011, some Fatburger locations were re-branded as Bob 's Burgers for the day as a promotion. It also offered limited - time offers, such as a free burger giveaway, and a special, "The Thanks a Brunch Burger '', on the menu until February 2011. There were also "Bob 's Burgers '' coupons offered for a free medium Fatburger special. Across the US, four locations were re-branded as Bob 's Burgers: in California, New Jersey, Nevada, and Illinois. At least one restaurant location in California continues to use the Bob 's Burgers appellation into 2016.
In the Family Guy episode "Space Cadet '', the principal shows Peter and Lois a picture of Bob Belcher as a sign that Chris is doing poorly in his Advanced Art class. Peter mutters "I 'm very embarrassed '', and the principal replies "Yeah, well, someone should be. '' In "Boopa - dee Bappa - dee '', Louise is one of many characters Stewie is turned into by Peter using a remote control. Bob 's Burgers is also mentioned on "He 's Bla - ack! '', as one of the reasons why The Cleveland Show did not succeed.
The season 4 premiere episode of Archer features a crossover where the Belcher family is shown, but Bob is revealed to be Sterling Archer (also voiced by H. Jon Benjamin) in a fugue state. Archer has taken the place of Bob Belcher, with Bob inexplicably missing. The menu board touts the "Thomas Elphinstone Hambledurger, with Manning Coleslaw '', a play on amnesiac secret agent Tommy Hambledon, a character in a series of novels by Manning Coles.
"Homerland '', the season 25 premiere episode of The Simpsons, features a couch gag in which the Belcher family (skinned yellow according to the standard character coloring of the series) attend a 25th anniversary party in the Simpson family living room with the main characters of their fellow Animation Domination series. Bob made another cameo in the episode "The Girl Code '', where a picture of him is shown, and explaining that the restaurant was boycotted by short people due to an offensive Burger of the Day.
Bob makes a cameo appearance in the hour - long The Simpsons - Family Guy crossover "The Simpsons Guy ''. He appears on the same airplane as Homer and Peter in a cutaway about them being a greater team than the Air Force. Peter remarks to Homer that they have to carry Bob, and then Peter points to Cleveland 's plane and says "We let that other guy try and look what happened. '' Cleveland, repeatedly saying "no '', crashes in flames. This is a reference to the poor ratings of Bob 's Burgers and the cancellation of The Cleveland Show.
In Aqua Teen Hunger Force, a character previously known as Dr. Eugene Mirman (obviously played by himself) was renamed "Dr. Gene Belcher '' in the episode "Hospice ''. The character 's name was revealed on Aqua Teen Hunger Force 's creator Dave Willis ' Twitter account two hours before the episode. The character had been introduced in 2006, which was five years before Bob 's Burgers aired.
Seattle rock band Sleater - Kinney collaborated with Bob 's Burgers and its crew for their 2015 single "A New Wave '', from the album No Cities to Love. The resultant music video featured the band, animated in the cartoon 's style, performing for the Belcher children in Tina 's bedroom.
In 2016, The Bob 's Burgers Burger Book, edited by series creator Bouchard, was released. There are 75 burger recipes pulled from the fan - based blog "The Bob 's Burger Experiment '' based on the Specials of the Day that appear on the chalkboard menu in the show.
On October 4, 2017, Fox announced that a Bob 's Burgers movie was in the works to be released on July 17, 2020. Creator Bouchard has said the movie will "scratch every itch the fans of the show have ever had, '' while being appealing to new audiences.
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when was the last time the us drafted | Conscription in the United States - wikipedia
Military service National service Conscription crisis Conscientious objector
Conscription in the United States, commonly known as the draft, has been employed by the federal government of the United States in four conflicts: the American Civil War, World War I, ((World The Cold War (including both the Korean War and the Vietnam War). The third incarnation of the draft came into being in 1940 through the Selective Training and Service Act. It was the country 's first peacetime draft. From 1940 until 1973, during both peacetime and periods of conflict, men were drafted to fill vacancies in the United States Armed Forces that could not be filled through voluntary means. The draft came to an end when the United States Armed Forces moved to an all - volunteer military force. However, the Selective Service System remains in place as a contingency plan; all male civilians between the ages of 18 and 25 are required to register so that a draft can be readily resumed if needed. United States Federal Law also provides for the compulsory conscription of men between the ages of 17 and 45 and certain women for militia service pursuant to Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution and 10 U.S. Code § 246.
In colonial times, the Thirteen Colonies used a militia system for defense. Colonial militia laws -- and after independence those of the United States and the various states -- required able - bodied males to enroll in the militia, to undergo a minimum of military training, and to serve for limited periods of time in war or emergency. This earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen for service in particular campaigns. Following this system in its essentials, the Continental Congress in 1778 recommended that the states draft men from their militias for one year 's service in the Continental army; this first national conscription was irregularly applied and failed to fill the Continental ranks.
For long - term operations, conscription was occasionally used when volunteers or paid substitutes were insufficient to raise the needed manpower. During the American Revolutionary War, the states sometimes drafted men for militia duty or to fill state Continental Army units, but the central government did not have the authority to conscript except for purposes of naval impressment. President James Madison and his Secretary of War James Monroe unsuccessfully attempted to create a national draft of 40,000 men during the War of 1812. This proposal was fiercely criticized on the House floor by antiwar Congressman Daniel Webster of New Hampshire.
The United States first employed national conscription during the American Civil War. The vast majority of troops were volunteers; of the 2,100,000 Union soldiers, about 2 % were draftees, and another 6 % were substitutes paid by draftees.
The Confederacy had far fewer inhabitants than the Union, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis proposed the first conscription act on March 28, 1862; it was passed into law the next month. Resistance was both widespread and violent, with comparisons made between conscription and slavery.
Both sides permitted conscripts to hire substitutes to serve in their place. In the Union, many states and cities offered bounties and bonuses for enlistment. They also arranged to take credit against their draft quota by claiming freed slaves who enlisted in the Union Army.
Although both sides resorted to conscription, the system did not work effectively in either. The Confederate Congress on April 16, 1862, passed an act requiring military service for three years from all males aged eighteen to thirty - five not legally exempt; it later extended the obligation. The U.S. Congress followed with the Militia Act of 1862 authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. This state - administered system failed in practice and in 1863 Congress passed the Enrollment Act, the first genuine national conscription law, setting up under the Union Army an elaborate machinery for enrolling and drafting men between twenty and forty - five years of age. Quotas were assigned in each state, the deficiencies in volunteers required to be met by conscription.
Still, men drafted could provide substitutes, and until mid-1864 could even avoid service by paying commutation money. Many eligible men pooled their money to cover the cost of any one of them drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which member should go into the army and which would stay home. The other popular means of procuring a substitute was to pay a soldier whose period of enlistment was about to expire - the advantage of this method was that the Army could retain a trained veteran in place of a raw recruit. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union Army through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, and the New York City draft riots were in direct response to the draft and were the first large - scale resistance against the draft in the United States.
The problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by the inequitable inclinations of conscription officers and local judges. The three conscription acts of the Confederacy exempted certain categories, most notably the planter class, and enrolling officers and local judges often practiced favoritism, sometimes accepting bribes. Attempts to effectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conflict between state and local governments on the one hand and the national government of the Confederacy.
In 1917 the administration of President Woodrow Wilson decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower for World War I when only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of the war. One claimed motivation was to head off the former President, Theodore Roosevelt, who proposed to raise a volunteer division, which would upstage Wilson. However, there is no evidence that even Roosevelt had the popularity to overcome the unpopular war, also, since Wilson had just started his second term in office the former President 's prospects for substantial political gain would seem dubious.
The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system and -- by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples -- to place each man in his proper niche in a national war effort. The act established a "liability for military service of all male citizens ''; authorized a selective draft of all those between 21 and 31 years of age (later from 18 to 45); and prohibited all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. These boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions.
In 1917 10 million men were registered. This was deemed to be inadequate, so age ranges were increased and exemptions reduced, and so by the end of 1918 this increased to 24 million men that were registered with nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the resistance that characterized the Civil War, thanks to a huge campaign by the government to build support for the war, and shut down newspapers and magazines that published articles against the war.
The draft was universal and included blacks on the same terms as whites, although they served in different units. In all 367,710 black Americans were drafted (13.0 % of the total), compared to 2,442,586 white (86.9 %). Along with a general opposition to American involvement in a foreign conflict, Southern farmers objected to unfair conscription practices that exempted members of the upper class and industrial workers.
Draft boards were localized and based their decisions on social class: the poorest were the most often conscripted because they were considered the most expendable at home. African - Americans in particular were often disproportionately drafted, though they generally were conscripted as laborers and not sent into combat to avoid the tensions that would arise from mixing races in military units. Forms of resistance ranged from peaceful protest to violent demonstrations and from humble letter - writing campaigns asking for mercy to radical newspapers demanding reform. The most common tactics were dodging and desertion, and many communities sheltered and defended their draft dodgers as political heroes.
Nearly half a million immigrants were drafted, which forced the military to develop training procedures that took ethnic differences into account. Military leaders invited Progressive reformers and ethnic group leaders to assist in formulating new military policies. The military attempted to socialize and Americanize young immigrant recruits, not by forcing "angloconformity '', but by showing remarkable sensitivity and respect for ethnic values and traditions and a concern for the morale of immigrant troops. Sports activities, keeping immigrant groups together, newspapers in various languages, the assistance of bilingual officers, and ethnic entertainment programs were all employed.
The Conscription Act of 1917 was passed in June. Conscripts were court - martialed by the Army if they refused to wear uniforms, bear arms, perform basic duties, or submit to military authority. Convicted objectors were often given long sentences of 20 years in Fort Leavenworth. In 1918 Secretary Baker created the Board of Inquiry to question the conscientious objectors ' sincerity. Military tribunals tried men found by the Board to be insincere for a variety of offenses, sentencing 17 to death, 142 to life imprisonment, and 345 to penal labor camps.
In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment 's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the Selective Draft Law Cases on January 7, 1918. The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court, relying partly on Vattel 's The Law of Nations, emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens:
It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government and its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need, and the right to compel it. To do more than state the proposition is absolutely unnecessary in view of the practical illustration afforded by the almost universal legislation to that effect now in force.
Conscription was unpopular from left - wing sectors at the start, with many Socialists jailed for "obstructing the recruitment or enlistment service ''. The most famous was Eugene Debs, head of the Socialist Party of America, who ran for president in 1920 from his Atlanta prison cell. He had his sentence commuted to time served and was released on December 25, 1921, by President Warren G. Harding.
The Industrial Workers of the World mobilized to obstruct the war effort through strikes in war - related industries and not registering.
Conscientious objector (CO) exemptions were allowed for the Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Church of the Brethren only. All other religious and political objectors were forced to participate. Some 64,700 men claimed conscientious objector status; local draft boards certified 57,000, of whom 30,000 passed the physical and 21,000 were inducted into the U.S. Army. About 80 % of the 21,000 decided to abandon their objection and take up arms, but 3,989 drafted objectors refused to serve. Most belonged to historically pacifist denominations, especially Quakers, Mennonites, and Moravian Brethren, as well as a few Seventh - day Adventists and Jehovah 's Witnesses. About 15 % were religious objectors from non-pacifist churches.
Ben Salmon was a nationally known political activist who encouraged men not to register and personally refused to comply with the draft procedures. He rejected the Army Review Board proposal that he do noncombatant farm work. Sentenced to 25 years in prison, he again refused a proposed desk job. He was pardoned and released in November 1920 with a "dishonorable discharge ''.
The draft ended in 1918 but the Army designed the modern draft mechanism in 1926 and built it based on military needs despite an era of pacifism. Working where Congress would not, it gathered a cadre of officers for its nascent Joint Army - Navy Selective Service Committee, most of whom were commissioned based on social standing rather than military experience. This effort did not receive congressionally approved funding until 1934 when Major General Lewis B. Hershey was assigned to the organization. The passage of a conscription act was opposed by some, including Dorothy Day and George Barry O'Toole, who were concerned that such conscription would not provide adequate protection for the rights of conscientious objectors. However, much of Hershey 's work was codified into law with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 (STSA).
By the summer of 1940, as Germany conquered France, Americans adapted to the return of conscription. One national survey found that 67 % of respondents believed that a German - Italian victory would endanger the United States, and that 71 % supported "the immediate adoption of compulsory military training for all young men ''. Similarly, a November 1942 survey of American high - school students found that 69 % favored compulsory postwar military training.
The World War I system served as a model for that of World War II. The 1940 STSA instituted national conscription in peacetime, requiring registration of all men between 21 and 35, with selection for one year 's service by a national lottery. The term of service was extended by one year in August 1941. After Pearl Harbor the STSA was further amended (December 19, 1941), extending the term of service to the duration of the war and six months and requiring the registration of all men 18 to 64 years of age. In the massive draft of World War II, 49 million men were registered, 36 million classified, and 10 million inducted. President Roosevelt 's signing of the STSA on September 16, 1940, began the first peacetime draft in the United States. It also established the Selective Service System as an independent agency responsible for identifying and inducting young men into military service. Roosevelt named Hershey to head the Selective Service on July 31, 1941, where he remained until 1969. This preparatory act came when other preparations, such as increased training and equipment production, had not yet been approved. Nevertheless, it served as the basis for the conscription programs that would continue to the present. The act set a cap of 900,000 men to be in training at any given time and limited military service to 12 months unless Congress deemed it necessary to extend such service in the interest of national defense. An amendment added 18 more months to this service period on August 18, 1941. Later legislation on December 20, 1942 amended the act to require all men from 18 to 64 to register, with those aged 20 to 44 being able for induction. 18 and 19 year olds were made liable for induction and the upper age limit for the draft was reduced to 37 beginning on November 13, 1942. Service commitments for inductees were set at the length of the war plus six months.
As manpower need increased during World War II, draftees were inducted into the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. The Navy and Marine Corps enlisted inductees and volunteers under the same service agreements, but with different service obligations, while the Army (and Army Air Forces) placed inductees into a special service component known as the Army of the United States, commonly known as the "AUS ''.
By 1942, the Selective Service System moved away from administrative selection by its more than 6,000 local boards to a system of lottery selection. Rather than filling quotas by local selection, the boards now ensured proper processing of men selected by the national lottery. On December 5, 1942, presidential Executive Order 9279 made it so that men from the ages of 18 to 37 could not voluntarily enlist even if they had not been drafted, providing protection for the nation 's home front manpower pool. Paul V. McNutt, head of the War Manpower Commission, estimated that the changes would increase the ratio of men drafted from one out of nine to one out of five. The commission 's goal was to have nine million men in the armed forces by the end of 1943. This facilitated the massive requirement of up to 200,000 men per month and would remain the standard for the length of the war. The World War II draft operated from 1940 until 1947 when its legislative authorization expired without further extension by Congress. During this time, more than 10 million men had been inducted into military service. With the expiration, no inductions occurred in 1947. However, the SSS remained intact.
Scattered opposition was encountered especially in the northern cities where African - Americans protested the system. The young Nation of Islam was at the forefront, with many Black Muslims jailed for refusing the draft, and their leader Elijah Muhammed was sentenced to federal prison for 5 years for inciting draft resistance. Organized draft resistance also developed in the Japanese American internment camps, where groups like the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee refused to serve unless they and their families were released. 300 Nisei men from eight of the ten War Relocation Authority camps were arrested and stood trial for felony draft evasion; most were sentenced to federal prison. American Communists also opposed the war until Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, whereupon they became supporters.
Of the more than 72,000 men registering as conscientious objectors (CO), nearly 52,000 received CO status. Of these, over 25,000 entered the military in noncombatant roles, another 12,000 went to civilian work camps, and nearly 6,000 went to prison. Draft evasion only accounted for about 4 % of the total inducted. About 373,000 alleged evaders were investigated with just over 16,000 being imprisoned.
The second peacetime draft began with passage of the Selective Service Act of 1948 after the STSA expired. The new law required all men, ages 18 to 26, to register. It also created the system for the "Doctor Draft '' aimed at inducting health professionals into military service. Unless otherwise exempted or deferred, these men could be called for up to 21 months of active duty and five years of reserve duty service. Congress further tweaked this act in 1950 although the post -- World War II surplus of military manpower left little need for draft calls until Truman 's declaration of national emergency in December 1950. Only 20,348 men were inducted in 1948 and only 9,781 in 1949.
Between the Korean War 's outbreak in June 1950 and the armistice agreement in 1953, Selective Service inducted over 1.5 million men. Another 1.3 million volunteered, usually choosing the Navy or Air Force. Congress passed the Universal Military Training and Service Act in 1951 to meet the demands of the war. It lowered the induction age to 181⁄2 and extended active - duty service commitments to 24 months. Despite the early combat failures and later stalemate in Korea, the draft has been credited by some as playing a vital role in turning the tide of war. A February 1953 Gallup Poll showed 70 percent of Americans surveyed felt the SSS handled the draft fairly. Notably, Gallup reported that 64 percent of the demographic group including all draft age men (males 21 to 29) believed the draft to be fair.
To increase equity in the system, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order on July 11, 1953, that ended the paternity deferment for married men. In large part, the change in the draft served the purposes of the burgeoning Cold War. From a program that had just barely passed congressional muster during the fearful prelude to World War II, a more robust draft continued as fears now focused on the Soviet threat. Nevertheless, some dissenting voices in Congress continued to appeal to the history of voluntary American military service as preferable for a democracy. The Korean War was the first time any form of student deferment was used. During the Korean War a student carrying at least twelve semester hours was spared until the end of his current semester.
The United States breathed easier with the Korean War Armistice on July 27, 1953; however, technology brought new promises and threats. U.S. air and nuclear power fueled the Eisenhower doctrine of "massive retaliation ''. This strategy demanded more machines and fewer foot soldiers, so the draft slipped to the back burner. However, the head of the SSS, Maj. Gen. Hershey, urged caution fearing the conflict looming in Vietnam. In May 1953, he told his state directors to do everything possible to keep SSS alive in order to meet upcoming needs.
Following the 1953 Korean War Armistice, Congress passed the Reserve Forces Act of 1955 with the aim of improving National Guard and federal Reserve Component readiness while also constraining its use by the president. Towards this end, it mandated a six - year service commitment, in a combination of reserve and active duty time, for every line military member regardless of their means of entry. Meanwhile, the SSS kept itself alive by devising and managing a complex system of deferments for a swelling pool of candidates during a period of shrinking requirements. The greatest challenge to the draft came not from protesters but rather lobbyists seeking additional deferments for their constituency groups such as scientists and farmers.
Government leaders felt the potential for a draft was a critical element in maintaining a constant flow of volunteers. On numerous occasions Gen. Hershey told Congress for every man drafted, three or four more were scared into volunteering. Assuming his assessment was accurate, this would mean over 11 million men volunteered for service because of the draft between January 1954 and April 1975.
The policy of using the draft as a club to force "voluntary '' enlistment was unique in U.S. history. Previous drafts had not aimed at encouraging individuals to sign up in order to gain preferential placement or less dangerous postings. However, the incremental buildup of Vietnam without a clear threat to the country bolstered this. Some estimates suggest conscription encompassed almost one - third of all eligible men during the period of 1965 -- 69. This group represented those without exemption or resources to avoid military service. During the active combat phase, the possibility of avoiding combat by selecting their service and military specialty led as many as four out of 11 eligible men to enlist. The military relied upon this draft - induced volunteerism to make its quotas, especially the Army, which accounted for nearly 95 percent of all inductees during Vietnam. For example, defense recruiting reports show 34 % of the recruits in 1964 up to 50 % in 1970 indicated they joined to avoid placement uncertainty via the draft. These rates dwindled to 24 % in 1972 and 15 % in 1973 after the change to a lottery system. Accounting for other factors, it can be argued up to 60 percent of those who served throughout the Vietnam War did so directly or indirectly because of the draft.
In addition, deferments provided an incentive for men to follow pursuits considered useful to the state. This process, known as channeling, helped push men into educational, occupational, and family choices they might not otherwise have pursued. Undergraduate degrees were valued. Graduate work had varying value over time, though technical and religious training received near constant support. War industry support in the form of teaching, research, or skilled labor also received deferred or exempt status. Finally, marriage and family were exempted because of its positive social consequences. This included using presidential orders to extend exemptions again to fathers and others. Channeling was also seen as a means of preempting the early loss of the country 's "best and brightest '' who had historically joined and died early in war.
In the only extended period of military conscription of U.S. males during a major peacetime period, the draft continued on a more limited basis during the late 1950s and early 1960s. While a far smaller percentage of eligible males were conscripted compared to war periods, draftees by law served in the Army for two years. Elvis Presley and Willie Mays were two of the most famous people drafted during this period.
Public protests in the United States were few during the Korean War. However, the percentage of CO exemptions for inductees grew to 1.5 % compared to a rate of just 0.5 % in the past two wars. The Justice Department also investigated more than 80,000 draft evasion cases.
President Kennedy 's decision to send military troops to Vietnam as "advisors '' was a signal that Selective Service Director Lewis B. Hershey needed to visit the Oval Office. From that visit emerged two wishes of JFK with regard to conscription. The first was that the names of married men with children should occupy the very bottom of the callup list. Just above them should be the names of men who are married. This Presidential policy, however, was not to be formally encoded into Selective Service Status. Men who fit into these categories became known as Kennedy Husbands. When President Lyndon Johnson decided to rescind this Kennedy policy, there was a last - minute rush to the altar by thousands of American couples.
Many early rank - and - file anti-conscription protesters had been allied with the National Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy. The completion in 1963 of a Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty left a mass of undirected youth in search of a cause. Syndicated cartoonist Al Capp portrayed them as S.W.I.N.E, (Students Wildly Indignant About Nearly Everything). The catalyst for protest reconnection was the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
Consequently, there was some opposition to the draft even before the major U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began. The large cohort of Baby Boomers who became eligible for military service during the Vietnam War was responsible for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college students. Besides being able to avoid the draft, college graduates who volunteered for military service (primarily as commissioned officers) had a much better chance of securing a preferential posting compared to less - educated inductees.
As U.S. troop strength in South Vietnam increased, more young men were drafted for service there, and many of those still at home sought means of avoiding the draft. Since only 15,000 National Guard and Reserve soldiers were sent to South Vietnam, enlistment in the Guard or the Reserves became a popular means of avoiding serving in a war zone. For those who could meet the more stringent enlistment standards, service in the Air Force, Navy, or Coast Guard was a means of reducing the chances of being killed. Vocations to the ministry and the rabbinate soared, because divinity students were exempt from the draft. Doctors and draft board members found themselves being pressured by relatives or family friends to exempt potential draftees.
The marriage deferment ended suddenly on August 26, 1965. Around 3: 10pm President Johnson signed an order allowing the draft of men who married after midnight that day, then around 5pm he announced the change for the first time.
Some conscientious objectors objected to the war based on the theory of Just War. One of these, Stephen Spiro, was convicted of avoiding the draft, but given a suspended sentence of five years. He was later pardoned by President Gerald Ford.
There were 8,744,000 servicemembers between 1964 and 1975, of whom 3,403,000 were deployed to Southeast Asia. From a pool of approximately 27 million, the draft raised 2,215,000 men for military service (in the United States, South Vietnam, and elsewhere) during the Vietnam War era. The majority of servicemembers deployed to South Vietnam were volunteers, even though hundreds of thousands of men opted to join the Army, Air Force, Navy, and Coast Guard (for three or four year terms of enlistment) rather than risk being drafted, serve for two years, and have no choice over their military occupational specialty (MOS).
Of the nearly 16 million men not engaged in active military service, 57 % were exempted (typically because of jobs including other military service), deferred (usually for educational reasons), or disqualified (usually for physical and mental deficiencies but also for criminal records including draft violations). The requirements for obtaining and maintaining an educational deferment changed several times in the late 1960s. For several years, students were required to take an annual qualification test. In 1967 educational deferments were changed for graduate students. Those starting graduate studies in the fall of 1967 were given two semester deferments becoming eligible in June 1968. Those further along in their graduate study who entered prior to the summer of 1967 could continue to receive a deferment until they completed their studies. Peace Corps Volunteers were no longer given deferments and their induction was left to the discretion of their local boards. However most boards allowed Peace Corps Volunteers to complete their two years assignment before inducting them into the service. On December 1, 1969, a lottery was held to establish a draft priority for all those born between 1944 and 1950. Those with a high number no longer had to be concerned about the draft. Nearly 500,000 men were disqualified for criminal records, but less than 10,000 of them were convicted of draft violations. Finally, as many as 100,000 draft eligible men fled the country.
During the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise to end the draft. He had first become interested in the idea of an all - volunteer army during his time out of office, based upon a paper by Martin Anderson of Columbia University. Nixon also saw ending the draft as an effective way to undermine the anti-Vietnam war movement, since he believed affluent youths would stop protesting the war once their own probability of having to fight in it was gone. There was opposition to the all - volunteer notion from both the Department of Defense and Congress, so Nixon took no immediate action towards ending the draft early in his presidency.
Instead, the Gates Commission was formed, headed by Thomas S. Gates, Jr., a former Secretary of Defense in the Eisenhower administration. Gates initially opposed the all - volunteer army idea, but changed his mind during the course of the 15 - member commission 's work. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription. The existing draft law was expiring at the end of June 1971, but the Department of Defense and Nixon administration decided the draft needed to continue for at least some time. In February 1971, the administration requested of Congress a two - year extension of the draft, to June 1973.
Senatorial opponents of the war wanted to reduce this to a one - year extension, or eliminate the draft altogether, or tie the draft renewal to a timetable for troop withdrawal from Vietnam; Senator Mike Gravel of Alaska took the most forceful approach, trying to filibuster the draft renewal legislation, shut down conscription, and directly force an end to the war. Senators supporting Nixon 's war efforts supported the bill, even though some had qualms about ending the draft. After a prolonged battle in the Senate, in September 1971 cloture was achieved over the filibuster and the draft renewal bill was approved. Meanwhile, military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the U.S. Army began. With the end of active U.S. ground participation in Vietnam, December 1972 saw the last men conscripted, who were born in 1952 and who reported for duty in June 1973. On February 2, 1972, a drawing was held to determine draft priority numbers for men born in 1953, but in early 1973 it was announced by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird that no further draft orders would be issued. In March 1973, 1974, and 1975, the Selective Service assigned draft priority numbers for all men born in 1954, 1955, and 1956, in case the draft was extended, but it never was.
Command Sergeant Major Jeff Mellinger, believed to be the last drafted enlisted ranked soldier still on active duty, retired in 2011.
Chief Warrant Officer 5 Ralph E. Rigby, the last Vietnam War - era drafted soldier of Warrant Officer rank, retired from the army on November 10, 2014 after a 42 - year career.
On July 2, 1980, President Carter issued Presidential Proclamation 4771 and re-instated the requirement that young men register with the Selective Service System. At that time it was required that all males, born on or after January 1, 1960, register with the Selective Service System. Those now in this category are male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25, who are required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday even if they are not eligible to join the military.
The Selective Service System describes its mission as "to serve the emergency manpower needs of the Military by conscripting untrained manpower, or personnel with professional health care skills, if directed by Congress and the President in a national crisis ''. Registration forms are available either online or at any U.S. Post Office.
The Selective Service registration form states that failure to register is a felony punishable by up to five years imprisonment or a $250,000 fine. In practice, no one has been prosecuted for failure to comply with draft registration since 1986, in part because prosecutions of draft resisters proved counter-productive for the government, and in part because of the difficulty of proving that noncompliance with the law was "knowing and wilful ''. In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of nonregistrants. Many men do not register at all, register late, or change addresses without notifying the Selective Service System. Registration is a requirement for employment by the federal government and some states, as well as for receiving some state benefits such as driver 's licenses. Refusing to register can also cause a loss of eligibility for federal financial aid for college.
On December 1, 1989, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care and professional occupation '', if such a special - skills draft should be ordered by Congress. In response, Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System '' (HCPDS) in 1989 and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999. The HCPDS plans include women and men ages 20 -- 54 in 57 different job categories. As of May 2003, the Defense Department has said the most likely form of draft is a special skills draft, probably of health care workers.
In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution in the Selective Draft Law Cases. The Court summarized the history of conscription in England and in colonial America, a history that it read as establishing that the Framers envisioned compulsory military service as a governmental power. It held that the Constitution 's grant to Congress of the powers to declare war and to create standing armies included the power to mandate conscription. It rejected arguments based on states ' rights, the 13th Amendment, and other provisions of the Constitution.
Later, during the Vietnam War, a lower appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional. United States v. Holmes, 387 F. 2d 781 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 391 U.S. 936 (1968). Justice William O. Douglas, in voting to hear the appeal in Holmes, agreed that the government had the authority to employ conscription in wartime, but argued that the constitutionality of a draft in the absence of a declaration of war was an open question, which the Supreme Court should address.
During the World War I era, the Supreme Court allowed the government great latitude in suppressing criticism of the draft. Examples include Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919) and Gilbert v. Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325 (1920). In subsequent decades, however, the Court has taken a much broader view of the extent to which advocacy speech is protected by the First Amendment. Thus, in 1971 the Court held it unconstitutional for a state to punish a man who entered a county courthouse wearing a jacket with the words "Fuck the Draft '' visible on it. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971). Nevertheless, protesting the draft by the specific means of burning a draft registration card can be constitutionally prohibited, because of the government 's interest in prohibiting the "nonspeech '' element involved in destroying the card. United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968).
Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the Constitutionality of the first of the federal "Solomon Amendment '' laws, which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal '' nonregistrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of nonregistrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. ____ (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for nonregistrants.
In 1981, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the Selective Service System. The Supreme Court upheld the act, stating that Congress 's "decision to exempt women was not the accidental byproduct of a traditional way of thinking about women '', that "since women are excluded from combat service by statute or military policy, men and women are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft, and Congress ' decision to authorize the registration of only men therefore does not violate the Due Process Clause '', and that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than ' equity. ' ''
The Rostker v. Goldberg opinion 's dependence upon deference on decision of the executive to exclude women from combat has garnered renewed scrutiny since the Department of Defense announced its decision in January 2013 to do away with most of the federal policies that have kept women from serving in combat roles in ground war situations. Both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force had by then already opened up virtually all positions in sea and air combat to women. At least two lawsuits have been filed challenging the continued Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register with the Selective service System: National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System (filed April 4, 2013, U.S. District Court for the Central District of California; dismissed by the District Court July 29, 2013 as not "ripe '' for decision; appeal argued December 8, 2015 before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals; reversed and remanded February 19, 2016), and Kyle v. Selective Service System (filed July 3, 2015, U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey), brought on behalf of Elizabeth Kyle - LaBell, who tried to register but was turned away because she is female.
According to the Selective Service System,
The Supreme Court has ruled in cases United States v. Seeger (1965) and Welsh v. United States (1970) that conscientious objection can be by non-religious beliefs as well as religious beliefs; but it has also ruled in Gillette v. United States (1971) against objections to specific wars as grounds for conscientious objection.
There is currently no mechanism to indicate that one is a conscientious objector in the Selective Service system. According to the SSS, after a person is drafted, he can claim Conscientious Objector status and then justify it before the Local Board. This is criticized because during the times of a draft, when the country is in emergency conditions, there could be increased pressure for Local Boards to be more harsh on conscientious objector claims.
There are two types of status for conscientious objectors. If a person objects only to combat but not to service in the military, then the person could be given noncombatant service in the military without training of weapons. If the person objects to all military service, then the person could be ordered to "alternative service '' with a job "deemed to make a meaningful contribution to the maintenance of the national health, safety, and interest ''.
The poverty draft is a controversial belief in some circles that low - income demographics are either intentionally targeted by the military for recruitment, or that their low socioeconomic status makes enlistment especially attractive, such that they are overrepresented in the armed forces. The "poverty draft '' is a term describing U.S. military recruiters ' purposeful tendency to focus their recruiting efforts on inner - city and poor rural schools. The low - income youth and young people of color who attend these schools generally have fewer good educational and job opportunities than middle - class and wealthy youth and are therefore more likely to enlist. Proponents of the poverty draft view often claim that because of this the U.S. armed forces are disproportionally men and women of color and from poor and working - class backgrounds.
The Selective Service System has maintained that they have implemented several reforms that would make the draft more fair and equitable.
Some of the measures they have implemented include:
The effort to enforce Selective Service registration law was abandoned in 1986. Since then, no attempt to reinstate conscription has been able to attract much support in the legislature or among the public. Since early 2003, when the Iraq War appeared imminent, there had been attempts through legislation and campaign rhetoric to begin a new public conversation on the topic. Public opinion since 1973 has been largely negative.
In 2003, several Democratic congressmen (Charles Rangel of New York, Jim McDermott of Washington, John Conyers of Michigan, John Lewis of Georgia, Pete Stark of California, Neil Abercrombie of Hawaii) introduced legislation that would draft both men and women into either military or civilian government service, should there be a draft in the future. The Republican majority leadership suddenly considered the bill, nine months after its introduction, without a report from the Armed Services Committee (to which it had been referred), and just one month prior to the 2004 presidential and congressional elections. The Republican leadership used an expedited parliamentary procedure that would have required a two - thirds vote for passage of the bill. The bill was defeated on October 5, 2004, with two members voting for it and 402 members voting against.
In 2004, the platforms of both the Democratic and Republican parties opposed military conscription, but neither party moved to end draft registration. John Kerry in one debate criticized Bush 's policies, "You 've got stop - loss policies so people ca n't get out when they were supposed to. You 've got a backdoor draft right now. ''
This statement was in reference to the U.S. Department of Defense use of "stop - loss '' orders, which have extended the Active Duty periods of some military personnel. All enlistees, upon entering the service, volunteer for a minimum eight - year Military Service Obligation (MSO). This MSO is split between a minimum active duty period, followed by a reserve period where enlistees may be called back to active duty for the remainder of the eight years. Some of these active duty extensions have been for as long as two years. The Pentagon stated that as of August 24, 2004, 20,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines had been affected. As of January 31, 2006 it has been reported that more than 50,000 soldiers and reservists had been affected.
Despite arguments by defense leaders that they had no interest in re-instituting the draft, Representative Neil Abercrombie 's (D - HI) inclusion of a DOD memo in the Congressional Record which detailed a meeting by senior leaders signaled renewed interest. Though the conclusion of the meeting memo did not call for a reinstatement of the draft, it did suggest Selective Service Act modifications to include registration by women and self - reporting of critical skills that could serve to meet military, homeland - defense, and humanitarian needs. This hinted at more targeted draft options being considered, perhaps like that of the "Doctor Draft '' that began in the 1950s to provide nearly 66 % of the medical professionals who served in the Army in Korea. Once created, this manpower tool continued to be used through 1972. The meeting memo gave DOD 's primary reason for opposing a draft as a matter of cost effectiveness and efficiency. Draftees with less than two years ' retention were said to be a net drain on military resources providing insufficient benefit to offset overhead costs of using them.
Mentions of the draft during the presidential campaign led to a resurgence of anti-draft and draft resistance organizing. One poll of young voters in October 2004 found that 29 % would resist if drafted.
In November 2006, Representative Charles B. Rangel (D - NY) again called for the draft to be reinstated; Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi rejected the proposal.
On December 19, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that he was considering sending more troops to Iraq. The next day, the Selective Service System 's director for operations and chief information officer, Scott Campbell, announced plans for a "readiness exercise '' to test the system 's operations in 2006, for the first time since 1998.
On December 21, 2006, Veterans Affairs Secretary Jim Nicholson, when asked by a reporter whether the draft should be reinstated to make the military more equal, said, "I think that our society would benefit from that, yes sir. '' Nicholson proceeded to relate his experience as a company commander in an infantry unit which brought together soldiers of different socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels, noting that the draft "does bring people from all quarters of our society together in the common purpose of serving ''. Nicholson later issued a statement saying he does not support reinstating the draft.
On August 10, 2007, with National Public Radio on "All Things Considered '', Lieutenant General Douglas Lute, National Security Adviser to the President and Congress for all matters pertaining to the United States Military efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, expressed support for a draft to alleviate the stress on the Army 's all - volunteer force. He cited the fact that repeated deployments place much strain upon one soldier 's family and himself which, in turn, can affect retention.
A similar bill to Rangel 's 2003 one was introduced in 2007, called the Universal National Service Act of 2007 (H.R. 393), but it has not received a hearing or been scheduled for consideration.
At the end of June 2014 in Pennsylvania 14,250 letters of conscription were erroneously posted to men born in the 19th century calling upon them to register for the US military draft. This was attributed to a clerk at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation who failed to select a century during a transfer of 400,000 records to the Selective Service. The Selective Service identified 27,218 records of men born in the 19th century made errantly applicable by the change of century and began sending out notices to them on June 30.
On June 14, 2016, the Senate voted to require women to register for the draft, though language requiring this was dropped from later versions of the bill.
The Selective Service (and the draft) in the United States is not limited to citizens. Howard Stringer, for example, was drafted six weeks after arriving from his native Britain in 1965. Today, non-citizen males of appropriate age in the United States, who are permanent residents (holders of green cards), seasonal agricultural workers not holding an H - 2A Visa, refugees, parolees, asylees, and illegal immigrants, are required to register with the Selective Service System. Refusal to do so is grounds for denial of a future citizenship application. In addition, immigrants who seek to naturalize as citizens must, as part of the Oath of Citizenship, swear to the following:
... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law;
The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) website also states however:
However, since 1975, USCIS has allowed the oath to be taken without the clauses: "... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by law... ''
Non-citizens who serve in the United States military enjoy several naturalization benefits which are unavailable to non-citizens who do not, such as a waiver of application fees. Permanent resident aliens who die while serving in the U.S. Armed Forces may be naturalized posthumously, which may be beneficial to surviving family members.
