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when was the legal drinking age changed to 18 in australia | Alcohol laws of Australia - Wikipedia
Alcohol laws of Australia regulate the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages (If you are 18 and over in Australia you are allowed to vote, drink and drive). Legal age of drinking is 18.
All tourists ' legal proof of age is foreign passports only, and not any 18 + card (especially in New Zealand, where it serves the same purpose as state - specific 18 + cards for residents of each respective state if they do n't already have a driving licence.)
In South Australia, the major legislation which controls the sale and consumption of alcohol is the Liquor Licensing Act 1997 (SA). The principal aim of the Act is to minimise the harm associated with the consumption of alcohol in the community of South Australia. The drinking age was lowered from 21 to 20 in 1968 and by 1971 South Australia had a drinking age of 18. Between 1836 and 1839, liquor licences were granted by the Governor.
On 21 February 1839, Act No. 1 of 1839 became the first liquor licensing legislation in the Province, including three licenses:
In 1869, a Storekeeper 's Colonial Wine Licence was introduced.
Alcohol may not be sold in Victoria without a licence or permit being obtained from the State government. Licences and permits are issued by the Victorian Commission for Gambling and Liquor Regulation, under the Liquor Control Reform Act 1998.
In Victoria, alcohol may not be sold to a person who is under 18 years of age unless accompanied by a guardian (or spouse) and for consumption during a meal, and minors must not be on licensed premises (i.e. premises on which alcohol may be sold or consumed) unless accompanied by an adult or other limited circumstances.
There are several categories of licences available. The most common are:
Other specialised licences are: full club licence, renewable limited club licence, temporary limited licence, renewable limited licence, restricted club licence, pre-retail licence (for wholesalers, producers, brewers and liquor importers), and vigneron 's licence.
Until May 2015, there were several areas in Melbourne which had the status of "dry - areas '', where a vote was required before a liquor licence was granted within the area. This requirement has now ceased. Some local government councils have passed by - laws prohibiting the consumption of alcohol on designated streets, parks and other areas within their jurisdictions.
In Victoria, if a minor is caught with alcohol in public it can be confiscated and guardians notified of the offence, and a fine may be imposed.
Previously, minors were allowed to drink alcohol if it is given to them by anyone on private property, for example a party. New laws which came into effect late 2011, require parental permission to be given to any adult serving alcohol to minors, under a penalty of $7,000.
In Victoria, fully licensed drivers of motor vehicles must have a Blood alcohol content (BAC) below 0.05 %. Learner and probationary licensed drivers must not consume any alcohol before driving (i.e. the BAC must be zero).
Victorian alcohol laws only allow the following identification as legally accepted proof - of - age in licensed premises:
Alcohol may not be sold in NSW without a licence or permit being obtained from the State government.
In NSW, alcohol may not be sold to a person who is under 18 years of age unless accompanied by a guardian (or spouse) and for consumption during a meal, and minors must not be on licensed premises (i.e. premises on which alcohol may be sold or consumed) unless accompanied by an adult or other limited circumstances. The designation of restricted area (18 + only) and supervised area (minors must be accompanied by adults) must be displayed on the door or window facing outwards.
There are several categories of licences available. The most common are:
Other specialised licences are: full club licence, renewable limited club licence, temporary limited licence, renewable limited licence, restricted club licence, pre-retail licence (for wholesalers, producers, brewers and liquor importers), and vigneron 's licence.
Some local government councils have passed by - laws prohibiting the consumption of alcohol on streets within their areas, especially the Sydney CBD Entertainment Precinct, which stretches from the Sydney Harbour Bridge, Circular Quay down to the end of George Street. On other parts of Sydney, many streets still have similar ' alcohol - free streets ', notably the immediate streets near railway stations, all main roads in Hurstville, Bankstown, Chatswood and City of Willoughby. Most of these bans last for 4 years which can be renewed each September of the 4 - year cycle under council discretion.
In a designated area within the Sydney CBD, there is a 1: 30 am lockout meaning no patrons can enter bars after that point, and no existing patrons can re-enter after that time, while last drinks are at 3am. There are restrictions on what can be served after midnight. For example, liquor can not be served "neat ''.
In NSW, if a minor is caught with alcohol in public it can be confiscated and guardians notified of the offence, and a fine may occur.
New South Wales alcohol laws only allow the following identification as legally accepted proof - of - age in licensed premises:
State legislation governs the sale and supply of alcohol in Western Australia. The Liquor Control Act 1988 and the Liquor Control Regulations 1989 is administered by the Department of Racing, Gaming and Liquor. The purpose of the Liquor Act is primarily to regulate the sale, supply, and consumption of alcohol. Before 1970, Western Australia drinking age was 21. It is illegal for any person under the age of 18 years to purchase, supply, or drink alcohol on licensed or regulated premises, even if they are with their parents or guardian. The maximum penalty for a minor to consume alcohol on licensed premises is a $2,000 AUD fine. It is an offence in Western Australia for persons of any age to drink in public, such as on the street, park, or beach without first having obtained a permit from the appropriate local government authority. Such permits are at the discretion of the local council - some public events have a total ban on alcohol consumption and no permits will be issued.
Western Australian alcohol laws only allow the following identification as legally accepted proof - of - age in licensed premises:
Alcohol was originally banned in Canberra; see King O'Malley. Alcohol was made legal again following a plebiscite in 1928.
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why did central america declare independence from spain | History of Central America - wikipedia
The history of Central America is the study of the region known as Central America.
In the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of the relaxing Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo - Colombian Area.
Central America is composed of seven independent nations: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. After the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, most of the inhabitants of Central America shared a similar history. The exception was the Western Caribbean Zone, which included the Caribbean coast and encompassed both semi-independent indigenous polities, runaway slave communities, and settlers, especially British settlers who would eventually form British Honduras (the modern - day nation of Belize), a sparsely populated area that was inhabited by the British through the Treaty of Madrid from Spain. When Spain failed to regain control over British Honduras, the British continued to inhabit the country, and eventually colonized it. When Guatemala gained its independence, they assumed inheritance of British Honduras from Spain. British Honduras had been a British settlement, not a colony (the treaty between Spain and The United Kingdom prohibited British colonies in the territory) for several years. After many years of controversy, a treaty was signed between Guatemala and the United Kingdom in which the Guatemalan President of the time recognized the original territory (granted by the kingdom of Spain to the British Crown) of Belize. Within this treaty, was also an agreement for a cart road to be built from Guatemala City through British Honduras to the Caribbean Sea. Since the cart road was never built, Guatemala declared the treaty null and void. British Honduras, as the British called it, and Belize as the Spaniards and Guatemalans said, gained its independence from Great Britain in 1981 and adopted the name "Belize ''. Guatemala still disputes the Belizean territory.