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in the song don bring me down who is bruce | Do n't Bring Me Down - wikipedia
"Do n't Bring Me Down '' is the ninth and final track on the English rock band the Electric Light Orchestra 's 1979 album Discovery. It is their highest - charting hit in the United States to date.
"Do n't Bring Me Down '' is the band 's second - highest - charting hit in the UK where it peaked at number 3 and their biggest hit in the United States, peaking at number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. It also charted well in Canada (number 1) and Australia (number 6). This was the first song by ELO not to include a string section.
The drum track is in fact a tape loop, coming from "On the Run '' looped and slowed down.
The song ends with the sound of a door slamming. According to producer Jeff Lynne, this was a metal fire door at Musicland Studios where the song was recorded.
The song was dedicated to the NASA Skylab space station, which re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere and burned up over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on 11 July 1979.
On 4 November 2007, Lynne was awarded a BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc) Million - Air certificate for "Do n't Bring Me Down '' for the song having reached two million airplays.
A common mondegreen in the song is the perception that, following the title line, Lynne shouts "Bruce! ''. In the liner notes of the ELO compilation Flashback and elsewhere, Lynne has explained that he is singing a made - up word, "Grooss, '' which some have suggested sounds like the German expression "Gruß. '' After the song 's release, so many people had misinterpreted the word as "Bruce '' that Lynne actually began to sing the word as "Bruce '' for fun at live shows.
A music video for the song was produced, which showed video of the band performing the song interspersed with various animations relating to the song 's subject matter, including big - bottomed majorettes and a pulsating neon frankfurter. The band 's three resident string players are depicted playing keyboards in the music video.
Jeff Lynne re-recorded the song in his own home studio. It was released in a compilation album with other re-recorded ELO songs and under the ELO name called Mr. Blue Sky: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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in which two european countries is just 13 of the population under the age of 15 | European countries by percent of Population aged 0 - 14 - wikipedia
The map data are for the year 2014 from the World Bank. Numbers are in percentage.
The table data are for the year 2014 from the World Bank. Numbers are in percentage.
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who was the first hero of the philippines | Lapu - Lapu - wikipedia
Lapu - Lapu (Baybayin: ᜎᜉᜓᜎᜉᜓ, Abecedario: Lápú - Lápú) (fl. 1521) was a ruler of Mactan in the Visayas. Modern Philippine society regards him as the first Filipino hero because he was the first native to resist Imperial Spanish colonization. He is best known for the Battle of Mactan that happened at dawn on April 27, 1521, where he and his soldiers defeated Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. The battle ended up in the killing of Magellan and the end of his expedition and it delayed the Spanish occupation of the islands by over forty years until the expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi in 1564. Monuments to Lapu - Lapu have been built in Cebu and Manila, while the Philippine National Police and the Bureau of Fire Protection use his image as part of their official seals.
Besides being a rival of Rajah Humabon of neighbouring Cebu, very little is known about the life of Lapu - Lapu. The only existing documents about his life are those written by Antonio Pigafetta. His name, origins, religion and fate are still a matter of controversy.
Lapu - Lapu is also known under the names Çilapulapu, Si Lapulapu, Salip Pulaka, Cali Pulaco, and Lapulapu Dimantag.
The historical name of Lapu - Lapu is debated. The earliest record of his name comes from Italian diarist Antonio Pigafetta who accompanied Magellan 's expedition. Pigafetta notes the names of two chiefs of the island of "Matan '', the chiefs "Zula '' and "Çilapulapu '' (note Ç). The honorific Çi or Si is a corruption of the Sanskrit title Sri. In an annotation of the 1890 edition of Antonio de Morga 's Sucesos de las islas Filipinas, José Rizal spells this name as "Si Lapulapu ''. The Aginid chronicle calls him "Lapulapu Dimantag ''.
The title Salip (and its variants Sarripada, Sipad, Paduka, Seri Paduka, and Salipada, etc.) is frequently used as an honorific for Lapu - lapu and other Visayan datus. Despite common misconception, it is not derived from the Islamic title Khalīfah (Caliph). Like the cognate Si, it was derived from the Sanskrit title Sri Paduka, denoting "His Highness ''. The title is still used today in Malaysia as Seri Paduka.
The 17th century mestizo de sangley poet Carlos Calao mentions Lapu - Lapu under the name of "Cali Pulaco '' (perhaps a misreading of the Ç used in Pigafetta 's spelling) in his poem Que Dios le perdone (May God Forgive Him). The name, spelled "Kalipulako '', was later adopted as one of the pseudonyms of the Philippine hero, Mariano Ponce, during the Philippine Revolution. The 1898 Philippine Declaration of Independence of Cavite II el Viejo, also mentions Lapu - Lapu under the name "Rey Kalipulako de Manktan (sic) '' (King Kalipulako of Mactan).
There had been many folk accounts surrounding Lapu - Lapu 's origin. One oral tradition is that the Sugbuanons of Opong was once ruled by datu named Mangal and later succeeded by his son named Lapu - Lapu. Another is from oral chronicles from the reign of the last king of Cebu, Rajah Tupas (d. 1565). This was compiled and written in Baybayin in the book Aginid, Bayok sa Atong Tawarik ("Glide on, Odes to Our History '') in 1952 by Jovito Abellana. The chronicle records the founding of the Rajahnate of Cebu by a certain Sri Lumay (also known as Rajamuda Lumaya), who was a prince from the Hindu Chola dynasty of Sumatra. His sons, Sri Alho and Sri Ukob, ruled the neighboring communities of Sialo and Nahalin, respectively. The islands they were in were collectively known as Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya (literally "(the islands) of the lady ''). Sri Lumay was noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbo (literally "that of Sri Lumay 's great fire '') to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbo ("conflagration '').
Upon his death in a battle against the raiders, Sri Lumay was succeeded by his youngest son, Sri Bantug, who ruled from the region of Singhapala (literally "lion city ''), now Mabolo in modern Cebu City. Sri Bantug died of a disease during an epidemic and was succeeded by his son Rajah Humabon (also known as Sri Humabon or Rajah Humabara).
During Humabon 's reign, the region had become an important trading center. The harbors of Sugbo became known colloquially as sinibuayng hingpit ("the place for trading ''), shortened to sibu or sibo ("to trade ''), from which the modern name "Cebu '' originates.
According to the epic Aginid, this was the period in which Lapu - Lapu (as Lapulapu Dimantag) was first recorded as arriving from Borneo. He asked Humabon for a place to settle, and the king offered him the region of Mandawili (now Mandaue), including the island known as Opong (or Opon), hoping that Lapu - Lapu 's people would cultivate the land. They were successful in this, and the influx of farm produce from Mandawili enriched the trade port of Sugbo further.
The relationship between Lapu - Lapu and Humabon later deteriorated when Lapu - Lapu turned to piracy. He began raiding merchant ships passing the island of Opong, affecting trade in Sugbo. The island thus earned the name Mangatang ("those who lie in wait ''), later evolving to "Mactan ''.
Lapu - lapu was one of the two datus of Mactan before the Spanish arrived in the archipelago, the other being a certain Zula, both of whom belong to the Maginoo class. When Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines in the service of Spain, Zula was one of those who gave tribute to the Spanish king while Lapu - Lapu refused.
In the midnight of April 27, 1521, Magellan led a force of around sixty Spaniards and twenty to thirty war boats (karakoa) of Humabon 's warriors from Cebu. They arrived in Mactan three hours before dawn. However, because of the presence of rock outcroppings and coral reefs, Magellan 's ships could not land on the shores of Mactan. Their ships were forced to anchor "two crossbow flights '' away from the beach. According to Antonio Pigafetta, they faced around 1,500 warriors of Lapu - Lapu armed with iron swords, bows, lantakas, and "bamboo '' spears.
Magellan repeated his offer not to attack them if Lapu - Lapu swore fealty to Rajah Humabon, obeyed the Spanish king, and paid tribute, which Lapu - Lapu again rejected. At the taunting request of Lapu - Lapu, the battle did not begin until morning. Magellan, perhaps hoping to impress Humabon 's warriors with the superiority of European armor and weapons, told Humabon 's warriors to remain in their balangay. Magellan and forty - nine of the heavily armored Spaniards (armed with lances, swords, crossbows, and muskets) waded ashore to meet Lapu - Lapu 's forces. They set fire to a few houses on the shore in an attempt to scare them. Instead, Lapu - Lapu 's warriors became infuriated and charged. Two Spaniards were killed immediately in the fighting, and Magellan was wounded in the leg with a poisoned arrow, most likely a primitive punji stick. He ordered a retreat, which most of his men followed except for a few who remained to protect him. However, he was recognized as the captain by the natives, whereupon he became the focus of the attack. Outnumbered and encumbered by their armor, Magellan 's forces were quickly overwhelmed. Magellan and several of his men were killed, and the rest who did not drown in their superior armor escaped to the waiting ships.
The historian William Henry Scott believes that Lapu - Lapu 's hostility may have been the result of a mistaken assumption by Magellan. Magellan assumed that ancient Filipino society was structured in the same way as European society (i.e. with royalty ruling over a region). While this may have been true in the Islamic sultanates in Mindanao, the Visayan societies were structured along a loose federation of city - states (more accurately, a chiefdom). The most powerful datu in such a federation has limited power over other member datu, but no direct control over the subjects or lands of the other datu.
Thus Magellan believed that since Rajah Humabon was the "king '' of Cebu, he was the king of Mactan as well. But the island of Mactan, the dominion of Lapu - Lapu and Zula, was in a location that enabled them to intercept trade ships entering the harbor of Cebu, Humabon 's domain. Thus it was more likely that Lapu - Lapu was actually more powerful than Humabon, or at least was the undisputed ruler of Mactan. Humabon was married to Lapu - Lapu 's niece. When Magellan demanded that Lapu - Lapu submit as his "king '' Humabon had done, Lapu - Lapu purportedly replied that: "he was unwilling to come and do reverence to one whom he had been commanding for so long a time ''.
The Aginid chronicle also records that Humabon had actually purposefully goaded the Spaniards into fighting Lapu - Lapu, who was his enemy at that time. However, the men of Humabon who accompanied Magellan did not engage in battle with Lapu - Lapu, though they helped with recovering the wounded Spaniards. Humabon later poisoned and killed twenty - seven Spanish sailors during a feast. According to the Aginid, this was because they had started raping the local women. It was also possibly to aid Magellan 's Malay slave interpreter, Enrique of Malacca, in gaining his freedom. The Spanish were refusing to release him, even though Magellan explicitly willed that he be set free upon his death. A discourse by Giovanni Battista Ramusio also claims that Enrique warned the Chief of "Subuth '' that the Spaniards were plotting to capture the king and that this led to the murder of the Spaniards at the banquet. Enrique stayed in Cebu with Humabon while the Spanish escaped to Bohol.
The battle left the expedition with too few men to crew three ships, so they abandoned the "Concepción ''. The remaining ships -- "Trinidad '' and "Victoria '' -- sailed to the Spice Islands in present - day Indonesia. From there, the expedition split into two groups. The Trinidad, commanded by Gonzalo Gómez de Espinoza tried to sail eastward across the Pacific Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. Disease and shipwreck disrupted Espinoza 's voyage and most of the crew died. Survivors of the Trinidad returned to the Spice Islands, where the Portuguese imprisoned them. The Victoria continued sailing westward, commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano, and managed to return to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain in 1522. In 1529, Charles I of Spain relinquished all claim over the Spice Islands to Portugal in the treaty of Zaragoza. However, the treaty did not stop the colonization of the Philippine archipelago from New Spain.
According to Aginid, Lapu - Lapu and Humabon restored friendly relations after the Battle of Mactan. Lapu - Lapu later decided to return to Borneo with eleven of his children, three of his wives, and seventeen of his men. Nothing more is known of him after this.
After Magellan 's voyage, subsequent expeditions were dispatched to the islands. Five expeditions were sent: Loaisa (1525), Cabot (1526), Saavedra (1527), Villalobos (1542), and Legazpi (1564). The Legazpi expedition was the most successful, resulting in the colonization of the islands.
Lapu - Lapu 's religion and beliefs are another subject of debate. The inhabitants of the Sulu archipelago believe that Lapu - Lapu was a Muslim of the Tausūg or the Sama - Bajau people. Some also believe that Lapu - Lapu and Rajah Humabon were the founders of a Muslim Rajahnate of Cebu (as the "Sultanate of Cebu ''); or at least that Lapu - Lapu had founded a colony of the Sultanate of Sulu in Cebu Island, existing alongside the Rajahnate of Cebu with the consent of Humabon. However, archaeology disputes the claim as prominent Cebuano anthropologist Jose Eleazar Bersales noted on an excavation in southern Cebu that "Cebu was never Islamized. '' Further studies of the ancient tradition as discussed in the previous section, the Sugbuanon epic also suggests otherwise as records the founder of the Rajahnate of Cebu as Sri Lumay, who was the grandfather of Rajah Humabon, and a prince of the Indianized Chola dynasty.
Ultimately, it is undoubtedly suggested that the Cebuanos were predominantly animist (not unlike the Mindanao Lumad) or Indianized (like the contemporary Kingdom of Butuan) on the arrival of the Spanish.
A school of thought also suggests that Lapu - Lapu may have been from Borneo, according to one account, recorded in the Aginid as being an orang laut ("man of the sea '') and an outsider who settled in Cebu from "Borneo ''. The Oponganon - Cebuano oral tradition effectively disputed the claim saying his father was Datu Mangal, the ruler of Mactan before him indicated that Lapu - lapu a native of Opong.
The Visayans were noted for their widespread practice of tattooing; Spaniards referred to them as the Pintados. Pigafetta, who recorded Magellan 's encounter with the Cebuanos, explicitly described Rajah Humabon as tattooed. He also records the consumption of pork, dog meat, and palm wine (arak) by the Cebuanos, as well as the common custom of penile piercings (tugbuk or sakra). Tattooing, body modification, pork, dog meat, and alcohol are haram (forbidden) in Islam.
The supreme god of the religion of the Visayans, when explicitly recorded by contemporary historians, was identified as "Abba '' by Pigafetta and "Kan - Laon '' (also spelled "Laon '') by the Jesuit historian Pedro Chirino in 1604, comparable to the Tagalog "Bathala ''. There is no mention of Islam. This is in contrast to the other locations visited by the Magellan expedition where Pigafetta readily identifies the Muslims whom they encountered; he would call them Moros after the Muslim Moors of medieval Spain and northern Africa, to distinguish them from the polytheistic "heathens ''. In fact, during the mass baptism of the Cebuanos to Christianity, he clearly identifies them as "heathens, '' not Moros:
We set up the cross there for those people were heathen. Had they been Moros, we would have erected a column there as a token of greater hardness, for the Moros are much harder to convert than the heathen.
Indeed, the Visayans were noted for their resistance to conversion to Islam in the epic poem Diyandi of the Aginid chronicle. The name of the capital city of the island (Sugbo, "conflagration '' or "blaze '') was derived from the method of defense used by the natives against Moro raiders from Mindanao, which was to burn their settlements to the ground to prevent looting. They referred to the raiders as Magalos ("destroyers of peace ''). Furthermore, direct evidences such as accounts of Pigafetta and the native oral tradition did not indicate Lapu - lapu as a Muslim but a Visayan animist and a Sugbuanon native.
Lapu - Lapu is regarded, retroactively, as the first Filipino hero. The government erected a statue in his honor on Mactan Island and renamed the town of Opon in Cebu to Lapu - Lapu City. A large statue of him, donated by South Korea, stands in the middle of Agrifina Circle in Rizal Park in Manila, replacing a fountain and rollerskating rink. Lapu - Lapu appears on the official seal of the Philippine National Police. His face was used as the main design on the 1 - centavo coin that was circulated in the Philippines from 1967 to 1974.
According to local legend, Lapu - Lapu never died but was turned into stone, and has since then been guarding the seas of Mactan. Fishermen in the island city would throw coins at a stone shaped like a man as a way of asking for permission to fish in the monarch 's territory. Another urban legend concerns the statue of Lapu - Lapu erected at the center of the town plaza. The statue faced the old city hall, where mayors used to hold office; Lapu - Lapu was shown with a crossbow in the stance of shooting an enemy. Superstitious citizens proposed to replace this crossbow with a sword, after three consecutive mayors of the city each died of heart attack.
In the United States, a street in the South of Market neighborhood of San Francisco, California is named after Lapu - Lapu. That street and others in the immediate neighborhood were renamed by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors with names derived from historical Filipino heroes on August 31, 1979.
During the First Regular Season of the 14th Congress of the Philippines, Senator Richard Gordon introduced a bill proposing to declare April 27 as an official Philippine national holiday to be known as Adlaw ni Lapu - Lapu, (Cebuano, "Day of Lapu - Lapu '').
On April 27, 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte declared April 27 (the date when Battle of Mactan happened) as Lapu - Lapu Day for honoring as the first hero in the country who defeated foreign rule. Duterte also signed the creation of "Order of Lapu - Lapu '' earlier in April 7, to recognize the government workers and private citizens on supporting his advocacies.
Coordinates: 10 ° 18 ′ 39 '' N 124 ° 0 ′ 54.8 '' E / 10.31083 ° N 124.015222 ° E / 10.31083; 124.015222 The Lapu - Lapu shrine is a 20 metres (66 ft) bronze statue in Punta Engaño, Lapu - Lapu, Cebu, Philippines.
Mactan Shrine entrance
Plaque recounting the defense of Mactan
Plaque recounting Magellan 's death
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who is singing at the nba all star weekend | 2018 NBA All - Star Game - wikipedia
The 2018 NBA All - Star Game was the 67th edition of an exhibition basketball game that was played on February 18, 2018. It was held at Staples Center in Los Angeles, home of the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers. It was the sixth time that Los Angeles had hosted the All - Star Game and the first time since 2011. Team LeBron won against Team Stephen 148 - 145. The MVP of the game was LeBron James, scoring 29 points, 10 rebounds, 8 assists, winning his third NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player (MVP) award. The game was televised nationally by TNT for the 16th consecutive year.
On October 3, 2017, the NBA announced that the format would change from the traditional Eastern Conference versus Western Conference format, and would instead switch to a draft - style format, similar to the format used by the NHL All - Star Game from 2011 through 2015 and the NFL Pro Bowl from 2014 through 2016. The team captains were determined by the most votes received in their respective conference. Each team will pick a charity to play for, and the winning team will have money donated to their charity. The winning team will receive $100,000 for each player and the losing team $25,000 each.
The two teams were coached from their respected conference. Mike D'Antoni, coach of the Houston Rockets, was named as the head coach for Team Stephen. Dwane Casey, coach of the Toronto Raptors, was named as the head coach for Team LeBron.
The rosters for the All - Star Game were selected through a voting process. The starters were chosen by the fans, media, and current NBA players. Fans make up 50 % of the vote, and NBA players and media each comprise 25 % of the vote. The two guards and three frontcourt players who receive the highest cumulative vote totals are named the All - Star starters. NBA head coaches vote for the reserves for their respective conferences, none of which can be players on their own team. Each coach selects two guards, three frontcourt players and two wild cards, with each selected player ranked in order of preference within each category. If a multi-position player is to be selected, coaches are encouraged to vote for the player at the position that was "most advantageous for the All - Star team '', regardless of where the player was listed on the All - Star ballot or the position he was listed in box scores.
The All - Star Game starters were announced on January 18, 2018. Kyrie Irving of the Boston Celtics and DeMar DeRozan of the Toronto Raptors were named the backcourt starters in the East, earning their fifth and fourth all - star appearances, respectively. LeBron James was named a starter to his 14th career all - star game, breaking Dirk Nowitzki 's record for most selections among active players. Joining James in the East frontcourt was Joel Embiid of the Philadelphia 76ers, his first selection, and Giannis Antetokounmpo of the Milwaukee Bucks, his second selection.
Stephen Curry of the Golden State Warriors and James Harden of the Houston Rockets were named to the starting backcourt in the West, earning their fifth and sixth all - star appearances, respectively. In the frontcourt, Kevin Durant of the Golden State Warriors was named to his ninth career all - star game, along with DeMarcus Cousins and Anthony Davis of the New Orleans Pelicans, their fourth and fifth all - star selections, respectively.
The All - Star Game reserves were announced on January 23, 2018. The West reserves include Russell Westbrook of the Oklahoma City Thunder, his seventh selection, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green of the Golden State Warriors, their fourth and third all - star selections, respectively, LaMarcus Aldridge of the San Antonio Spurs, his sixth selection, Damian Lillard of the Portland Trailblazers, his third selection, and Karl - Anthony Towns and Jimmy Butler of the Minnesota Timberwolves, their first and fourth all - star selections, respectively.
The East reserves include Kyle Lowry of the Toronto Raptors, his fourth selection, Al Horford of the Boston Celtics, his fifth selection, John Wall and Bradley Beal of the Washington Wizards, their fifth and first all - star selections, respectively, Victor Oladipo of the Indiana Pacers, his first selection, Kevin Love of the Cleveland Cavaliers, his fifth selection, and Kristaps Porzingis of the New York Knicks, his first selection.
LeBron James and Stephen Curry were named as captains due to being the leading vote getter from the East and West, respectively. James had the first pick in the draft as the leading vote getter overall, while Curry has first choice of jersey color, due to the Western Conference having home team status for the game. The draft pool consisted of the eight other starters, with no regard to conference designation, and 14 reserves (seven from each conference), chosen by NBA head coaches. On January 25, 2018, LeBron James and Stephen Curry created their rosters via a draft, which would not be televised for various reasons. NBA Commissioner Adam Silver will select the replacement for any player unable to participate in the All - Star Game, choosing a player from the same conference as the player who is being replaced. Silver 's selection would join the team that drafted the replaced player. If a replaced player is a starter, the head coach of that team will choose a new starter from his cast of players instead.
^ INJ1 DeMarcus Cousins was unable to play due to an Achilles injury. ^ REP1 Paul George was selected as DeMarcus Cousins ' replacement. ^ INJ2 John Wall was unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 Andre Drummond was selected as John Wall 's replacement. ^ INJ3 Kevin Love was unable to participate due to a hand injury. ^ REP3 Goran Dragić was selected as Kevin Love 's replacement. ^ INJ4 Kristaps Porziņģis was unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP4 Kemba Walker was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement. ^ ST Russell Westbrook was selected to start in place of Cousins.
Fergie 's performance of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' prior to the game received heavy negative criticism and mockery online. The rendition -- described as "unusual '' and "bizarre '' -- was met with laughter from the arena crowd, and All - Star Draymond Green was shown chuckling on the television broadcast. The following day, Fergie said she "wanted to try something special for the NBA, '' but it "did n't strike the intended tone. ''
The 2018 NBA All - Star Celebrity Game presented by Ruffles will be played on Friday, February 16, 2018 at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Since the All - Star Weekend was held in Los Angeles, the competition would be represented by the two NBA teams in the city with the Los Angeles Lakers (Team Lakers) and the Los Angeles Clippers (Team Clippers) instead of the typical West Vs. East affair like in previous years.
^ INJ1 Malcolm Brogdon is unable to participate due to a leg injury. ^ REP1 Taurean Prince was selected as Malcolm Brogdon 's replacement. ^ INJ2 Lonzo Ball is unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 De'Aaron Fox was selected as Lonzo Ball 's replacement.
Team World won against Team USA 155 - 124.
^ OUT Donovan Mitchell was removed due to replacing Aaron Gordon in the Slam Dunk Contest. ^ ALT Buddy Hield was named as Donovan Mitchell 's replacement. ^ INJ Kristaps Porziņģis unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP Andre Drummond was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement.
^ INJ Aaron Gordon was unable to participate due to a hip injury. ^ REP Donovan Mitchell was named as Aaron Gordon 's replacement.
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where is the scottish league cup semi finals being played | 2018 -- 19 Scottish League Cup - wikipedia
The 2018 -- 19 Scottish League Cup (also known as the Betfred Cup for sponsorship reasons) is the 73rd season of Scotland 's second-most prestigious football knockout competition.
The format for the 2018 -- 19 competition is the same as the previous two seasons.
It began with eight groups of five teams which included all Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL) clubs, excluding those competing in Champions League and Europa League qualifiers, as well as the top teams from the 2017 -- 18 Highland Football League (Cove Rangers) and the 2017 -- 18 Lowland Football League (Spartans).
The competition began with eight groups of five teams. The four clubs competing in the UEFA Champions League (Celtic) and Europa League (Aberdeen, Hibernian and Rangers) qualifying rounds were given a bye through to the second round. The 40 teams competing in the group stage consisted of the other eight teams that competed in the 2017 -- 18 Scottish Premiership, and all of the teams that competed in the 2017 -- 18 Scottish Championship, 2017 -- 18 Scottish League One and 2017 -- 18 Scottish League Two, as well as the 2017 -- 18 Highland Football League and the 2017 -- 18 Lowland Football League champions.
The winners of each of the eight groups, as well as the four best runners - up progressed to the second round (last 16), which included the four UEFA qualifying clubs. At this stage, the competition reverted to the traditional knock - out format. The four group winners with the highest points total and the clubs entering at this stage were seeded, with the four group winners with the lowest points unseeded along with the four best runners - up.
In December 2015, the SPFL announced that alongside the new group stage format, a bonus point system would be introduced to provide greater excitement and increase the number of meaningful games at this stage. The traditional point system of awarding three points for a win and one point for a draw is used, however, for each group stage match that finishes in a draw, a penalty shoot - out takes place, with the winner being awarded a bonus point.
The group stage was made up of eight teams from the 2017 -- 18 Scottish Premiership, and all ten teams from each of the 2017 -- 18 Scottish Championship, 2017 -- 18 Scottish League One and 2017 -- 18 Scottish League Two, as well as the winners of the 2017 -- 18 Highland Football League and 2017 -- 18 Lowland Football League. The 40 teams were divided into two sections -- North and South -- with each section containing four top seeds, four second seeds and 12 unseeded teams. Each section was drawn into four groups with each group comprising one top seed, one second seed and three unseeded teams.
The draw for the group stages took place on 25 May 2018 and was broadcast live on BT Sport 2.
Aberdeen, Celtic, Hibernian and Rangers entered the competition at this stage, after receiving a bye for the group stage due to their participation in UEFA club competitions.
The draw for the second round took place at Tynecastle Park following the conclusion of the Heart of Midlothian - Inverness Caledonian Thistle match on 29 July 2018. The four UEFA - qualifying clubs and the four group winners with the best record were seeded for the draw.
Teams in Bold advanced to the quarter - finals.
The draw for the quarter - finals took place on 19 August 2018 following the conclusion of the Kilmarnock - Rangers match. The draw was unseeded.
Teams in Bold advanced to the semi-finals.
The draw for the semi-finals took place on 26 September 2018 following the conclusion of the final three quarter - final matches. The draw was unseeded.
The semi-finals were due to take place at Hampden Park on 27 and 28 October 2018, but due to Celtic and Rangers participating in the 2018 -- 19 UEFA Europa League group stage, the team who would play on the Saturday would have less than 48 hours rest before the match. As a result, the SPFL - who had previously committed to using Hampden as the venue for the League Cup semi-finals and final - consulted with the four clubs involved, competition broadcaster BT Sport and Police Scotland to find a solution which may have included playing one match at Murrayfield Stadium or a change in date.
The SPFL announced on 27 September 2018 that both matches will be played at Hampden Park on the Sunday (28 October), with first match starting at noon and the other being played in the evening. The following day, SPFL chief executive Neil Doncaster said the decision was "the best solution '' despite the "regrettable inconvenience '' to supporters. The SPFL are contractually obliged to use Hampden Park as the venue for the semi-finals of the League Cup when Rangers or Celtic are involved or an attendance of over 20,000 is expected.
Aberdeen and Heart of Midlothian both criticised the SPFL for the decision saying they were "appalled '' and "astonished ''. Aberdeen released a statement to confirm their "dismay '' that their match would kick - off at a "completely unacceptable '' time for their supporters. The first train leaving Aberdeen on 28 October 2018 would not arrive in Glasgow until 12: 14, 14 minutes after kick - off. Heart of Midlothian manager Craig Levein said that playing both semi-finals at Hampden on the same day is the "craziest thing '', "beyond belief '' and "madness '' and, in a statement released by the club, chairwoman Ann Budge said she had asked the SPFL if they could be released from their contract with Hampden Park Ltd as a result of the "very special circumstances '' and was then told a formal request by the SPFL had been unsuccessful.
On 2 October 2018, Police Scotland Assistant Chief Constable Bernard Higgins said that they were "aware of issues and concerns '' regarding the semi-final arrangements. As a result, the SPFL are reported to be considering moving the Heart of Midlothian - Celtic semi-final to Murrayfield Stadium pending a meeting with Police Scotland.
On 3 October 2018, the SPFL confirmed that venues and kick - off times had been switched to 13: 30 at Murrayfield and 16: 30 at Hampden.
The domestic broadcasting rights for the competition are held exclusively by BT Sport.
The following matches will be broadcast live on UK television:
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why did batman fight superman in dawn of justice | Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice - Wikipedia
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is a 2016 American superhero film featuring the DC Comics characters Batman and Superman. Directed by Zack Snyder, the film is the second installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), following 2013 's Man of Steel. It was written by Chris Terrio and David S. Goyer, and features an ensemble cast that includes Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Jesse Eisenberg, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Jeremy Irons, Holly Hunter, and Gal Gadot. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice is the first live - action film to feature Batman and Superman together, as well as the first live - action cinematic portrayal of Wonder Woman. In the film, criminal mastermind Lex Luthor (Eisenberg) manipulates Batman (Affleck) into a preemptive battle with Superman (Cavill), whom Luthor is obsessed with defeating.
The film was announced at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con after the release of Man of Steel. Snyder stated that the film would take inspiration from the Batman comic book series The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller, but clarified that it would follow an original premise. The incarnation of Batman in the film is different from the character 's previous portrayal in The Dark Knight Trilogy, serving as a cinematic reboot of the character. The film is also inspired by narrative elements from the "Death of Superman '' story arc. Pre-production began at East Los Angeles College in October 2013, with principal photography starting in May 2014 in Detroit. Additional filming also took place in Illinois and New Mexico, concluding that December.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, and was released in the United States on March 25, 2016 in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D, 4DX, premium large formats, and 70 mm prints by Warner Bros. Pictures. Following a strong debut that set new box office records, the film experienced a historic drop in its second weekend and never recovered. Despite turning a profit, it was deemed a box office disappointment and received generally unfavorable reviews from critics for its tone, screenplay, and pacing, though some praised its visual style and acting performances. An extended cut dubbed the "Ultimate Edition '', which features 31 minutes of additional footage, was released digitally on June 28, 2016, and on Blu - ray on July 19, 2016. A direct sequel, titled Justice League, was released in November 2017.
Eighteen months after the battle between Superman and General Zod in Metropolis, Superman has become a controversial figure. Billionaire Bruce Wayne, who has operated in Gotham City as the vigilante Batman for twenty years, sees Superman as an extraterrestrial threat to humanity. After learning of Batman 's form of justice, Clark Kent (Superman 's civilian identity) seeks to expose him via Daily Planet articles. Wayne learns that Russian weapon trafficker Anatoli Knyazev has been contacting LexCorp mogul Lex Luthor. Meanwhile, Luthor unsuccessfully tries to persuade Senator June Finch to allow him to import kryptonite retrieved from the Indian Ocean following Zod 's terraforming attempt, claiming he wants to maintain it as a "deterrent '' against future Kryptonian and metahuman threats. He instead makes alternative plans with Finch 's subordinate and gains access to Zod 's body and the Kryptonian scout ship.
Bruce attends a gala at LexCorp to steal encrypted data from the company 's mainframe, where he also encounters with Clark, but has it taken from him by an antiquities dealer named Diana Prince; she eventually returns it to Bruce when she is unable to access the information. While decrypting the drive, Bruce dreams of a post-apocalyptic world where he leads a group of rebels against an evil Superman. He is awakened from his dream by an unidentified person, appearing through a portal, who warns him of Lois Lane 's crucial role in the future, and urges him to find "the others '' before vanishing. Upon fully decrypting the drive, Wayne discovers Luthor 's files on several metahuman individuals across the globe. One of them is Prince herself, who is shown in a photo taken during World War I. Wayne admits to Alfred Pennyworth that he plans to steal the kryptonite to weaponize it, should it become necessary to fight Superman.
At a Congressional hearing, as Finch questions Superman on the validity of his actions, a bomb smuggled by Luthor goes off and kills everyone present but Superman. Believing he should have detected the bomb, and frustrated by his failure to save them, Superman goes into self - imposed exile. Batman breaks into LexCorp and steals the kryptonite, planning to use it to battle Superman by building a powered exoskeleton, creating a kryptonite grenade launcher, and a kryptonite - tipped spear. Meanwhile, Luthor enters the Kryptonian ship and accesses a vast technology database accumulated from over 100,000 worlds.
To bring Superman out of exile, Luthor kidnaps Lois and Martha Kent, Clark 's adoptive mother. He reveals to him that he manipulated Superman and Batman by fueling their distrust for each other. Luthor demands that Superman kill Batman in exchange for Martha 's life. Superman tries to explain the situation to Batman, but instead Batman attacks Superman and eventually subdues him. Before Batman can kill Superman with the spear, Superman urges Batman to "save Martha '', whose name is also shared with Bruce 's late mother and whose own father echoed a similar sentiment before dying. Realizing how far he has fallen and unwilling to let an innocent die, Batman rescues Martha, while Superman confronts Luthor on the scout ship.
Luthor executes his backup plan, unleashing a genetically engineered monster with DNA from both Zod 's body and his own blood. Diana Prince arrives unexpectedly; revealing her metahuman nature, she joins forces with Batman and Superman to eliminate the creature. When they are all outmatched, Superman realizes its vulnerability to kryptonite, and retrieves the spear to kill it. In the creature 's last moments, it fatally wounds Superman.
Luthor is arrested and Batman confronts him in prison, warning Luthor that he will always be watching him. Luthor gloats that Superman 's death has made the world vulnerable to powerful alien threats. A memorial is held for Superman in Metropolis. Clark is also declared dead, with various friends and family members including Bruce Wayne and Diana Prince attending his funeral in Smallville. Martha gives an envelope to Lois, which contains an engagement ring from Clark. After the funeral, Bruce expresses his regrets to Diana about how he failed Superman. He reveals to her that he plans to form a team of metahumans, starting with those from Luthor 's files, to help protect the world in Superman 's absence. After they leave, the dirt atop Clark 's coffin levitates.
Additonally, Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Lauren Cohan portray Thomas and Martha Wayne, Bruce Wayne 's deceased parents, Patrick Wilson portrays the President of the United States in a voice role, and Michael Cassidy portrays Jimmy Olsen, a CIA agent. Reprising their roles from Man of Steel are Harry Lennix as Secretary Calvin Swanwick, Christina Wren as Major Carrie Farris, Kevin Costner as Jonathan Kent, Rebecca Buller as Jenny Jurwich, Chad Krowchuk as Glen Woodburn, and Carla Gugino as the Kryptonian A.I. Kelor. The corpse of General Zod also appears in the film in a crucial role; however, Michael Shannon did not film any scenes for the film and the corpse was created using the physique of fitness model Greg Plitt and a head - shot of Shannon. Mark Edward Taylor portrays Jack O'Dwyer, an executive of Wayne Enterprises.
Ezra Miller, Jason Momoa, and Ray Fisher appear as Barry Allen / Flash, Arthur Curry / Aquaman, and Victor Stone / Cyborg respectively in brief appearances, which led to their inclusion in the Justice League film. Joe Morton appears in a role as Silas Stone, Victor 's father. U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy makes a cameo appearance as Senator Purrington, whilst U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow also makes a cameo as the Governor of New Jersey. Neil deGrasse Tyson, Soledad O'Brien, Anderson Cooper, Nancy Grace and Charlie Rose appear as themselves. Jena Malone was cast as S.T.A.R. Labs scientist Jenet Klyburn, but her scenes were cut from the theatrical release, along with Man of Steel characters Coburn Goss as Father Leone and Joseph Cranford as Pete Ross; they were restored for the Ultimate Edition home media release. Talk show host Jon Stewart has a cameo in the extended cut. To further establish the interconnection between the films of the shared universe, Chris Pine appears on Diana Prince 's photo as Steve Trevor, which he reprised in Wonder Woman.
-- Snyder, on how Batman came into the film
In June 2013, Warner Bros. announced that director Zack Snyder and screenwriter David S. Goyer would return for a Man of Steel sequel, with the studio considering the release for the film in 2015. The following month, Snyder confirmed at San Diego Comic - Con International that the sequel to Man of Steel would feature Superman and Batman meeting for the first time on film. Goyer and Snyder would co-write the story, with Goyer authoring the script, and Christopher Nolan involved in an advisory role as executive producer. According to Snyder, the film would take inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns.