From the 16th century through 1821, Central America formed the (Captaincy General of Guatemala), sometimes known also as the Kingdom of Guatemala, composed by a part of the state of (Chiapas) (nowadays part of Mexico), Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Officially, the Captaincy was part of the Vice royalty of New Spain and therefore under the supervision of the Spanish viceroy in Mexico City. It was, however, administered not by the viceroy or his deputies, but by an independently appointed Captain General headquartered first in Antigua and later in Guatemala City.
In 1811, independence movements broke out in El Salvador in reaction to events in the Peninsular War, and again in 1814 after the restoration of Ferdinand VII. Both revolts were easily suppressed and the political unrest was subsumed into the general political process in the Spanish world that led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812. Between 1810 and 1814, the Captaincy General elected seven representatives to the Cádiz Cortes, in addition to forming a locally - elected Provincial Deputation. In 1821 a congress of Central American Criollos in Guatemala City composed the Act of Independence of Central America to declare the region 's independence from Spain, effective on 15 September of that year. That date is still marked as independence day by most Central American nations. The Spanish Captain General, Gabino Gaínza, sympathized with the rebels and it was decided that he should stay on as interim leader until a new government could be formed. Independence was short - lived, for the conservative leaders in Guatemala welcomed annexation by the First Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide on 5 January 1822. Central American liberals objected to this, but an army from Mexico under General Vicente Filisola occupied Guatemala City and quelled dissent.
When Mexico became a republic the following year, it acknowledged Central America 's right to determine its own destiny. On 1 July 1823, the congress of Central America declared absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, including North America and a Republican system of government, was established.
In 1823, the nation of Central America was formed. It was intended to be a federal republic modeled after the United States of America. It was provisionally known as "The United Provinces of Central America, '' while the final name according to the Constitution of 1824 was "The Federal Republic of Central America. '' It is sometimes incorrectly referred in English as "The United States of Central America. '' The Central American nation consisted of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In the 1830s, an additional state was added, Los Altos, with its capital in Quetzaltenango, occupying parts of what is now the western highlands of Guatemala as well as part of Chiapas (now part of Mexico), but this state was reincorporated into Guatemala and Mexico respectively in 1840.
Central American liberals had high hopes for the federal republic, which they believed would evolve into a modern, democratic nation, enriched by trade crossing through it between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. These aspirations are reflected in the emblems of the federal republic: The flag shows a white band between two blue stripes, representing the land between two oceans. The coat of arms shows five mountains (one for each state) between two oceans, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, the emblem of the French Revolution.
The Union dissolved in civil war between 1838 and 1840. Its disintegration began when Nicaragua separated from the federation on November 5, 1838.
UPCA
The United Provinces of Central America (or PUCA - Provincias Unidas De Centro - America in Spanish) is the name given to the different states of Central America in the time after Central America 's independence and before becoming their own distinct nations (between 1823 - 1840). It was a political movement that strived to unify the regions of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala (Panama and Belize at the time were under separate ownership) under a liberal federal government and believed that united they would be a stronger political unit. Unfortunately, due to many strong political disagreements within the different states, the UPCA eventually disbanded and the regions became separate nations with devastating political and economic civil wars that are still felt today.
The kingdom of Guatemala, as Central America was more commonly known as during Spanish and Mexican rule, was annexed into Mexico in 1822 under the rule of emperor Agustín de Iturbide. Shortly after, opposition from Central Americans began against the monarch and they pushed for independence from Mexico. Iturbide 's unsuccessful leadership of Central America caused his party to fail against the uprising rebels and on July 1, 1823, Central America gained its independence.
After independence, officials from the different regions gathered in a junta to decide the future of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. They decided to unite into a federation of five autonomous states, thus creating the UPCA, a term coined by Brigadier General Vicente Filisola, who was stationed in Guatemala City.
The UPCA 's aims were to be a liberal government with political principles modeled after the United States, and also to remain united. They felt that the "provinces alone were too small and weak economically to survive as sovereign states '' so they "avert (ed) fragmentation of the isthmus '' and pushed for union. However, the UPCA soon noticed that there were many political ideals between the regions and conservative parties on the other end of the political spectrum actively showed their discontent under the new liberal regime. Despite this, the beginning of the federation went relatively smooth and negotiations helped them reform borders, capital cities were moved to accommodate the citizens, and economies of coffee grew high. All the while, tensions between the liberals and conservatives and power struggles within the different economies increasingly grew.
One the most notable key figures of UPCA was Francisco Morazan, a liberal advocate who was chosen president of the UPCA. In the 1820s and through the 1830s Morazan took an active role in liberal movements throughout Central America, especially in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras against conservative parties. These battles between parties increasingly divided the nation causing sour relationships and distance between them. Differences between liberals who wanted free trade, favored a republic and had anti-clerical views contested those of the conservatives who wanted a monarchy, trade under close control and power to the church. These conflicts, along with cholera outbreaks, foreign intervention and distress among those in poverty caused many insurgencies those rose up against liberal movements and vice versa resulted in various civil wars throughout Central America.
Morazan was captured in Costa Rica by the conservative party and they assassinated him on September 15, 1842), which marked the official end of the UPCA. Upon notification of his death, greater turmoil and fights among the opposing liberal and conservative parties increased. It is said that the conservative - liberal struggles that Morazan campaigned for are still in effect today. In addition, lacking a central authority proved to be unproductive and created more disputes and distrust within the different nations. In fact, foreigners who were looking to make economic and / or political negations were told that they had to go to each individual region for consultations and found it inconvenient. The desire for power and their inability to overcome bad relations among each other led to the fall of the UPCA. Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica seceded from the union in 1838. In 1839 Guatemala seceded, and in 1840 El Salvador did the same.
The provinces shortly after became their own separate republican nations, of which we are more familiar with today and eventually Panama and Belize joined what we know today as "Central America. '' Tensions among the different nations, however, continued to grow more aggressive throughout the rest of the 19th century. Despite knowing that being unified would overall work better for Central America, they remained separate. Though many attempts to reunite the nations have been attempted throughout the years it always resulted with unsuccessful results. Civil wars continued to be part of Central America through the 20th and parts of the 21st century as well.
Various attempts were made to reunite Central America in the 19th century, but none succeeded for any length of time:
Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, arose from time to time. In 1856 - 1857, the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by U.S. adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double - wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor).
Even though the dates for this period change from country to country, they approximately correspond to the years between 1870 and 1930. During this time, political elites in the five Central American countries advanced reforms on agriculture, commerce, and redefined the relationship between the state, society and the economy. The most relevant political figures during this period were the presidents Justo Rufino Barrios in Guatemala, Rafael Zaldivar in El Salvador, Braulio Carrillo Colina and Tomas Guardia in Costa Rica, Marco Aurelio Soto in Honduras, and Jose Santos Zelaya in Nicaragua. The key result of this period in all the Central American countries was a transition from communal to private ownership of land. The extent to which liberals targeted common lands for privatization varied from country to country. Likewise, there were important differences in the size of the commercial landholding estate. Another variation among the policies promoted by the liberal governments was the use of coercion and security organizations in to implement reforms to the land ownership policies.
In 1907, a Central American Court of Justice was created. On December 13, 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market (CACM). Costa Rica chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of import substitution industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success but was abandoned after the 1969 "Football War '' between El Salvador and Honduras.
By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana Republic.
A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. The regional parliament seat deputies from the four former members of the Union (Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras), as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic.
Another initiative is known as Free Movement of Persons in the CA - 4, which has opened the borders between Nicaragua and Guatemala removing the need to carry a passport to cross borders, just a national ID (cédula de identidad) is enough to cross borders. This initiative is the result of negotiations of the Central American Commission of Directors of Migration (OCAM) with the support of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). This initiative has been in effect since 2007.
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how many episodes are in season 1 of seal team | SEAL Team (TV series) - wikipedia
SEAL Team is an American military drama television series created by Benjamin Cavell. The series is produced by CBS Television Studios, and began airing on CBS on September 27, 2017.
The series follows an elite unit of United States Navy SEALs portrayed by David Boreanaz, Max Thieriot, Jessica Paré, Neil Brown Jr., A.J. Buckley and Toni Trucks. SEAL Team received a pilot order from CBS in January 2017, and was ordered to series in May 2017. The series received a full - season order on October 12, 2017, bringing the first season to a total of 22 episodes. On March 27, 2018, CBS renewed the series for a second season.
The series follows Bravo Team, a sub-unit of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group, the most elite unit of Navy SEALs, as they plan and undertake dangerous missions worldwide with little notice, and the burden on them and their families.
(Enlisted SEALs have Special Warfare Operator specific ratings. See US Navy SEAL ratings.)
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 68 % based on 19 reviews, with an average rating of 5.88 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "SEAL Team 's solidly written first season offers compelling characters and hints at broader potential, even if it 's somewhat undermined by an overall sense of predictability. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 57 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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who sings the song i'm so glad | I 'm So Glad - wikipedia
"I 'm So Glad '' is a Delta blues - style song originally recorded by American musician Skip James in 1931. Blues historian Gerard Herzhaft notes "This spiritual probably dates back to the beginning of the blues ''. Blues writer Stephen Calt describes it as "a Two - Step piece marked by fiendishly fast playing (in) an eight bar arrangement comprised of single measures. '' He adds it is not related to an earlier Lonnie Johnson tune.
Paramount Records released James ' "I 'm So Glad '' on the then standard 10 - inch 78 rpm shellac phonograph record in 1931. It is included on various compilations as well as Hard Time Killing ' Floor (2005), a complete collection of James ' recordings on compact disc, by Yazoo Records. James ' song has been recorded by early blues artists, including Fred McDowell. After it was reworked by British rock group Cream, the song gained a much wider audience. James ' was pleased and remarked "That piece is absolutely gon na stand ''.
Cream updated the song, using a blues rock arrangement. They recorded it in September 1966 for their debut album, Fresh Cream. "I 'm So Glad '' was a feature of their live performances. A recording from The Forum in October 1968 is included on the album Goodbye (1969).
Deep Purple recorded "I 'm So Glad '' for their first album Shades of Deep Purple. The group 's vocalist Rod Evans and drummer Ian Paice had recommended that the group record it. In the mid-1960s, both had recorded "I 'm So Glad '' with a previous band the Maze. Deep Purple introduces the song with their own arrangement, titled "Prelude: Happiness ''. It is a medley consisting of excerpts from the instrumental arrangement of Rimsky - Korsakov 's classical Scheherezade. The Cream - derived song starts after the medley. Besides the studio version, in October 1968, Deep Purple recorded a live performance of the medley, which was later released on Inglewood -- Live in California (2002). It was also recorded at The Forum, during their tour with Cream. It was also a breakout hit in 1967 for the Detroit based band "Scot Richard Case ''
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how many episodes are in the last season of vampire diaries | The Vampire Diaries (season 8) - Wikipedia
The Vampire Diaries, an American supernatural drama, was renewed for an eighth season by The CW on March 11, 2016. On July 23, 2016, the CW announced that the upcoming season would be the series ' last and would consist of 16 episodes. The season premiered on October 21, 2016 and concluded on March 10, 2017.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2016. It was announced on July 23, 2016, that season 8 of The Vampire Diaries would be the series ' last. The season would contain 16 episodes. Filming for the season ended on February 8, 2017.
On January 26, 2017, it was announced that Nina Dobrev would return as Elena Gilbert in the series finale. At the end of the episode, "It 's Been a Hell of a Ride '' on February 24, 2017, it was revealed that Dobrev would reprise her role of Katherine Pierce as well.
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what are the lyrics to michael jackson's smooth criminal | Smooth Criminal - wikipedia
"Smooth Criminal '' is a song by American singer Michael Jackson from his 1987 album Bad. First broadcast on television as a video in early October 1988, it was released as the album 's seventh single on October 21, 1988, and peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100. It was re-released on April 10, 2006, as a part of the Visionary: The Video Singles box set. The re-released Visionary single charted at number 19 in the UK. The song is one of Jackson 's signature songs, and has appeared on numerous greatest hits albums.
The song contains a fast - paced beat intertwined with Jackson 's lyrics about a woman named Annie, who has been violently attacked in her apartment by a smooth assailant.
The song serves as the theme song to Jackson 's 1988 film Moonwalker, and plays as the background soundtrack in a section of the video game Michael Jackson 's Moonwalker.
The song was written by Jackson and produced by Quincy Jones (with Jackson as co-producer). An early version of the song was written in 1985, and the original demo was recorded the following year under the title of "Al Capone '' (which was later released on Bad 25). This version did not make the album and was re-worked and re-written as "Smooth Criminal. ''
This song is played in the key of C major. Jackson 's vocal spans from G3 to E5. It has a moderate tempo of 118 beats per minute. The refrain of the song contains the phrase "Annie, are you OK? '' This is a phrase used in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training courses, and Michael Jackson is known to have taken a CPR course. Resusci Anne, otherwise known as "Annie '' in English - speaking countries, is the name of a mannequin commonly used in CPR training. As part of the course, trainees are taught to say "Annie, are you OK? '' to the dummy in order to check that the patient is conscious and responsive. This has been further verified by Gabriel Noguera of Cheltenham, England who claims to have been present during the training. He also claims the Bee Gees referred to the same course in their hit single ' Staying Alive '.