In November 2013, Snyder clarified his film would not be based upon the aforementioned graphic novel. "If you were going to do that, you would need a different Superman. We 're bringing Batman into the universe that now this Superman lives in. '' Batman v Superman marks the first appearance of Wonder Woman in a live - action, theatrical film, which Warner Bros. had been developing as far back as 1996. In December 2013, Chris Terrio was hired to rewrite the script, due to Goyer 's commitments to other projects. Further commenting on the influences, Terrio revealed in an article published by the Wall Street Journal that the movie would draw inspiration from Nolan 's Batman trilogy, Italian semiotician Umberto Eco 's 1972 essay "The Myth of Superman '', and the W.H. Auden poem "Musée des Beaux Arts '' which contrasts the quotidian details of normal people 's lives with the epic struggles of mythological figures. According to him, "In superhero stories, Batman is Pluto, god of the underworld, and Superman is Apollo, god of the sky. That began to be really interesting to me -- that their conflict is not just due to manipulation, but their very existence. '' The Joker and the Riddler were supposed to appear in the film, but Snyder ultimately decided to cut them from the final script.
The film 's official title, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, was revealed in May 2014. Snyder stated that having the "v '' in the title instead of "vs. '' was a way "to keep it from being a straight ' versus ' movie, even in the most subtle way ''. Henry Cavill later stated, "I would n't call this a Superman sequel (...) This is Batman versus Superman. It 's a separate entity altogether. It 's introducing the Batman character and expanding upon the universe, which was kicked off by Man of Steel. '' Forbes noted that although the film originated as a sequel to Man of Steel, it was "revamped into a backdoor pilot for Justice League and / or an eventual stand - alone Batman movie. '' As part of a settlement with his heirs, this is the first Batman production that lists Bill Finger as a co-creator.
Henry Cavill, Amy Adams, Kevin Costner, Diane Lane, Laurence Fishburne, Harry Lennix and Christina Wren reprise their roles from Man of Steel. Joining the cast are Ben Affleck as Batman, Gal Gadot as Wonder Woman, Jesse Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth, Ray Fisher as Cyborg, Jason Momoa as Aquaman, and Tao Okamoto as Luthor 's assistant Mercy Graves. Scoot McNairy and Callan Mulvey were cast as Wallace Keefe and Anatoli Knyazev, while Jena Malone was cast as Jenet Klyburn, a character that was featured exclusively in the Ultimate Edition home media release.
Dawn of Justice is Affleck 's second film as a comic book superhero; he played Daredevil in the 2003 film of the same name, and was initially reluctant to accept playing Batman, citing that he "felt (he) did n't fit the traditional mold. But once Zack (Snyder) showed (him) the concept, and that it would be both different from the great movies that Chris (topher Nolan) and Christian (Bale) made, but still in keeping with tradition, (he) was excited. '' Affleck previously stated in 2006 that Daredevil had "inoculated (him) from ever playing another superhero ''.
Snyder cast an older Batman to be a layered juxtaposition against a younger Superman; while "bear (ing) the scars of a seasoned crime fighter, but retain (ing) the charm that the world sees in billionaire Bruce Wayne. '' Nolan was involved with the casting of Affleck and he was the first actor Snyder approached for the part. The director had also discussed the part with Josh Brolin. Bale admitted he wanted to play Batman again after The Dark Knight Rises, though he stated that his Batman does not belong in any other film and he was never approached by Warner Bros. to play the role again.
On casting Eisenberg as Lex Luthor, Snyder offered, "Having Jesse in the role allows us to explore that interesting dynamic, and also take the character in some new and unexpected directions ''. Bryan Cranston was considered for the role before Eisenberg was cast. Producer Charles Roven revealed that this incarnation of Wonder Woman would use the character 's origins from 2011 's The New 52 reboot of the DC continuity, wherein the character would be a demigoddess, and the daughter of Zeus. This deviates from the character 's original origins, where she was "a clay figure brought to life by the gods ''. Olga Kurylenko was considered for the role of Wonder Woman before Gadot was cast. Dawn of Justice is Ray Fisher 's feature film debut, and the first live - action film to feature Cyborg, whose role will become more significant in future DC Comics films. It is also the live - action theatrical debut of Aquaman.
The casting of Affleck, Gadot, and Eisenberg was criticized. Affleck 's casting caused significant backlash from comic book fans, with multiple online petitions demanding his removal from the role; unlike previous Batman actors, he was not considered intimidating enough for the role by the protesters. Conversely, PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III supported Affleck 's casting as Batman, stating, "Way back when the news was new I wrote a PopMatters article defending the choice of Ben Affleck as Batman. I 'll let that one speak for itself. '' Via social media, fans criticized Gadot 's small frame in contrast to Wonder Woman 's warrior - like build in the comics. Responding to this, Gadot stated that she had been participating in various training regimens to achieve a body that stays closer to the source material. Fans also criticized Eisenberg 's casting, feeling that the then - 30 - year - old was too young for the role, and not physically imposing enough. Upon the film 's release, both Affleck and Gadot received considerable praise for their performances, despite the overall negative reception of the film itself.
Michael Wilkinson reprised his duties as costume designer. He updated the Superman suit from Man of Steel so that it "feels fresh and right for this installment of Zack Snyder 's comic - book universe ''. The first Batsuit featured in the film is influenced by The Dark Knight Returns; unlike the suits seen in previous live - action Batman films, it is made of cloth instead of armor and is a cast of the physique of fitness model Rossano Rea. An image of the Wonder Woman costume was revealed at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con, in which the costume desaturates the red, blue, and gold colors that make up the costume of most versions of the character.
A second Batsuit was also unveiled at Comic - Con, and unlike the first, it is armored. Aquaman 's look in this film shows him "tattooed in Maori - like patterns '', and wearing a suit "decked out in shades of gold, black and silver armor ''. According to the Warner Bros. Studios lot, the next generation Batmobile combined inspiration from both the sleek, streamlined design of classic Batmobiles and the high - suspension, military build from the more recent Tumbler from The Dark Knight Trilogy. Designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos, the Batmobile is about 20 feet long and 12 feet wide. The glasses Cavill wears as Clark Kent are made by British spectacle designer Tom Davies.
In September 2013, Larry Fong joined the crew as cinematographer, having previously worked with Zack Snyder on 300, Watchmen, and Sucker Punch. Initial filming commenced on October 19, 2013, at East Los Angeles College, to shoot an American football game between Gotham City University and rival Metropolis State University. At the end of the month, construction began on the Kent farm seen in Man of Steel for the film. Principal photography involving the main cast of the film began on May 19, 2014, in Detroit, Michigan, with scenes featuring Gal Gadot as Diana Prince being filmed early on May 16. While filming in Michigan, the production spent a total of $199 million in the state. The scene of a state funeral at the Arlington National Cemetery, a tribute by the United States Army, was actually filmed in Michigan as well, using green screen.
Additional filming began in Chicago, Illinois in November 2014. Other locations included the Michigan Motion Picture Studios, the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum at Michigan State University, Yorkville, Illinois, and New Mexico. Sequences of the film, including a scene depicting the murder of Bruce Wayne 's parents, were filmed using IMAX cameras. The planned shoot in Morocco was shifted to New Mexico due to incidents related to the 2014 Ebola outbreak. Principal photography wrapped on December 5, 2014.
Hans Zimmer composed the film score, emphasizing a challenge not to reuse the themes he established with the Batman character from Christopher Nolan 's trilogy. Junkie XL, who provided additional music in Man of Steel, also returned for this film, helping to compose the theme for Batman. Originally, Zimmer enlisted Junkie XL to compose the Batman material, with Zimmer planning to focus solely on the Superman side of the score, but the final Batman theme was written by both composers as a collaboration. Zimmer noted that he had significant trouble in finding a new angle from which to tell the story and after the release of the film, Zimmer announced that he was retired from superhero films. The soundtrack album of the film was released on March 18, 2016 by WaterTower Music.
Songs featured in the film include: "Kang Ling (An Instrument Made From A Human Thigh Bone) '', a traditional song performed by the monks of the Dip Tse Chok Ling Monastery, Dharamshala; "Night and Day '' and "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye '' written by Cole Porter and performed by Richard Cheese; "Shostakovich: Waltz II (Jazz Suite No. 2) '' written by Dmitri Shostakovich performed by the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Riccardo Chailly; and "Amazing Grace '' arranged and performed by John Allan and again performed by the Canadian Scottish Regiment Pipes and Drums and the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.
An estimated $165 million marketing effort helped promote Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. At the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder introduced the film 's first footage intended to be exclusive to the event. A teaser trailer was scheduled to be screened in selected cinemas on April 20, 2015. However, on April 16, the trailer leaked online, and within a few hours Snyder officially released the trailer to Twitter. At the 2015 San Diego Comic - Con International, Snyder and the cast attended to present an initial trailer of the film. The trailer was, unlike the teaser, which received mixed response, positively received by attendees, who gave the trailer a standing ovation. Mark Hughes of Forbes said the trailers "both set the stage for a story about the world 's distrust and fear of Superman, Batman 's rage at Superman and intention to duke it out with the Man of Steel, and Wonder Woman 's participation in a big fight featuring the ' Trinity. ' ''
Warner Bros. Consumer Products partnered - up with "a powerhouse slate of global licensees for a broad, multi-category licensing and merchandising program '', including Mattel, Lego, Rubies, Funko, Thinkway Toys, Hot Toys, Junkfood, Bioworld, Pez, Seiko, Converse and among many other licensees to sell merchandise related to the film. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was also a licensee for the film, offering a special edition Jeep Renegade in exchange for a near - exclusive product placement deal; aside from Bruce Wayne 's Aston Martin, all vehicles in the film were either from Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep, Ram, or Iveco. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Cross Fire, an original companion novel tied to the film, telling a tie - in story set before the events of the movie, was published by Scholastic Corporation.
A five - issue comic - book prelude exploring what happened in the weeks and months leading up to the events of the film was released as a tie - in with Dr Pepper 's character - branded bottles. Also, there are a series of four minicomics found in Batman v Superman - branded General Mills cereals. Additionally, those who purchased Batman v Superman - themed Doritos Family Fun Mix at Walmart received the comic book prequel Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice -- Upstairs / Downstairs. Rocksteady Studios released a downloadable content for the video game Batman: Arkham Knight that featured the Batmobile and Batsuit from the film.
The third trailer debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on December 3, 2015. It received positive responses, with Scott Mendelson of Forbes calling the trailer a "Saturday morning cartoon nerd 's wildest dreams. '' Molly Driscoll of CS Monitor stated that it looks like the film "will continue the trend of adapting comic book stories as timely tales. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter noted that based on the trailer 's content, the film might be the anti-Civil War, referring to Marvel 's Captain America: Civil War as "Superman and Batman complete the comic book trope by overcoming their differences to fight a common foe, alongside a third hero, who saves them both -- that feels the most fresh, especially in light of the Civil War trailer. While that ended with a showdown between three heroes, this trailer moves beyond that to show three heroes standing united. '' However, it was criticized for revealing that, with Rob Tornoe of NewsWorks pointing out that this trailer was targeting the "broadest audience '' rather than just fans, as studios try to "maximize a film 's opening day box office. ''
Warner Bros. did not buy a Super Bowl 50 commercial; instead, they worked with Turkish Airlines to put together a pair of Batman v Superman - themed airline commercials. McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the spots "inform interested parties about the culture, geography and history of Batman and Superman 's individual stomping grounds, each one filled with Easter eggs for the comic book faithful and newcomer alike. '' Jesse Eisenberg 's part as Lex Luthor in these commercials was praised, as Dirk Libbey of CinemaBlend noted that "he matches up well with Bruce Wayne by playing the welcoming billionaire business man. It 's a far cry from the somewhat cartoonish villain we 've seen in the clips from the film. ''
The final trailer was released to the public on February 11, 2016, which was described as "intense '' by Kwame Opam of The Verge. Mendelson of Forbes felt that Warner Bros. "probably would n't have even dropped this one had the prior trailer back in December been received better. So now we have this fourth and final sell, and at least they are going out on a high note. '' Jonathon Dornbush of Entertainment Weekly said that the footage "works to establish Batman as his own independent crime fighting force, while also providing a deeper look at his existential struggle against Superman. ''
In February 2016, Warner Bros. and Doritos formed a partnership, creating a website offering fans the opportunity to enter codes found on Doritos purchases branded with the film 's logo, and enter to win movie tickets, tech toys, and a trip the premiere in New York City. Warner Bros also partnered with Omaze to give fans who donated a chance to win "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '', while benefiting three nonprofit organizations nominated by Ben Affleck, Henry Cavill and Jesse Eisenberg. "The Ultimate Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Experience '' offered a fan and their friend the chance to win tickets to the premiere of the film, as well as fly on a helicopter with Cavill or ride in the Batmobile with Affleck. Hendrick Motorsports drivers Jimmie Johnson and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. drove cars based on Superman and Batman respectively, at Auto Club Speedway on March 20, 2016. A tie - in endless runner video game to the film, entitled Batman vs Superman -- Who Will Win?, debuted March 16, 2016, released by Warner Bros. International Enterprises.
In November 2013, Warner Bros. announced that Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice would be released on July 17, 2015. In January 2014, however, the studio announced that it was delayed from its original release date of July 17, 2015, and moved to May 6, 2016, in order to give the filmmakers "time to realize fully their vision, given the complex visual nature of the story. '' The release date was moved once again in August 2014 from May 6, 2016, to March 25, 2016, with a Warner Bros. insider saying the studio was "not flinching '' in regards to the previous opening date being on the same day as Marvel Studios ' Captain America: Civil War, but instead stating that March 2016 was a "fantastic corridor '' for them. According to sources obtained by The Hollywood Reporter, Warner Bros. considered the possibility of having a 70mm release for the film, which was partially shot in the 65mm IMAX format.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice premiered at Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City on March 19, 2016, followed by a New York City premiere on March 20 at Radio City Music Hall. Following the 2016 Brussels bombings, Warner Bros. originally cancelled the red carpet of the London premiere, but decided to carry on with the premiere for the fans. The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on March 25 in 3D. It opened simultaneously in North America, China and Japan, the world 's three largest film markets, as well as additional international territories, with the exception of Poland, where theaters do not open on Good Friday. The film debuted simultaneously across 30,000 screens in nearly every major foreign territory across 61 markets, including China, with domestic open across roughly 4,242 locations of which 3,500 theaters (85 %) were in 3D, 390 IMAX screens, 470 PLF locations, 150 D - Box theaters and ten 70 mm prints.
The film grossed $166 million in the USA & Canada in its opening weekend, the eighth - biggest opening of all time, ahead of The Dark Knight Rises ' $160.9 million. The film had a worldwide opening of $422.5 million, which stands as the second - biggest for Warner Bros. and the fifth - biggest of all time at the time of its release. It became the fourth film to have a global opening above $400 million. It also had an IMAX worldwide opening weekend total of $36 million from 945 IMAX screens, the third - biggest ever, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($48 million) and Jurassic World ($44 million). However, both inside and outside of the United States, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a notable poor Friday - to - Sunday hold and set a new record for the worst Friday - to - Sunday drop for a superhero movie release in modern box office history with a 58 % decline, which was previously held by Fantastic Four.
In its second weekend, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice experienced a "historic '' box - office drop, with an 81.2 % decline on Friday that was "one of the biggest Friday - to - Friday drops any blockbuster has ever seen '', and an overall 68.4 % drop for the weekend despite not "facing any big competition at the box office '', making it the second largest decline for a marquee superhero title, behind only 2003 's Hulk. Brad Brevet, writing for Box Office Mojo, reported that "it appeared Batman v Superman was looking at a drop anywhere from 58 -- 68 % and it ended up settling in on the wrong side of those expectations. '' Scott Mendelson, writing for Forbes, said "Whether or not the movie is any good, and whether or not audiences respond to the picture, is best measured by the second and third weekends... Yes, we 're still talking about a $15.35 million second Friday and a $50 m+ second weekend, but in terms of legs, this film sadly does n't seem to have any. '' Continuing this trend, in its third weekend, the film dropped by 54.3 % in which Brad Brevet concluded in a follow - up for Box Office Mojo that "the legs on this one are proving quite short. ''
In the weeks leading up to the film 's release, advance ticket sales outpaced The Dark Knight Rises, The Avengers, and Furious 7. Worldwide, it was estimated to gross between $300 -- 340 million in over 35,000 screens in its opening weekend. It passed the $50 million mark in IMAX ticket sales on its second weekend, grossing a total of $53.4 million from 571 IMAX screens. Warner Bros. domestic distribution chief Jeff Goldstein described the film 's box office performance as a "fantastic result, by any measure. '' Box office analyst Jeff Bock said "Still, outside of Christopher Nolan 's two Dark Knight movies, and Tim Burton 's Batman films when you adjust for inflation, this is the highest - grossing property in DC 's bullpen thus far. It tops Man of Steel by more than $200 million, '' and that "overall, BvS successfully relaunched DC 's cinematic universe. The film needed to reach $800 million in revenue at the box office to "recoup its investment '' according to financial analysts. Despite surpassing this amount, it was considered "a disappointment '' for failing to reach $1 billion, This resulted in Warner Bros., in May 2016, creating DC Films, giving a dedicated executive team responsibility for films based on DC Comics, similar to the dedicated Marvel Comics focus of Marvel Studios within the larger Walt Disney Studios group. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice grossed $330.4 million in North America and $543.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $873.6 million, making it the seventh - highest - grossing film of 2016 behind Captain America: Civil War, Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, Finding Dory, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, and The Secret Life of Pets. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $105.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Following reports of pre-tickets sales in both the United States and Canada on February 29, many insiders and analysts predicted an opening weekend haul between $120 -- 140 million for Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, with projections as high as $185 million. However, Warner Bros. insiders were more conservative in their estimates projecting in the lower range of $110 million. According to Deadline Hollywood, an undisclosed rival studio box office analyst indicated that if the film is truly pacing in tandem with The Dark Knight Rises, then Dawn of Justice could possibly be looking at a $180 million+ debut. The film also became Fandango 's top pre-selling superhero film ever, beating The Dark Knight Rises and Avengers: Age of Ultron, representing 90 % of the site 's weekend 's ticket sales. A survey carried out showed that the introduction of Wonder Woman is a primary draw for moviegoers. It pre-sold around $20 -- 25 million worth of advance tickets. Dawn of Justice made $27.7 million in Thursday previews from around 3,800 theaters which is the biggest of 2016, the biggest Easter weekend preview, the second - biggest for a superhero film (behind The Dark Knight Rises), and the seventh - biggest of all time of which $3.0 million came from IMAX showings, also a new record for Easter weekend.
On its opening day, it earned $81.59 million from 4,242 theaters, including previews, marking the biggest pre-summer opening day of all time, the second - biggest superhero Friday opening and the fourth - biggest opening - day and fourth - biggest single - day gross, with $9 million coming from IMAX showings. Excluding the Thursday previews, it earned $53.89 million on Friday which is the fifth - biggest ever. It fell 37.8 % on Saturday, which is the second - worst superhero opening Friday - to - Saturday drop, only behind the 40 % drop of The Dark Knight Rises. In total, it earned $166 million for its debut weekend, setting records for the biggest March and pre-summer openings, the biggest Easter opening, the second - biggest opening for Warner Bros., the biggest for a DC Comics property, and the eighth - biggest opening of all time. (Some of these records have since been broken by Beauty and the Beast.) Conversely, the film holds the record for the worst superhero Friday - to - Sunday drop with a 58 % decline, eclipsing the previous 48 % decline record held by Fantastic Four in 2015. IMAX comprised 11 % or $18 million of the weekend 's gross from 388 theaters which is the fifth - biggest of all time (a record it shares with Age of Ultron) and 3D represented 40 % ($68 million) of the total ticket sales. RealD 3D comprised $47 million of the opening gross. Premium large formats generated $17.6 million (10 %), with $3.6 million of that coming from Cinemark XD auditoriums from 475 theaters.
Following its record breaking opening weekend, it posted the biggest March Monday with $15.05 million, a drop of 55 % from its Sunday gross. This broke The Hunger Games ' previous record of $10.8 million, and also the biggest March Tuesday with $12.2 million. It made $209 million in its first week full which stands at the eleventh - biggest opening week of all time and surpassed the lifetime total Batman Begins. Despite earning $15.35 million in its second Friday, the film dropped 81.2 % and broke the record for the biggest Friday - to - Friday drop for a comic book adaptation film, not including $27.7 million worth of previews which represented an even larger decline. It fell precipitously by 69.1 % in its second weekend, grossing $51.3 million from 4,256 theaters (an addition of 14 cinemas) due to poor reviews and mixed word of mouth, establishing itself an infamous record for the seventh steepest drop for a superhero / comic book adapted film and the steepest decline since the - 69 % posted by X-Men Origins: Wolverine in 2009, despite facing little to no competition or new wide - releases and having the added benefit of 30 % K -- 12 schools off, and 9 % of colleges on break, per ComScore. The steep drop also marks the fourth - biggest for a film that opened above $100 million (tied with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2). In its third weekend it was overtaken by the comedy The Boss after falling 54 % with $23.3 million.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice proved to be front - loaded, failing to generate significant revenue after its opening weekend / week release. It earned just 1.99 times ($330 million) its opening weekend numbers ($166 million), which is lower than Man of Steel 's 2.28 multiplier. Like other DC films, such as Watchmen, Green Lantern and Man of Steel, it opened to record breaking numbers but then dropped the following weekend onward due largely to bad critical reception and mixed word of mouth from audiences. It earned just 1.99 times its opening weekend, the worst (multiplier) for a film opening above $100 million. A similar result was followed by DC 's third superhero film, Suicide Squad released in August 2016, although Suicide Squad became less front loaded than Dawn of Justice.
Internationally, it was projected to open between $180 -- 200 million; however, Deadline.com pointed out that these figures were only early predictions pegged to the performance of similar films in their respective territories. It opened in ten countries on Wednesday, March 23, 2016, earning $7 million and debuting at No. 1 in all markets on approximately 5,900 screens. The following day, the film was released in 38 additional countries, earning $33.1 million on 19,700 screens for a two - day total of $44 million. On March 25, it opened in the remaining 17 countries delivering $67.2 million in revenue, for a three - day total of $115.3 million in 62 countries on more than 30,000 screens. Through Sunday, March 27, it earned an opening - weekend total of $256.5 million from 66 countries on over 40,000 screens, making it the biggest superhero opening weekend of all time, the biggest overall March opening, the second - biggest opening ever for Warner Bros., and the fifth - biggest international opening on record. The film 's accomplishements also included the second - biggest IMAX opening record of $18 million, behind only Jurassic World which tallied $23.5 million. 3D accounted 59 % or $149.86 million of the weekend gross led by China (98 %), Germany (88 %), Brazil (81 %), Russia (55 %), and France (51 %). As with North America, the film witnessed a steep decline in its second Friday internationally, falling 72 % to $19.2 million, with the biggest decline in the U.K. (77 %) and China (87 %). Its second weekend earnings fell 66 % overall to $85.25 million. Despite the decline, the film topped the box office for three consecutive weekends.
In Mexico, it had the biggest opening day for Warner Bros. and the second - biggest of all time with $5.8 million, including record - breaking midnight showings. It also scored the biggest opening day of all time in Brazil ($3.5 million) and the biggest opening day for a superhero film in Germany ($2.8 million). Elsewhere, it opened in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($9 million), Australia ($2.5 million), India ($2.54 million), Russia ($1.9 million), South Korea ($1.7 million), Japan ($1.2 million), the United Arab Emirates and Hong Kong ($1.1 million respectively). In China, it earned $21.22 million on its opening day, including around $1.34 million worth of previews, which is the biggest for Warner Bros. and the sixth - biggest Hollywood opening day of all time. However, other Chinese sources have the film open to around $20 million. In terms of opening weekends, the biggest openings were recorded in China ($57.2 million), the United Kingdom and Ireland ($20.7 million), Mexico ($18.2 million), Brazil ($12 million), South Korea ($10.2 million), Australia ($9.9 million), France ($8.6 million), Germany ($8.1 million), Russia ($7.7 million), India ($6.6 million), Spain ($6.1 million) and Japan ($4.5 million). It broke all - time opening record in Brazil and Warner Bros. opening records in Mexico, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it benefited from the long Easter weekend holiday and despite a distinctly mixed bag of reviews in the U.K. press, it posted an opening £ 14.62 million or $20.7 million from 612 theaters, a record for 2016 so far and for a superhero title on straight Friday to Sunday, but fell short of The Avengers and Avengers: Age of Ultron, when accounting for previews.
In Japan, it opened in third place, behind two local films, Assassination Classroom: Graduation and Doraemon: Nobita and the Birth of Japan 2016. In South Korea, it scored the biggest March opening after opening on a Tuesday and dominating 68.3 % of the market share with $10.2 million. In China, after scoring the biggest Hollywood opening Friday (behind Transformers: Age of Extinction), it earned an estimated $57.2 million from approximately 16,000 screens in its opening weekend, besting all other DC Comics adaption film just by its weekend haul except for Man of Steel and gave Warner Bros. its biggest three day opening there with $7 million coming from 557 IMAX screens. However, the opening figure fell below analysts projections of $70 -- 80 million. It held the top spot for its first seven days only, after which it faced stiff competitions from local productions, and fell dramatically from then onwards in accruing revenue. As a result, it fell to third place in its second weekend after falling enormously by 78 % to $12.7 million, a record for a superhero film.
It became the Warner Bros. ' highest - grossing film of all time in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. It also crossed $100 million Latin American markets, making it Warner Bros. ' second highest - grossing film there. In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America are China ($95 million), followed by the UK ($52.1 million), Mexico ($36 million) and Brazil ($35.5 million).
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice received generally unfavorable reviews from film critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 27 % based on 379 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice smothers a potentially powerful story -- and some of America 's most iconic superheroes -- in a grim whirlwind of effects - driven action. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average to critics ' reviews, gave the film an average score of 44 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale. It earned "B -- '' from men, "B '' from women, a "B '' from those under 25 and a "B -- '' from those over 25. According to comScore, 73 % of audiences graded the film "very good '' or "excellent '', with a 60 % definite recommend. BBC News reported that, "the film had been widely praised by fans after its first screening in New York ''.
Critics generally reacted more harshly to the film. Lindy West in The Guardian described it as "153 minutes of a grown man whacking two dolls together '', asking "(h) as the definition of ' movie ' changed from ' motion picture story that a human wrote on purpose ' to ' 700 only tangentially related 12 - second grey and red vignettes '? '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote: "The point of Batman v Superman is n't fun, and it is n't thinking, either. It 's obedience. The theology is invoked... to buttress a spectacle of power. And in that way the film serves as a metaphor for its own aspirations. The corporations that produce movies like this one, and the ambitious hacks who sign up to make them, have no evident motive beyond their own aggrandizement. '' Writing in The Telegraph, Robbie Collin called the film "humourless '' and "the most incoherent blockbuster in years ''. Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters said, "As you 're watching this movie, you might also contemplate your own part, in being swayed into consuming so much of what you 've consumed before. '' Adding, "Wonder Woman 's remains Batman v Superman 's most compelling story, precisely because it 's untold. '' Matt Patches of Thrillist wrote "what Batman v Superman can do, it does, at the cost of coherency and thrills. The movie is bat - shit crazy. A dour, disdainful demeanor, plus a gluttony of complex plot twists, dissipates most of the contact high. '' Michael Philips of Chicago Tribune wrote, "A near - total drag, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice plays like a loose, unofficial quarter - billion - dollar remake of The Odd Couple, in which Oscar and Felix are literally trying to kill each other. '' On his podcast Hollywood Babble - On, film director Kevin Smith, a long - time friend and collaborator of Affleck, praised Affleck 's performance but panned the film, commenting that it "did n't really have a heart '' and was "humorless '', arguing that "there seems to be a fundamental lack of understanding of what those characters are about. It 's almost like Zack Snyder did n't read a bunch of comics, he read one comic once, and it was Dark Knight Returns, and his favorite part was the last part where Batman and Superman fight. '' On a second viewing, however, Smith via his Instagram lightened his stance. Jeremy Irons expressed displeasure with the film, feeling it was "deservedly '' savaged by critics and calling the feature "very muddled '' while expressing hope that the forthcoming Justice League (2017) would be better due to its story being "... a lot smaller, it 's more linear ''.
Taking a softer tone, David Betancourt of The Washington Post and Scott Mendelson of Forbes praised the film 's visual spectacle and performances from Affleck and Gadot, though Mendelson also called the film "an utter mess of thinly sketched characters, haphazard plotting, surprisingly jumbled action ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "better than Man of Steel but below the high bar set by Nolan 's Dark Knight, '' adding that "Dawn of Justice is still a colossus, the stuff that DC Comics dreams are made of for that kid in all of us who yearns to see Batman and Superman suit up and go in for the kill. '' Jake Coyle of Associated Press wrote, "it hurtles not with the kinetic momentum of Mad Max: Fury Road nor the comparatively spry skip of a Marvel movie, but with an operatic grandeur it sometimes earns and often does n't. '' Mark Hughes of Forbes called it "the follow - up to The Dark Knight that many viewers and fans wanted or hoped for '', adding that it 's "visually stunning, with powerful emotional storytelling and awe - inspiring action spectacle. '' Andrew Barker of Variety said "as a pure visual spectacle... Batman V Superman ably blows the hinges off the multiplex doors. '' Charles Koplinski of the Illinois Times called it "a brooding, but most importantly intelligent take on the seminal figures of our 20th century pop culture mythology, a movie that at once pays tribute to these characters ' roots while offering up modern incarnations of them that ring true for our times. '' Nicolas Barber of the BBC called the film "a four - star epic '' praising Affleck 's performance as Batman and the visual grandeur of Fong 's cinematography. Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave an ambivalent review; he especially criticized the "very bad writing '', but conceded "there are a lot of moments... that work '' and praised Affleck and Gadot 's performances, calling Gadot as Wonder Woman the best thing in the film.
Multiple commentators criticized Eisenberg on the grounds that his interpretation of Lex Luthor hewed too close to character traits associated with another DC Comics villain, the Joker. Even before the film was released, Affleck compared Eisenberg 's performance to that of Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight. Once the film came out, critics lambasted Eisenberg 's take on Luthor. Sonny Bunch of The Washington Post lamented that "As the film progresses, Lex degenerates into a gibbering mad man, some strange mix of the Riddler and the Joker with a little bit of Mark Zuckerberg added for flair. '' Charlie Jane Anders of Gizmodo wrote that "Someone clearly told Jesse Eisenberg that this movie is the Dark Knight to Man of Steel 's Batman Begins, and he 's doing his damndest to give a Heath Ledger-esque performance... Watching the trailers, I had thought Eisenberg 's loopy acting might be this movie 's saving grace -- but a concentrated dose of his faux mania actually turns out to be the worst thing. '' Andy Scott of Grunge, in an article titled "How Jesse Eisenberg Ruined Batman v Superman, '' wrote that "Eisenberg 's speech patterns and mannerisms felt almost entirely lifted from Ledger 's iconic performance, to the point where he walked the dangerous grey line between respectful homage and downright thievery. '' Eisenberg responded to the critiques by saying he attempted to "make these people real and relatable and interesting and engaging, not just, you know, a surface bad person. ''
An extended cut of the film dubbed the Ultimate Edition was released on home media platforms, alongside the theatrical cut. This version received an R rating from the Motion Picture Association of America, for more violence than the PG - 13 rated theatrical cut, and is longer by 31 minutes. With the release of the Ultimate Edition, which was the director 's original version of the film before additional editing, critics noted that the film would have likely been better received with the additional footage. Ben Kendrick of ScreenRant stated that while it was more "intelligible '', character portrayal was not "fundamentally changed '' and "for viewers who did n't like Man of Steel or Batman v Superman for larger reasons, such as tone, approach, and the darker characterization of DC 's most iconic heroes, the Ultimate Edition is only a longer... version of a film that... is likely to remain divisive, even if the final product is a better film. '' Phil Owens of TheWrap called it an improvement upon the original cut, writing, "Lo and behold somehow Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice has become something that approaches a functional movie. In the process, it only makes the original cut even more inexplicable and terrible. ''
The film debuted in first place on the home video sales chart for the week ending July 24, 2016. As of November 25, 2017, it has made $21.2 million in DVD sales and $54.8 million in Blu - Ray sales, totaling nearly $76 million.
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when did martin luther king jr day became a holiday | Martin Luther King Jr. Day - wikipedia
Martin Luther King Jr. Day (officially Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr.) is an American federal holiday marking the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. It is observed on the third Monday of January each year, which is around King 's birthday, January 15. The holiday is similar to holidays set under the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. The earliest Monday for this holiday is January 15 and the latest is January 21.
King was the chief spokesperson for nonviolent activism in the Civil Rights Movement, which successfully protested racial discrimination in federal and state law. The campaign for a federal holiday in King 's honor began soon after his assassination in 1968. President Ronald Reagan signed the holiday into law in 1983, and it was first observed three years later. At first, some states resisted observing the holiday as such, giving it alternative names or combining it with other holidays. It was officially observed in all 50 states for the first time in 2000.
Campaigns
Death and memorial
The idea of Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a holiday was promoted by labor unions in contract negotiations. After King 's death, U.S. Representative John Conyers (a Democrat from Michigan) and U.S. Senator Edward Brooke (a Republican from Massachusetts) introduced a bill in Congress to make King 's birthday a national holiday. The bill first came to a vote in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1979. However, it fell five votes short of the number needed for passage. Two of the main arguments mentioned by opponents were that a paid holiday for federal employees would be too expensive, and that a holiday to honor a private citizen would be contrary to longstanding tradition (King had never held public office). Only two other figures have national holidays in the U.S. honoring them: George Washington and Christopher Columbus.
Soon after, the King Center turned to support from the corporate community and the general public. The success of this strategy was cemented when musician Stevie Wonder released the single "Happy Birthday '' to popularize the campaign in 1980 and hosted the Rally for Peace Press Conference in 1981. Six million signatures were collected for a petition to Congress to pass the law, termed by a 2006 article in The Nation as "the largest petition in favor of an issue in U.S. history. ''
Senators Jesse Helms and John Porter East (both North Carolina Republicans) led opposition to the holiday and questioned whether King was important enough to receive such an honor. Helms criticized King 's opposition to the Vietnam War and accused him of espousing "action - oriented Marxism ''. Helms led a filibuster against the bill and on October 3, 1983, submitted a 300 - page document to the Senate alleging that King had associations with communists. New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan declared the document a "packet of filth '', threw it on the Senate floor and stomped on it.
President Ronald Reagan originally opposed the holiday, citing cost concerns. When asked to comment on Helms ' accusations that King was a communist, the president said "We 'll know in thirty - five years, wo n't we? '', in reference to the eventual release of FBI surveillance tapes that had previously been sealed. But on November 2, 1983, Reagan signed a bill, proposed by Representative Katie Hall of Indiana, to create a federal holiday honoring King. The bill had passed the House of Representatives by a count of 338 to 90, a veto - proof margin. The holiday was observed for the first time on January 20, 1986.
The bill also established the Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Holiday Commission to oversee observance of the holiday, and Coretta Scott King, King 's wife, was made a member of this commission for life by President George H.W. Bush in May 1989.
Although the federal holiday honoring King was signed into law in 1983 and took effect three years later, not every U.S. state chose to observe the holiday at the state level until 1991, when the New Hampshire legislature created "Civil Rights Day '' and abolished "Fast Day ''. In 2000, Utah became the last state to have a holiday named after King when "Human Rights Day '' was officially changed to "Martin Luther King Jr. Day. ''
In 1986, Arizona Governor Bruce Babbitt, a Democrat, created a paid state MLK holiday in Arizona by executive order just before he left office, but in 1987, his Republican successor Evan Mecham, citing an attorney general 's opinion that Babbitt 's order was illegal, reversed Babbitt 's decision days after taking office. Later that year, Mecham proclaimed the third Sunday in January to be "Martin Luther King Jr. / Civil Rights Day '' in Arizona, albeit as an unpaid holiday. In 1990, Arizona voters were given the opportunity to vote on giving state employees a paid MLK holiday. That same year, the National Football League threatened to move Super Bowl XXVII, which was planned for Arizona in 1993, if the MLK holiday was voted down. In the November election, the voters were offered two King Day options: Proposition 301, which replaced Columbus Day on the list of paid state holidays, and Proposition 302, which merged Lincoln 's and Washington 's birthdays into one paid holiday to make room for MLK Day. Both measures failed to pass, with only 49 % of voters approving Prop 302, the more popular of the two options; although some who voted "no '' on 302 voted "yes '' on Prop 301. Consequently, the state lost the chance to host Super Bowl XXVII, which was subsequently held at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. In a 1992 referendum, the voters, this time given only one option for a paid King Day, approved state - level recognition of the holiday.
On May 2, 2000, South Carolina governor Jim Hodges signed a bill to make King 's birthday an official state holiday. South Carolina was the last state to recognize the day as a paid holiday for all state employees. Prior to this, employees could choose between celebrating Martin Luther King Jr. Day or one of three Confederate holidays.
While all states now observe the holiday, some did not name the day after King. For example, in New Hampshire, the holiday was known as "Civil Rights Day '' until 1999, when the State Legislature voted to change the name of the holiday to Martin Luther King Day.