Jason Elias of AllMusic called the song one of Jackson 's best: "Despite the content "Smooth Criminal '' is a gorgeous and exhilarating record. '' The New York Times ' Jon Pareles wrote: "in Smooth Criminal, the singer finds a bloodstained carpet and an unconscious body, and asks, obsessively, Annie are you O.K.? when, clearly, she 's not. '' Rolling Stone 's Davitt Sigerson wrote: "Smooth Criminal '' may be the result of retiring too soon after a Brian de Palma picture. ''
Jackson originally wanted to make the music video in the western genre, but he later decided after watching ' The Godfather ' with director Colin Chilvers to change it to a 1930s gangster style. Film was shot between mid-February and April 1987. The video premiered on MTV on October 13, 1988.
Jeffrey Daniel of the soul music group Shalamar co-choreographed the "Smooth Criminal '' video with Jackson and Vincent Paterson, who was a back - up dancer in "Beat It '' and "Thriller ''. It was directed by special effects coordinator Colin Chilvers. The dance sequence of the video in the 1930s style lounge (and Michael 's white suit and fedora) pays tribute to the Fred Astaire musical comedy film The Band Wagon. Currently there are four different versions of the video for "Smooth Criminal '', as well as an additional vignette created for the 2009 This Is It concert series:
The video won Best Music Video at the 1989 Brit Awards and the Critic 's Choice awarded Jackson the "Best Video '' award and the People 's Choice Awards for "Favorite Music Video '' for that same year.
The style of clothing as well as mannerisms Jackson portrayed were reused in the numerous adaptations of the video game Michael Jackson 's Moonwalker. The song itself serves as the background music for the "Club 30s '' stage, the nightclub seen in the music video, that appears in the game.
In the music video, Michael Jackson and the dancers immediately around him perform a seemingly impossible forward lean; this illusion was created using strings and wires in the music video. Without these, it would be tedious and impossible. To accomplish this manoeuvre in live shows, a hitching mechanism which Jackson co-patented was built into the floor of the stage and the performers ' shoes, thereby allowing performers to lean without needing to keep their centers of mass directly over their feet. The system consists of pegs that rise from the stage at the appropriate moment and special shoes with ankle supports and cutouts in the heels which can slide over the pegs and be temporarily attached to the stage.
In the patent, it is stated that the illusion in the music video was achieved by means of harnesses and cables which had to be connected to and disconnected from the floor by stagehands.
The song was performed live on all of Jackson 's tours.
Bad World Tour: During the second leg of Jackson 's Bad World Tour (1988 - 1989), directed and choreographed by Jackson and Vincent Paterson. The performance featured a dance routine modeled after the scene from Moonwalker. This version of the song is available on the DVD Live at Wembley July 16, 1988. In this version, he wears the signature white suit coat with blue armband and pocket square and the white fedora over his normal outfit. The "Hotel '' intro was performed, similar to the opening of This Place Hotel in the 1987 leg of the Bad Tour, containing a spoken introduction and Jackson 's silhouette dancing behind a lit curtain.
Dangerous World Tour: By the time the 1992 Dangerous World Tour came around, this performance became a regular on Jackson tours. This time, the jacket and hat were put on top of the gold leotard. Also, the anti-gravity lean was introduced during this tour. During the Bad tour, the lean was a drop to the floor, but Jackson stopped himself before hitting it. The lean was pulled off using a special cut - out in the performers ' shoes patented by Jackson that held them to the floor using nails while they leaned forward. This performance can be seen on the DVD Live in Bucharest: The Dangerous Tour.
Part of the song was also briefly used in the middle of the live version of the song "Dangerous '' since Jackson 's performance at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards to the 2002 American Bandstand 50th Anniversary performance.
History World Tour: During the 1996 - 1997 History World Tour, the costume was the coat, hat and a blue shirt and a white tie over the gold pants. The "Hotel '' opening was scrapped for a similar opening with no spoken line, instead showcasing the background dancers and a keyboard interlude of "Childhood '' by Brad Buxer.
This Is It: The song was rehearsed for the This Is It concerts, which were scheduled to run from July 2009 to March 2010 before Jackson 's untimely death in June 2009. Rather than featuring Jackson dancing behind a lit curtain, the performance would open with a 3 - D vignette of Jackson being chased by several gangsters from early 1930s films, inserting him into the film noirs Gilda, The Big Sleep, and In a Lonely Place. The vignette would end with Jackson jumping out of a window as Humphrey Bogart shoots at him and onto the stage where he picks up a tommy gun and shoots out the lights of a marquee to spell "Smooth Criminal ''. Throwing the tommy gun aside, Jackson would then pause for a moment before cuing the band to start the song. The performance would have also featured the return of the anti-gravity lean and the inclusion of dancers descending from the ceiling inside chandeliers that they would blow out with tommy guns.
The song was adapted into a short film directed by Colin Chilvers which was the centerpiece of the 1988 film Moonwalker starring Michael Jackson and Joe Pesci in the lead roles.
The film begins with three homeless children -- Sean, Katie and Zeke (Sean Lennon, Kellie Parker and Brandon Quintin Adams) -- sneaking through a big city to see their friend Michael walk out of his store in a black suit covered over with his white jacket. As Michael stands in front of the door, he gazes at the night sky before he is attacked by mobsters with machine guns. The film then backtracks to show Michael and the children playing in a meadow in happier times. Their dog Skipper runs away, and as Michael and Katie look for him, they uncover the lair of Mr. Big (Joe Pesci). Mr. Big -- whose real name is Frankie LiDeo, which is an anagram of Frank DiLeo -- is a drug - dealing mobster with a disciplined private army at his command. He wants to get the entire population of Earth addicted to drugs, starting with children. He likes to eat nuts and leaves nutshells wherever he goes. He is obsessed with spiders, as displayed by their abundance at the entrance to his lair and his operation named "bugs and drugs ''. Further, all his henchmen sport a spider crest on their uniforms. Katie screams when she sees a spider on her hand, and Mr. Big discovers them spying on his operation.