Several additional states have chosen to combine commemorations of King 's birthday with other observances:
Overall, in 2007, 33 % of employers gave employees the day off, a 2 % increase over the previous year. There was little difference in observance by large and small employers: 33 % for firms with over 1,000 employees; and, 32 % for firms with under 1,000 employees. The observance is most popular among nonprofit organizations and least popular among factories and manufacturers. The reasons for this have varied, ranging from the recent addition of the holiday, to its occurrence just two weeks after the week between Christmas and New Year 's Day, when many businesses are closed for part or sometimes all of the week. Additionally, many schools and places of higher education are closed for classes; others remain open but may hold seminars or celebrations of King 's message. The observance of MLK Day has led to some colleges and universities extending their Christmas break to include the day as part of break. Some factories and manufacturers used MLK Day as a floating or movable holiday.
The national Martin Luther King Day of Service was started by former Pennsylvania U.S. Senator Harris Wofford and Atlanta Congressman John Lewis, who co-authored the King Holiday and Service Act. The federal legislation challenges Americans to transform the King Holiday into a day of citizen action volunteer service in honor of King. The federal legislation was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on August 23, 1994. Since 1996, Wofford 's former state office director, Todd Bernstein, has been directing the annual Greater Philadelphia King Day of Service, the largest event in the nation honoring King.
Several other universities and organizations around the U.S., such as Arizona State University, Greater DC Cares and City Year, participate in the Martin Luther King Jr. Day of Service. In honor of MLK, hundreds of Volunteer Centers, and volunteers across the country donate their time to make a difference on this day.
The only other official national day of service in the U.S., as designated by the government, is September 11 National Day of Service (9 / 11 Day).
One place outside the U.S. where Martin Luther King Jr. Day is observed with equal importance is in the Japanese city of Hiroshima under mayor Tadatoshi Akiba, who holds a special banquet at the mayor 's office as an act of unifying his city 's call for peace with King 's message of human rights.
The City of Toronto, in Ontario, Canada, is another city that has officially recognized Martin Luther King Jr. Day, although not as a paid holiday: all government services and businesses remain open.
In 1984, during a visit by the U.S. Sixth Fleet, Navy chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff conducted the first Israeli presidential ceremony in commemoration of Martin Luther King Jr. Day, held in the President 's Residence, Jerusalem. Aura Herzog, wife of Israel 's then - President Chaim Herzog, noted that she was especially proud to host this special event, because Israel had a national forest in honor of King, and that Israel and King shared the idea of "dreams ''. Resnicoff continued this theme in his remarks during the ceremony, quoting the verse from Genesis, spoken by the brothers of Joseph when they saw their brother approach, "Behold the dreamer comes; let us slay him and throw him into the pit, and see what becomes of his dreams. '' Resnicoff noted that, from time immemorial, there have been those who thought they could kill the dream by slaying the dreamer, but -- as the example of King 's life shows -- such people are always wrong.
Every year, since 1986, the Dr. Martin Luther King Tribute and Dinner is held in Wassenaar, The Netherlands. The Tribute includes young people and veterans of the Civil Rights Movement as well as music. it always ends with everyone holding hands in a circle and singing "We Shall Overcome. '' The Tribute is held on the last Sunday in January and bridges Dr. King 's birthday and Black History Month.
1985 -- 2100
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who is the youngest congressman in the us | List of youngest members of the United States Congress - wikipedia
The following are historical lists of the youngest members of the United States Congress, in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. These members would be the equivalent to the "Baby of the House '' in the parliaments of Commonwealth countries; the U.S. Congress does not confer a similar title upon its youngest members.
Minimum ages are written into Article One of the United States Constitution, which bars persons under the age of 25 from serving in the House and persons under the age of 30 from serving in the Senate. In the political culture of the United States, the U.S. House of Representatives is not an entry - level political position; most Members of Congress have experience in state and local politics prior to their election to the federal Congress in Washington, D.C.
In the 115th Congress, which began on January 3, 2017, the youngest member of the United States House of Representatives is Elise Stefanik (R - New York 21), who was born on (1984 - 07 - 02) July 2, 1984 (age 33) and first elected in 2014. She is the youngest woman ever elected to Congress, and replaces Patrick Murphy (D - Florida 18) who was the youngest member of the 113th Congress and subsequently the second - youngest member of the 114th.
The youngest U.S. senator is 40 - year - old Tom Cotton (R - Arkansas), who was elected in 2014. He replaces Chris Murphy (D - Connecticut) who was the youngest senator of the 113th Congress. The second youngest senator now is Cory Gardner (R - Colorado), at age 43, elected in 2014 like Sen. Cotton.
The average age of Senators is now higher than in the past. In the 19th century, several state legislatures elected Senators in their late twenties in violation of the Constitutional minimum age of 30; Henry Clay elected at age 29 are the most notable examples.
Sources: Congressional Biographical Directory and House Document No. 108 - 222, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress 1774 -- 2005
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what country in europe was divided along communist and capitalist lines | Iron Curtain - wikipedia
The Iron Curtain was the name for the boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1992. The term symbolizes the efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the West and its allied states. On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union, while on the west side were the countries that were allied to the United States or nominally neutral. Separate international economic and military alliances were developed on each side of the Iron Curtain:
Physically, the Iron Curtain took the form of border defences between the countries of Europe in the middle of the continent. The most notable border was marked by the Berlin Wall and its Checkpoint Charlie, which served as a symbol of the Curtain as a whole.
The events that demolished the Iron Curtain started in discontent in Poland, and continued in Hungary, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Romania. Romania became the only communist state in Europe to overthrow its government with violence.
The use of the term iron curtain as a metaphor for strict separation goes back at least as far as the early 19th century. It originally referred to fireproof curtains in theaters. Although its popularity as a Cold War symbol is attributed to its use in a speech Winston Churchill gave in 5 March 1946 in Fulton, Missouri, German Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels had already used the term in reference to the Soviet Union.
Various usages of the term "iron curtain '' (Russian: Железный занавес Zheleznyj zanaves; German: Eiserner Vorhang; Georgian: რკინის ფარდა Rkinis pharda; Czech and Slovak: Železná opona; Hungarian: Vasfüggöny; Romanian: Cortina de fier; Italian: Cortina di ferro; Serbian: Гвоздена завеса Gvozdena zavesa; Estonian: Raudne eesriie; Bulgarian: Желязна завеса Zhelyazna zavesä) pre-date Churchill 's use of the phrase. The concept goes back to the Babylonian Talmud of the 3rd to 5th centuries CE, where Tractate Sota 38b refers to a "mechitza shel barzel '', an iron barrier or divider: "אפילו מחיצה של ברזל אינה מפסקת בין ישראל לאביהם שבשמים '' (Even an iron barrier can not separate (the people of) Israel from their heavenly father).
The term "iron curtain '' has since been used metaphorically in two rather different senses -- firstly to denote the end of an era and secondly to denote a closed geopolitical border. The source of these metaphors can refer to either the safety curtain deployed in theatres (the first one was installed by the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1794) or to roller shutters used to secure commercial premises.
The first metaphorical usage of "iron curtain '', in the sense of an end of an era, perhaps should be attributed to British author Arthur Machen (1863 -- 1947), who used the term in his 1895 novel The Three Impostors: "... the door clanged behind me with the noise of thunder, and I felt that an iron curtain had fallen on the brief passage of my life ''. The English translation of a Russian text shown immediately below repeats the use of "clang '' with reference to an "iron curtain '', suggesting that the Russian writer, publishing 23 years after Machen, may have been familiar with the popular British author.
Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians used the term "Iron Curtain '' in the context of World War I to describe the political situation between Belgium and Germany in 1914.
The first recorded application of the term to Communist Russia, again in the sense of the end of an era, comes in Vasily Rozanov 's 1918 polemic The Apocalypse of Our Times, and it is possible that Churchill read it there following the publication of the book 's English translation in 1920. The passage runs:
With clanging, creaking, and squeaking, an iron curtain is lowering over Russian History. "The performance is over. '' The audience got up. "Time to put on your fur coats and go home. '' We looked around, but the fur coats and homes were missing.
(Incidentally, this same passage provides a definition of nihilism adopted by Raoul Vaneigem, Guy Debord and other Situationists as the intention of situationist intervention.)
The first English - language use of the term iron curtain applied to the border of communist Russia in the sense of "an impenetrable barrier '' was used in 1920 by Ethel Snowden, in her book Through Bolshevik Russia.
G.K. Chesterton used the phrase in a 1924 essay in The Illustrated London News. Chesterton, while defending Distributism, refers to "that iron curtain of industrialism that has cut us off not only from our neighbours ' condition, but even from our own past ''.
The term also appears in the 1933 satirical novel England, Their England; used there to describe the way an artillery barrage protected the infantry from an enemy assault: "... the western sky was a blaze of yellow flame. The iron curtain was down ''. Sebastian Haffner used the metaphor in his book Germany: Jekyll & Hyde, published in London in 1940, in introducing his discussion of the Nazi rise to power in Germany in 1933: "Back then to March 1933. How, a moment before the iron curtain was wrung down on it, did the German political stage appear? ''
All German theatres had to install an iron curtain (eiserner Vorhang) as an obligatory precaution to prevent the possibility of fire spreading from the stage to the rest of the theatre. Such fires were rather common because the decor often was very flammable. In case of fire, a metal wall would separate the stage from the theatre, secluding the flames to be extinguished by firefighters. Douglas Reed used this metaphor in his book Disgrace Abounding: "The bitter strife (in Yugoslavia between Serb unionists and Croat federalists) had only been hidden by the iron safety - curtain of the King 's dictatorship ''.
A May 1943 article in Signal, a Nazi illustrated propaganda periodical published in many languages, bore the title "Behind the Iron Curtain ''. It discussed "the iron curtain that more than ever before separates the world from the Soviet Union ''. The German Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels wrote in his weekly newspaper Das Reich that if the Nazis should lose the war a Soviet - formed "iron curtain '' would arise because of agreements made by Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at the Yalta Conference: "An iron curtain would fall over this enormous territory controlled by the Soviet Union, behind which nations would be slaughtered ''. The first recorded oral intentional mention of an Iron Curtain in the Soviet context occurred in a broadcast by Lutz von Krosigk to the German people on 2 May 1945: "In the East the iron curtain behind which, unseen by the eyes of the world, the work of destruction goes on, is moving steadily forward ''.
Churchill 's first recorded use of the term "iron curtain '' came in a 12 May 1945 telegram he sent to U.S. President Harry S. Truman regarding his concern about Soviet actions, stating "(a) n iron curtain is drawn down upon their front. We do not know what is going on behind ''. He was further concerned about "another immense flight of the German population westward as this enormous Muscovite advance towards the centre of Europe ''. Churchill concluded "then the curtain will descend again to a very large extent, if not entirely. Thus a broad land of many hundreds of miles of Russian - occupied territory will isolate us from Poland ''.
Churchill repeated the words in a further telegram to President Truman on 4 June 1945, in which he protested against such a U.S. retreat to what was earlier designated as, and ultimately became, the U.S. occupation zone, saying the military withdrawal would bring "Soviet power into the heart of Western Europe and the descent of an iron curtain between us and everything to the eastward ''. At the Potsdam Conference, Churchill complained to Stalin about an "iron fence '' coming down upon the British Mission in Bucharest.
The first American print reference to the "Iron Curtain '' occurred when C.L. Sulzberger of The New York Times first used it in a dispatch published on 23 July 1945. He had heard the term used by Vladko Maček, a Croatian politician, a Yugoslav opposition leader who had fled his homeland for Paris in May 1945. Maček told Sulzberger, "During the four years while I was interned by the Germans in Croatia I saw how the Partisans were lowering an iron curtain over Jugoslavia (Yugoslavia) so that nobody could know what went on behind it ''.
The term was first used in the British House of Commons by Churchill on 16 August 1945 when he stated "it is not impossible that tragedy on a prodigious scale is unfolding itself behind the iron curtain which at the moment divides Europe in twain ''.
Allen Dulles used the term in a speech on 3 December 1945, referring to only Germany, following his conclusion that "in general the Russians are acting little better than thugs '', had "wiped out all the liquid assets '', and refused to issue food cards to emigrating Germans, leaving them "often more dead than alive ''. Dulles concluded that "(a) n iron curtain has descended over the fate of these people and very likely conditions are truly terrible. The promises at Yalta to the contrary, probably 8 to 10 million people are being enslaved ''.
The antagonism between the Soviet Union and the West that came to be described as the "iron curtain '' had various origins.
During the summer of 1939, after conducting negotiations both with a British - French group and with Nazi Germany regarding potential military and political agreements, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the German -- Soviet Commercial Agreement (which provided for the trade of certain German military and civilian equipment in exchange for Soviet raw materials) and the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact (signed in late August 1939), named after the foreign secretaries of the two countries (Vyacheslav Molotov and Joachim von Ribbentrop), which included a secret agreement to split Poland and Eastern Europe between the two states.
The Soviets thereafter occupied Eastern Poland (September 1939), Latvia (June 1940), Lithuania (1940), northern Romania (Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, late June 1940), Estonia (1940) and eastern Finland (March 1940). From August 1939, relations between the West and the Soviets deteriorated further when the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany engaged in an extensive economic relationship by which the Soviet Union sent Germany vital oil, rubber, manganese and other materials in exchange for German weapons, manufacturing machinery and technology. Nazi -- Soviet trade ended in June 1941 when Germany broke the Pact and invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.
In the course of World War II, Stalin determined to acquire a buffer area against Germany, with pro-Soviet states on its border in an Eastern bloc. Stalin 's aims led to strained relations at the Yalta Conference (February 1945) and the subsequent Potsdam Conference (August 1945). People in the West expressed opposition to Soviet domination over the buffer states, and the fear grew that the Soviets were building an empire that might be a threat to them and their interests.
Nonetheless, at the Potsdam Conference, the Allies assigned parts of Poland, Finland, Romania, Germany, and the Balkans to Soviet control or influence. In return, Stalin promised the Western Allies that he would allow those territories the right to national self - determination. Despite Soviet cooperation during the war, these concessions left many in the West uneasy. In particular, Churchill feared that the United States might return to its pre-war isolationism, leaving the exhausted European states unable to resist Soviet demands. (President Franklin D. Roosevelt had announced at Yalta that after the defeat of Germany, U.S. forces would withdraw from Europe within two years.)
Winston Churchill 's "Sinews of Peace '' address of 5 March 1946, at Westminster College, used the term "iron curtain '' in the context of Soviet - dominated Eastern Europe:
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.
Much of the Western public still regarded the Soviet Union as a close ally in the context of the recent defeat of Nazi Germany and of Japan. Although not well received at the time, the phrase iron curtain gained popularity as a shorthand reference to the division of Europe as the Cold War strengthened. The Iron Curtain served to keep people in and information out, and people throughout the West eventually came to accept and use the metaphor.
Churchill 's "Sinews of Peace '' address was to strongly criticise the Soviet Union 's exclusive and secretive tension policies along with the Eastern Europe 's state form, Police State (Polizeistaat). He expressed the Allied Nations ' distrust of the Soviet Union after the World War II. In September that year, US - Soviet Union cooperation collapsed due to the US disavowal of the Soviet Union 's opinion on the German problem in the Stuttgart Council, and then followed the announcement by US President, Harry S. Truman, of a hard line anti-Soviet, anticommunist policy. After that the phrase became more widely used as anti-Soviet term in the West.
In addition, Churchill mentioned in his speech that regions under the Soviet Union 's control were expanding their leverage and power without any restriction. He asserted that in order to put a brake on this ongoing phenomenon, the commanding force of and strong unity between the UK and the US was necessary.
Stalin took note of Churchill 's speech and responded in Pravda soon afterward. He accused Churchill of warmongering, and defended Soviet "friendship '' with eastern European states as a necessary safeguard against another invasion. He further accused Churchill of hoping to install right - wing governments in eastern Europe with the goal of agitating those states against the Soviet Union. Andrei Zhdanov, Stalin 's chief propagandist, used the term against the West in an August 1946 speech:
Hard as bourgeois politicians and writers may strive to conceal the truth of the achievements of the Soviet order and Soviet culture, hard as they may strive to erect an iron curtain to keep the truth about the Soviet Union from penetrating abroad, hard as they may strive to belittle the genuine growth and scope of Soviet culture, all their efforts are foredoomed to failure.
While the Iron Curtain remained in place, much of Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe (except West Germany, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Austria) found themselves under the hegemony of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union annexed:
as Soviet Socialist Republics within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Germany effectively gave Moscow a free hand in much of these territories in the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, signed before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.
Other Soviet - annexed territories included:
Between 1945 and 1949 the Soviets converted the following areas into Soviet satellite states:
Soviet - installed governments ruled the Eastern Bloc countries, with the exception of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which retained its full independence.
The majority of European states to the east of the Iron Curtain developed their own international economic and military alliances, such as COMECON and the Warsaw Pact.
To the west of the Iron Curtain, the countries of Western Europe, Northern Europe and Southern Europe -- along with Austria, West Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland -- operated market economies. With the exception of a period of fascism in Spain (until 1975) and Portugal (until 1974) and a military dictatorship in Greece (1967 -- 1974), democratic governments ruled these countries.
Most of the states of Europe to the west of the Iron Curtain -- with the exception of neutral Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Sweden, Finland, Malta and Republic of Ireland -- allied themselves with the United States and Canada within NATO. Economically, the European Community and the European Free Trade Association represented Western counterparts to COMECON. Most of the nominally neutral states were economically closer to the United States than they were to the Warsaw Pact.
In January 1947 Harry Truman appointed General George Marshall as Secretary of State, scrapped Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) directive 1067 (which embodied the Morgenthau Plan) and supplanted it with JCS 1779, which decreed that an orderly and prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. '' Administration officials met with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and others to press for an economically self - sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets.
After five and a half weeks of negotiations, Molotov refused the demands and the talks were adjourned. Marshall was particularly discouraged after personally meeting with Stalin, who expressed little interest in a solution to German economic problems. The United States concluded that a solution could not wait any longer. In a 5 June 1947 speech, Marshall announced a comprehensive program of American assistance to all European countries wanting to participate, including the Soviet Union and those of Eastern Europe, called the Marshall Plan.
Stalin opposed the Marshall Plan. He had built up the Eastern Bloc protective belt of Soviet controlled nations on his Western border, and wanted to maintain this buffer zone of states combined with a weakened Germany under Soviet control. Fearing American political, cultural and economic penetration, Stalin eventually forbade Soviet Eastern bloc countries of the newly formed Cominform from accepting Marshall Plan aid. In Czechoslovakia, that required a Soviet - backed Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948, the brutality of which shocked Western powers more than any event so far and set in a motion a brief scare that war would occur and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the United States Congress.
Relations further deteriorated when, in January 1948, the U.S. State Department also published a collection of documents titled Nazi - Soviet Relations, 1939 -- 1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office, which contained documents recovered from the Foreign Office of Nazi Germany revealing Soviet conversations with Germany regarding the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact, including its secret protocol dividing eastern Europe, the 1939 German - Soviet Commercial Agreement, and discussions of the Soviet Union potentially becoming the fourth Axis Power. In response, one month later, the Soviet Union published Falsifiers of History, a Stalin - edited and partially re-written book attacking the West.
After the Marshall Plan, the introduction of a new currency to Western Germany to replace the debased Reichsmark and massive electoral losses for communist parties, in June 1948, the Soviet Union cut off surface road access to Berlin, initiating the Berlin Blockade, which cut off all non-Soviet food, water and other supplies for the citizens of the non-Soviet sectors of Berlin. Because Berlin was located within the Soviet - occupied zone of Germany, the only available methods of supplying the city were three limited air corridors. A massive aerial supply campaign was initiated by the United States, Britain, France and other countries, the success of which caused the Soviets to lift their blockade in May 1949.
One of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the western Allies would return all Soviet citizens who found themselves in their zones to the Soviet Union. This affected the liberated Soviet prisoners of war (branded as traitors), forced laborers, anti-Soviet collaborators with the Germans, and anti-communist refugees.
Migration from east to west of the Iron Curtain, except under limited circumstances, was effectively halted after 1950. Before 1950, over 15 million people (mainly ethnic Germans) emigrated from Soviet - occupied eastern European countries to the west in the five years immediately following World War II. However, restrictions implemented during the Cold War stopped most East - West migration, with only 13.3 million migrations westward between 1950 and 1990. More than 75 % of those emigrating from Eastern Bloc countries between 1950 and 1990 did so under bilateral agreements for "ethnic migration. ''
About 10 % were refugees permitted to emigrate under the Geneva Convention of 1951. Most Soviets allowed to leave during this time period were ethnic Jews permitted to emigrate to Israel after a series of embarrassing defections in 1970 caused the Soviets to open very limited ethnic emigrations. The fall of the Iron Curtain was accompanied by a massive rise in European East - West migration.
The Iron Curtain took physical shape in the form of border defenses between the countries of western and eastern Europe. These were some of the most heavily militarised areas in the world, particularly the so - called "inner German border '' -- commonly known as die Grenze in German -- between East and West Germany. The inner German border was marked in rural areas by double fences made of steel mesh (expanded metal) with sharp edges, while near urban areas a high concrete barrier similar to the Berlin Wall was built. The installation of the Wall in 1961 brought an end to a decade during which the divided capital of divided Germany was one of the easiest places to move west across the Iron Curtain.
The barrier was always a short distance inside East German territory to avoid any intrusion into Western territory. The actual borderline was marked by posts and signs and was overlooked by numerous watchtowers set behind the barrier. The strip of land on the West German side of the barrier -- between the actual borderline and the barrier -- was readily accessible but only at considerable personal risk, because it was patrolled by both East and West German border guards.
Several villages, many historic, were destroyed as they lay too close to the border, for example Erlebach. Shooting incidents were not uncommon, and a total of 28 East German border guards and several hundred civilians were killed between 1948 -- 1981 (some may have been victims of "friendly fire '' by their own side).
Elsewhere along the border between West and East, the defense works resembled those on the intra-German border. During the Cold War, the border zone in Hungary started 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the border. Citizens could only enter the area if they lived in the zone or had a passport valid for traveling out. Traffic control points and patrols enforced this regulation.
Those who lived within the 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) border - zone needed special permission to enter the area within 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) of the border. The area was very difficult to approach and heavily fortified. In the 1950s and 1960s, a double barbed - wire fence was installed 50 metres (160 ft) from the border. The space between the two fences were laden with land mines. The minefield was later replaced with an electric signal fence (about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the border) and a barbed wire fence, along with guard towers and a sand strip to track border violations.
Regular patrols sought to prevent escape attempts. They included cars and mounted units. Guards and dog patrol units watched the border 24 / 7 and were authorised to use their weapons to stop escapees. The wire fence nearest the actual border was irregularly displaced from the actual border, which was marked only by stones. Anyone attempting to escape would have to cross up to 400 metres (1,300 ft) before they could cross the actual border. Several escape attempts failed when the escapees were stopped after crossing the outer fence.
In parts of Czechoslovakia, the border strip became hundreds of meters wide, and an area of increasing restrictions was defined as the border was approached. Only people with the appropriate government permissions were allowed to get close to the border.
The Soviet Union built a fence along the entire border to Norway and Finland. It is located one or a few kilometres from the border, and has automatic alarms detecting if someone climbs over it.
In Greece, a highly militarised area called the "Επιτηρούμενη Ζώνη '' ("Surveillance Area '') was created by the Greek Army along the Greek - Bulgarian border, subject to significant security - related regulations and restrictions. Inhabitants within this 25 km wide strip of land were forbidden to drive cars, own land bigger than 60 m and had to travel within the area with a special passport issued by Greek military authorities. Additionally, the Greek state used this area to encapsulate and monitor a non-Greek ethnic minority, the Pomaks, a Muslim and Bulgarian - speaking minority which was regarded as hostile to the interests of the Greek state during the Cold War because of its familiarity with their fellow Pomaks living on the other side of the Iron Curtain.
The Hungarian outer fence became the first part of the Iron Curtain to be dismantled. After the border fortifications were dismantled, a section was rebuilt for a formal ceremony. On 27 June 1989, the foreign ministers of Austria and Hungary, Alois Mock and Gyula Horn, ceremonially cut through the border defences separating their countries.
The creation of these highly militarised no - man 's lands led to de facto nature reserves and created a wildlife corridor across Europe; this helped the spread of several species to new territories. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, several initiatives are pursuing the creation of a European Green Belt nature preserve area along the Iron Curtain 's former route. In fact, a long - distance cycling route along the length of the former border called the Iron Curtain Trail (ICT) exists as a project of the European Union and other associated nations. The trail is 6,800 km (4,200 mi) long and spans from Finland to Greece.
The term "Iron Curtain '' was only used for the fortified borders in Europe; it was not used for similar borders in Asia between communist and capitalist states (these were, for a time, dubbed the Bamboo Curtain). The border between North Korea and South Korea is very comparable to the former inner German border, particularly in its degree of militarisation, but it has never conventionally been considered part of any Iron Curtain.
Following a period of economic and political stagnation under Brezhnev and his immediate successors, the Soviet Union decreased its intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. Mikhail Gorbachev (General Secretary from 1985) decreased adherence to the Brezhnev Doctrine, which held that if socialism were threatened in any state then other socialist governments had an obligation to intervene to preserve it, in favor of the "Sinatra Doctrine ''. He also initiated the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (economic restructuring). A wave of Revolutions occurred throughout the Eastern Bloc in 1989.
In April 1989 the People 's Republic of Poland legalised the Solidarity organisation, which captured 99 % of available parliamentary seats in June. These elections, in which anti-communist candidates won a striking victory, inaugurated a series of peaceful anti-communist revolutions in Central and Eastern Europe that eventually culminated in the fall of communism.
On 19 August 1989, more than 600 East Germans attending the "Pan-European Picnic '' on the Hungarian border broke through the Iron Curtain and fled into Austria. Hungarian border guards had threatened to shoot anyone crossing the border, but when the time came, they did not intervene and allowed the people to cross. In a historic session from 16 to 20 October, the Hungarian parliament adopted legislation providing for multi-party parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election.
The legislation transformed Hungary from a People 's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of government. In November 1989, following mass protests in East Germany and the relaxing of border restrictions in Czechoslovakia, tens of thousands of East Berliners flooded checkpoints along the Berlin Wall, crossing into West Berlin.
In the People 's Republic of Bulgaria, the day after the mass crossings across the Berlin Wall, leader Todor Zhivkov was ousted. In the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, following protests of an estimated half - million Czechoslovaks, the government permitted travel to the west and abolished provisions guaranteeing the ruling Communist party its leading role, preceding the Velvet Revolution.
In the Socialist Republic of Romania, on 22 December 1989, the Romanian military sided with protesters and turned on Communist ruler Nicolae Ceauşescu, who was executed after a brief trial three days later. In the People 's Socialist Republic of Albania, a new package of regulations went into effect on 3 July 1990 entitling all Albanians over the age of 16 to own a passport for foreign travel. Meanwhile, hundreds of Albanian citizens gathered around foreign embassies to seek political asylum and flee the country.
The Berlin Wall officially remained guarded after 9 November 1989, although the inter-German border had become effectively meaningless. The official dismantling of the Wall by the East German military did not begin until June 1990. In July 1990, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all border - controls ceased and West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl convinced Gorbachev to drop Soviet objections to a reunited Germany within NATO in return for substantial German economic aid to the Soviet Union.
There is an Iron Curtain monument in the southern part of the Czech Republic at approximately 48 ° 52 ′ 32 '' N 15 ° 52 ′ 29 '' E / 48.8755 ° N 15.87477 ° E / 48.8755; 15.87477 (Iron Curtain monument). A few hundred meters of the original fence, and one of the guard towers, has remained installed. There are interpretive signs in Czech and English that explain the history and significance of the Iron Curtain. This is the only surviving part of the fence in the Czech Republic, though several guard towers and bunkers can still be seen. Some of these are part of the Communist Era defences, some are from the never - used Czechoslovak border fortifications in defence against Adolf Hitler, and some towers were, or have become, hunting platforms.
Another monument is located in Fertőrákos, Hungary, at the site of the Pan-European Picnic. On the eastern hill of the stone quarry stands a metal sculpture by Gabriela von Habsburg. It is a column made of metal and barbed wire with the date of the Pan-European Picnic and the names of participants. On the ribbon under the board is the Latin text: "In necessariis unitas -- in dubiis libertas -- in omnibus caritas. '' (Unity in unavoidable matters -- freedom in doubtful matters -- love in all things.) The memorial symbolises the iron curtain and recalls forever the memories of the border breakthrough in 1989.
Another monument is located in the village of Devín, now part of Bratislava, Slovakia, at the confluence of the Danube and Morava rivers. Another monument is located in Fertőrákos, Hungary, at the site of the Pan-European Picnic. On the eastern hill of the stone quarry stands a metal sculpture by Gabriela von Habsburg. It is a column made of metal and barbed wire with the date of the Pan-European Picnic and the names of participants. On the ribbon under the board is the Latin text: "In necessariis unitas -- in dubiis libertas -- in omnibus caritas. '' (Unity in unavoidable matters -- freedom in doubtful matters -- love in all things.) The memorial symbolises the iron curtain and recalls forever the memories of the border breakthrough in 1989.
There are several open air museums in parts of the former inner German border, as for example in Berlin and in Mödlareuth, a village that has been divided for several hundred years. The memory of the division is being kept alive in many other places along the Grenze.
Throughout the Cold War the term "curtain '' would become a common euphemism for boundaries -- physical or ideological -- between communist and capitalist states.
Post Cold War:
Geography:
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infection with the bacterium helicobacter pylori (h. pylori) | Helicobacter pylori - wikipedia
Helicobacter pylori, previously Campylobacter pylori, is a gram - negative, microaerophilic bacterium found usually in the stomach. It was identified in 1982 by Australian scientists Barry Marshall and Robin Warren, who found that it was present in a person with chronic gastritis and gastric ulcers, conditions not previously believed to have a microbial cause. It is also linked to the development of duodenal ulcers and stomach cancer. However, over 80 % of individuals infected with the bacterium are asymptomatic, and it may play an important role in the natural stomach ecology.
More than 50 % of the world 's population harbor H. pylori in their upper gastrointestinal tract. Infection is more common in developing countries than Western countries. H. pylori 's helical shape (from which the genus name derives) is thought to have evolved to penetrate the mucoid lining of the stomach.
Up to 85 % of people infected with H. pylori never experience symptoms or complications. Acute infection may appear as an acute gastritis with abdominal pain (stomach ache) or nausea. Where this develops into chronic gastritis, the symptoms, if present, are often those of non-ulcer dyspepsia: stomach pains, nausea, bloating, belching, and sometimes vomiting or black stool.
Individuals infected with H. pylori have a 10 to 20 % lifetime risk of developing peptic ulcers and a 1 to 2 % risk of acquiring stomach cancer. Inflammation of the pyloric antrum is more likely to lead to duodenal ulcers, while inflammation of the corpus (body of the stomach) is more likely to lead to gastric ulcers and gastric carcinoma. However, H. pylori possibly plays a role only in the first stage that leads to common chronic inflammation, but not in further stages leading to carcinogenesis. A meta - analysis conducted in 2009 concluded the eradication of H. pylori reduces gastric cancer risk in previously infected individuals, suggesting the continued presence of H. pylori constitutes a relative risk factor of 65 % for gastric cancers; in terms of absolute risk, the increase was from 1.1 % to 1.7 %.
H. pylori has been associated with colorectal polyps and colorectal cancer. It may also be associated with eye disease.
H. pylori is a helix - shaped (classified as a curved rod, not spirochaete) Gram - negative bacterium about 3 μm long with a diameter of about 0.5 μm. H. pylori can be demonstrated in tissue by Gram stain, Giemsa stain, haematoxylin -- eosin stain, Warthin -- Starry silver stain, acridine orange stain, and phase - contrast microscopy. It is capable of forming biofilms and can convert from spiral to a possibly viable but nonculturable coccoid form.
Motility. H. pylori has four to six flagella at the same spot; all gastric and enterohepatic Helicobacter species are highly motile owing to flagella. The characteristic sheathed flagellar filaments of Helicobacter are composed of two copolymerized flagellins, FlaA and FlaB.
H. pylori is microaerophilic -- that is, it requires oxygen, but at lower concentration than in the atmosphere. It contains a hydrogenase that can produce energy by oxidizing molecular hydrogen (H) made by intestinal bacteria. It produces oxidase, catalase, and urease.
Outer membrane. H. pylori possesses five major outer membrane protein families. The largest family includes known and putative adhesins. The other four families are porins, iron transporters, flagellum - associated proteins, and proteins of unknown function. Like other typical Gram - negative bacteria, the outer membrane of H. pylori consists of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The O antigen of LPS may be fucosylated and mimic Lewis blood group antigens found on the gastric epithelium. The outer membrane also contains cholesterol glucosides, which are present in few other bacteria.
H. pylori consists of a large diversity of strains, and hundreds of genomes have been completely sequenced. The genome of the strain "26695 '' consists of about 1.7 million base pairs, with some 1,576 genes. The pan-genome, that is a combined set of 30 sequenced strains, encodes 2,239 protein families (orthologous groups, OGs). Among them, 1248 OGs are conserved in all the 30 strains, and represent the universal core. The remaining 991 OGs correspond to the accessory genome in which 277 OGs are unique (i.e., OGs present in only one strain).
In 2010, Sharma et al. presented a comprehensive analysis of transcription at single - nucleotide resolution by differential RNA - seq that confirmed the known acid induction of major virulence loci, such as the urease (ure) operon or the cag pathogenicity island (see below). More importantly, this study identified a total of 1,907 transcriptional start sites, 337 primary operons, and 126 additional suboperons, and 66 mono cistrons. Until 2010, only about 55 transcriptional start sites (TSSs) were known in this species. Notably, 27 % of the primary TSSs are also antisense TSSs, indicating that -- similar to E. coli -- antisense transcription occurs across the entire H. pylori genome. At least one antisense TSS is associated with about 46 % of all open reading frames, including many housekeeping genes. Most (about 50 %) of the 5 ' UTRs are 20 -- 40 nucleotides (nt) in length and support the AAGGag motif located about 6 nt (median distance) upstream of start codons as the consensus Shine -- Dalgarno sequence in H. pylori.
Study of the H. pylori genome is centered on attempts to understand pathogenesis, the ability of this organism to cause disease. About 29 % of the loci have a colonization defect when mutated. Two of sequenced strains have an around 40 - kb - long Cag pathogenicity island (a common gene sequence believed responsible for pathogenesis) that contains over 40 genes. This pathogenicity island is usually absent from H. pylori strains isolated from humans who are carriers of H. pylori but remain asymptomatic.
The cagA gene codes for one of the major H. pylori virulence proteins. Bacterial strains with the cagA gene are associated with an ability to cause ulcers. The cagA gene codes for a relatively long (1186 - amino acid) protein. The cag pathogenicity island (PAI) has about 30 genes, part of which code for a complex type IV secretion system. The low GC - content of the cag PAI relative to the rest of the Helicobacter genome suggests the island was acquired by horizontal transfer from another bacterial species.
To avoid the acidic environment of the interior of the stomach (lumen), H. pylori uses its flagella to burrow into the mucus lining of the stomach to reach the epithelial cells underneath, where it is less acidic. H. pylori is able to sense the pH gradient in the mucus and move towards the less acidic region (chemotaxis). This also keeps the bacteria from being swept away into the lumen with the bacteria 's mucus environment, which is constantly moving from its site of creation at the epithelium to its dissolution at the lumen interface.
H. pylori is found in the mucus, on the inner surface of the epithelium, and occasionally inside the epithelial cells themselves. It adheres to the epithelial cells by producing adhesins, which bind to lipids and carbohydrates in the epithelial cell membrane. One such adhesin, BabA, binds to the Lewis b antigen displayed on the surface of stomach epithelial cells. Another such adhesin, SabA, binds to increased levels of sialyl - Lewis x antigen expressed on gastric mucosa.
In addition to using chemotaxis to avoid areas of low pH, H. pylori also neutralizes the acid in its environment by producing large amounts of urease, which breaks down the urea present in the stomach to carbon dioxide and ammonia. These react with the strong acids in the environment to produce a neutralized area around H. pylori. Urease knockout mutants are incapable of colonization. In fact, urease expression is not only required for establishing initial colonization but also for maintaining chronic infection.
H. pylori harms the stomach and duodenal linings by several mechanisms. The ammonia produced to regulate pH is toxic to epithelial cells, as are biochemicals produced by H. pylori such as proteases, vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) (this damages epithelial cells, disrupts tight junctions and causes apoptosis, and certain phospholipases. Cytotoxin associated gene CagA can also cause inflammation and is potentially a carcinogen.
Colonization of the stomach by H. pylori can result in chronic gastritis, an inflammation of the stomach lining, at the site of infection. Helicobacter cysteine - rich proteins (Hcp), particularly HcpA (hp0211), are known to trigger an immune response, causing inflammation. Chronic gastritis is likely to underlie H. pylori - related diseases.
Ulcers in the stomach and duodenum result when the consequences of inflammation allow stomach acid and the digestive enzyme pepsin to overwhelm the mechanisms that protect the stomach and duodenal mucous membranes. The location of colonization of H. pylori, which affects the location of the ulcer, depends on the acidity of the stomach. In people producing large amounts of acid, H. pylori colonizes near the pyloric antrum (exit to the duodenum) to avoid the acid - secreting parietal cells at the fundus (near the entrance to the stomach). In people producing normal or reduced amounts of acid, H. pylori can also colonize the rest of the stomach.
The inflammatory response caused by bacteria colonizing near the pyloric antrum induces G cells in the antrum to secrete the hormone gastrin, which travels through the bloodstream to parietal cells in the fundus. Gastrin stimulates the parietal cells to secrete more acid into the stomach lumen, and over time increases the number of parietal cells, as well. The increased acid load damages the duodenum, which may eventually result in ulcers forming in the duodenum.
When H. pylori colonizes other areas of the stomach, the inflammatory response can result in atrophy of the stomach lining and eventually ulcers in the stomach. This also may increase the risk of stomach cancer.
The pathogenicity of H. pylori may be increased by genes of the cag pathogenicity island; about 50 -- 70 % of H. pylori strains in Western countries carry it. Western people infected with strains carrying the cag PAI have a stronger inflammatory response in the stomach and are at a greater risk of developing peptic ulcers or stomach cancer than those infected with strains lacking the island. Following attachment of H. pylori to stomach epithelial cells, the type IV secretion system expressed by the cag PAI "injects '' the inflammation - inducing agent, peptidoglycan, from their own cell walls into the epithelial cells. The injected peptidoglycan is recognized by the cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptor (immune sensor) Nod1, which then stimulates expression of cytokines that promote inflammation.
The type - IV secretion apparatus also injects the cag PAI - encoded protein CagA into the stomach 's epithelial cells, where it disrupts the cytoskeleton, adherence to adjacent cells, intracellular signaling, cell polarity, and other cellular activities. Once inside the cell, the CagA protein is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues by a host cell membrane - associated tyrosine kinase (TK). CagA then allosterically activates protein tyrosine phosphatase / protooncogene Shp2. Pathogenic strains of H. pylori have been shown to activate the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a membrane protein with a TK domain. Activation of the EGFR by H. pylori is associated with altered signal transduction and gene expression in host epithelial cells that may contribute to pathogenesis. A C - terminal region of the CagA protein (amino acids 873 -- 1002) has also been suggested to be able to regulate host cell gene transcription, independent of protein tyrosine phosphorylation. A great deal of diversity exists between strains of H. pylori, and the strain that infects a person can predict the outcome.
Two related mechanisms by which H. pylori could promote cancer are under investigation. One mechanism involves the enhanced production of free radicals near H. pylori and an increased rate of host cell mutation. The other proposed mechanism has been called a "perigenetic pathway '', and involves enhancement of the transformed host cell phenotype by means of alterations in cell proteins, such as adhesion proteins. H. pylori has been proposed to induce inflammation and locally high levels of TNF - α and / or interleukin 6 (IL - 6). According to the proposed perigenetic mechanism, inflammation - associated signaling molecules, such as TNF - α, can alter gastric epithelial cell adhesion and lead to the dispersion and migration of mutated epithelial cells without the need for additional mutations in tumor suppressor genes, such as genes that code for cell adhesion proteins.
The strain of H. pylori a person is exposed to may influence the risk of developing gastric cancer. Strains of H. pylori that produce high levels of two proteins, vacuolating toxin A (VacA) and the cytotoxin - associated gene A (CagA), appear to cause greater tissue damage than those that produce lower levels or that lack those genes completely. These proteins are directly toxic to cells lining the stomach and signal strongly to the immune system that an invasion is under way. As a result of the bacterial presence, neutrophils and macrophages set up residence in the tissue to fight the bacteria assault.
The pathogenesis of H. pylori depends on its ability to survive in the harsh gastric environment characterized by acidity, peristalsis, and attack by phagocytes accompanied by release of reactive oxygen species. In particular, H. pylori elicits an oxidative stress response during host colonization. This oxidative stress response induces potentially lethal and mutagenic oxidative DNA adducts in the H. pylori genome.
Vulnerability to oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage occurs commonly in many studied bacterial pathogens, including Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Hemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, S. mutans, and H. pylori. For each of these pathogens, surviving the DNA damage induced by oxidative stress appears supported by transformation - mediated recombinational repair. Thus, transformation and recombinational repair appear to contribute to successful infection.
Transformation (the transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another through the intervening medium) appears to be part of an adaptation for DNA repair. H. pylori is naturally competent for transformation. While many organisms are competent only under certain environmental conditions, such as starvation, H. pylori is competent throughout logarithmic growth. All organisms encode genetic programs for response to stressful conditions including those that cause DNA damage. In H. pylori, homologous recombination is required for repairing DNA double - strand breaks (DSBs). The AddAB helicase - nuclease complex resects DSBs and loads RecA onto single - strand DNA (ssDNA), which then mediates strand exchange, leading to homologous recombination and repair. The requirement of RecA plus AddAB for efficient gastric colonization suggests, in the stomach, H. pylori is either exposed to double - strand DNA damage that must be repaired or requires some other recombination - mediated event. In particular, natural transformation is increased by DNA damage in H. pylori, and a connection exists between the DNA damage response and DNA uptake in H. pylori, suggesting natural competence contributes to persistence of H. pylori in its human host and explains the retention of competence in most clinical isolates.
RuvC protein is essential to the process of recombinational repair, since it resolves intermediates in this process termed Holliday junctions. H. pylori mutants that are defective in RuvC have increased sensitivity to DNA - damaging agents and to oxidative stress, exhibit reduced survival within macrophages, and are unable to establish successful infection in a mouse model. Similarly, RecN protein plays an important role in DSB repair in H. pylori. An H. pylori recN mutant displays an attenuated ability to colonize mouse stomachs, highlighting the importance of recombinational DNA repair in survival of H. pylori within its host.
Colonization with H. pylori is not a disease in and of itself, but a condition associated with a number of disorders of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Testing for H. pylori is recommended if peptic ulcer disease or low - grade gastric MALT lymphoma is present, after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer, first - degree relatives with gastric cancer, and in certain cases of dyspepsia, not routinely. Several ways of testing exist. One can test noninvasively for H. pylori infection with a blood antibody test, stool antigen test, or with the carbon urea breath test (in which the patient drinks C -- or C - labelled urea, which the bacterium metabolizes, producing labelled carbon dioxide that can be detected in the breath). Also, a urine ELISA test with a 96 % sensitivity and 79 % specificity is available. None of the test methods is completely failsafe. Even biopsy is dependent on the location of the biopsy. Blood antibody tests, for example, range from 76 % to 84 % sensitivity. Some drugs can affect H. pylori urease activity and give false negatives with the urea - based tests. The most accurate method for detecting H. pylori infection is with a histological examination from two sites after endoscopic biopsy, combined with either a rapid urease test or microbial culture.
H. pylori is a major cause of certain diseases of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Rising antibiotic resistance increases the need to search for new therapeutic strategies; this might include prevention in the form of vaccination. Much work has been done on developing viable vaccines aimed at providing an alternative strategy to control H. pylori infection and related diseases, including stomach cancer. Researchers are studying different adjuvants, antigens, and routes of immunization to ascertain the most appropriate system of immune protection; however, most of the research only recently moved from animal to human trials. An economic evaluation of the use of a potential H. pylori vaccine in babies found its introduction could, at least in the Netherlands, prove cost - effective for the prevention of peptic ulcer and stomach cancer. A similar approach has also been studied for the United States.
The presence of bacteria in the stomach may be beneficial, reducing the prevalence of asthma, rhinitis, dermatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and esophageal cancer by influencing systemic immune responses.
Recent evidence suggests that nonpathogenic strains of H. pylori may be beneficial, e.g., by normalizing stomach acid secretion, and may play a role in regulating appetite, since its presence in the stomach results in a persistent but reversible reduction in the level of ghrelin.
Once H. pylori is detected in a person with a peptic ulcer, the normal procedure is to eradicate it and allow the ulcer to heal. The standard first - line therapy is a one - week "triple therapy '' consisting of proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole and the antibiotics clarithromycin and amoxicillin. Variations of the triple therapy have been developed over the years, such as using a different proton pump inhibitor, as with pantoprazole or rabeprazole, or replacing amoxicillin with metronidazole for people who are allergic to penicillin. In areas with higher rates of clarithromycin resistance, other options are recommended. Such a therapy has revolutionized the treatment of peptic ulcers and has made a cure to the disease possible. Previously, the only option was symptom control using antacids, H - antagonists or proton pump inhibitors alone.
An increasing number of infected individuals are found to harbor antibiotic - resistant bacteria. This results in initial treatment failure and requires additional rounds of antibiotic therapy or alternative strategies, such as a quadruple therapy, which adds a bismuth colloid, such as bismuth subsalicylate. For the treatment of clarithromycin - resistant strains of H. pylori, the use of levofloxacin as part of the therapy has been suggested.
Ingesting lactic acid bacteria exerts a suppressive effect on H. pylori infection in both animals and humans, and supplementing with Lactobacillus - and Bifidobacterium - containing yogurt improved the rates of eradication of H. pylori in humans. Symbiotic butyrate - producing bacteria which are normally present in the intestine are sometimes used as probiotics to help suppress H. pylori infections as an adjunct to antibiotic therapy. Butyrate itself is an antimicrobial which destroys the cell envelope of H. pylori by inducing regulatory T cell expression (specifically, FOXP3) and synthesis of an antimicrobial peptide called LL - 37, which arises through its action as a histone deacetylase inhibitor.
The substance sulforaphane, which occurs in broccoli and cauliflower, has been proposed as a treatment. Periodontal therapy or scaling and root planing has also been suggested as an additional treatment.
H. pylori colonizes the stomach and induces chronic gastritis, a long - lasting inflammation of the stomach. The bacterium persists in the stomach for decades in most people. Most individuals infected by H. pylori never experience clinical symptoms, despite having chronic gastritis. About 10 -- 20 % of those colonized by H. pylori ultimately develop gastric and duodenal ulcers. H. pylori infection is also associated with a 1 -- 2 % lifetime risk of stomach cancer and a less than 1 % risk of gastric MALT lymphoma.
In the absence of treatment, H. pylori infection -- once established in its gastric niche -- is widely believed to persist for life. In the elderly, however, infection likely can disappear as the stomach 's mucosa becomes increasingly atrophic and inhospitable to colonization. The proportion of acute infections that persist is not known, but several studies that followed the natural history in populations have reported apparent spontaneous elimination.
Mounting evidence suggests H. pylori has an important role in protection from some diseases. The incidence of acid reflux disease, Barrett 's esophagus, and esophageal cancer have been rising dramatically at the same time as H. pylori 's presence decreases. In 1996, Martin J. Blaser advanced the hypothesis that H. pylori has a beneficial effect: by regulating the acidity of the stomach contents. The hypothesis is not universally accepted as several randomized controlled trials failed to demonstrate worsening of acid reflux disease symptoms following eradication of H. pylori. Nevertheless, Blaser has reasserted his view that H. pylori is a member of the normal flora of the stomach. He postulates that the changes in gastric physiology caused by the loss of H. pylori account for the recent increase in incidence of several diseases, including type 2 diabetes, obesity, and asthma. His group has recently shown that H. pylori colonization is associated with a lower incidence of childhood asthma.
At least half the world 's population is infected by the bacterium, making it the most widespread infection in the world. Actual infection rates vary from nation to nation; the developing world has much higher infection rates than the West (Western Europe, North America, Australasia), where rates are estimated to be around 25 %.
The age when someone acquires this bacterium seems to influence the pathologic outcome of the infection. People infected at an early age are likely to develop more intense inflammation that may be followed by atrophic gastritis with a higher subsequent risk of gastric ulcer, gastric cancer, or both. Acquisition at an older age brings different gastric changes more likely to lead to duodenal ulcer. Infections are usually acquired in early childhood in all countries. However, the infection rate of children in developing nations is higher than in industrialized nations, probably due to poor sanitary conditions, perhaps combined with lower antibiotics usage for unrelated pathologies. In developed nations, it is currently uncommon to find infected children, but the percentage of infected people increases with age, with about 50 % infected for those over the age of 60 compared with around 10 % between 18 and 30 years. The higher prevalence among the elderly reflects higher infection rates in the past when the individuals were children rather than more recent infection at a later age of the individual. In the United States, prevalence appears higher in African - American and Hispanic populations, most likely due to socioeconomic factors. The lower rate of infection in the West is largely attributed to higher hygiene standards and widespread use of antibiotics. Despite high rates of infection in certain areas of the world, the overall frequency of H. pylori infection is declining. However, antibiotic resistance is appearing in H. pylori; many metronidazole - and clarithromycin - resistant strains are found in most parts of the world.
H. pylori is contagious, although the exact route of transmission is not known. Person - to - person transmission by either the oral -- oral or fecal -- oral route is most likely. Consistent with these transmission routes, the bacteria have been isolated from feces, saliva, and dental plaque of some infected people. Findings suggest H. pylori is more easily transmitted by gastric mucus than saliva. Transmission occurs mainly within families in developed nations, yet can also be acquired from the community in developing countries. H. pylori may also be transmitted orally by means of fecal matter through the ingestion of waste - tainted water, so a hygienic environment could help decrease the risk of H. pylori infection.
H. pylori migrated out of Africa along with its human host circa 60,000 years ago. Recent research states that genetic diversity in H. pylori, like that of its host, decreases with geographic distance from East Africa. Using the genetic diversity data, researchers have created simulations that indicate the bacteria seem to have spread from East Africa around 58,000 years ago. Their results indicate modern humans were already infected by H. pylori before their migrations out of Africa, and it has remained associated with human hosts since that time.
H. pylori was first discovered in the stomachs of patients with gastritis and ulcers in 1982 by Drs. Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Perth, Australia. At the time, the conventional thinking was that no bacterium could live in the acid environment of the human stomach. In recognition of their discovery, Marshall and Warren were awarded the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Before the research of Marshall and Warren, German scientists found spiral - shaped bacteria in the lining of the human stomach in 1875, but they were unable to culture them, and the results were eventually forgotten. The Italian researcher Giulio Bizzozero described similarly shaped bacteria living in the acidic environment of the stomach of dogs in 1893. Professor Walery Jaworski of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków investigated sediments of gastric washings obtained by lavage from humans in 1899. Among some rod - like bacteria, he also found bacteria with a characteristic spiral shape, which he called Vibrio rugula. He was the first to suggest a possible role of this organism in the pathogenesis of gastric diseases. His work was included in the Handbook of Gastric Diseases, but it had little impact, as it was written in Polish. Several small studies conducted in the early 20th century demonstrated the presence of curved rods in the stomachs of many people with peptic ulcers and stomach cancers. Interest in the bacteria waned, however, when an American study published in 1954 failed to observe the bacteria in 1180 stomach biopsies.
Interest in understanding the role of bacteria in stomach diseases was rekindled in the 1970s, with the visualization of bacteria in the stomachs of people with gastric ulcers. The bacteria had also been observed in 1979, by Robin Warren, who researched it further with Barry Marshall from 1981. After unsuccessful attempts at culturing the bacteria from the stomach, they finally succeeded in visualizing colonies in 1982, when they unintentionally left their Petri dishes incubating for five days over the Easter weekend. In their original paper, Warren and Marshall contended that most stomach ulcers and gastritis were caused by bacterial infection and not by stress or spicy food, as had been assumed before.
Some skepticism was expressed initially, but within a few years multiple research groups had verified the association of H. pylori with gastritis and, to a lesser extent, ulcers. To demonstrate H. pylori caused gastritis and was not merely a bystander, Marshall drank a beaker of H. pylori culture. He became ill with nausea and vomiting several days later. An endoscopy 10 days after inoculation revealed signs of gastritis and the presence of H. pylori. These results suggested H. pylori was the causative agent. Marshall and Warren went on to demonstrate antibiotics are effective in the treatment of many cases of gastritis. In 1987, the Sydney gastroenterologist Thomas Borody invented the first triple therapy for the treatment of duodenal ulcers. In 1994, the National Institutes of Health stated most recurrent duodenal and gastric ulcers were caused by H. pylori, and recommended antibiotics be included in the treatment regimen.
The bacterium was initially named Campylobacter pyloridis, then renamed C. pylori in 1987 (pylori being the genitive of pylorus, the circular opening leading from the stomach into the duodenum, from the Ancient Greek word πυλωρός, which means gatekeeper.). When 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and other research showed in 1989 that the bacterium did not belong in the genus Campylobacter, it was placed in its own genus, Helicobacter from the ancient Greek hělix / έλιξ "spiral '' or "coil ''.
In October 1987, a group of experts met in Copenhagen to found the European Helicobacter Study Group (EHSG), an international multidisciplinary research group and the only institution focused on H. pylori. The Group is involved with the Annual International Workshop on Helicobacter and Related Bacteria, the Maastricht Consensus Reports (European Consensus on the management of H. pylori), and other educational and research projects, including two international long - term projects:
Results from in vitro studies suggest that fatty acids, mainly polyunsaturated fatty acids, have a bactericidal effect against H. pylori, but their in vivo effects have not been proven.
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where does chyme go after it leaves the stomach | Chyme - wikipedia
Chyme or chymus (/ kaɪm /; from Greek χυμός khymos, "juice '') is the semi-fluid mass of partly digested food that is expelled by the stomach, through the pyloric valve, into the duodenum (the beginning of the small intestine).
Chyme results from the mechanical and chemical breakdown of a bolus and consists of partially digested food, water, hydrochloric acid, and various digestive enzymes. Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme in anywhere between 40 minutes to a few hours.
With a pH of approximately 2, chyme emerging from the stomach is very acidic. The duodenum secretes a hormone, cholecystokinin (CCK), which causes the gall bladder to contract, releasing alkaline bile into the duodenum. CCK also causes the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas. The duodenum is a short section of the small intestine located between the stomach and the rest of the small intestine. The duodenum also produces the hormone secretin to stimulate the pancreatic secretion of large amounts of sodium bicarbonate, which then raises pH of the chyme to 7. The chyme then enters the jejunum, where the useful portion of it is transformed into chyle. (As the material moves through the jejunum and ileum, digestion progresses, and the nonuseful portion will continue onward into the large intestine.) The duodenum is protected by a thick layer of mucus and the neutralizing actions of the sodium bicarbonate and bile.
At a pH of 7, the enzymes that were present from the stomach are no longer active. This then leads into the further breakdown of the nutrients still present by anaerobic bacteria, which at the same time help to package the remains. These bacteria also help synthesize vitamin B and vitamin K, which will be absorbed along with other nutrients.
Chyme has a low pH that is countered by the production of bile, helping to further digest food. Chyme is part liquid and part solid: a thick semifluid mass of partially digested food and digestive secretions that is formed in the stomach and small intestine during digestion. Chyme also contains cells from the mouth and esophagus that slough off from the mechanical action of chewing and swallowing.
After hours of mechanical and chemical digestion, food has been reduced into chyme. As particles of food become small enough, they are passed out of the stomach at regular intervals into the small intestine, which stimulates the pancreas to release fluid containing a high concentration of bicarbonate. This fluid neutralizes the gastric juices, which can damage the lining of the intestine, resulting in duodenal ulcer. Other secretions from the pancreas, gallbladder, liver, and glands in the intestinal wall help in digestion.
When food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the large intestine. In the large intestine, bacteria break down proteins and starches in chyme that were not digested fully in the small intestine.
When all of the nutrients have been absorbed from chyme, the remaining waste material changes into semisolids that are called feces. The feces pass to the rectum, to be stored until ready to be discharged from the body during defecation.
The chyme of an unweaned calf is the defining ingredient of pajata, a traditional Roman recipe.
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when did 4th of july become a legal holiday | Independence Day (United States) - wikipedia
Independence Day, also referred to as the Fourth of July or July Fourth, is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Continental Congress declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. The Congress actually voted to declare independence two days earlier, on July 2.
Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, and political speeches and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States.
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the Thirteen Colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain rule. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:
The second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more.
Adams 's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much - publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.
Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.
Coincidentally, both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the only signers of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as Presidents of the United States, died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration. Although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4, 1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4, 1872; so far he is the only U.S. President to have been born on Independence Day.
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer - themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation 's heritage, laws, history, society, and people.
Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations (e.g., streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often held in the morning, before family get - togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares.
The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall, to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts (on Gallows Hill, the famous site of the execution of 13 women and 6 men for witchcraft in 1692 during the Salem witch trials), where the tradition of celebratory bonfires had persisted, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, and is still practiced in some New England towns.
Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem "The Star - Spangled Banner '', "God Bless America '', "America the Beautiful, '' "My Country, ' Tis of Thee, '' "This Land Is Your Land, '' "Stars and Stripes Forever, '' and, regionally, "Yankee Doodle '' in northeastern states and "Dixie '' in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812.
Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional weather conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place, if certain safety precautions have been taken.
A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union, '' is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.
In 2009, New York City had the largest fireworks display in the country, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded. It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Chicago on Lake Michigan; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in St. Louis on the Mississippi River; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.
During the annual Windsor - Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the world 's largest fireworks displays, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario 's celebration of Canada Day.
The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three - day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.
In addition to a fireworks show, Miami, Florida lights one of its tallest buildings with the patriotic red, white and blue color scheme on Independence Day
New York City 's fireworks display, shown above over the East Village, is sponsored by Macy 's and is the largest in the country
Patriotic trailer shown in theaters celebrating July 4, 1940
A festively decorated Independence day cake.
Lakes are a popular destination for Fourth of July celebrations in the midwest.
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence. July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. In Rwanda, July 4 is an official holiday known as Liberation Day, commemorating the end of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which the U.S. government also played a role. Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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how many number 1s did michael jackson have | Records and achievements of Michael Jackson - wikipedia
This article lists some of the sales and chart records and achievements of Michael Jackson (1958 -- 2009), American singer. Jackson 's success during his peak in the 1980s and 1990s included a number of notable statistical accomplishments.
Data for U.S. sales comes largely from Billboard magazine and the Recording Industry Association of America.
Michael Jackson had 29 Top 10 hits on the Billboard Hot 100 charts.
Michael Jackson had 13 number one hits on the Billboard R&B charts.
Michael Jackson had seven number one hits on the UK Singles Charts.
Michael Jackson had seven number one hits on the Top 100 Singles charts.
Michael Jackson had 21 number one hits on the Top 20 Singles charts.
Michael Jackson had five number one hits on the Top 50 Singles charts.
Michael Jackson had four number one hits on the Top 100 Singles charts.
Michael Jackson had five number one hits on the Top 20 Singles charts.
Michael Jackson had four number one hits on the Top 100 Singles charts.
Michael Jackson had eight number one hits on the Top 100 Singles charts.
Michael Jackson had 10 number one hits on the Top 100 Singles charts.
Forbes is an American publishing and media company. Its flagship publication, Forbes magazine, is published bi-weekly. The magazine is well known for its lists, including its lists of the richest Americans (the Forbes 400) and its list of billionaires.
Michael Jackson founded in 2006, The Michael Jackson Company LLC, which is the corporation that handles all his business, and from that Jackson died in 2009, all companies belonging to Jackson, and Sony / ATV Music Publishing (50 %), MJJ Inc (100 %), Optimum Productions (100 %), Sycamore Company (50 %), Michael Jackson Inc (100 %), among others, went to do all owned by The Michael Jakcson Company LLC. John Branca is the CEO of TMJC LLC, with John McClain. Following on from 2009, TMJC LLC, became one of the largest companies in the industry media. NEXT TMJC acquiring companies like EMI Publishing (50 % with Sony), and investing in companies such as Ubisoft Entertainment, SEE Inc, and Cirque Du Soleil.
TMJC generates approximately $2 billion annually.
Has its respective diviciones TMJC:
THE MICHAEL JACKSON COMPANY LLC
Optimum Production: Film & TV
Triumph International: technology Investment
ATV: publishing
- Sony / ATV
- EMI
- Mijac Publishing
MJJ Inc: Entertainment
- MJJ Production: Music Industry
- MJJ Music: Music Industry
- MJJ Records: Copyrights
Michael Jackson Inc: Marketing
Cirque Jakscon i.p. Live performances
They have twice named Jackson as the "# 1 Entertainer of the Year '' based on earnings.
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the twilight zone a thing about machines full episode | A Thing about machines - wikipedia
"A Thing About Machines '' is episode 40 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone. It originally aired on October 28, 1960, on CBS.
A repairman has paid a house call to Bartlett Finchley, who is having trouble with the TV, and notes that he should not damage his appliances (he smashed the screen of the TV for a mild inconvenience). It turns out he is an ill - tempered gourmet magazine critic who reviles humanity (a misanthrope), though he seems to be simultaneously lonely. He 's as inept with machines as he is with people. Frustrated, he constantly abuses machines and starts to think machines are conspiring against him. The people he tells about this write him off as paranoid, but eventually every machine in his house (including his car) turns on him. Before this happens, he mentions the radio does n't work, then his clock chimes more than the hour. His typewriter types the message, "GET OUT OF HERE FINCHLEY. '' A woman on the TV speaks the same message, and upstairs his electric razor rises menacingly into the air, lunging at him like a cobra. He rips the telephone cord out of the wall, but a voice on the phone speaks the same words.
He hears a siren and goes outside to find that his car has rolled down the driveway and had almost hit a small boy. After rudely dismissing the neighbors who have collected to gawk, Finchley returns to the house, drinks a full bottle of hard liquor, and passes out. When he wakes up, the television and other machines start telling him to get out, and his razor slithers down the stairs in pursuit of him. Finchley runs from the house and is chased by his car (a 1939 Lagonda coupe). It chases him to his pool and pushes him in. He sinks to the bottom and drowns. When the police pull him out of the water, they can not explain how he could sink to the bottom when he was not weighted down (normally, a body would float), nor could they explain the car near the pool. They theorize he may have had a heart attack.
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what does the name ella mean in the bible | Ella (name) - wikipedia
In Greek mythology, Ella (Greek: Ἕλλα) was the daughter of Athamas and Nephele. The name may be a cognate with Hellas (Greek: Ἑλλάς), the Greek name for Greece, which said to have been originally the name of the region round Dodona.
Another source indicates the name is a Norman version of the Germanic short name Alia, which was short for a variety of German names with the element ali -, meaning "other. '' It is also a common short name for names starting with El -, such as Eleanor, Elizabeth, Elle, Ellen, Ellie, or Eloise.
The Hebrew word Ella (אלה) has two meanings:
1) A tree indigenous to the middle east from the pistachio family (Pistacia terebinthus). As written in Isaiah 6 - 13: "And though a tenth remains in the land, it will again be laid waste. But as the terebinth and oak leave stumps when they are cut down, so the holy seed will be the stump in the land. ''
2) Ella means "goddess '' in modern Hebrew.
Ella became used again during the Victorian era in English - speaking countries, and has been revived in the last decade, becoming a popular given name for baby girls born in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States and other English - speaking countries, as well as in Israel. One well - known bearer of the name was singer Ella Fitzgerald. Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna of Russia, a Russian grand duchess and saint of the Russian Orthodox Church, was commonly also known as Ella.
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what are the words in the good the bad and the ugly theme | The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (theme) - wikipedia
"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly '' is the theme to the 1966 film of the same name, which was directed by Sergio Leone. Included on the film soundtrack as "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (main title) '', the instrumental piece was composed by Ennio Morricone, with Bruno Nicolai conducting the orchestra. A cover version by Hugo Montenegro in 1968 was a pop hit in both the U.S. and the U.K. It has since become one of the most iconic scores in film history.
Ennio Morricone is an Italian composer who has created music for hundreds of films. In the 1960s, director Sergio Leone was impressed by a musical arrangement of Morricone 's and asked his former schoolmate to compose music for one of his films, A Fistful of Dollars. This led to a collaboration between the two on future Leone films, some of which came to be referred to as "Spaghetti Westerns ''. After a steady percussion beat, the theme to The Good, the Bad and the Ugly begins with a two - note melody sounding like the howl of a coyote. Additional sounds follow, some of which symbolize characters and themes from the film. This instrumental composition plays at the beginning of the film. Largely due to the memorable quality of the main theme, the film 's soundtrack peaked at # 4 on the Billboard 200 album chart, and it stayed on this chart for over a year.
Hugo Montenegro was an American composer and orchestra leader who began scoring films in the 1960s. After hearing the music from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, he decided to create a cover version of the theme. Musician Tommy Morgan is quoted in Wesley Hyatt 's The Billboard Book of # 1 Adult Contemporary Hits as saying that Montenegro 's version "... was done in one day. I think it was all day one Saturday at RCA. '' Similar to Morricone 's original composition, Montenegro and a few session musicians sought to recreate this record using their own instrumentation. The opening two note segment was played on an ocarina by Art Smith; Morgan provided the sounds that followed on a harmonica. He was quoted as saying: "I knew it was live, so I had to do this hand thing, the ' wah - wah - wah ' sound. '' Hyatt 's book states that Montenegro himself "grunted something which came out like ' rep, rup, rep, rup, rep ' '' between the chorus segments. Other musicians heard on the record include Elliot Fisher (electric violin), Manny Klein (piccolo trumpet) and Muzzy Marcellino, whose whistling is heard during the recording.
Much to the surprise of Montenegro and the musicians who worked with him, this cover of the film theme became a hit single during 1968. It peaked at # 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June of that year, held off the top spot by another song from a film, Simon & Garfunkel 's "Mrs. Robinson '' (from the 1967 film The Graduate). It spent three weeks atop the Billboard Easy Listening chart during the same time frame. In September 1968, Montenegro 's version reached the UK Singles Chart and began a steady climb, eventually reaching the top of the chart on 16 November and remaining there for four weeks.
Detailing this song in a description of the film soundtrack, the website CD Universe states that it is "so familiar as to be a cultural touchstone. Even an abbreviated sound byte of the theme is enough to conjure images of desolate desert plains, rolling tumbleweeds, and a cowboy - booted figure standing ominously in the distance. '' It has been used frequently to convey these sorts of images on radio, film and television in the years since the film 's release. The Simpsons has used the opening notes of this theme in multiple episodes over the years.
Among numerous musicians who have, in full or in part, borrowed or sampled from this song are Gorillaz, whose 2001 debut single, "Clint Eastwood '', was so named because it reminded the group of Morricone 's theme and its melodic structure. Bill Berry, former drummer of the band R.E.M., played what was dubbed an "Ennio whistle '' on the track "How the West Was Won and Where It Got Us '', from their 1996 album New Adventures in Hi - Fi. The song was also covered by The Pogues for the soundtrack of the parodic western Straight to Hell.
The American punk rock group Ramones were known to play a recording of this song at the beginning of their concerts, while at the end of their shows, a snippet of "The Ecstasy of Gold '' was played. The Vandals use the opening motif and short guitar arpeggio on "I Want to Be a Cowboy ''. The song is also featured in the video game, Maestro! Jump in Music. 80 's R & B band Cameo used the theme 's opening whistle in their singles Word Up! and Single Life. Las Vegas, Nevada - based band Sin City Sinners always walk onto stage with a recording of the tune playing in the background.In the film Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps, the character Jacob Moore, played by Shia LaBeouf, had a mobile cell phone ring tone of the opening tune of "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly '', the film coincidentally also starred the actor who played the "Ugly '', Eli Wallach. In the film Faster, the character "Killer '' also had a mobile cell phone ring tone of "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly ''.
The song was also used in TV commercials for Camel Cigarettes during the 1980s.
It was sampled for the remix of rapper Busta Rhymes 's song, "Stop The Party '', after T.I. 's verse.
It was sampled in the background beat of the chorus in rapper Big Lurch 's well - known song "Texas Boy '' in conjunction with a sample of Oliver Nelson 's "Skull Session ''.
Comedian Eddie Murphy whistled the opening notes during the "Shoe - Throwing Mother '' monologue of his 1983 Delirious television special.
The theme was used in 2014 for commercials for the Nissan Altima and also was used in 2015 for indonesian commercial milk Nestlé Dancow 1 +.
The song is used as intro music for the band Rival Sons at their concerts. You can also find this version on Samorost 3, an exploration adventure game from Amanita Design.
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marky mark and the funky bunch top hit | Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch - wikipedia
Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch was an American hip - hop group led by Mark Wahlberg. The Funky Bunch consisted of Wahlberg (alias Marky Mark), Scott Ross (alias Scottie Gee), Hector Barros (alias Hector the Booty Inspector), Terry Yancey (alias DJ - T), and Anthony Thomas (alias Ashey Ace). The group 's best known song is "Good Vibrations '', which made it to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1991.
Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch released their debut album, Music for the People on July 23, 1991. The album was a huge success for the group, making it to No. 1 on the Top Heatseekers chart and No. 21 on the Billboard 200. The album 's success was fueled by two top - 10 singles, both of which were certified gold, "Good Vibrations '', which went to No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, and "Wildside '' which went to No. 10 on the Hot 100. The album itself first went gold on November 15, 1991 before being certified platinum on January 14, 1992.
At the height of the group 's success, they also had a video game released by Digital Pictures entitled Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch: Make My Video, but the game was not a success and has been considered one of the worst video games ever made.
After the success of Music for the People, the group quickly recorded a follow - up entitled You Gotta Believe that was released on September 15, 1992. However, the album achieved little success, only making it as high as No. 67 on the Billboard 200, as did the album 's lone single also titled "You Gotta Believe '' which went to 49 on the Hot 100. The group disbanded in 1993 with their last appearance being "I Want You '', which was featured on the Super Mario Bros. movie soundtrack.
After the group disbanded, Mark continued his music career by teaming with reggae musician Prince Ital Joe. The duo released two albums in Europe and had a No. 1 hit in Germany with "United ''. Mark continued to release music until retiring in 1998 and becoming a successful actor in the United States.
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who won the most gold medals in the 2014 commonwealth games | 2014 Commonwealth Games medal table - wikipedia
The 2014 Commonwealth Games (officially known as the XX Commonwealth Games), was a multi-sport event held in Glasgow, Scotland from 23 July to 3 August 2014. It was the first time that Glasgow hosted the games, and the third time it was hosted in Scotland after Edinburgh hosted in 1970 and 1986. A total of 4,947 athletes from 71 Commonwealth Games Associations (CGAs) competed in 261 events in 17 sports.
Athletes from 37 participating CGAs won at least one medal; athletes from 21 CGAs won at least one gold medal. England led the medal table for the first time since 1986, winning 58 golds and 174 medals overall. Australia came second, after leading the medal table for the last six consecutive games, while Canada came third. Hosts Scotland enjoyed their best - ever performance by finishing in fourth place with a record 19 gold medals and 53 overall. Kiribati won its first - ever Commonwealth Games medal, a gold in the men 's 105 kg weightlifting competition. Grenada won its first Commonwealth Games gold medal in the men 's 400 metres. South African swimmer Chad le Clos won the most medals, a total of seven including two gold, one silver and four bronze. Canadian rhythmic gymnast Patricia Bezzoubenko won the most gold medals with five in addition to a bronze medal.
The ranking in this table is consistent with International Olympic Committee convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won (in this context, a "nation '' is an entity represented by a Commonwealth Games Association). The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If nations are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by their three - letter country code.
Two bronze medals were awarded in boxing, judo and wrestling, except for Women 's freestyle 75 kg as only five competitors were entered in the event. Additionally, two bronze medals were awarded in the men 's 100 m backstroke and women 's pole vault as a result of a tie between two athletes. No bronze medal was awarded in the men 's synchronized 10 metre platform as only four teams competed in the event. Therefore, the total number of bronze medals is greater than the total number of gold or silver medals.
* Host nation (Scotland)
The women 's 53 kg competition was originally won by 16 - year - old Chika Amalaha of Nigeria. Following a failed doping test, Amalaha was stripped of her medal and placement, and the medals were redistributed. Dika Toua of Papua New Guinea was awarded the gold, Santoshi Matsa of India, silver and Swati Singh, also of India, bronze.
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who plays martha cox in high school musical | Kaycee Stroh - wikipedia
Kaycee Stroh (born May 29, 1984) is an American actress, singer and dancer, best known for her role as Martha Cox in the hit Disney Channel Original Movies, High School Musical (2006), High School Musical 2 (2007), and High School Musical 3: Senior Year (2008). She was a contestant in the VH1 reality show Celebrity Fit Club.
Stroh appeared in High School Musical, High School Musical 2 and High School Musical 3 as smart girl Martha Cox, who secretly loved to "pop & lock & jam & break ''. A professional dance instructor at the Thompson Lane Entertainment Center, her role in the franchise materialized when she took her students to the auditions herself. Along with her fellow cast for the movie, she appeared at the Teen Choice Awards to accept an honorary award charting the film 's instant success and at the American Music Awards of 2007 accepting the award for Favorite Album. Stroh also serves as co-host for the dance - along version of High School Musical 2.
She also had a recurring role (2 episodes) in the Disney Channel Original Series, The Suite Life of Zack & Cody as Leslie, a girl who played on the same volleyball team as main characters of the show, London and Maddie. Stroh has also been a guest editor for Tiger Beat magazine. She was also a member of the supporting cast in a direct - to - DVD musical story from Liken the Scriptures called Ammon and King Lamoni. Stroh has worked on occasion as a spokesperson and plus size model for the online retailer Torrid. She reprised her role as Martha Cox in High School Musical 3: Senior Year, released on October 24, 2008. Stroh was a contestant on Season 7 of Celebrity Fit Club.
Stroh was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, the daughter of Cindy and Bruce Stroh. She has two older sisters, both of whom were dancers. Stroh is also often mistaken as Meghan Trainor.