The story returns to the shooting in front of Michael 's store. Unknown to the mobsters, Michael has a lucky star, and using it, he escaped the gunfire. Upon realizing that Michael has escaped again, Mr. Big orders his henchmen to track him down with dogs. Michael is eventually cornered in an alley, where he uses his lucky star again to turn into a sportscar (the 1970 Lancia Stratos prototype) that mows down several of Mr. Big 's henchmen. Michael is pursued through the city streets until he loses the henchmen. Meanwhile, the children scout out Club 30 's, where Michael had told them to meet him, and find only an abandoned and haunted nightclub. As Michael arrives, Katie sees a silhouette of him turning back from a car into himself, this time in a white and blue suit. The door of the club opens with a gust of wind, and Michael walks in to find it filled with zoot suiters and swing dancers. The children gather outside a window of the club and watch Michael dance to "Smooth Criminal. ''
The song used in the film is much longer than the album release, with several lyrics that clarify the story. There is also an interlude wherein Jackson joins the other dancers in a modern interpretive dance. At the climax of the song, Mr. Big lays siege to the club and kidnaps Katie. Michael follows them back to Big 's lair and ends up surrounded by his henchmen. Mr. Big appears and taunts Michael by threatening to inject Katie with highly addictive narcotics. Katie breaks free for a moment, but Mr. Big grabs her again and starts kicking Michael. As Mr. Big stands over Michael and orders his henchmen to kill him and Katie, Michael looks up and sees his lucky star. He transforms into a giant robot and kills all of Mr. Big 's soldiers, then turns into a spaceship. Mr. Big gets into a large hillside - mounted energy cannon, firing on the spaceship as it flies into a nearby ravine. The children are his next target, but the spaceship returns from the ravine just in time to fire a beam into the cannon with Mr. Big inside, destroying it and killing him. The children watch the ship fly into the night sky with a shower of light.
The children return to the city, believing that Michael is gone forever. As the boys talk about Michael, Katie walks away crying and clutching a paper star. As she sits in a corner wishing for him to come back, the paper star flies out of her hand and Michael walks out of the night fog. He takes them to Club 30 's, where they find that the club has turned into the backstage area of a concert. Michael 's stage crew return the children 's missing dog and then escort Michael onto the stage where he performs "Come Together ''.
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In 2001, Alien Ant Farm released a cover of "Smooth Criminal '' as their debut single from their album Anthology. According to the band members, they would play a few riffs of the Jackson song while warming up before gigs and audience members would request them to play the entire song. This positive feedback encouraged them to record their own rendition of "Smooth Criminal '' and include it on Anthology. It became a number one hit on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart and was also a number one in Australia. The music video was directed by Marc Klasfeld, and features multiple references to Michael Jackson music videos, including the "Smooth Criminal '' video itself. The song was featured in the 2001 film American Pie 2 and the TV spot for Horrible Bosses 2. This version was featured in several video games including Karaoke Revolution, Guitar Hero On Tour: Decades and as downloadable content for the Rock Band series.
The album Greatest Hits (1999) includes a hidden track named "Slick Thief '', which is an early version of "Smooth Criminal ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In January 2012, Naya Rivera (as her character Santana Lopez) and Grant Gustin (as Sebastian Smythe) performed "Smooth Criminal '' as a duet in the season three episode "Michael '' of the American musical television show Glee, backed by musical duo 2Cellos. The song was filmed in a similar environment as the 2Cellos music video, in a room surrounded by empty chairs as the two musicians play. This cover debuted and peaked at number 26 at Billboard Hot 100, number 10 at Billboard Digital Songs, and number 28 at Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart at the week of February 18, 2012.
In 2016, a rap version of "Smooth Criminal '' was released by Brooklyn rapper Magneto Dayo which quickly became a street classic in the underground circuit of hip hop. The song was originally mainly on the deep web but later found its way to the surface of the Internet.
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who hosted the table tennis 2017 itf women's world cup | 2017 ITTF Women 's World Cup - wikipedia
The 2017 ITTF Women 's World Cup was a table tennis competition held in Markham, Ontario, from 27 to 29 October 2017. It was the 21st edition of the ITTF - sanctioned event, and the first time that it had been staged in Canada.
In the final, China 's Zhu Yuling defeated fellow Chinese player Liu Shiwen, 4 -- 3, to win her first World Cup title.
The following list of players was confirmed on 2 October 2017, based on the qualification system set by the ITTF.
The tournament consisted of two stages: a preliminary group stage and a knockout stage. The players seeded 9 to 20 were drawn into four groups, with three players in each group. The top two players from each group then joined the top eight seeded players in the second stage of the competition, which consisted of a knockout draw.
The seeding list was based on the official ITTF world ranking for October 2017.
The preliminary group stage took place on 27 October, with the top two players in each group progressing to the main draw.
The knockout stage took place from 28 -- 29 October.
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who held that happiness is promoted primarily by possessions of power and riches | Cynicism (philosophy) - wikipedia
Cynicism (Greek: κυνισμός) is a school of thought of ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the Cynics (Greek: Κυνικοί, Latin: Cynici). For the Cynics, the purpose of life is to live in virtue, in agreement with nature. As reasoning creatures, people can gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which is natural for themselves, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, sex, and fame. Instead, they were to lead a simple life free from all possessions.
The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes, who had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC. He was followed by Diogenes, who lived in a tub on the streets of Athens. Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by Crates of Thebes, who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Cynicism spread with the rise of the Roman Empire in the 1st century, and Cynics could be found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the empire.
Cynicism gradually declined and finally disappeared in the late 5th century, although similar ascetic and rhetorical ideas appear in early Christianity. By the 19th century, emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to the modern understanding of cynicism to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions.
The name Cynic derives from Ancient Greek κυνικός (kynikos), meaning ' dog - like ', and κύων (kyôn), meaning ' dog ' (genitive: kynos). One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called "dogs '' was because the first Cynic, Antisthenes, taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens. The word cynosarges means the "place of the white dog ''. It seems certain, however, that the word dog was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners, and their decision to live on the streets. Diogenes, in particular, was referred to as the "Dog '', a distinction he seems to have revelled in, stating that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them. '' Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained:
There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.
Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarized as follows:
Thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power and reputation. A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result of convention. The Cynics adopted Heracles as their hero, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic. Heracles "was he who brought Cerberus, the hound of Hades, from the underworld, a point of special appeal to the dog - man, Diogenes. '' According to Lucian, "Cerberus and Cynic are surely related through the dog. ''
The Cynic way of life required continuous training, not just in exercising judgments and mental impressions, but a physical training as well:
(Diogenes) used to say, that there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that of the body; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one was imperfect without the other, since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is good, depend equally on both mind and body.
None of this meant that a Cynic would retreat from society. Cynics were in fact to live in the full glare of the public 's gaze and be quite indifferent in the face of any insults which might result from their unconventional behaviour. The Cynics are said to have invented the idea of cosmopolitanism: when he was asked where he came from, Diogenes replied that he was "a citizen of the world, (kosmopolitês). ''
The ideal Cynic would evangelise; as the watchdog of humanity, they thought it their duty to hound people about the error of their ways. The example of the Cynic 's life (and the use of the Cynic 's biting satire) would dig up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday conventions.