In an interview with People, Stroh discussed her obesity and heavy weight gain and being bed - ridden for three months due to a blood clot in her calf after knee surgery. As well as her television roles, Stroh is also an advocate for Make - A-Wish Foundation, United Cerebral Palsy and Starlight Starbright Children 's Foundation.
Stroh married Ben Higginson on January 9, 2009 in the Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. Zac Efron, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, Lucas Grabeel, Monique Coleman, Olesya Rulin, Chris Warren Jr., Ryne Sanborn and Kenny Ortega all attended the ring ceremony and reception. They have two children, daughters Zetta Lee (born May 8, 2013) and Lettie Louise (born October 15, 2015).
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how did automobile ownership affect american culture after ww2 | 1950s American automobile culture - wikipedia
1950s American automobile culture has had an enduring influence on the culture of the United States, as reflected in popular music, major trends from the 1950s and mainstream acceptance of the "hot rod '' culture. The American manufacturing economy switched from producing war - related items to consumer goods at the end of World War II, and by the end of the 1950s, one in six working Americans were employed either directly or indirectly in the automotive industry. The United States became the world 's largest manufacturer of automobiles, and Henry Ford 's goal of 30 years earlier -- that any man with a good job should be able to afford an automobile -- was achieved. A new generation of service businesses focusing on customers with their automobiles sprang up during the decade, including drive - through or drive - in restaurants and more drive - in theaters (cinemas).
The decade began with 25 million registered automobiles on the road, most of which predated World War II and were in poor condition; no automobiles or parts were produced during the war owing to rationing and restrictions. By 1950, most factories had made the transition to a consumer - based economy, and more than 8 million cars were produced that year alone. By 1958, there were more than 67 million cars registered in the United States, more than twice the number at the start of the decade.
As part of the U.S. national defenses, to support military transport, the National Highway System was expanded with Interstate highways, beginning in 1955, across many parts of the United States. The wider, multi-lane highways allowed traffic to move at faster speeds, with few or no stoplights on the way. The wide - open spaces along the highways became a basis for numerous billboards showing advertisements.
The dawning of the Space Age and Space Race were reflected in contemporary American automotive styling. Large tailfins, flowing designs reminiscent of rockets, and radio antennas that imitated Sputnik 1 were common, owing to the efforts of design pioneers such as Harley Earl.
The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways (commonly called the Interstate system or simply the Interstate) is a network of freeways that forms a part of the National Highway System of the United States. While serving as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, Eisenhower had gained an appreciation of the German Autobahn network as an essential component of a national defense system, providing transport routes for military supplies and troop deployments. Construction was authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and the original portion was completed 35 years later. The system has contributed in shaping the United States into a world economic superpower and a highly industrialized nation.
The Interstate grew quickly, along with the automobile industry, allowing a new - found mobility that permeated ways of American life and culture. The automobile and the Interstate became the American symbol of individuality and freedom, and, for the first time, automobile buyers accepted that the automobile they drove indicated their social standing and level of affluence. It became a statement of their personality and an extension of their self - concepts.
The United States ' investment in infrastructure such as highways and bridges coincided with the increasing availability of cars more suited to the higher speeds that better roads made possible, allowing people to live beyond the confines of major cities, and instead commute to and from work.
After World War II, land developers began to buy land just outside the city limits of larger cities to build mass quantities of inexpensive tract houses. One of the first examples of planned suburbanization is Levittown, Pennsylvania, which was developed by William Levitt beginning in 1951 as a suburb of Philadelphia. The promise of their own single - family home on their own land, together with a free college education and low - interest loans given to returning soldiers to purchase homes under the G.I. Bill, drove demand for new homes to an unprecedented level. Additionally, 4 million babies were born every year during the 1950s. By the end of the baby boom era in 1964, almost 77 million "baby boomers '' had been born, fueling the need for more suburban housing, and automobiles to commute them to and from the city centers for work and shopping.
By the end of the 1950s, one - third of Americans lived in the suburbs. Eleven of the United States 's twelve largest cities recorded a declining population during the decade, with a consequent loss in tax revenues and city culture. Only Los Angeles, a center for the car culture, gained population. Economist Richard Porter commented that "The automobile made suburbia possible, and the suburbs made the automobile essential. ''
More people joined the middle class in the 1950s, with more money to spend, and the availability of consumer goods expanded along with the economy, including the automobile. Americans were spending more time in their automobiles and viewing them as an extension of their identity, which helped to fuel a boom in automobile sales. Most businesses directly or indirectly related to the auto industry saw tremendous growth during the decade. New designs and innovations appealed to a generation tuned into fashion and glamour, and the new - found freedom and way of life in the suburbs had several unforeseen consequences for the inner cities. The 1950s saw the beginning of white flight and urban sprawl, driven by increasing automobile ownership. Many local and national transportation laws encouraged suburbanization, which in time ended up damaging the cities economically.
As more middle - class and affluent people fled the city to the relative quiet and open spaces of the suburbs, the urban centers deteriorated and lost population. At the same time that cities were experiencing a lower tax base due to the flight of higher income earners, pressures from The New Deal forced them to offer pensions and other benefits, increasing the average cost of benefits per employee by 1,629 percent. This was in addition to hiring an average of 20 percent more employees to serve the ever shrinking cities. More Americans were driving cars and fewer were using public transportation, and it was not practical to extend to the suburbs. At the same time, the number of surface roads exploded to serve the ever - increasing numbers of individually owned cars, further burdening city and country resources. During this time, the perception of using public transportation turned more negative. In what is arguably the most extreme example, Detroit, the fifth largest city in the United States in 1950 with 1,849,568 residents, had shrunk to 706,585 by 2010, a reduction of 62 percent.
In some instances, the automotive industry and others were directly responsible for the decline of public transportation. The Great American streetcar scandal saw GM, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Phillips Petroleum, Mack Trucks and other companies purchase a number of streetcars and electric trains in the 1930s and 1940s, such that 90 percent of city trolleys had been dismantled by 1950. It was argued that this was a deliberate destruction of streetcars as part of a larger strategy to push the United States into automobile dependency. In United States v. National City Lines, Inc., many were found guilty of antitrust violations. The story has been explored several times in print, film and other media, for example in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Taken for a Ride and The End of Suburbia.
The automobile unions played a leading role in advancing the cause of women 's rights. In 1955, the United Auto Workers Union (UAW) organized the UAW Women 's Department to strengthen women 's role in the union and encourage participation in the union 's elected bodies. In a move that was met with some hostility by Teamsters leaders, the U.S. Division of Transport Personnel had in 1943 instructed Teamsters Union officials that women should be allowed full employment as truck drivers. That proved to be only a temporary wartime measure, but a change of heart among Teamsters leadership by the mid-1950s led to the Equal Pay Act of 1963. Women in the auto industry were considered leaders in the movement for women 's rights.
The increasing popularity of hot rodding cars (modifying them to increase performance) is reflected in part by the creation of special - interest magazines catering to this culture. Hot Rod is the oldest such magazine, with first editor Wally Parks, and founded by Robert E. Petersen in 1948, with original publication by his Petersen Publishing Company. Hot Rod has licensed affiliation with Universal Technical Institute.
The relative abundance and inexpensive nature of the Ford Model T and other cars from the 1920s to 1940s helped fuel the hot rod culture that developed, which was focused on getting the most linear speed out of these older automobiles. The origin of the term "hot rod '' is unclear, but the culture blossomed in the post-war culture of the 1950s.
Hot Rod magazine 's November 1950 cover announced the first hot rod to exceed 200 mph. The hand - crafted car used an Edelbrock - built Mercury flathead V8 and set the record at the Bonneville Salt Flats. This 30,000 - acre (47 sq mi) region has been called the "Holy Grail of American Hot Rodding '', and is often used for land speed racing, a tradition that grew rapidly in the 1950s and continues today.
Hot rodding was about more than raw power. Kustom Kulture started in the 1950s, when artists such as Von Dutch transformed automobile pin striping from a seldom - used accent that followed the lines of the car into a freestyle art form. Von Dutch was as famous for his "flying eyeball '' as he was for his intricate spider - web designs. As the decade began, hand - drawn pin striping was almost unheard of, but by 1958 it had become a popular method of customizing the looks of the hot rod. As the decade progressed, hot rodding became a popular hobby for a growing number of teenagers as the sport literally came to Main Street.
Drag racing has existed since the first cars, but it was not until the 1950s that it started to become mainstream, beginning with Santa Ana Drags, the first drag strip in the United States. The strip was founded by C.J. "Pappy '' Hart, Creighton Hunter and Frank Stillwell at the Orange County Airport auxiliary runway in southern California, and was operational from 1950 until June 21, 1959.
Hot Rod editor Wally Parks created the National Hot Rod Association in 1951, and it is still the largest governing body in the popular sport. As of October 2012, there are at least 139 professional drag strips operational in the United States. One of the most powerful racing fuels ever developed is nitromethane, which dramatically debuted as a racing fuel in 1950, and continues as the primary component used in Top Fuel drag racing today.
The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) is the second most popular spectator sports in the United States behind the National Football League (NFL). It was incorporated on February 21, 1948, by Bill France, Sr. and built its roots in the 1950s. Two years later in 1950 the first asphalt "superspeedway '', Darlington Speedway, was opened in South Carolina, and the sport saw dramatic growth during the 1950s. Because of the tremendous success of Darlington, construction began of a 2.5 - mile, high - banked superspeedway near Daytona Beach, which is still in use.
The Cup Series was started in 1949, with Jim Roper winning the first series. By 2008, the most prestigious race in the series, the Daytona 500 had attracted more than 17 million television viewers. Dynasties were born in the 1950s with racers like Lee Petty (father of Richard Petty, grandfather of Kyle Petty) and Buck Baker (father of Buddy Baker).
NASCAR, and stock car racing in general, has its roots in bootlegging during Prohibition. Junior Johnson was one of many bootleggers who took part in the sport during the 1950s, equally well known for his arrest in 1955 for operating his father 's moonshine still as he is for his racing success. He ended up spending a year in an Ohio prison, but soon returned to the sport before retiring as a driver in 1966.
As more Americans began driving cars, entirely new categories of businesses came into being to allow them to enjoy their products and services without having to leave their cars. This includes the drive - in restaurant, and later the drive - through window. Even into the 2010s, the Sonic Drive - In restaurant chain has provided primarily drive - in service by carhop in 3,561 restaurants within 43 U.S. states, serving approximately 3 million customers per day. Known for its use of carhops on roller skates, the company annually hosts a competition to determine the top skating carhop in its system.
A number of other successful "drive up '' businesses have their roots in the 1950s, including McDonald 's (expanded c. 1955), which had no dine - in facilities, requiring customers to park and walk up to the window, taking their order "to go ''. Automation and the lack of dining facilities allowed McDonald 's to sell burgers for 15 cents each, instead of the typical 35 cents, and people were buying them by the bagful. By 1948, they had fired their carhops, installed larger grills, reduced their menu and radically changed the industry by introducing assembly - line methods of food production, similar to the auto industry, dubbing it the "Speedee Service System ''. They redesigned their sign specifically to make it easier to see from the road, creating the now familiar yellow double - arch structure. Businessman Ray Kroc joined McDonald 's as a franchise agent in 1955. He subsequently purchased the chain from the McDonald brothers and oversaw its worldwide growth.
Other chains were created to serve the increasingly mobile patron. Carl Karcher opened his first Carl 's Jr. in 1956, and rapidly expanded, locating his restaurants near California 's new freeway off - ramps. These restaurant models initially relied on the new and ubiquitous ownership of automobiles, and the willingness of patrons to dine in their automobiles. As of 2013, drive - through service account for 65 percent of their profits.
The drive - in theater is a form of cinema structure consisting of a large outdoor movie screen, a projection booth, a concession stand and a large parking area for automobiles, where patrons view the movie from the comfort of their cars and listen via an electric speaker placed at each parking spot.
Although drive - in movies first appeared in 1933, it was not until well after the post-war era that they became popular, enjoying their greatest success in the 1950s, reaching a peak of more than 4,000 theaters in the United States alone. Drive - in theaters have been romanticized in popular culture with the movie American Graffiti and Grease and the television series Happy Days. They developed a reputation for showing B movies, typically monster or horror films, and as "passion pits '', a place for teenagers to make out. While drive - in theaters are rarer today with only 366 remaining and no longer unique to America, they are still associated as part of the 1950s ' American car culture. Drive - in movies have seen somewhat of a resurgence in popularity in the 21st century, due in part to baby boomer nostalgia.
Robert Schuller started the nation 's first drive - in church in 1955 in Garden Grove, California. After his regular 9: 30 am service in the chapel four miles away, he would travel to the drive - in for a second Sunday service. Worshipers listened to his sermon from the comfort of their cars, using the movie theater 's speaker boxes.
The first modern shopping malls were built in the 1950s, such as Bergen Mall, which was the first to use the term "mall '' to describe the business model. Other early malls moved retailing away from the dense, commercial downtowns into the largely residential suburbs. Northgate in Seattle is credited as being the first modern mall design, with two rows of businesses facing each other and a walkway separating them. It opened in 1950. Shopper 's World in Framingham, Massachusetts, was the two - story mall, and opened a year later. The design was modified again in 1954 when Northland Center in Detroit, Michigan, used a centralized design with an anchor store in the middle of the mall, ringed by other stores. This was the first mall to have the parking lot completely surrounding the shopping center, and to provide central heat and air - conditioning.
In 1956, Southdale Center opened in Edina, Minnesota, just outside Minneapolis. It was the first to combine all these modern elements, being enclosed with a two - story design, central heat and air - conditioning plus a comfortable common area. It also featured two large department stores as anchors. Most industry professionals consider Southdale Center to be the first modern regional mall.
This formula (enclosed space with stores attached, away from downtown and accessible only by automobile) became a popular way to build retail across the world. Victor Gruen, one of the pioneers in mall design, came to abhor this effect of his new design; he decried the creation of enormous "land wasting seas of parking '' and the spread of suburban sprawl.
The 1950s jump started an industry of aftermarket add - ons for cars that continues today. The oldest aftermarket wheel company, American Racing, started in 1956 and still builds "mag wheels '' (alloy wheels) for almost every car made. Holley introduced the first modular four - barrel carburetor, which Ford offered in the 1957 Ford Thunderbird, and versions are still used by performance enthusiasts. Edelbrock started during the Great Depression and expanded after the war. They provided a variety of high performance parts for the new hot rodders, which was popular equipment for setting speed records at Bonneville Salt Flats. Owners were no longer restricted to the original equipment provided by manufacturers, helping not only create the hot rod culture but also the foundation for cosmetic modifications. The creation and rapid expansion of the aftermarket made it possible for enthusiasts to personalize their automobiles.
Most new cars were sold through automobile dealerships in the 1950s, but Crosley automobiles were still on sale at any number of appliance or department stores, and Allstate (a rebadged Henry J) could be ordered at any Sears and Roebuck in 1952 and 1953. By mid-decade, these outlets had vanished and the automobile dealer became the sole source of new automobiles.
Starting in the mid-1950s, new car introductions in the fall once again became an anticipated event, as all dealers would reveal the models for the upcoming year each October. In this era before the popularization of computerization, the primary source of information on new models was the dealer. The idea was originally suggested in the 1930s by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression, as a way of stimulating the economy by creating demand. The idea was reintroduced by President Dwight Eisenhower for the same reasons, and this method of introducing next year 's models in the preceding autumn lasted well into the 1990s.
During the decade, many smaller manufacturers could not compete with the Big Three and either went out of business or merged. In 1954, American Motors was formed when Hudson merged with Nash - Kelvinator Corporation in a deal worth almost $200 million, the largest corporate merger in United States history at that time.
The muscle - car era is deeply rooted in the 1950s, although there is some debate as to the exact beginning. The 1949 Oldsmobile Rocket 88, created in response to public interest in speed and power, is often cited as the first muscle car. It featured America 's first high - compression overhead valve V8 in the smaller, lighter Oldsmobile 76 / Chevy body for six - cylinder engines (as opposed to bigger Olds 98 luxury body). Old Cars Weekly claims it started with the introduction of the original Chrysler "Firepower '' hemi V8 engine in 1951, while others such as Hot Rod magazine consider the first overhead valve engine by Chevrolet, the 265 cid V8, as the "heir apparent to Ford flathead 's position as the staple of racing '', in 1955. The "small block Chevy '' itself developed its own subculture that exists today. Other contenders include the 1949 Oldsmobile V8 engine, the first in a long line of such powerful V8 engines, as well as the Cadillac V8 of the same year.
Regardless how it is credited, the horsepower race centered around the V8 engine and the muscle - car era lasted until new smog regulations forced dramatic changes in OEM engine design in the early 1970s. This in turn opened up new opportunities for aftermarket manufacturers like Edelbrock. Each year brought larger engines and / or increases in horsepower, providing a catalyst for customers to upgrade to newer models. Automobile executives also deliberately updated the body designs yearly, in the name of "planned obsolescence '' and added newly developed or improved features such as automatic transmissions, power steering, power brakes and cruise control, in an effort to make the previous models seem outdated and facilitate the long drive from the suburbs. Record sales made the decade arguably the "golden era '' of automobile manufacturing.
Harley Earl and Bill France Sr. popularized the saying "Race on Sunday, sell on Monday '', a mantra still heard today in motorsports, particularly within NASCAR. During the muscle - car era, manufacturers not only sponsored the drivers, but designed stock cars specifically to compete in the fast - growing and highly popular sport.
As the automobile became more and more an extension of the individual, it was natural for this to be reflected in popular culture. America 's love affair with the automobile was most evident in the music of the era.
Other songs recorded during the decade also reflect the automobile 's place in American culture, such as "Brand New Cadillac '', Sonny Burgess 's "Thunderbird '' and Bo Diddley 's "Cadillac ''. A 1955 Oldsmobile was celebrated in the nostalgic "Ol ' ' 55 '' by Tom Waits (1973).
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where did the white sand in destin come from | Destin, Florida - wikipedia
Destin is a city located in Okaloosa County, Florida. It is a principal city of the Fort Walton Beach - Crestview - Destin, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Located on Florida 's Emerald Coast, Destin is known for its white beaches and emerald green waters. Originating as a small fishing village, it is now a popular tourist destination. According to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, over 80 percent of the Emerald Coast 's 4.5 million visitors each year visit Destin. The city styles itself "The World 's Luckiest Fishing Village '', and claims to have the largest fishing vessel fleet in the state of Florida.
The city is located on a peninsula separating the Gulf of Mexico from Choctawhatchee Bay. The peninsula was originally a barrier island. Hurricanes and sea level changes gradually connected it to the mainland. In the 1940s, it technically became an island again with the completion of the Choctawhatchee - West Bay Canal.
Agriculture was eventually introduced, and there are still signs of this early inhabitation in the area. Members of the Fort Walton Culture built a ceremonial mound in Fort Walton Beach.
Destin is named after Leonard Destin, a New London, Connecticut fishing captain who settled in the area between 1845 and 1850. He built a New England colonial home at the location of the Moreno Point military reservation. Captain Destin and his descendants fished the area for decades.
Condominiums were first built in Destin during the 1970s, although Destin was not incorporated as a municipality until 1984. The city has experienced rapid growth since the 1980s.
The city is located on a peninsula separating the Gulf of Mexico from Choctawhatchee Bay. The peninsula was originally an island; hurricanes and sea level changes gradually connected the island to the mainland.
Destin is near several other cities in the region. The city of Fort Walton Beach is located to the west at the inlet of Santa Rosa Sound into Choctawhatchee Bay. North of Destin, across the bay is Niceville, with the Mid-Bay Bridge linking the two by road. Panama City (to the east) and Pensacola (to the west) are each about 50 miles (80 km) away.
At the western tip of the peninsula is East Pass (also known as Destin Pass), separating it from Santa Rosa Island to the west. East Pass is the only outlet of Choctawhatchee Bay into the Gulf of Mexico, Many sources claim that the current pass was dug by hand with an inrush of water widening it within hours. The early pass appears (at the East end of Destin Harbor) in early maps and surveys from Spanish, French, and English surveyors, such as Thomas Jefferys 's 1775 map The Coast of West Florida and Louisiana. Frequent dredging is required to keep East Pass navigable.
"Crab Island, '' was actually two islands made from sand that the Army Corps of Engineers dredged up from the East Pass. These islands were large enough to inhabit sea grass, small shrubs and nesting seabirds. It has been reduced to a significant sandbar, which appears only when the tide is out. It has become a popular anchorage in the area. The entrance to Destin Harbor, a lagoon between the beaches and the main body of the western portion of the peninsula, is located just north of the East Pass jetty. The lagoon is formed by a sand spit named Holiday Isle; many condominiums have been built along the harbor since the 1970s.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 8.2 square miles (21 km), of which 7.5 square miles (19 km) is land and 0.6 square miles (1.6 km) (7.95 %) is water. Destin is located at 30 ° 23 ′ 36 '' N 86 ° 28 ′ 31 '' W / 30.393407 ° N 86.475276 ° W / 30.393407; - 86.475276.
As of the census of 2000, there were 11,455 people, 4,437 households, and 3,135 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,477.1 inhabitants per square mile (570.1 / km2). There were 10,599 housing units at an average density of 1,408.0 per square mile (543.5 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.21 % White, 0.37 % African American, 0.40 % Native American, 1.03 % Asian, 0.08 % Pacific Islander, 0.37 % from other races, and 1.54 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.66 % of the population.
24.8 % of households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.0 % were married couples living together, 8.0 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.7 % were non-families. 27.4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8.5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.72.
The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $53,042, and the median income for a family was $60,498. Males had a median income of $42,218 versus $26,146 for females. The per capita income for the city was $32,048. About 3.0 % of families and 5.5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2 % of those under age 18 and 2.0 % of those age 65 or over.
The white beaches and emerald waters of the Destin area draw many tourists. Florida 's Department of Environmental Protection estimates that more than 80 percent of the Emerald Coast 's 4.5 million yearly visitors travel to the region to visit Destin. Visitors can charter fishing vessels from the harbor, and there are 12 beach access points in the city. Among the access points is Henderson Beach State Recreation Area. A portion of the Gulf Islands National Seashore, the Okaloosa Day Use Area, is just across East Pass on Santa Rosa Island.
The sand on Destin 's beaches is some of the whitest in the world. The sand comes from the Appalachian Mountains, and is made of finely ground quartz crystal giving the appearance of sugar. Residue flows down the Apalachicola River and is deposited into the Gulf of Mexico. Because of the currents the sand drifts west along the Gulf Coast and settles from east of Panama City to the Alabama coast.
Several events also take place throughout the year as well. For the month of October, the annual Destin Fishing Rodeo draws anglers to Destin each year since 1948. Also in the month of October is the Destin Seafood Festival, where fresh seafood and local artists gather for one weekend every October.
In addition to an assortment of hotels and motels, many high - rise condominiums are located in Destin. The first condominiums in Destin were built in the 1970s, and construction continues today. Visitors play a large part in Destin 's economy -- the city 's population of around 12,000 balloons to 40,000 during the tourist season.
Destin 's surroundings include other popular tourist destinations. Sandestin, Florida, located to the east in Walton County, is a popular golf and beach resort. Further east along the coast are the master - planned community of Seaside, filming location of the 1998 movie The Truman Show; Grayton Beach, Florida; and Rosemary Beach, Florida. To the west are Navarre Beach and Pensacola Beach, and the Civil War fortification Fort Pickens is located at the western end of Santa Rosa Island. Many celebrities own homes in the area.
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where is shawshank prison located in the movie | The Shawshank Redemption - wikipedia
The Shawshank Redemption is a 1994 American drama film written and directed by Frank Darabont, based on the 1982 Stephen King novella Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption. It tells the story of banker Andy Dufresne (Tim Robbins), who is sentenced to life in Shawshank State Penitentiary for the murder of his wife and her lover, despite his claims of innocence. Over the following two decades, he befriends a fellow prisoner, contraband smuggler Ellis "Red '' Redding (Morgan Freeman), and becomes instrumental in a money laundering operation led by the prison warden Samuel Norton (Bob Gunton). William Sadler, Clancy Brown, Gil Bellows, and James Whitmore appear in supporting roles.
Darabont purchased the film rights to King 's story in 1987, but development did not begin until five years later when he wrote the script over an eight - week period. Two weeks after submitting his script to the Castle Rock Entertainment film studio, Darabont secured a $25 million budget to produce The Shawshank Redemption, which started pre-production in January 1993. While the film is set in Maine, principal photography took place from June to August 1993 almost entirely in Mansfield, Ohio, with the Ohio State Reformatory serving as the eponymous penitentiary. The project attracted many stars of the time for the lead roles including Tom Hanks, Tom Cruise, and Kevin Costner. Thomas Newman provided the film 's score.
While The Shawshank Redemption received positive reviews on its release, particularly for its story and the performances of Robbins and Freeman, it was a box office disappointment, earning only $16 million during its initial theatrical run. Many reasons were cited for its failure at the time, including competition from films such as Pulp Fiction and Forrest Gump, to the general unpopularity of prison films, lack of female characters, and even the title, which was considered to be confusing for audiences. Even so, it went on to receive multiple award nominations, including seven Academy Award nominations, and a theatrical re-release that, combined with international takings, increased the film 's box office gross to $58.3 million.
Over 320,000 VHS copies were shipped throughout the United States, and based on its award nominations and word of mouth, it became one of the top rented films of 1995. The broadcast rights were acquired following the purchase of Castle Rock by the Turner Broadcasting System, and it was shown regularly on the TNT network starting in 1997, further increasing its popularity. The film is now considered to be one of the greatest films of the 1990s. As of 2017, the film is still broadcast regularly, and is popular in several countries, with audience members and celebrities citing it as a source of inspiration, and naming the film as a favorite in various surveys. In 2015, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
In 1947 Portland, Maine, banker Andy Dufresne is convicted of murdering his wife and her lover, and sentenced to two consecutive life sentences at the Shawshank State Penitentiary. He is befriended by contraband smuggler, Ellis "Red '' Redding, an inmate serving a life sentence. Red procures a rock hammer, and later a large poster of Rita Hayworth for Andy. Working in the prison laundry, Andy is regularly assaulted and raped by "the Sisters '' and their leader, Bogs.
In 1949, Andy overhears the captain of the guards, Byron Hadley, complaining about being taxed on an inheritance and offers to help him shelter the money legally. After an assault by the Sisters nearly kills Andy, Hadley beats Bogs severely. Left crippled, Bogs is transferred to another prison, and Andy is not attacked again. Warden Samuel Norton meets Andy and reassigns him to the prison library to assist elderly inmate Brooks Hatlen. Andy 's new job is a pretext for him to begin managing financial matters for the prison employees. As time passes, the warden begins using him to handle matters for himself and a variety of people, including guards from other prisons. Andy begins writing weekly letters to the state legislature requesting funds to improve the prison 's decaying library.
Brooks is paroled in 1954 after serving 50 years, but he can not adjust to the outside world, and he commits suicide by hanging himself. Andy receives a library donation that includes a recording of The Marriage of Figaro. He plays an excerpt over the public address system, and is punished with solitary confinement. After his release from solitary, Andy explains that hope is what gets him through his time, a concept that Red dismisses. In 1963, Norton begins exploiting prison labor for public works, profiting by undercutting skilled labor costs and receiving bribes. Andy launders the money using the alias Randall Stephens.
Tommy Williams is incarcerated for burglary in 1965. Andy and Red befriend him, and Andy helps him pass his GED exam. A year later, Tommy reveals to Red and Andy that an inmate at another prison claimed responsibility for the murders for which Andy was convicted. Andy approaches Norton with this information, but he refuses to listen and sends him back to solitary confinement when he mentions the money laundering. Norton has Hadley murder Tommy under the guise of an escape attempt. Andy declines to continue the laundering, but he relents after Norton threatens to destroy the library, remove Andy 's protection from the guards, and move him to worse conditions. After two months, Andy is released from solitary confinement, and he tells Red of his dream of living in Zihuatanejo, a Mexican coastal town. Red feels Andy is being unrealistic, but promises him that if he is ever released, he will visit a specific hayfield near Buxton, Maine, and retrieve a package Andy buried there. He worries about Andy 's well - being, especially when he learns Andy asked fellow inmate Heywood to supply him with six feet (1.8 meters) of rope.
The next day at roll call, the guards find Andy 's cell empty. An irate Norton throws a rock at the poster of Raquel Welch hanging on the cell wall, revealing a tunnel that Andy dug with his rock hammer over the last 19 years. The previous night, Andy escaped through the tunnel and prison sewage pipe, using the rope to bring with him Norton 's suit, shoes, and the ledger containing details of the money laundering. While guards search for him, Andy poses as Randall Stephens and visits several banks to withdraw the laundered money, then mails the ledger and evidence of the corruption and murders at Shawshank to a local newspaper. State police arrive at Shawshank and take Hadley into custody, while Norton commits suicide to avoid arrest.
After serving 40 years, Red is paroled. He struggles to adapt to life outside prison and fears that he never will. Remembering his promise to Andy, he visits Buxton and finds a cache containing money, and a letter asking him to come to Zihuatanejo. Red violates his parole and travels to Fort Hancock, Texas, to cross the border into Mexico, admitting he finally feels hope. On a beach in Zihuatanejo he finds Andy, and the two friends are happily reunited.
The cast also includes: Mark Rolston as Bogs Diamond, the head of "The Sisters '' gang and a prison rapist; Jeffrey DeMunn as the prosecuting attorney in Dufresne 's trial; Alfonso Freeman as Fresh Fish Con; Ned Bellamy and Don McManus as, respectively, prison guards Youngblood and Wiley; and Dion Anderson as Head Bull Haig. Renee Blaine portrays Andy 's wife, and Scott Mann portrays her golf - instructor lover Glenn Quentin. Frank Medrano plays Fat Ass, one of Andy 's fellow new inmates who is beaten to death by Hadley, and Bill Bolender plays Elmo Blatch, a convict who may actually be responsible for the crimes of which Andy is accused. James Kisicki portrays a bank manager.
The film has been interpreted as being grounded in Christian mysticism. Andy is offered as a messianic, Christ - like figure, with Red describing him early in the film as having an aura that engulfs and protects him from Shawshank. The scene in which Andy and several inmates tar the prison roof can be seen as a recreation of the Last Supper, with Andy obtaining beer / wine for the twelve inmates / disciples as Freeman describes them as the "lords of all creation '' invoking Jesus ' blessing. Director Frank Darabont responded that this was not his deliberate intention, but he wanted people to find their own meaning in the film. The discovery of The Marriage of Figaro record is described in the screenplay as akin to finding the Holy Grail, bringing the prisoners to a halt, and causing the sick to rise up in their beds.
Early in the film, Warden Norton quotes Jesus Christ to describe himself to Andy, saying, "I am the light of the world '', declaring himself Andy 's savior. But this description can also reference Lucifer, the bearer of light. Indeed, the warden does not enforce the general rule of law, but chooses to enforce his own rules and punishments as he sees fit, becoming a law unto himself, like the behavior of Satan. The warden has also been compared to former United States President Richard Nixon. Norton 's appearance and public addresses can be seen to mirror Nixon 's. Similarly, Norton projects an image of a Holy man, speaking down sanctimoniously to the servile masses while running corrupt scams, like those which made Nixon infamous.
Zihuatanejo has been interpreted as an analogue for heaven or paradise. In the film, Andy describes it as a place with no memory, offering absolution from his sins by forgetting about them or allowing them to be washed away by the Pacific Ocean, whose name means "peace ''. The possibility of escaping to Zihuatanejo is only raised following Andy 's admission of guilt over his wife 's death. Similarly, Red 's freedom is only earned once he accepts he can not save himself or atone for his sins. Freeman has described Red 's story as one of salvation as he is not innocent of his crimes, unlike Andy who finds redemption. While some Christian viewers interpret Zihuatanejo as heaven, it can also be interpreted as a Nietzschean form of guiltlessness achieved outside traditional notions of good and evil, where the amnesia offered is the destruction rather than forgiveness of sin, meaning Andy 's aim is secular and atheistic. Just as Andy can be interpreted as a Christ - like figure, he can be seen as a Zarathustra - like prophet offering escape through education and the experience of freedom. Ebert argued that The Shawshank Redemption is an allegory for maintaining one 's feeling of self - worth when placed in a hopeless position. Andy 's integrity is an important theme in the story line, especially in prison, where integrity is lacking.
Robbins himself believes that the concept of Zihuatanejo resonates with audiences because it represents a form of escape that can be achieved after surviving for many years within whatever "jail '' someone finds themselves, from a bad relationship, job, or environment. Robbins said that it is important that such a place exists for us. Isaac M. Morehouse suggests that the film provides a great illustration of how characters can be free, even in prison, or unfree, even in freedom, based on their outlooks on life. Philosopher Jean - Paul Sartre described freedom as an ongoing project that requires attention and resilience, without which a person begins to be defined by others or institutions, mirroring Red 's belief that inmates become dependent on the prison to define their lives. Andy displays resilience through rebellion, by playing music over the prison loudspeaker, and refusing to continue with the money laundering scam.
Many elements can be considered as tributes to the power of cinema. In the prison theater, the inmates watch the film Gilda (1946), but this scene was originally intended to feature The Lost Weekend (1945). The interchangeability of the films used in the prison theater suggests that it is the cinematic experience and not the subject which is key to the scene, allowing the men to escape the reality of their situation. Immediately following this scene, Andy is assaulted by the Sisters in the projector room and uses a film reel to help fight them off. Then in the end of the film, Andy passes through a hole in his cell hidden by a movie poster to escape both his cell and ultimately Shawshank.
Andy 's and Red 's relationship has been described as a non-sexual love story between two men, that few other films offer, where the friendship is not built on conducting a caper, car chases, or developing a relationship with women. Philosopher Alexander Hooke argued that Andy 's and Red 's true freedom is their friendship, being able to share joy and humor with each other.
Darabont first collaborated with author Stephen King in 1983 on the short film adaptation of "The Woman in the Room '', buying the rights from him for $1 -- a Dollar Deal that King used to help new directors build a résumé by adapting his short stories. After receiving his first screenwriting credit in 1987 for A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors, Darabont returned to King with $5,000 to purchase the rights to adapt Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption, a 96 - page novella from King 's 1982 collection Different Seasons, written to explore genres other than the horror stories for which he was commonly known. Although King did not understand how the story, largely focused on Red contemplating his fellow prisoner Andy, could be turned into a feature film, Darabont believed it was "obvious ''.
Five years later, Darabont wrote the script over an eight - week period. He expanded on elements of King 's story. Brooks, who in the novella is a minor character who dies in a retirement home, became a tragic character who eventually hanged himself. Tommy, who in the novella trades his evidence exonerating Andy for transfer to a nicer prison, in the screenplay is murdered on the orders of Warden Norton, who is a composite of several warden characters in King 's story. Darabont opted to create a single warden character to serve as the primary antagonist. Among his inspirations, Darabont listed the works of director Frank Capra, including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) and It 's a Wonderful Life (1946), describing them as tall tales; Darabont likened The Shawshank Redemption to a tall tale more than a prison movie. He also cited Goodfellas (1990) as an inspiration on the use of dialogue to illustrate the passage of time in the script. King never cashed the $5,000 cheque from Darabont for the rights to The Shawshank Redemption; he later framed it and returned it to Darabont accompanied by a note which read: "In case you ever need bail money. Love, Steve. ''
At the time, prison - based films were not considered likely box office successes, but Darabont 's script was read by then - Castle Rock Entertainment producer Liz Glotzer, whose interest in prison stories, and reaction to the script, led her to threaten to quit if Castle Rock did not produce The Shawshank Redemption. Director and Castle Rock co-founder Rob Reiner also liked the script. He offered Darabont between $2.4 million and $3 million to allow him to direct it himself. Reiner, who had previously adapted King 's 1982 novella The Body into the 1986 film Stand by Me, planned to cast Tom Cruise as Andy and Harrison Ford as Red.
Castle Rock offered to finance any other film Darabont wanted to develop. Darabont seriously considered the offer, citing growing up poor in Los Angeles, believing it would elevate his standing in the industry, and that Castle Rock could have contractually fired him and given the film to Reiner anyway. But, he chose to remain the director, saying in a 2014 Variety interview, "you can continue to defer your dreams in exchange for money and, you know, die without ever having done the thing you set out to do ''. Reiner served as Darabont 's mentor on the project instead. Within two weeks of showing the script to Castle Rock, Darabont had a $25 million budget to make his film (taking a $750,000 screenwriting and directing salary plus a percentage of the net profits), and pre-production began in January 1993.
Freeman was cast at the suggestion of producer Liz Glotzer, who ignored the novella 's character description of a white Irishman, nicknamed "Red ''. Freeman 's character alludes to the choice when queried by Andy on why he is called Red, replying "Maybe it 's because I 'm Irish. '' Freeman opted not to research his role, saying "acting the part of someone who 's incarcerated does n't require any specific knowledge of incarceration... because men do n't change. Once you 're in that situation, you just toe whatever line you have to toe. ''
Darabont looked initially at some of his favorite actors like Gene Hackman and Robert Duvall for the role of Andy Dufresne, but they were unavailable; Clint Eastwood and Paul Newman were also considered. Tom Cruise, Tom Hanks, and Kevin Costner were offered, and passed on the role -- Hanks due to his starring role in Forrest Gump, and Costner because he had the lead in Waterworld. Johnny Depp, Nicolas Cage, and Charlie Sheen were also considered for the role at different stages. Cruise attended table readings of the script, but declined to work for the inexperienced Darabont. Darabont said he cast Robbins after seeing his performance in the 1990 psychological horror Jacob 's Ladder. When Robbins was cast, he insisted that Darabont use experienced cinematographer Roger Deakins, who had worked with him on The Hudsucker Proxy. To prepare for the role, Robbins observed caged animals at a zoo, spent an afternoon in solitary confinement, spoke with prisoners and guards, and had his arms and legs shackled for a few hours.
Cast initially as young convict Tommy, Brad Pitt dropped out following his success in Thelma & Louise (the role went to a debuting Gil Bellows); James Gandolfini passed on portraying prison rapist Bogs. Bob Gunton was filming Demolition Man (1993) when he went to audition for the role of Warden Norton. To convince the studio that Gunton was right for the part, Darabont and producer Niki Marvin arranged for him to record a screen test on a day off from Demolition Man. They had a wig made for him as his head was shaved for his Demolition Man role. Gunton wanted to portray Norton with hair as this could then be grayed to convey his on - screen aging as the film progressed. Gunton performed his screen test with Robbins, which was filmed by Deakins. After being confirmed for the role, he used the wig in the film 's early scenes until his hair re-grew. Gunton said that Marvin and Darabont saw that he understood the character which went in his favor, as did the fact his height was similar to Robbins ' allowing Andy to believably use the warden 's suit.
Portraying the head guard Byron Hadley, Clancy Brown was given the opportunity to speak with former guards by the production 's liaison officer, but declined believing it would not be a good thing to say that his brutal character was in any way inspired by Ohio state correctional officers. William Sadler, who portrays Heywood, said that Darabont had approached him in 1989 on the set of the Tales from the Crypt television series where he was a writer, about starring in the adaptation he was intending to make. Freeman 's son Alfonso has a cameo as a young Red in mug shot photos, and as a prisoner shouting "fresh fish '' as Andy arrives at Shawshank. Among the extras used in the film were the former warden and former inmates of the Reformatory, and active guards from a nearby incarceration facility. The novella 's original title attracted several people to audition for the non-existent role of Rita Hayworth, including a man in drag clothing.
On a $25 million budget, principal photography took place over three months between June and August 1993. Filming regularly required up to 18 - hour workdays, six days a week. Freeman described filming as tense, saying, "Most of the time, the tension was between the cast and director. I remember having a bad moment with the director, had a few of those. '' Freeman referred to Darabont 's requiring multiple takes of scenes which he considered had no discernible differences. For example, the scene where Andy first approaches Red to procure a rock hammer took nine hours to film, and featured Freeman throwing and catching a baseball with another inmate throughout it. The number of takes that were shot resulted in Freeman turning up to filming the following day with his arm in a sling. Freeman sometimes simply refused to do the additional takes. Robbins said that the long days were difficult. Darabont felt that making the film taught him a lot, "A director really needs to have an internal barometer to measure what any given actor needs. '' He found his most frequent struggles were with Deakins. Darabont favored more scenic shots, while Deakins felt that not showing the outside of the prison added a sense of claustrophobia, and it meant that when a wide scenic shot was used, it had more impact.
Marvin spent five months scouting prisons across the United States and Canada, looking for a site that had a timeless aesthetic, and was completely abandoned, hoping to avoid the complexity of filming the required footage, for hours each day, in an active prison with the security difficulties that would entail. Marvin eventually chose the Ohio State Reformatory in Mansfield, Ohio to serve as the fictional Shawshank State Penitentiary in Maine, citing its Gothic - style stone and brick buildings. After nearly a century of use, the facility had been closed three years earlier on New Year 's Eve, 1990, due to inhumane living conditions.
The 15 - acre reformatory, housing its own power plant and farm, was partially torn down shortly after filming was completed, leaving the main administration building and two cell blocks. Several of the interior shots of the specialized prison facilities, such as the admittance rooms and the warden 's office, were shot in the reformatory. The interior of the boarding room used by Brooks and Red was in the administration building; exterior shots of the boarding house were taken elsewhere. Internal scenes in the prison cellblocks were filmed on a soundstage built inside a nearby shuttered Westinghouse Electric factory. Since Darabont wanted the inmates ' cells to face each other, almost all the cellblock scenes were shot on a purpose - built set housed in the Westinghouse factory except for the scene featuring Elmo Blatch 's admission of guilt for the crimes for which Andy was convicted. It was filmed in one of the actual prison 's more confined cells. Scenes were also filmed in Mansfield, as well as neighboring Ashland, Ohio. The oak tree under which Andy buries his letter to Red was located near Malabar Farm State Park, in Lucas, Ohio; it was destroyed by winds in 2016.
Just as a prison in Ohio stood in for a fictional one in Maine, the beach scene showing Andy and Red 's reunion in Zihuatanejo, Mexico, was actually shot in the Caribbean on the island of Saint Croix, one of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The beach at ' Zihuatanejo ' is the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge, a protected area for leatherback sea turtles. Scenes shot in Upper Sandusky included the prison wood shop scene where Red and his fellow inmates hear "The Marriage of Figaro '' (the woodshop is now called the Shawshank Woodshop), and the opening court scene which was shot at the Wyandot County Courthouse. Other shooting locations included Pugh Cabin in Malabar Farm State Park, where Andy sits outside as his wife engages in an affair, Butler, Ohio which stood in for Buxton, Maine, and The Bissman Building in Mansfield, which served as the hotel where Brooks stayed following his release.
While the film portrays Andy escaping to freedom through a sewer pipe described as a "river of shit '', Robbins crawls through a mixture of water, chocolate syrup, and sawdust. The stream into which Robbins emerges was actually certified toxic by a chemist according to production designer Terence Marsh. Of the scene, Robbins said, "when you 're doing a film, you want to be a good soldier -- you do n't want to be the one that gets in the way. So you will do things as an actor that are compromising to your physical health and safety. '' As for the scene where Andy rebelliously plays music over the prison announcement system, it was Robbins ' idea for Andy to turn the music up and not shut it off. While in the finished film the inmates watch Rita Hayworth in Gilda (1946), they were originally intended to be watching Billy Wilder 's The Lost Weekend (1945), a film about the dangers of alcohol. As the footage was too costly to procure from Paramount Pictures, producer Niki Marvin approached The Shawshank Redemption 's domestic distribution rights - holder Columbia Pictures, who offered a list of lower - priced titles, one of which was Gilda.
The final cut of the theatrically released film runs for 142 minutes, and was dedicated to Allen Greene, Darabont 's former agent who died during filming from AIDS. The film 's first edit ran for nearly two and a half hours, which Glotzer considered "long '', and several scenes were cut including a longer sequence of Red adjusting to life post incarceration; Darabont said that in test screenings the audience seemed to be getting impatient with the scene as they were already convinced that Red would not make it. Another scene cut for time showed a prison guard investigating Andy 's escape tunnel; it was thought this slowed down the action. The film originally had a cold open that played out Andy 's crime, with his trial playing throughout the opening credits, but these scenes were edited together to create a more "punchy '' opening. One scripted scene, which Darabont described as his best work, was left unfilmed because of the shooting schedule. In the scene, a dreaming Red is sucked into the poster of Rita Hayworth to find himself alone and insignificant on the Pacific shore, saying "I am terrified, there is no way home. '' Darabont said that he regretted being unable to capture the scene.
In Darabont 's original vision for the end of the film Red is seen riding a bus towards the Mexican border, leaving his fate ambiguous. Glotzer insisted on including the scene of Red and Andy reuniting in Zihuatanejo. She said Darabont felt this was a "commercial, sappy '' ending, but Glotzer wanted the audience to see them together. Castle Rock agreed to finance filming for the scene without requiring its inclusion, guaranteeing Darabont the final decision. The scene originally featured a longer reunion in which Andy and Red recited dialogue from their first meeting, but Darabont said it had a "golly - gee - ai n't - we - cute '' quality and excised it. The beach reunion was test audiences ' favorite scene; both Freeman and Robbins felt it provided the necessary closure. Darabont agreed to include the scene after seeing the test audience reactions, saying: "I think it 's a magical and uplifting place for our characters to arrive at the end of their long saga... ''
The film 's score was composed by Thomas Newman. He felt that it already elicited such strong emotions without music that he found it difficult to compose one that would elevate scenes without distracting from them. The piece, "Shawshank Redemption '', plays during Andy 's escape from Shawshank and originally had a three - note motif, but Darabont felt it had too much of a "triumphal flourish '' and asked that it be toned down to a single - note motif. "So Was Red '', played following Red 's release from prison, and leading to his discovery of Andy 's cache, became one of Newman 's favorite pieces. The piece was initially written for a solo oboe, until Newman reluctantly agreed to add harmonica -- a reference to the harmonica Red receives from Andy to continue his message of hope. According to Darabont, harmonica player Tommy Morgan "casually delivered something dead - on perfect on the first take '', and this is heard in the finished film. Newman 's score was so successful that excerpts from it were used in movie trailers for years afterwards.
Leading up to its release, the film was test screened with the public. These were described as "through the roof '', and Glotzer said they were some of the best she had seen. It was decided to mostly omit Stephen King 's name from any advertising, as the studio wanted to attract a "more prestigious audience '' who might reject a film from a writer known mostly for pulp fiction works like The Shining and Cujo.
Following early September premieres at the Renaissance Theatre in Mansfield, and the Toronto International Film Festival, The Shawshank Redemption began a limited North American release on September 23, 1994. During its opening weekend, the film earned $727,000 from 33 theaters -- an average of $22,040 per theater. Following a Hollywood tradition of visiting different theaters on opening night to see the audiences view their film live, Darabont and Glotzer went to the Cinerama Dome, but found no one there. Glotzer claimed that the pair actually sold two tickets outside the theater with the promise that if the buyers did not like the film, they could ask Castle Rock for a refund. While critics praised the film, Glotzer believed that a lackluster review from the Los Angeles Times pushed crowds away. It received a wide release on October 14, 1994, expanding to a total of 944 theaters to earn $2.4 million -- an average of $2,545 per theater -- finishing as the number nine film of the weekend, behind sex - comedy Exit to Eden ($3 million), and just ahead of the historical drama Quiz Show ($2.1 million), which was in its fifth week at the cinemas. The Shawshank Redemption closed in late November 1994, after 10 weeks with an approximate total gross of $16 million. It was considered a box office bomb, failing to recoup its $25 million budget, not including marketing costs and the cinema exhibitors ' cuts.
The film was also competing with Pulp Fiction ($108 million), which also premiered October 14 following its Palme d'Or award win, and Forrest Gump ($330 million) which was in the middle of a successful 42 - week theatrical run. Both films would become quotable cultural phenomena. A general audience trend towards action films starring the likes of Bruce Willis and Arnold Schwarzenegger was also considered to work against the commercial success of The Shawshank Redemption. Freeman blamed the title, saying it was unmemorable, while Robbins recalled fans asking: "What was that Shinkshonk Reduction thing? ''. Several alternative titles had been posited before the release due to concerns that it was not a marketable title. The low box office was also blamed on a lack of female characters to broaden the audience demographic, and the general unpopularity of prison films.
After being nominated for several Oscars in early 1995, the film was re-released between February and March. In total, the film made about $28.3 million in North American theaters, and about $30 million from other markets for a worldwide total of $58.3 million. In the United States, it became the 51st - highest - grossing film of 1994, and the 21st - highest grossing R - rated film of 1994.
Despite its disappointing box - office returns, in what was then considered a risky move, Warner Home Video shipped 320,000 rental video copies throughout the United States in 1995. It went on to become one of the top rented films of the year. Positive recommendations and repeat customer viewings, and being well - received by both male and female audiences, were considered key to the film 's rental success.
Ted Turner 's Turner Broadcasting System had acquired Castle Rock in 1993, which enabled his TV channel, TNT, to obtain the cable - broadcast rights to the film. According to Glotzer, because of the low box office numbers, TNT could air the film at a very low cost, but still charge premium advertising rates. The film began airing regularly on the network in June 1997. TV airings of the film accrued record - breaking numbers, and its repeated broadcast was considered essential to turning the film into a cultural phenomenon after its poor box office performance. Darabont felt the turning point for the film 's success was the Academy Award nominations, saying "nobody had heard of the movie, and that year on the Oscar broadcast, they were mentioning this movie seven times ''. In 1996, the rights to The Shawshank Redemption were passed to Warner Bros., following the merger of its parent company Time Warner with the Turner Broadcasting System.
By 2013, The Shawshank Redemption had aired on fifteen basic cable networks, and in that year occupied 151 hours of airtime, rivaling Scarface (1983), and behind only Mrs. Doubtfire (1993). It was in the top 15 percent of movies among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 on the Spike, Up, SundanceTV, and Lifetime channels. Despite its mainly male cast it was the most watched movie on the female - targeted OWN network. In a 2014 Wall Street Journal article, it was estimated that based on the margins studios take from box office returns, home media sales, and television licensing, The Shawshank Redemption had made $100 million. Jeff Baker, then - executive vice president and general manager of Warner Bros. Home Entertainment, said that the home video sales had earned about $80 million. While Warner Bros. does not report what it earns in licensing the film for TV, in 2014 current and former executives at the studio confirmed that it was one of the highest valued assets in Warner Bros. $1.5 billion library. That same year, Gunton said that by its tenth anniversary in 2004, he was still earning six - figure residual payments, and was still earning a "substantial income '' from it, which was considered unusual so many years after its release.
The Shawshank Redemption opened to generally positive reviews. Some reviewers compared the film to other well - received prison dramas, including: Birdman of Alcatraz, One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, Cool Hand Luke, and Riot in Cell Block 11. Gene Siskel said that like One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, The Shawshank Redemption is an inspirational drama about overcoming overbearing authority.
Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman said that Freeman makes the Red character feel genuine and "lived - in ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times said that Freeman was quietly impressive, but lamented that Red 's role in the film had limited range, restricted to observing Andy. She considered Freeman 's commanding performance made him a much stronger figure than simply an observer. Maslin said that Freeman 's performance was especially moving when describing how dependent Red had become on living within the prison walls. Variety 's Leonard Klady suggested that Freeman had the "showier '' role, allowing him "a grace and dignity that come naturally '', without ever becoming banal, and The Washington Post 's Desson Howe called Freeman a "master '' of comedic and poignant cadence. Even Kenneth Turan 's Los Angeles Times review, which Glotzer credited with derailing the film 's box office success, praised Freeman, saying his "effortless screen presence lends Shawshank the closest thing to credibility it can manage ''.
Of Robbins ' performance, Gleiberman said that in his "laconic - good - guy, neo-Gary Cooper role, (Robbins) is unable to make Andy connect with the audience ''. Conversely, Maslin said that Andy has the more subdued role, but that Robbins portrays him intensely, and effectively depicts the character as he transitions from new prisoner to aged father figure, and Klady stated that his "riveting, unfussy... precise, honest, and seamless '' performance anchors the film. Howe said that while the character is "cheesily messianic '' for easily charming everyone to his side, comparing him to "Forrest Gump goes to jail '', Robbins exudes the perfect kind of innocence to sell the story. The Hollywood Reporter stated that both Freeman and Robbins gave outstanding, layered performances that imbued their characters with individuality, and Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers said that the pair create something "undeniably powerful and moving ''. Gunton and Brown were deemed by Klady as "extremely credible in their villainy '', Howe countered that Gunton 's warden was a clichéd character who extols religious virtues while having people murdered.
Maslin called the film an impressive directorial debut that tells a gentle tale with a surprising amount of loving care, and Klady saying the only failings came when Darabont focused for too long on supporting characters, or embellished a secondary story. The Hollywood Reporter said that both the directing and writing were crisp, while criticizing the film 's long running time. Klady said that the length and tone, while tempered by humor and unexpected events, would dampen the film 's mainstream appeal, but the story offered a fascinating portrait of the innate humanity of the inmates. Gleiberman disliked that the prisoners ' crimes were overlooked to portray them more as good guys. Turan similarly objected to what he perceived as extreme violence and rape scenes, and making most of the prisoners seem like a "bunch of swell and softhearted guys '' to cast the prison experience in a "rosy glow ''. Klady summarized the film as "estimable and haunting entertainment '', comparing it to a rough diamond with small flaws, but Howe criticized it for deviating with multiple subplots, and pandering by choosing to resolve the story with Andy 's and Red 's reunion, rather than leaving the mystery. Ebert noted that the story works because it is not about Andy as the hero, but how Red perceives him.
Deakins cinematography was routinely praised, with The Hollywood Reporter calling it "foreboding '' and "well - crafted '', and Travers saying "the everyday agonies of prison life are meticulously laid out... you can almost feel the frustration and rage seeping into the skin of the inmates ''. Gleiberman praised the choice of scenery, writing that the "moss - dark, saturated images have a redolent sensuality '' that makes the film very realistic. The Hollywood Reporter said of Newman 's score, "at its best moments, alights with radiant textures and sprightly grace notes, nicely emblematic of the film 's central theme '', and Klady describing it as "the right balance between the somber and the absurd ''.
The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1995, the most for a Stephen King film adaptation: Best Picture (Marvin), Best Actor (Freeman), Best Adapted Screenplay (Darabont), Best Cinematography (Deakins), Best Editing (Richard Francis - Bruce), Best Sound Mixing (Robert J. Litt, Elliot Tyson, Michael Herbick, and Willie D. Burton), and Best Original Score (Newman, his first Academy Award nomination). It did not win in any category. It received two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture for Freeman, and Best Screenplay for Darabont.
Robbins and Freeman were both nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role at the inaugural Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1995. Darabont was nominated for a Directors Guild of America award in 1994 for Best Director of a feature film, and a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Deakins won the American Society of Cinematographers award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography, while producer Niki Marvin was nominated for a 1994 Golden Laurel Award by the Producers Guild of America.
Darabont later adapted and directed two other King stories, The Green Mile (1999) and The Mist (2007). In a 2016 interview, King said that The Shawshank Redemption was his favorite adaptation of his work, alongside Stand by Me.
The oak tree, under which Andy leaves a note for Red directing him to Zihuatanejo, became a symbol of hope for its role in the film, and is considered iconic. In 2016, The New York Times reported that the tree attracted thousands of visitors annually. The tree was partially destroyed on July 29, 2011, when it was split by lightning; news of the damage was reported across the United States on newscasts, in newspapers, and on websites as far away as India. The tree was completely felled by strong winds on or around July 22, 2016, and its vestiges were cut down in April 2017. The remains were turned into The Shawshank Redemption memorabilia including rock hammers and magnets.
The prison site became a tourist attraction, with many of the rooms and props remaining including the false pipe through which Andy escapes, and a portion of the oak tree from the finale, after it was damaged in 2011. The surrounding area is also visited by fans, while local businesses market "Shawshanwiches '' and Bundt cakes in the shape of the prison. The prison itself was to be torn down completely following filming, but was eventually sold to enthusiasts for $1. According to the Mansfield / Richland County Convention and Visitors Bureau (later renamed Destination Mansfield), tourism in the area had increased every year since The Shawshank Redemption premiered, and in 2013 drew in 18,000 visitors and over $3 million to the local economy. In late August that year, a series of events were held in Mansfield to celebrate the film 's 20th anniversary including a screening of the film at the Renaissance Theatre, a bus tour of certain filming locations, and a cocktail party at the Reformatory. Cast from the film attended some of the events including Gunton, Scott Mann, Renee Blaine, and James Kisicki. As of 2017, Destination Mansfield operates the Shawshank Trail, a series of 15 marked stops around locations related to the film across Mansfield, Ashland, Upper Sandusky, and St. Croix.
Contemporary review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes offers a 91 % approval rating from 66 critics, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The consensus reads, "The Shawshank Redemption is an uplifting, deeply satisfying prison drama with sensitive direction and fine performances. '' The film also has a score of 80 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 20 critics indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In 1999, film critic Roger Ebert listed Shawshank on his list of The Great Movies. The film has been nominated for, or appeared on, the American Film Institute 's lists celebrating the top 100 film or film - related topics. In 1998, it was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list, and was No. 72 on the 2007 revised list, outranking Forrest Gump (No. 76) and Pulp Fiction (No. 94). It was also No. 23 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers (2006) list charting inspiring films. The characters of Andy and Warden Norton received nominations for AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes & Villains list; AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes list for "Get busy livin ', or get busy dyin ' ''; AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs list for "Duettino -- Sull'Aria '' (from The Marriage of Figaro); and AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores for Newman 's work. In 2005, the Writers Guild of America listed Darabont 's screenplay at No. 22 on its list of the 101 Greatest Screenplays, and in 2014, The Shawshank Redemption was named Hollywood 's fourth favorite film, based on a survey of 2,120 Hollywood - based entertainment industry members; entertainment lawyers skewed the most towards the film. In 2017, The Daily Telegraph named it the seventeenth - best prison film ever made. The Shawshank Redemption appeared on several lists of the greatest films of the 1990s, by outlets including: Paste and NME (2012), Complex (2013), CHUD.com (2014), MSN (2015), TheWrap, Maxim, and Rolling Stone (2017).
In November 2014, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences celebrated the film 's 20th anniversary with a special one - night screening at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California. In 2015, the film was selected by the United States Library of Congress to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Darabont responded: "I can think of no greater honor than for The Shawshank Redemption to be considered part of our country 's cinematic legacy. '' Variety said that the word "Shawshank '' could be used to instantly convey images of a prison.
Critics have sometimes struggled to define the immense public appreciation for the film. In an interview, Freeman said, "About everywhere you go, people say, ' The Shawshank Redemption -- greatest movie I ever saw ' '' and that such praise "Just comes out of them ''. Robbins said, "I swear to God, all over the world -- all over the world -- wherever I go, there are people who say, ' That movie changed my life ' ". In a separate interview, Stephen King said, "If that is n't the best (adaptation of my works), it 's one of the two or three best, and certainly, in moviegoers ' minds, it 's probably the best because it generally rates at the top of these surveys they have of movies... I never expected anything to happen with it. '' In a 2014 Variety article, Robbins claimed that South African politician Nelson Mandela told him about his love for the film, while it has been cited as a source of inspiration by several sportsmen including Jonny Wilkinson (UK), Agustín Pichot (Argentina), Al Charron (Canada), and Dan Lyle (USA), and Sarah Ferguson, the Duchess of York. Gunton said he had encountered fans in Morocco, Australia, South America, Germany, France, and Bora Bora. Director Steven Spielberg said that the film was "a chewing - gum movie -- if you step on it, it sticks to your shoe ''.
It has been the number 1 film on IMDb 's user - generated Top 250 since 2008, when it surpassed The Godfather, having remained at or near the top since the late 1990s. In the United Kingdom, readers of Empire magazine voted the film as the best of the 1990s, the greatest film of all time in 2006, and it placed number four on Empire 's 2008 list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' and their 2017 list of "The 100 Greatest Movies ''. In March 2011, the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their favorite film of all time. It regularly appears on Empire 's top 100 films, was named the greatest film to not win the Academy Award for Best Picture in a 2013 poll by Sky UK (it lost to Forrest Gump), and ranked as Britain 's favorite film in a 2015 YouGov poll. When the British Film Institute analyzed the demographic breakdown of the YouGov poll, it noted that The Shawshank Redemption was not the top - ranked film in any group, but was the only film to appear in the top 15 of every age group, suggesting it is able to connect with every polled age group, unlike Pulp Fiction which fared better with younger voters, and Gone with the Wind (1939) with older voters. A 2017 poll conducted by Gatwick Airport also identified the film as the fourth - best to watch while in flight. When film critic Mark Kermode interviewed a host of United States moviegoers, they compared it to a "religious experience ''. It was also voted as New Zealand 's favorite film in a 2015 poll.
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who plays robbie on war of the worlds | Justin Chatwin - wikipedia
Justin Chatwin (born October 31, 1982) is a Canadian actor, known for his roles in War of the Worlds (2005), The Invisible (2007), Dragonball Evolution (2009), No Stranger Than Love (2015), and Urge (2016). He had supporting roles in Taking Lives (2004), Baby Geniuses 2 (2004), and Funkytown (2011).
Chatwin is also known for his work in the Showtime comedy - drama series Shameless. In 2016, he starred in the CBS mystery series American Gothic.
Chatwin was born in Nanaimo, British Columbia, to Suzanne, an artist, and Brian Chatwin, an engineer. He was raised Catholic alongside his two sisters, Brianna and Claire. Chatwin studied commerce at the University of British Columbia and took acting lessons in his spare time. He moved to Los Angeles in 2005 and lived for a time with actor Noel Fisher.
Chatwin made his film debut in the musical comedy Josie and the Pussycats. After that, he had guest appearances in television series such as Smallville, Just Cause, Glory Days, and Mysterious Ways. He had supporting roles in the films Taking Lives and Superbabies: Baby Geniuses 2. Chatwin gained recognition in 2004 for his role as Tyler McKay in the miniseries Traffic. Chatwin next portrayed Tom Cruise 's son in the blockbuster War of the Worlds, directed by Steven Spielberg. Also in 2005, he appeared in the independent black comedy The Chumscrubber, alongside Jamie Bell and Carrie - Anne Moss. In the same year, he played the son of Kevin Nealon 's character in the Showtime comedy series Weeds, appearing only in the pilot episode and the series finale. In 2006, he made a guest appearance in the ABC drama series Lost, and starred in the play Dark Matters in New York.
In 2007, he starred in The Invisible, a remake of the Swedish film Den Osynlige, which marked his first lead role. The following year, he played a supporting role in Middle of Nowhere, a coming - of - age drama directed by John Stockwell, also starring Anton Yelchin and Susan Sarandon. In 2009, Chatwin portrayed Goku in Dragonball Evolution, a big screen adaptation based on the Japanese Dragon Ball manga by Akira Toriyama. He then returned to Canada to shoot Funkytown, alongside Patrick Huard and Paul Doucet.
In 2009, he was cast as Jimmy Lishman in the Showtime series Shameless, opposite William H. Macy and Emmy Rossum. Chatwin was a series regular for three seasons, and returned for the fourth season finale. He also appeared in the fifth season as a special guest star. In 2011, Chatwin starred in the short film Brink, written and directed Shawn Christensen. He also made a guest appearance in the third season of The Listener opposite Craig Olejnik.
Chatwin subsequently appeared in the sci - fi musical Bang Bang Baby (2014), and the romantic comedy No Stranger Than Love (2015), with Alison Brie and Colin Hanks. The following year, he starred in the thriller Urge, alongside Pierce Brosnan and Ashley Greene, the film adaptation of Nancy Pickard 's novel The Scent of Rain and Lightning, the comedy Unleashed, and the romantic drama One Night, Also, in 2016, he returned to television with a leading role in CBS mystery drama series American Gothic, starring alongside Megan Ketch, Antony Starr and Virginia Madsen. He also starred in the BBC science fiction series Doctor Who in 2016 Christmas special "The Return of Doctor Mysterio ''. In 2017, he had a cameo role in the action - comedy CHiPs. He will star in the upcoming In the Lost Lands, a fantasy - adventure film based on three short stories by A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin.
From 2005 to 2009, Chatwin was in a relationship with actress Molly Sims. He also dated Addison Timlin.
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who sang you can leave your hat on | You Can Leave Your Hat on - wikipedia
"You Can Leave Your Hat On '' is a song written by Randy Newman and appearing on his 1972 album Sail Away.
According to an Allmusic review by Mark Deming, the song is a "potent mid-tempo rock tune '' and a "witty and willfully perverse bit of erotic absurdity ''. Newman later admitted the song was, "too low for me to sing it. I ca n't rock it too hard, which maybe I should have... or maybe not. ''
Joe Cocker recorded "You Can Leave Your Hat On '' for his 1986 album Cocker. Released as a single, Cocker 's version peaked at # 35 on Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks, and it was featured in the 1986 Adrian Lyne film 91⁄2 Weeks during the striptease scene.
A music video was released which featured footage of the striptease scene from 91⁄2 Weeks and scenes with Cocker and his band performing the song. In some countries, the song itself is considered a striptease anthem, and still being used by strippers.
Etta James covered the song in a 1974 single, published by Chess Records and produced by Gabriel Mekler.
Merl Saunders and Aunt Monk covered it in 1976 on their album "You Can Leave Your Hat On ''. Here for the first time that specific brass arrangement was used which also Joe Cocker used in his much more successful cover 10 years later.
Tom Jones covered the song for the soundtrack of the 1997 British film The Full Monty and is included in the subsequent 2013 play of the same name.
American country music singer Ty Herndon covered the song on his 1999 album, Steam. Herndon 's version reached # 72 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart from unsolicited airplay and was included on his 2002 compilation, This Is Ty Herndon: Greatest Hits.
Others artists to cover the song include Jerry Garcia Band, Michael Grimm, Bill Wyman and Three Dog Night.
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what's the big building being built by dia | Tocumen International Airport - wikipedia
Tocumen International Airport (Spanish: Aeropuerto Internacional de Tocumen) (IATA: PTY, ICAO: MPTO) is the international airport of Panama City, the capital of Panama. The airport serves as the homebase for Copa Airlines and is a regional hub to and from The Caribbean, South, North and Central America and additionally features routes to some major European cities. Tocumen International Airport is currently the busiest airport in Central America.
During World War II, Panamanian airports were leased exclusively by the U.S. military. The nearest airport to Tocumen was the Paitilla Point Airfield. Several airports were built to protect the Panama Canal from foreign aggression. The 37th Pursuit Group at Albrook Field replaced the P - 40 Warhawks of the 28th Pursuit Squadron at the Paitilla Point airbase from 9 December 1941 though 26 March 1942 in the immediate aftermath of the Pearl Harbor attack.
Tocumen International Airport was inaugurated on June 1, 1947 by President Enrique A. Jiménez, and airport operations began before the construction works were completed. The administrative building / passenger terminal was inaugurated seven years later, during the administration of Colonel Jose Antonio Remon Cantera. The old airport building, which currently is being used as a cargo terminal, was built on an area of 720 ha (1,800 acres) and was 126 ft (38 m) above sea level. As time passed, and due to Panama 's role as a country of transit, that terminal became too small to attend to the growing demand for air operations. This compelled the aeronautical authorities at the time to consider expanding the airport. Work on the new buildings began in 1971.
In order to build the structure that currently houses the current passenger terminal, a lot of land had to be moved and the bed of the Tocumen river had to be diverted from its original site. The current passenger terminal was inaugurated on August 15, 1978 and operations began on September 5 of the same year. The Tocumen International Airport is one of the few airports in the region that has two landing runways able to serve the largest commercial aircraft operating today.
The name of the airport was changed in 1981 by the military government for Omar Torrijos International Airport, in honor to the Panamanian leader who died in July 31, 1981, at the age of 52 in a plane crash in Cerro Marta, Coclesito in very bad conditions. After nine years, the original name was reestablished after the fall of the dictatorship of Panama by the U.S. invasion of 1989. The original runway (03L / 21R) is mainly used for cargo and private flights, but also as a supplement to the primary runway during peak traffic periods. The main runway (03R / 21L) is 3,050 m × 45 m (10,007 ft × 148 ft) and is used primarily for commercial flights, the 03R direction is ILS Cat. I enabled. Until May 31, 2003 Tocumen International Airport was managed by the Civil Aeronautics Directorate (which is known today as the Civil Aeronautics Authority). On June 1 of that year, an innovative terminal management platform was created through Law No. 23 of January 29, 2003, which set out a regulatory framework for the management of airports and landing strips in Panama. This law allowed the creation of Aeropuerto Internacional de Tocumen, S.A., also referred to as Tocumen, S.A., which currently manages the terminal. This law is one of a number of laws that restructured the aeronautical sector in Panama to further its improvement and modernization.
In August 2015, it was announced that Emirates would operate flights to Tocumen International Airport from Dubai starting February 2016, at which point it would have become the world 's longest non-stop flight. In January 2016, the route was delayed due to a lack of economical opportunities for the flight. It has not yet been announced when the flight will begin regularly scheduled operations. It was planned to make the route between Tocumen International Airport and Dubai the longest flight in the world, until Emirates started flying between Dubai and Auckland.
During 2016 to 2017, Tocumen International Airport will undergo the completion of the airport 's new South Terminal.
In 2006, Tocumen S.A. started a major expansion and renovation program. The main passenger terminal was expanded 20,830 m (224,200 sq ft) at a cost of approximately US $21 million. New boarding gates were built to allow more flights to and from Panama, and to facilitate the growth of commercial and internal circulation areas.
Tocumen airport administration acquired 22 new boarding bridges and replaced the oldest 14. This included the addition of 6 remote positions, hence allowing Tocumen Airport to have a total of 28 boarding gates. The new installations were opened in 2006. The airport also has a VIP lounge, Copa Club, operated by the partnership between United Airlines and Copa Airlines that caters to Copa 's partner airlines and Star Alliance members. It also had an Admirals Club for American Airlines, which closed on June 30, 2012.
The next step of the modernization project was the purchasing of new equipment to provide service and support to the common areas of the airport. New equipment included: modern boarding gates and elevators, luggage conveyor belts, flight information system, and revamping the air conditioning system.
The renovation of the old Tocumen international airport (originally built in 1947) to be used solely as a cargo terminal, was the last step of the modernization project of Tocumen international airport. It included the redesign of the central building, the construction of new buildings for cargo companies among other improvements.
The second expansion phase of Tocumen International airport is the Northern Terminal. At a cost of USD 60 million, a completely new terminal with 12 additional terminal gates was built. With these 12 new gates plus the existing 22 gates and the six remote aircraft docks, there will be a total of 40 gates. The new facilities include platforms, taxiways and a new road which connect both the cargo terminal and the airport 's administration building. The Muelle Norte is linked to the main passenger terminal and have 10 moving walkways for passengers and 1,400 m (15,000 sq ft) commercial areas. The luggage sorting system was expanded to accommodate increased demand. The tender for the design of the second phase was given to Ecuador - based Planman Cia Ltda. Colombia - based Aerotocumen won the tender of the construction of the North Terminal.
The South Terminal started a bidding process during the first half of 2012 and the contract was acquired by the Brazilian company Odebrecht. Tocumen S.A. made an investment of US $780 million, which includes 20 additional gates. It includes the construction of a new terminal, hundreds of parking spots, Tocumen river diversion, and four new direct - access lanes to the airport. The terminal will have gates able to accommodate the Airbus A380 and the Boeing 747 as well. It is expected for it to boost international traffic by attracting new airlines and increasing its operations. The new terminal is scheduled to open in 2018.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
Media related to Tocumen International Airport at Wikimedia Commons
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who fought in the battle of stamford bridge | Battle of Stamford bridge - wikipedia
Coordinates: 53 ° 59 ′ 20 '' N 0 ° 54 ′ 11 '' W / 53.989 ° N 0.903 ° W / 53.989; - 0.903
Kingdom of Norway
The Battle of Stamford Bridge took place at the village of Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, in England on 25 September 1066, between an English army under King Harold Godwinson and an invading Norwegian force led by King Harald Hardrada and the English king 's brother Tostig Godwinson. After a bloody battle, both Hardrada and Tostig along with most of the Norwegians were killed. Although Harold Godwinson repelled the Norwegian invaders, his army was defeated by the Normans at Hastings less than three weeks later. The battle has traditionally been presented as symbolising the end of the Viking Age, although major Scandinavian campaigns in Britain and Ireland occurred in the following decades, such as those of King Sweyn Estrithson of Denmark in 1069 -- 1070 and King Magnus Barefoot of Norway in 1098 and 1102 -- 1103.
The death of King Edward the Confessor of England in January 1066 had triggered a succession struggle in which a variety of contenders from across north - western Europe fought for the English throne. These claimants included the King of Norway, Harald Hardrada. According to the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle Manuscript D (p. 197), the Norwegians assembled a fleet of 300 ships to invade England. The authors, however, did not seem to differentiate between warships and supply ships. In King Harald 's Saga, Snorri Sturluson states, "... it is said that King Harald had over two hundred ships, apart from supply ships and smaller craft. '' Combined with reinforcements picked up in Orkney, the Norwegian army most likely numbered between 7,000 and 9,000 men. Arriving off the English coast in September Hardrada was joined by further forces recruited in Flanders and Scotland by Tostig Godwinson. Tostig was at odds with his elder brother Harold (who had been elected king by the Witenagemot on the death of Edward). Having been ousted from his position as Earl of Northumbria and exiled in 1065, Tostig had mounted a series of abortive attacks on England in the spring of 1066.
In the late summer of 1066, the invaders sailed up the Ouse before advancing on York. On 20 September they defeated a northern English army led by Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and his brother Morcar, Earl of Northumbria, at the Battle of Fulford, outside York. Following this victory they received the surrender of York. Having briefly occupied the city and taken hostages and supplies from the city they returned towards their ships at Riccall. They offered peace to the Northumbrians in exchange for their support for Hardrada 's bid for the throne, and demanded further hostages from the whole of Yorkshire.
At this time King Harold was in Southern England, anticipating an invasion from France by William, Duke of Normandy, another contender for the English throne. Learning of the Norwegian invasion he headed north at great speed with his houscarls and as many thegns as he could gather, travelling day and night. He made the journey from London to Yorkshire, a distance of about 185 miles, in only four days, enabling him to take the Norwegians completely by surprise. Having learned that the Northumbrians had been ordered to send the additional hostages and supplies to the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge, Harold hurried on through York to attack them at this rendezvous on 25 September. Until the English army came into view the invaders remained unaware of the presence of a hostile army anywhere in the vicinity.