Although Cynicism concentrated solely on ethics, Cynic philosophy had a major impact on the Hellenistic world, ultimately becoming an important influence for Stoicism. The Stoic Apollodorus writing in the 2nd century BC stated that "Cynicism is the short path to virtue. '' Pillars of their philosophy were Adiaphora, Parrhesia and Anaideia.
The classical Greek and Roman Cynics regarded virtue as the only necessity for happiness, and saw virtue as entirely sufficient for attaining it. Classical Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness, thus, the title of Cynic, derived from the Greek word κύων (meaning "dog '') because they allegedly neglected society, hygiene, family, money, etc., in a manner reminiscent of dogs. They sought to free themselves from conventions; become self - sufficient; and live only in accordance with nature. They rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving money, power, and fame, to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, lives.
The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values, and would criticise the types of behaviours, such as greed, which they viewed as causing suffering. Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, to the modern understanding of cynicism as "an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others. '' This modern definition of cynicism is in marked contrast to the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire. ''
Various philosophers, such as the Pythagoreans, had advocated simple living in the centuries preceding the Cynics. In the early 6th century BC, Anacharsis, a Scythian sage, had combined plain living together with criticisms of Greek customs in a manner which would become standard among the Cynics. Perhaps of importance were tales of Indian philosophers, known to later Greeks as the gymnosophists, who had adopted a strict asceticism together with a disrespect for established laws and customs. By the 5th century BC, the sophists had begun a process of questioning many aspects of Greek society such as religion, law and ethics. However, the most immediate influence for the Cynic school was Socrates. Although he was not an ascetic, he did profess a love of virtue and an indifference to wealth, together with a disdain for general opinion. These aspects of Socrates ' thought, which formed only a minor part of Plato 's philosophy, became the central inspiration for another of Socrates ' pupils, Antisthenes.
Cynics were often recognized in the ancient world by their apparel - an old cloak and a staff. The cloak came as an allusion to Socrates and his manner of dress, while the staff was to the club of Heracles. These items became so symbolic of the Cynic vocation that ancient writers accosted those who thought that donning the Cynic garb would make them suited to the philosophy.
In the social evolution from the archaic age to the classical, the public ceased carrying weapons into the poleis. Originally it was expected that one carried a sword while in the city; However, a transition to spears, and then to staffs occurred until wearing any weapon in the city became a foolish old custom. Thus, the very act of carrying a staff was slightly taboo itself. According to modern theorists, the symbol of the staff was one which both functions as a tool to signal the user 's dissociation from physical labour, that is, as a display of conspicuous leisure, and at the same time it also has an association with sport and typically plays a part in hunting and sports clothing. Thus, it displays active and warlike qualities, rather than being a symbol of a weak man 's need to support himself. The staff itself became a message of how the Cynic was free through its possible interpretation as an item of leisure, but, just as equivalent, was its message of strength - a virtue held in abundance by the Cynic philosopher.
The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with Antisthenes (c. 445 -- 365 BC), who was an older contemporary of Plato and a pupil of Socrates. At about 25 years his junior, Antisthenes was one of the most important of Socrates ' disciples. Although later classical authors had little doubt about labelling him as the founder of Cynicism, his philosophical views seem to be more complex than the later simplicities of pure Cynicism. In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes by Diogenes Laërtius, writings on language, dialogue and literature far outnumber those on ethics or politics, although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed with time. It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of poverty:
I have enough to eat till my hunger is stayed, to drink till my thirst is sated; to clothe myself as well; and out of doors not (even) Callias there, with all his riches, is more safe than I from shivering; and when I find myself indoors, what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls?
Diogenes (c. 412 -- 323 BC) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure. He originally went to Athens, fleeing his home city, after he and his father, who was in charge of the mint at Sinope, got into trouble for falsifying the coinage. (The phrase "defacing the currency '' later became proverbial in describing Diogenes ' rejection of conventional values.) Later tradition claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes, but it is by no means certain that they ever met. Diogenes did however adopt Antisthenes ' teachings and the ascetic way of life, pursuing a life of self - sufficiency (autarkeia), austerity (askēsis), and shamelessness (anaideia). There are many anecdotes about his extreme asceticism (sleeping in a tub), his shameless behaviour (eating raw meat), and his criticism of conventional society ("bad people obey their lusts as servants obey their masters ''), and although it is impossible to tell which of these stories are true, they do illustrate the broad character of the man, including an ethical seriousness.
Crates of Thebes (c. 365 -- c. 285 BC) is the third figure who dominates Cynic history. He is notable because he renounced a large fortune to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. He is said to have been a pupil of Diogenes, but again this is uncertain. Crates married Hipparchia of Maroneia after she had fallen in love with him and together they lived like beggars on the streets of Athens, where Crates was treated with respect. Crates ' later fame (apart from his unconventional lifestyle) lies in the fact that he became the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism. The Cynic strain to be found in early Stoicism (such as Zeno 's own radical views on sexual equality spelled out in his Republic) can be ascribed to Crates ' influence.
There were many other Cynics in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, including Onesicritus (who sailed with Alexander the Great to India), and the moral satirists Bion of Borysthenes and Menippus of Gadara. However, with the rise of Stoicism in the 3rd century BC, Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline, and it is not until the Roman era that Cynicism underwent a revival.
There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC; Cicero (c. 50 BC), who was much interested in Greek philosophy, had little to say about Cynicism, except that "it is to be shunned; for it is opposed to modesty, without which there can be neither right nor honor. '' However, by the 1st century AD, Cynicism reappeared with full force. The rise of Imperial Rome, like the Greek loss of independence under Philip and Alexander three centuries earlier, may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people, which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self - sufficiency and inner - happiness to flourish once again. Cynics could be found throughout the empire, standing on street corners, preaching about virtue. Lucian complained that "every city is filled with such upstarts, particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes, Antisthenes, and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog, '' and Aelius Aristides observed that "they frequent the doorways, talking more to the doorkeepers than to the masters, making up for their lowly condition by using impudence. '' The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century AD was Demetrius, whom Seneca praised as "a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself denied it, constant to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects. '' Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus, nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher, Demonax, in a dialogue.
Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism, a view which led Epictetus to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse. According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "must know that he is sent as a messenger from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered. '' Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in breaking wind. ''
Unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century AD, Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century. The emperor, Julian (ruled 361 -- 363), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism. The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of Emesa in the late 5th century. A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria, he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism.
Some historians have noted the similarities between the teachings of Jesus and those of the Cynics. Some scholars have argued that the Q document, a hypothetical common source for the gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke, has strong similarities to the teachings of the Cynics. Scholars on the quest for the historical Jesus, such as Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the Jesus Seminar, have argued that 1st century AD Galilee was a world in which Hellenistic ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions. The city of Gadara, only a day 's walk from Nazareth, was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy, and Mack has described Jesus as a "rather normal Cynic - type figure. '' For Crossan, Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from a Hellenistic Jewish tradition than either a Christ who would die as a substitute for sinners or a messiah who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel. Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance.
Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by early Christians, and Christians often employed the same rhetorical methods as the Cynics. Some Cynics were martyred for speaking out against the authorities. One Cynic, Peregrinus Proteus, lived for a time as a Christian before converting to Cynicism, whereas in the 4th century, Maximus of Alexandria, although a Christian, was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle. Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty, although they scorned Cynic shamelessness: Augustine stating that they had, "in violation of the modest instincts of men, boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion, worthy indeed of dogs. '' The ascetic orders of Christianity also had direct connection with the Cynics, as can be seen in the wandering mendicant monks of the early church who in outward appearance, and in many of their practices differed little from the Cynics of an earlier age.
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what happens to the hospital in grey's anatomy | Death and All His Friends (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
"Death and All His Friends '' is the season finale of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 126th episode overall. It was written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Rob Corn. The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 20, 2010. The episode was the second part of the two - hour season six finale, the first being Sanctuary, and took place at the fictional Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital. The original episode broadcast in the United States had an audience of 16.13 million viewers and opened up to universal acclaim. The episode centers a shooting spree at the hospital by a former patient 's husband Gary Clark (Michael O'Neill). The episode marked the last appearances for Nora Zehetner and Robert Baker as Dr. Reed Adamson and Dr. Charles Percy respectively as both the characters were killed in the shooting.
In the episode Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) try to save the life of Chief Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) who was shot by Gary Clark in front of Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) as she waits outside the OR with April Kepner (Sarah Drew). Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) tries to save Charles along with her patient Mary Portman (Mandy Moore), while Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) tries to get into the hospital. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) are stuck on a floor with all the younger patients of the hospital, Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) and Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) try to save the life of Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) who was shot as well and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) and Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) try to get their patient to safety.
The hospital is hit with an unprecedented crisis: a shooter is in the hospital, and there is a lockdown. Meanwhile, Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) discovers that she is pregnant, and Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) must choose between Teddy and Cristina (Sandra Oh). The shooter kills Reed Adamson and wounds Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers). Lexie (Chyler Leigh) and Mark (Eric Dane) find the latter and try to save him. Soon, it is revealed that the shooter, Gary Clark (whose wife was a patient at the hospital and later died), is looking for Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey). At the end, he shoots Derek, which is witnessed by Meredith, Cristina, and April. With the crisis unfolding, each character is put through extreme trials and tribulations. Cristina is put under pressure to save Derek, who is seriously injured.
Meanwhile, Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) and her patient Mary drag resident Charles Percy, who has been shot, through the hallway but when they get to the elevators, they are off. Bailey freaks out for a moment, then gathers herself and sits with Charles. When he asks if he was dying, she said yes. She tells him she and Mary are going to stay with him and that he is n't alone, with Charles dying soon thereafter. The shooter walks into the OR where Cristina and Jackson are trying to save Derek. Hunt shows up and Meredith tells him what was going on. He looks through the window and says she is doing fine but he 'd go in to see what he could do to help. When Hunt goes inside, the audience is shown that Mr. Clark is in the room with a gun to Cristina 's head, shouting at her to stop fixing Derek. Cristina and Avery refuse to stop working.
Mr. Clark tells Hunt that he 'd shoot him first and then Cristina but he really only wanted to kill Derek. He believes this is retribution for his wife 's death, which he believes is on Derek 's hands. Meredith then comes into the room and tells Mr. Clark to shoot her. She explains that she is Lexie 's sister, she is the closest thing Webber has to a daughter, and she is Derek 's wife. He turns the gun toward Meredith, but Cristina says Meredith is pregnant. Hunt makes a move toward Mr. Clark and is shot, knocking him unconscious. Cristina and Avery then raise their hands and Avery tells Mr. Clark that Derek will die and he can watch it happen on the monitor. Derek flatlines and Meredith cries almost hysterically. Mr. Clark walks out.
Clark later comes across Lexie, who is bringing supplies to help Alex, and when he attempts to shoot her, the recently arrived SWAT team wounds Clark. This gives time for Lexie to escape. Soon after, Webber walks through the halls of the hospital and finds several bodies. In a room, he finds Mr. Clark, who tells him he 'd bought the gun at a superstore and bought extra ammo because it was on sale. Mr. Clark tells Webber he has one bullet left. He reveals that he planned on shooting Webber, then himself. Eventually, after Webber convinces Clark that his wife would n't want the shooting and would rather be reunited with him, Clark commits suicide as the SWAT team is directly out the door.
Meanwhile, in the operating room, Derek 's heartbeat returns to normal, and everyone is relieved. Outside the hospital, Arizona and Callie reinstate their relationship when Callie says she does n't want to have a baby if it means she ca n't be with Arizona. Arizona agrees to have a baby because she says that she does n't want to stop Callie from being an excellent mother. Mark and Lexie show up at the other hospital. Alex is out of surgery. Lexie goes to Alex. Mark watches Lexie take Alex 's hand. Meredith takes another look at her positive pregnancy test, and throws it out.
The episode was written by showrunner Shonda Rhimes and directed by Rob Corn. In an interview, Rhimes told that the writing of the two - part season six finale caused her struggle. She elaborated on this:
TV Guide reported that Mandy Moore will check into Grey 's Anatomy 's two - hour season finale, adding, "She 'll play a patient named Mary as part of an explosive -- and, of course, top secret -- cliffhanger. Bailey -- who 's having one hell of a season as a newly single gal -- will be her doctor, but beyond that, details are being kept under heavily guarded wraps. '' The news was later confirmed by Entertainment Weekly which further reported, "Bailey -- who 's having one hell of a season as a newly single gal -- will be her doctor, but beyond that, details are being kept under heavily guarded wraps. She comes as part of a grand tradition of recognizable names as patients, usually quick, juicy roles like Sara Gilbert 's euthanized patient two weeks ago and Demi Lovato 's upcoming stretch as a schizophrenic. Moore did that other hospital show, Scrubs ''
It was also reported a veteran actor Michael O'Neill would reprise his role as the grief - stricken widower Gary Clark. O'Neill later in an interview said, "That role changed my career. It was probably the hardest job I 've ever done, hardest work I 've ever done. I had a tremendous resistance to it, and I almost turned the role down. I was so afraid of that being sensationalized, and I did n't want that in the world. I had n't worked with Shonda Rhimes, and so I did n't know. I certainly knew she was a brilliant writer, but I did n't know what the intent was. We had a conversation about it. I said, ' You know what? Can I think about this and call you back tomorrow? ' I called her back, and I said, ' Shonda, I just have to say it frightens me. It really frightens me. ' She said, ' Michael, it frightens me too. ' I thought, OK, we 're at least starting at the same place. Her writing was so good... We saw the wound. We got to see the wound that drove him mad, and I think that was terribly important. It was important to show the fracture that brought this man to that desperate action. ''
Death And All His Friends was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 20, 2010. The episode was the second half of the two - hour season six finale, the other half being Sanctuary It had an audience in The United States of 16.13 million viewers (5.9 / 17 Nielsen rating in its 9: 00 Eastern time - slot.