There is some controversy as to whether or not a village and bridge existed at the time of the battle. One theory holds that there was no village at Stamford Bridge in 1066 and not even in 1086 when the Domesday Book was compiled. According to this theory, the name is locative and descriptive of crossing points over the River Derwent being derived from a combination of the words stone, ford and bridge i.e. stoneford and bridge. At the location of the present village, within the river bed, there is an outcrop of stone over which the river once flowed as a mini-waterfall. At low water levels one could easily cross over the river at this point, either on foot or horseback.
An alternative explanation is given by Darby and Maxwell who state, "Stamford Bridge does, in fact, exemplify that small number of places which, though not mentioned in the Domesday Book, must have existed, or at any rate been named, in Domesday times because they appear in both pre-Domesday and post-Domesday documents. '' Most likely the Stamford Bridge lands were included with Low Catton and therefore were not mentioned in the Domesday Book. As for the presence of a bridge, manuscripts C, D and E of the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle all mention Stamford Bridge by name. Manuscript C contains a passage which states "... came upon them beyond the bridge... ''. Henry of Huntington mentions Stamford Bridge and describes part of the battle being fought across the bridge. Therefore, a bridge over the Derwent most likely did exist at this time.
One mile to the south along the River Derwent at Scoreby lies the site of a 1st to 4th century Roman settlement known as Derventio. The town runs for two and a half miles east / west alongside a Roman road. Occupying both east and west banks of the river, the town was connected by the construction of a bridge which carried the road. There is no archaeological evidence for a Roman bridge construction at or near the present site of Stamford Bridge.
It is possible that there may have been a two - pronged attack by Godwinson on Hardrada 's army, making use of both the ford and perhaps the remnants of the earlier Roman bridge one mile to the south, information of which, and of the two road routes to the location from York, could have been gathered from Godwinson 's earlier occupation of the city of York. However, no documentation exists to support this possibility.
Topographically, on the east bank of the river from the bridge crossing point, the land rises sharply up to 100 feet at High Catton. This is the only high ground around and a good defensive position for Hardrada 's army caught out by Godwinson 's sudden appearance on the skyline, as he rounded the ridge at Gate Helmsley to drop downhill swiftly onto Hardrada 's unsuspecting army.
According to Snorri Sturluson, before the battle a single man rode up alone to Harald Hardrada and Tostig. He gave no name, but spoke to Tostig, offering the return of his earldom if he would turn against Hardrada. Tostig asked what his brother Harold would be willing to give Hardrada for his trouble. The rider replied "Seven feet of English ground, as he is taller than other men. '' Then he rode back to the Saxon host. Hardrada was impressed by the rider 's boldness, and asked Tostig who he was. Tostig replied that the rider was Harold Godwinson himself. According to Henry of Huntingdon, Harold said "Six feet of ground or as much more as he needs, as he is taller than most men. ''
The exact location of the Stamford Bridge battlefield is not known. Local tradition places the battlefield east of the River Derwent and just southeast of the town in an area known as Battle Flats. The location of the Norwegian army at the start of the battle is not known for certain. Accounts of their location differ, depending on sources and interpretations. A common view is that the Norwegian army was divided in two; with some of their troops on the west side of the River Derwent and the bulk of their army on the east side. Another interpretation is that they were just leaving Stamford Bridge and moving along the old Roman road toward York (west side of the River Derwent).
The sudden appearance of the English army caught the Norwegians by surprise. Their response was to deploy rapidly in a defensive circle. If the Norwegians were located at Battle Flats, there is no good explanation as to why they deployed into this formation. However, if they were located on the east side of the Derwent, the deployment made perfect sense. By the time the bulk of the English army had arrived, the Vikings on the west side were either slain or fleeing across the bridge. The English advance was then delayed by the need to pass through the choke - point presented by the bridge itself. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle has it that a giant Norse axeman (possibly armed with a Dane Axe) blocked the narrow crossing and single - handedly held up the entire English army. The story is that this axeman cut down up to 40 Englishmen and was defeated only when an English soldier floated under the bridge in a half - barrel and thrust his spear through the planks in the bridge, mortally wounding the axeman.
This delay had allowed the bulk of the Norse army to form a shieldwall to face the English attack. Harold 's army poured across the bridge, forming a line just short of the Norse army, locked shields and charged. The battle went far beyond the bridge itself, and although it raged for hours the Norse army 's decision to leave their armour behind left them at a distinct disadvantage. Eventually, the Norse army began to fragment and fracture, allowing the English troops to force their way in and break up the Scandinavians ' shield wall. Completely outflanked, and with Hardrada killed with an arrow to his windpipe and Tostig slain, the Norwegian army disintegrated and was virtually annihilated.
In the later stages of the battle, the Norwegians were reinforced by troops who had been guarding the ships at Riccall, led by Eystein Orre, Hardrada 's prospective son - in - law. Some of his men were said to have collapsed and died of exhaustion upon reaching the battlefield. The remainder were fully armed for battle. Their counter-attack, described in the Norwegian tradition as "Orre 's Storm '', briefly checked the English advance, but was soon overwhelmed and Orre was slain. The Norwegian army were routed. As given in the Chronicles, pursued by the English army, some of the fleeing Norsemen drowned whilst crossing rivers.
So many died in an area so small that the field was said to have been still whitened with bleached bones 50 years after the battle.
King Harold accepted a truce with the surviving Norwegians, including Harald 's son Olaf and Paul Thorfinnsson, Earl of Orkney. They were allowed to leave after giving pledges not to attack England again. The losses the Norwegians had suffered were so severe that only 24 ships from the fleet of over 300 were needed to carry the survivors away. They withdrew to Orkney, where they spent the winter, and in the spring Olaf returned to Norway. The kingdom was then divided and shared between him and his brother Magnus, whom Harald had left behind to govern in his absence.
Three days after the battle, on 28 September 1066 a second invasion army led by William, Duke of Normandy landed in Pevensey Bay, Sussex, on the south coast of England. King Harold had to immediately turn his troops around and force - march them southwards to intercept the Norman army. Less than three weeks after Stamford Bridge, on 14 October 1066, the English army was heavily defeated and King Harold II fell in action at the Battle of Hastings, beginning the Norman conquest of England, a process facilitated by the heavy losses amongst the English military commanders.
Two monuments to the battle have been erected in and around the village of Stamford Bridge.
The first memorial is located in the village on Main Street (A116). The monument 's inscription reads (in both English and Norwegian):
THE BATTLE OF STAMFORD BRIDGE WAS FOUGHT IN THIS NEIGHBOURHOOD ON SEPTEMBER 25TH, 1066
The inscription on the accompanying marble tablet reads:
THE BATTLE OF STAMFORD BRIDGE KING HAROLD OF ENGLAND DEFEATED HIS BROTHER TOSTIG AND KING HARDRAADA (sic) OF NORWAY HERE ON 25 SEPTEMBER 1066
A second monument is located at the battlefield site at the end of Whiterose Drive. This monument consists of a memorial stone and plaque detailing the events and outcome of the battle. The plaque points out that:
This viewpoint overlooks the site of the Battle of Stamford Bridge, fought by King Harold of England against the invading Norse army of Hardrada.
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who played danny tanner's wife in full house | List of Full House and Fuller House characters - wikipedia
This is a list of the characters from the American television sitcom Full House and its sequel series Fuller House. The former ran for eight seasons on ABC from September 22, 1987 to May 23, 1995. Fuller House followed 21 years later, airing on Netflix beginning February 26, 2016. The first nine episodes of the third season were released on September 22, 2017, and the back nine was released on December 22, 2017.
^ Note 1: Scott Weinger, John Brotherton, Ashley Liao and Adam Hagenbuch are credited after the opening credits and only for the episodes in which they appear.
^ Note 2: Scott Weinger is credited as a Special Guest Star in the sixth episode of season two but as starring in all of his other appearances.
Jesse Katsopolis (portrayed by John Stamos; the character 's last name in season one was Cochran, but was changed reportedly due to John Stamos wanting his character to better reflect his Greek heritage) is Danny 's brother - in - law, Pam 's younger brother, husband of Rebecca Donaldson and father of twin sons Nicky and Alex. Born Hermes Katsopolis (as revealed in the season five episode "The Legend of Ranger Joe ''), he was named after his great - grandfather, who in turn is named after the Greek god of swiftness. However, he did not like his birth name, as other kids teased him for it; so when he was in kindergarten, he begged his parents to have his name changed to Jesse, thinking that one had to have a "cool name '' to be in the in - crowd. As an adult, he was more confident with his true name, telling the girls about the Greek god of speed, and how his great - grandfather saved a village from a volcano, but still goes by Jesse.
In contrast with Danny, Jesse is portrayed as being irresponsible most of the time, but occasionally serves as a responsible adult when a responsible adult is needed (such as when he discovers Stephanie 's classmate is a child abuse victim in the season 6 episode "Silence is Not Golden ''). Jesse is revealed as a high school dropout in season six 's "Educating Jesse '', though in an earlier plot (in season four 's "One Last Kiss '') about a high school reunion, he mentions not wearing his cap to his graduation because he did not want to mess up his hair.
Jesse 's obsession with his hair becomes a major trait of his throughout the series, as well as his obsession with Elvis Presley. His obsession with the former is fully established in the season two premiere "Cutting it Close '', which focuses on Jesse 's tough time coping when Stephanie accidentally cuts off a hunk of his mullet, which leads to him getting into a motorcycle accident that lands him in a full arm cast; later episodes reveal that he has a special comb called Mr. Goodpart (which gets damaged in a melee to purchase a Mighty Mutant Super Kids Super Fortress for Michelle in season eight 's "I 've Got a Secret '') and that he gives pep talks to his hair (as revealed in season seven 's "Wrong - Way Tanner '').
Jesse first moves into the house with virtually no experience in taking care of young children or babies, but starts to learn the ropes along the way. He becomes closer to all of his nieces over the course of the series, especially Michelle, whom he affectionately nicknames "munchkin '' and "shorty '', among others. In the first season, Jesse works for his father Nick 's exterminating business before leaving to pursue work in advertising, frequently working with Joey. He later works with Joey as co-hosts of an afternoon drive time show on local radio station KFLH called The Rush Hour Renegades. Further along in the series, in season seven 's "Smash Club: The Next Generation '', Jesse becomes the new owner of The Smash Club. Although he was shown to be a sports fan as well as a good athlete in the earlier seasons, it is revealed in later seasons that Jesse hated all sports (especially basketball, as revealed in "Air Jesse '' from season eight) and was not very athletic. Jesse 's main passion is music, and struggles to "hit it big '' with his band, Jesse and the Rippers (in the earlier part of the series). However, his increasing responsibilities to his family, radio job, and as owner of a club, lead his band members to kick him out of the band (in the season eight premiere "Comet 's Excellent Adventure ''); in "Making Out is Hard to Do '', he briefly decides to quit being a musician until he has a nightmare in which he appears on Downbeat (a Behind the Music - style show - within - a-dream - sequence) has him dream that his family hates him, Rebecca has divorced him (and moved on with Joey) and Jesse himself was a mechanic, as well as overweight and balding (because of a scalp infection), with Kimmy Gibbler (dressed in the attire of the Married... with Children character Peggy Bundy) as a wife. Two episodes later in "To Joey, With Love, '' he subsequently starts a new band called Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets.
In Fuller House Jesse, Becky, and Danny all move to Los Angeles. Jesse becomes the music composer for General Hospital while Becky and Danny start a new nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. In the season two finale, Jesse and Becky adopt a baby girl whom they name Pamela after his sister. Somewhere along the line Jesse became a stay at home dad. When Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA, they try to get their old jobs back but the station only wanted her back to co-host an all women 's talk show. Jesse, Becky and Pamela are all moving back to San Francisco, and he also bought back the Smash Club (which is now a laundromat) along with Joey.
Daniel Ernest "Danny '' Tanner (portrayed by Bob Saget, John Posey in the unaired pilot) is left with three young daughters to raise after his wife, Pam, dies in a car accident caused by a drunk driver. At the beginning of the series, he works as a sportscaster for Channel 8 News. In the season two episode "Tanner vs. Gibbler '', he is chosen by his station 's general manager Mr. Strowbridge to be the co-host for the station 's new morning talk show, Wake Up, San Francisco, alongside Rebecca Donaldson. In season one 's "The Big Three - O, '' Danny 's beloved car, "Bullet, '' is severely damaged after another driver rear - ends the vehicle, leading it roll out of park and become submerged in the San Francisco Bay as Jesse and Joey shop for new seat covers for the car to surprise Danny with as a present for his 30th birthday; Jesse and Joey end up bidding for a new car that is identical in appearance, unknowingly competing with Danny, who purchases the car (and later named it "Walter '') after he calls the car dealership that Jesse and Joey are and places a bid over the phone.
Danny goes on his first date since his wife 's death in the season one episode "Sea Cruise, '' as part of a fishing trip that was intended to only include himself, Jesse and Joey; he is seen going out on dates on select occasions throughout the series. While Rebecca goes on maternity leave in season five just before giving birth to his nephews Nicky and Alex, Danny ends up falling in love with her co-host replacement, Vicky Larson. The two of them begin dating in season five 's "Easy Rider, '' becoming Danny 's most serious relationship since he became a widower, and the two later become engaged in the season six finale "The House Meets the Mouse ''. However, their relationship turned into a long - distance situation as Vicky was assigned various reporting jobs away from San Francisco. In season seven 's "The Perfect Couple, '' Vicky ended up getting her dream job of anchoring the network news in New York City, but a long - distance relationship did not work for either of them, so Danny decides to break up with her; this leads him to a mass feng shui habit in the following episode, "Is It True About Stephanie?, '' to which his family acknowledges was his way of trying to cope with his breakup. Danny eventually meets fellow single parent Claire Mahan in season eight episode "Making Out Is Hard to Do, '' and go on a date in the episode "Claire and Present Danger. ''
Although he is not established with this trait early on (season one 's "The Return of Grandma '' depicts him as begrudgingly trying to clean the messy house with Jesse and Joey after their mothers threaten to move in if they can not keep the place clean), much of the humor surrounding Danny 's character comes from his obsession with cleaning and cleanliness. Danny can often be found cleaning for cleaning 's sake, sometimes even cleaning his cleaning products (in a version of the original season three opening titles, seen during episodes in which Lori Loughlin does not appear as Rebecca Donaldson, Danny is even shown to be cleaning his floor vacuum with a handheld vacuum). He says the family motto is "clean is good, dirt is bad ''. Danny views spring cleaning as his equivalent to Christmas and home movies as his New Year 's Eve (as revealed in the season two episode "Goodbye, Mr. Bear ''). His quirkiness and generally "unhip dad '' personality are also targets for humor. He is a skilled pool, dart player and guitarist (as respectively revealed in season four 's, "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun, '' and season eight 's, "To Joey, with Love '').
Like most other characters, he generally can not stand Kimmy Gibbler, considering her as "an annoying, obnoxious nuisance ''; at times, urging D.J. to make new friends whenever Kimmy does something that irritates him. Danny also has one brother and one sister, and his parents are divorced. Unlike his brother - in - law Jesse (who is more into rock - and - roll), Danny has a taste for 1970s Disco music; one of his favorite songs is "Play That Funky Music '' by Wild Cherry.
In the first episode of Fuller House, Danny and Becky relocate to Los Angeles for their new talk show, Wake Up USA, and it is revealed that Danny got remarried to a woman named Teri. During the second season Danny goes through a little bit of a mid-life crisis since he just turned 60. In season three Danny reveals that him and Teri got divorced. Danny and Becky asked for raises on their show but since they asked for too much they are fired and replaced by Mario Lopez. After feeling sorry for themselves they go back to Wake Up San Francisco to ask for their old jobs back but the station only wants Becky back. To cheer him up, the girls somehow tracked down Vicky and surprised him with her. He invites her to the 30th "Dadiversary '' party the girls threw for him, Jesse and Joey. Since Becky, Jesse and Joey are all moving back to San Francisco, Danny announces he 's moving back too, and back into the house.
Joseph Alvin "Joey '' Gladstone (portrayed by Dave Coulier) is the childhood best friend of Danny Tanner, and adulthood best friend of Jesse Katsopolis. Joey moved in with Danny shortly after the death of Danny 's wife, Pam, to help raise D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle. Joey works as a stand - up comedian, whose act usually includes vocal imitations of cartoon characters such as Popeye, Bullwinkle J. Moose, Pepé Le Pew and others. Joey initially slept in the alcove of Danny 's living room. However, after complaining of not being able to find privacy, Danny reconstructs his basement garage into a bedroom for him in the season one episode "Joey 's Place '' (prior to the reveal, Joey contemplates moving out after the family 's behavior makes him believe that Jesse and Danny can handle taking care of the girls and that he is not needed). Joey nearly quits comedy in the season one episode "But Seriously, Folks, '' after Phyllis Diller (who was there as an audience member) hogs his slot at a comedy club, deciding to change his name to Joe and become a serious businessman. He reverses his decision after D.J. decides to quit practicing the guitar, realizing that he is not setting a good example. Although there was some tension between Joey and Jesse when they first move in with the Tanners, they quickly become good friends to the point where Jesse asks Joey to be his best man at his wedding. Even so, Joey 's perceived immaturity does irritate Jesse at times. Joey usually handles the day - to - day raising of the kids by doing chores like making meals, driving the kids to school appointments, and after school activities, taking care of Michelle as a baby, and helping the kids with their homework. Joey also buys D.J. her first car for her 16th birthday in the season six episode "Grand Gift Auto, '' which ends up getting repossessed after the police discover that the car had been stolen; Joey nearly moves out again after the family 's attempts to try illustrate that Joey is not capable of committing a crime make him believe that the rest of the family thinks of him as a big joke. It is in this episode that Joey reveals that he had wished to have siblings as he grew up as an only child (even imaging that he was part of The Brady Bunch), and that being part of the Tanner family gave him the extended family he always wanted. In season four 's "Viva Las Joey, '' Joey is reunited with his estranged father (at the arrangement of Stephanie and D.J.), a former serviceman in the Armed Forces, with whom Joey did not get along with growing up due to his strict parenting style and his disapproval of Joey 's dream of being a comedian; his father realizes that Joey made the right career decision when he sees his son 's routine when Joey is invited as an opening act for Wayne Newton in Las Vegas.
Joey has held various jobs in addition to his work as a stand - up comic. For a while during seasons two and three, Joey and Jesse run an advertising business, J&J Creative Services, in which they partnered to compose jingles for television and radio commercials. In season four 's "Joey Goes Hollywood, '' Joey wins a role he secretly auditions for in a sitcom co-starring Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello called Surf 's Up. Joey 's most successful job was portraying "Ranger Joe, '' on an afternoon children 's variety television show. He was given the job to replace retiring original host "Ranger Roy '' in season five 's "The Legend of Ranger Joe, '' only to be fired after triggering Roy 's acute physical paranoia when hugging him as a thank you; after Danny informs Joey of this while telling him of his firing, Joey ends up saving Roy from a "hug - o - gram '' that he had sent to gratitude for the job; he then gets rehired after Roy becomes impressed with Joey 's hosting skills when he takes over for Roy on his last show. Ranger Joe 's sidekick is his wise - cracking woodchuck marionette puppet "Mr. Woodchuck '' (first seen in "The Legend of Ranger Joe '' and last seen in "Michelle Rides Again ''). Joey quits his job in season six 's "Radio Days, '' after he becomes disgruntled with his boss Mr. Strowbridge 's wife as his co-host. Jesse and Joey subsequently become co-hosts of a successful afternoon show on radio station KFLH called, Rush Hour Renegades. Besides his impressions, much of Joey 's humor comes from his depiction as a man child, particularly the fact that he still watches cartoons as an adult and has an extensive knowledge of animation.
Joey has moved to Las Vegas in Fuller House, and is now married with four kids. His wife Ginger is a magician, and their kids, Phyllis, Lewis, Joan, and Jerry are very loud and obnoxious kids. Joey and his kids are moving back to San Francisco since his wife will be working as a magician on a cruise ship for six months. He also bought back the Smash Club with Jesse.
Donna Jo Margaret "D.J. '' Tanner (portrayed by Candace Cameron Bure) is Danny and Pam 's oldest child. Over the course of the show 's run, D.J. attends Frasier Street Elementary, Van Atta Junior High and Bayview High School. In the pilot episode "Our Very First Show, '' she ends up having to share her bedroom with Stephanie in order to allow Jesse to move into Stephanie 's old bedroom; due to problems with privacy regarding Stephanie, in the season five episode "Take My Sister, Please, '' she sells Danny on an idea to switch rooms with Michelle, who in turn would move in with Stephanie (only after convincing Michelle to move in with Stephanie, after she rejects the offer to move in with her older sister).
D.J. is typically the daughter who acts the most practical, often giving advice to her younger sisters, Michelle and Stephanie. Although she sometimes bickers with them, she cares for them deeply. As D.J. entered into middle school, she started to deal with more serious issues like puberty and dating. She has her first serious relationship with Steve Hale (who was first introduced in the season five episode "Sisters in Crime ''), who later becomes a real fixture in her life (and a regular character beginning in season six) when their characters return from a summer abroad in Spain. Their relationship lasts until they break up in the season seven episode "Love on the Rocks, '' when they realize that the passion in their relationship is gone, but they agree to remain friends. D.J. has on - and - off relationships (during the show 's final season) with guitarist Viper (a member of Jesse 's new band Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets) and rich kid Nelson, but both relationships do not last (the two end up vying for D.J. 's affections in the season eight episode "D.J. 's Choice, '' only for D.J. to reject them both after their fighting gets to be too much for her to bear). In the series finale "Michelle Rides Again, '' Steve shows up at the Tanner house to take D.J. to her senior prom and they share a kiss. Her best friend throughout the show was next - door neighbor Kimmy Gibbler, who was the complete opposite of D.J. in every way. In season eight, D.J. gets accepted to University of California, Berkeley and it is implied she will go to college there after graduating high school (after she was rejected from her first choice, Stanford University).
In Fuller House, D.J. is a recent widow and mother of three kids; Jackson, Max and Tommy, and moves in with Stephanie and Kimmy. D.J. has since become a veterinarian. When her boss retires he has his son, Matt Harmon and D.J. take over the pet clinic. Matt and Steve fight for D.J. 's affection but they both end up dating other people when she 's not ready to commit someone new yet. Realizing they have feelings for each other, Matt breaks up with his girlfriend, and starts dating D.J. On the way to Steve 's wedding in Japan, D.J. who 's preparing to fall asleep, and wearing a sleeping mask reveals to Kimmy that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she 's losing her soulmate. Unbeknownst to her Steve was the one who heard her confession not Kimmy. Steve tells Kimmy what she said, and he was going to confront D.J. but he saw Matt proposing to her. The next day before the wedding starts Kimmy tells D.J. that Steve was the one who heard what she said on the plane. At the alter Steve calls off the wedding, and D.J. breaks off her engagement to Matt. Back home the two wait a month before they will start dating again. After her their third first date, Steve tells her that the Lakers want him to be the team 's foot doctor. He chooses to stay with her but D.J. called the team and said that he will take the job.
Stephanie Judith Tanner (portrayed by Jodie Sweetin) is the witty, sarcastic middle child of Danny and Pam, the younger sister of D.J., and the older sister of Michelle. Her mother died when she was five years old. Her catchphrases during the early seasons of the series include "how rude!, '' "well, pin a rose on your nose! '' and "hot dog ''. She eventually evolved into something of a tomboy in seasons four and five. Stephanie has a habit of spying on D.J. 's life by reading her diary and eavesdropping on her telephone calls (having been caught in the act several times), and is generally the most athletic and nosiest of the Tanner girls. Her best friends in school are Gia Mahan and Mickey, whom she meets in season seven (the former is the only one who appears through to season eight). Of the three sisters, Stephanie has dealt with the toughest issues, such as peer pressure into smoking (in season seven 's "Fast Friends ''), "make - out '' parties (in season eight 's "Making Out is Hard to Do ''), joyriding (in season eight 's "Stephanie 's Wild Ride ''), and uncovering a classmate 's child abuse (in season six 's "Silence is Not Golden ''), as well as the death of her mother when she was only five. In her early years, she is very sentimental about Mr. Bear, a stuffed animal that her mother gave to her after Michelle was born (this was the focal point of the season two episode "Goodbye Mr. Bear ''). She and Jesse are the most abrasive when it comes to how they feel about Kimmy Gibbler.
In Fuller House, Stephanie volunteers to give up her life in London to move back into her childhood home to help take care of her sister 's three kids. Kimmy volunteers to move in as well much to Stephanie 's dismay but she soon puts her abrasive feelings aside, and becomes friends with her. Stephanie confesses to D.J. that she ca n't have kids but wants to. Stephanie starts a relationship with Kimmy 's younger brother Jimmy. Becky schedules Stephanie for a pelvic exam and turns out she has three vivable eggs and can have a baby via surrogacy. Since she has n't been dating Jimmy for that long she does n't want to put pressure on him for being the father, and throwing him into a life long commitment so soon in their relationship. He wants to be the father. They are able to make embryos and Kimmy volunteers to be the surrogate mother. Kimmy is able to get pregnant with the embryos.
Michelle Elizabeth Tanner (played by twins Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen), is Danny and Pam 's youngest daughter. Danny is more overprotective of Michelle than the other girls. Michelle was just a baby when Pam died, so she hardly remembers her mom. Jesse and Joey 's misadventures in taking care of her when she was a baby provided a great deal of humor. Once Michelle started to grow up, she became the focus of more of the show 's storylines. Her best friends, Teddy and Denise, appear frequently in later seasons. She also has other friends, such as Derek Boyd, Lisa Leeper, and bossy Aaron Bailey, who Michelle has an uneasy friendship with. Her favorite toys (in earlier seasons) are Barney, a plush bear who hangs on the wall above her bed, and her stuffed pig. It is apparent that Jesse is somewhat closer to her than her sisters, and he gives her nicknames such as "munchkin '', "shorty '' and "rugrat ''. She is known for her many recurring catchphrases such as "you got it, dude! '', "you 're in big trouble, mister! '', "oh, puh - lease! '', "aw, nuts! '', "duh! '', and "no way, José! ''
Michelle does not appear in Fuller House but it is mentioned that she is now living in New York, and owns a fashion company.
Rebecca Donaldson Katsopolis (portrayed by Lori Loughlin), is the sarcastic, practical, but very loving and well - educated woman who becomes the love interest and later wife of Jesse Katsopolis. Becky was born in Valentine, Nebraska and decided to pursue journalism as a career while she was in high school. Becky moves to San Francisco to become the co-host of Wake Up, San Francisco, being paired with Danny as her co-host; the two become close friends, although she often quips about Danny 's quirks and tendency to ramble in his conversations. She was reluctant to admit her feelings for Jesse at first, but she eventually falls in love with him. The two almost elope in Lake Tahoe in the season two finale "Luck Be a Lady '', but backed out when Becky realized that she and Jesse were not really ready to get married. They eventually get married (in the second part of the season four episode "The Wedding '') on Valentine 's Day.
After Jesse has a bittersweet farewell to the rest of the family when he decides to move into Rebecca 's apartment in the season four episode "Fuller House '', Rebecca agrees to move in with the Tanners and Joey when she discovers how much Jesse misses them, living together in the attic (which Jesse and Joey have converted into an apartment). Becky helps to transform Jesse, although she still teases him about his obsession with his hair and love of Elvis. She also serves as a mother figure to the girls at times; most prominently giving advice to D.J. as she becomes a teenager. Becky gives birth to twin boys Nicholas and Alexander on Michelle 's fifth birthday in part two of the season five episode "Happy Birthday, Babies ''. She and Jesse name Alexander after a teacher who inspired her to become a journalist and Nicholas after Jesse 's father. Becky is offered a producer role on Wake Up, San Francisco in the season eight episode "The Producer '', which results in Danny briefly quitting the show due to him being passed over for such a promotion.
In Fuller House, she, Jesse, and Danny all move to Los Angeles to start their new jobs. She and Danny now host a nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. Becky gets baby fever when around D.J. 's youngest son, Tommy. She and Jesse end up adopting a baby girl whom they name Pamela. Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA when they asked for too much money. They ask for their old jobs back at Wake Up San Francisco but the station only wants her back. They want her to host an all women 's talk show called The Gab. She, Jesse and Pamela are moving back to San Francisco.
Kimberly Louise "Kimmy '' Gibbler (portrayed by Andrea Barber, recurring since season one and upgraded to a series regular in season five) is D.J. 's best friend and the Tanners ' annoying but well - meaning next - door neighbor. Kimmy and D.J. have been best friends since the Gibblers moved next door to the Tanners, despite their differing personalities; the two have temporarily ended their friendship multiple times during the show 's run due to disputes over various situations, but always end up reconciling and forgiving each other. Most of the Tanner family can not stand her (Danny, Stephanie and Jesse are especially annoyed by her, with Stephanie often making jabs at her lack of intelligence and other unusual quirks and Danny urging D.J. to make new friends and often asking Kimmy to leave the house). She is often known to be a poor student in school, and had copied D.J. 's homework during most of the early seasons. Kimmy is the subject of a recurring gag in the series, regarding her terrible foot odor, which becomes noticeable to other people mainly once she removes her shoes; Kimmy also becomes aware of this in a scene in the season seven episode "The Apartment '', in which she accidentally grabs one of her shoes while searching for her phone when Danny calls her to find out the whereabouts of D.J. (who had fallen asleep on her boyfriend Steve 's couch while watching a movie in his apartment). She is also known to be addicted to shopping.
In the episode "Another Opening, Another No Show '', Jesse and Kimmy get locked in a closet on the night of the grand re-opening of The Smash Club, after the door handle breaks off in Jesse 's hand; while there, Kimmy finally tells Jesse how much it hurts when he and the other Tanners (except for D.J.) pick on her. He finally tries to stop picking on her and tells the Tanners to try to go easy on her. However, their behavior towards her remains the same in later episodes, although she never seems to mind it anymore.
Kimmy 's only serious relationship is with Duane (who is introduced in season eight episode "Taking the Plunge ''), a very air - headed boy who was only known to say "whatever ''. Ironically, he was shown to have a fondness for Shakespearean works as he passionately quoted a line from Shakespeare 's 18th sonnet. In "Taking the Plunge, '' Kimmy decides to run off to Reno and elope with Duane after she was rejected by the colleges that she had applied to, and is afraid that D.J. will go off to school and forget her. When D.J., Jesse, and Danny arrive at the chapel to stop her from getting married too young, D.J. tells her that she will always be her best friend no matter what. In the two - part series finale "Michelle Rides Again, '' she tries to find D.J. a blind date for prom, and ends up surprising her with her ex-boyfriend Steve instead.
Sometime after high school Kimmy got married to a race car driver named Fernando, and has a daughter named Ramona. In the sequel series she and Ramona move into the Tanner family home after D.J 's husband passed away. She moved in to help her along with Stephanie. Kimmy has become a party planner. Kimmy volunteers to be Stephanie and Jimmy 's surrogate mother,
Steven "Steve '' Hale (originally introduced as Steve Peters; portrayed by Scott Weinger) is D.J. 's first steady boyfriend. He is introduced in the season five episode "Sisters in Crime '' as D.J. 's date to a movie that she ends up taking Michelle and Stephanie to, and returns to the series as a regular character in the sixth - season premiere "Come Fly With Me '' (which establishes the character as played by Weinger in his original appearance the season prior). Steve is two years older than D.J. and is a star member of the high school wrestling team. He is known for having a healthy appetite, and often eats at the Tanners ' when he visits.
In "A Very Tanner Christmas, '' Steve receives an acceptance letter to a party school in Florida that he had applied to (this causes the two to briefly break up due to D.J. 's concern that she would miss him), but decides to go to a local community college in order to improve his grades and continue his relationship with D.J. In the season six episode "Prom Night, '' both he and D.J. attend Steve 's prom where he is elected prom king (although his ex-girlfriend -- whose affections he later rejects -- is named prom queen). Steve and D.J. break up in the season seven episode "Love on the Rocks, '' after they realize that their relationship was not as passionate as it used to be, but they decide to remain friends. When D.J. needs a date for her senior prom, Kimmy surprises her and gets Steve to be her date.
After college Steve becomes a podiatrist. In Fuller House Steve is a divorcee and his ex took half what he 's worth. With him and D.J. both now single he tries to start a relationship with her again. He ends up later getting engaged to woman named C.J. who is just like D.J. On the way to Japan, thinking that Kimmy is sitting next to her, D.J. confesses that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she is losing her soulmate. Steve was the one who actually heard it. At the alter he realizes he still loves D.J. and ca n't marry C.J. so he calls the wedding off. D.J who still has feelings for Steve break up with Matt. A month after the almost wedding they start dating again. There is bad news for the reunited couple when the Lakers want him to be their foot doctor. He declines to stay with D.J. but she calls the team to say he will take the job. Steve tells her they will back together in six months.
Nicholas "Nicky '' and Alexander "Alex '' Katsopolis, (played by Daniel and Kevin Renteria as babies during season 5; Blake and Dylan Tuomy - Wilhoit as toddlers for seasons 6 -- 8) are the twin sons of Jesse and Becky Katsopolis. The two were born in the season five episode "Happy Birthday, Babies, '' on the date of Michelle 's fifth birthday. Becky named Alex after a high school teacher who inspired her to venture into a career in journalism, while Jesse chose to name Nicky after his father, for giving him great hair. They have strawberry - blond hair and are fun - loving toddlers, with minor distinctions between them. Nicky is more quiet and sweet, while Alex is more outspoken and mischievous. They often repeat each other 's words.
In Fuller House, the twins follow their parents to Los Angeles, and decide to run a fish taco food truck.
Jackson Fuller (portrayed by Michael Campion) is D.J. 's oldest son. When Kimmy and her daughter, Ramona moves in Jackson has to give up his room and move in with his brother Max. Jackson and Ramona do n't get along at first but become like brother and sister. Jackson has shown to be a good older brother to Max and Tommy. Jackson likes to do stunts, and joins the football team to impress Ramona 's friend, Lola. He likes to call himself "J. Money '' and "Action Jackson ''. He breifly dates Lola but she breaks up with him for being too clingy. While attending summer school he becomes friends with Gia 's daughter Rocki, much to D.J 's dislike.
Max Fuller (portrayed by Elias Harger) is D.J. 's well dressed and intelligent middle child. He likes science, and is shown to be a clean freak like his grandfather. Max has rivalries with Kimmy 's fiancé Fernando and classmate Taylor. Max 's girlfriend is Rose, the daughter of Steve 's fiancée C.J.
Ramona Gibbler (portrayed by Soni Nicole Bringas) is the daughter of Kimmy Gibbler and her ex husband / fiancé, Fernando. She is not thrilled when she has to move into the Tanner family home and change schools. Ramona quickly befriends one of the popular girls in school, Lola Wong, and briefly dates Jackson 's friend, Bobby Popko. She is an aspiring dancer.
Tommy Fuller, Jr. (portrayed by twins, Dashiell and Fox Messitt) is D.J. 's youngest son. Like his aunt Michelle he also loses a parent as a baby.
Fernando Hernandez - Guerrero - Fernandez - Guerrero (portrayed by Juan Pablo Di Pace), is Kimmy Gibbler 's race car driving ex-husband / fiancé. At the start of Fuller House, him and Kimmy are separated due to his unfaithfulness to her. Fernando begins to miss her and tries to win her back. It works but he ends up finally signing their divorce papers. Though he only does this to repropose which she accepts. Fernando retires from his racing career, and moves in. Ten months after moving in, he buys Kimmy 's childhood home and moves in with her brother.
Matt Harmon (portrayed by John Brotherton) is D.J. 's partner at the Harmon / Fuller Pet Care. He originally intended to fill in for his dad while he was away on a trip to India but decides to stay in San Francisco. When his dad retires he has Matt and D.J. take over the business. Matt and Steve fight for D.J. 's affection. She and him eventually begin dating. While in Japan for Steve and C.J 's wedding, Matt proposed to D.J. and she says yes. The next day at the wedding Steve calls off his wedding, and D.J. breaks off her engagement. A heartbroken Matt walks off. He goes on a eight day vacation and when he comes back to work he tells D.J. he does n't know how he able to work with her if they 're not together anymore. He takes some time off to think, and when he returns he tells her that he will be opening up a new pet clinic two blocks down.
Lola Wong (portrayed by Ashley Liao) is Ramona 's best friend and Jackson 's ex girlfriend. Lola 's father gets a job in Fresno and she moves.
Jimmy Gibbler (portrayed by Adam Hagenbuch) is Kimmy 's younger brother. One day he walks into the family 's backyard and hears Stephanie singing. The two end up kissing, and are interrupted by Kimmy who informs Stephanie that he is her brother. Jimmy and Stephanie begin dating. When Stephanie gets the news that she can have a baby via surrogacy, she thinks it 's too soon in their relationship to ask him to be the father. After finding that out from Kimmy, he tells her that he wants to be her baby 's father. Kimmy volunteers to be his and Stephanie 's surrogate.
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who is the nfl all time leading tackler | National Football League records - wikipedia
National Football League records are the superlative statistics of the National Football League.
NFL records may refer to:
Records may also refer to longest NFL streaks:
Records may also refer to lists of career - high high statistics by individual players:
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