The episode opened up to universal acclaim with the television critics lauding the writing and performance of the entire cast as well. The performances of guest stars Mandy Moore and Michael O'Neill along with Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Chandra Wilson, Kevin McKidd, James Pickens, Jr. and Sarah Drew garnered most praise. Marsi from TVFanatic highly praised the episode and gave it five stars, and expressed that it may have been the best episode of the series, adding, "The writing and acting were absolutely stellar, and may lead to many Emmy nominations, but even more impressively, despite a killing spree, it remained distinctly Grey 's. Some of the back - and - forths between the characters were truly memorable, and some of the developments so heartbreaking that we do n't even know where to begin now. Seriously, the Season 6 finale left us laying awake afterward thinking about everything, a feeling we have n't had from Grey 's in years and rarely achieved by any program. ''
John Kubicek of BuddyTV also noted that the finale was the best episode, adding, "(It was) two of the best hours of television all year. It was certainly the best Grey 's Anatomy has ever been, which is saying a lot since I 'd written the show off for the past few years. No show does a big traumatic event like Grey 's, and the shooter gave the show license for heightened drama with five major characters being shot over the two hours. It was emotional, expertly paced and had me in tears for most of the finale. '' PopSugar called it "most intense episodes of Grey 's I have ever seen '' adding, "What a whopper of an episode! Can we talk about how gripping the scene is where Bailey and Percy are hiding from Mr. Clark? Then he turns around and gets Karev right in the chest. Seriously, I have n't been so shocked by a one - two shooting spree since Michael shot Ana Lucia and Libby in rapid succession on Lost. Another review from BuddyTV called the finale "Game - changing! '' stating, "The finale that changes everything! You do n't want to miss it! To her credit GA creator and writer - of - this - episode Shonda Rhimes pretty much delivered on her promise. I found myself with my heart in my mouth for the entire evening before finally being able to exhale as the credits rolled. '' The review lauded Ellen Pompeo and Sandra Oh adding, "The Twisted Sisters really were the showcase of the entire finale. Meredith, sidelined for much of the season, took center stage '' even calling Oh 's Cristina Yang a "rockstar ''.
Entertainment Weekly wrote, "You 're still pondering how Grey 's can still be so damn good sometimes, '' further hugely praising the episode, "They did a bang - up job, it felt real in every way, thanks to some stellar performances and writing. And yet it maintained its Grey'sness thanks to some quieter moments and plenty of witty exchanges to boot. '' Regarding the Bailey - Mary - Charles sequence the site wrote, "the action felt so real '', but added, "But the most intense action was culminating in the OR with Cristina, April and Meredith had a nice moment sitting on the ground together, April sniffling and Meredith stonefaced. Kevin McKidd did some stellar acting as he interacted with them. '' Talking about Meredith 's miscarriage the site added, "She saved Owen, though she did it while having a miscarriage -- again, leave it to Grey 's to make this the least dramatic, most underplayed storyline of the night. (Brilliantly so.) ''
Spoiler Junkie wrote highly of the episode Meredith Grey in particular saying, "In the most heart - wrenching moment of the entire two - hour season finale, Meredith bursts into the room, asking Clark to kill her. Eye for an eye, she says. She 's Lexie 's sister. She 's like a daughter to Dr. Weber. She 's the Chief 's wife. '' and noted that "This was an amazing season finale, one of the best in the six seasons of Grey 's Anatomy. The second hour of the Grey 's Anatomy Season 6 season finale, Death and All His Friends, is even more intense than the first. '' HitFix also lauded the episode and wrote, "In every sense, these two episodes where Shonda Rhimes, directors Stephen Cragg and Rob Corn, and the entire cast and crew of the show "Going For It ''. There was no opportunity for suspense, or tears, or anger, or horror, or some good old - fashioned monologuing left unexplored. Huge stakes, huge emotions, great performances from everybody Chandra Wilson and Sandra Oh were particularly great, as was Michael O'Neill as shooter Gary Clark. This was about as good as I 've ever seen "Grey 's. '' Episodes like these are what I point to when anyone asks me why I 'm still watching
The site also lauded Ellen Pompeo 's character stating, "Meredith would suffer a miscarriage in the middle of patching up Owen Hunt 's bullet wound - and be so hard - core, just as her best friend was next door in risking death to save Meredith 's man, that she would just keep working even as blood dripped down her legs. A moment like that works only if everyone involved is 100 % committed to the insanity of it, and here everyone was. They all went for it and came up with a riveting two hours of TV. At the completion of the eleventh season Wired named the episode in its must - watch list adding, "The show reaches its dramatic apex in a multi-episode arc about a deadly spree shooter who visits the hospital with a vendetta. The repercussions of this incident will echo through most of Season 7, and well into the future. '' The site also called Pompeo 's ' Shoot Me. I 'm Your Eye for an Eye. ' the best scene from the entire series.
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what's the coldest it gets in italy | Climate of Italy - wikipedia
Italy has a variety of climate systems. The inland northern areas of Italy (for example Turin, Milan, and Bologna) have a relatively cool, mid-latitude version of the Humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), while the coastal areas of Liguria and the peninsula south of Florence generally fit the Mediterranean climate profile (Köppen climate classification Csa).
Between the north and south there can be a considerable difference in temperature, above all during the winter: in some winter days it can be − 2 ° C (28 ° F) and snowing in Milan, while it is 8 ° C (46.4 ° F) in Rome and 20 ° C (68 ° F) in Palermo. Temperature differences are less extreme in the summer.
The east coast of the Italian peninsula is not as wet as the west coast, but is usually colder in the winter. The east coast north of Pescara is occasionally affected by the cold bora winds in winter and spring, but the wind is less strong here than around Trieste. During these frosty spells from E -- NE cities like Rimini, Ancona, Pescara and the entire eastern hillside of the Apennines can be affected by true "blizzards ''. The town of Fabriano, located just around 300 m (984 ft) in elevation, can often see 0.5 -- 0.6 m (1 ft 7.7 in -- 1 ft 11.6 in) of fresh snow fall in 24 hours during these episodes.
On the coast from Ravenna to Venice and Trieste, snow falls more rarely: during cold spells from the east, the cold can be harsh but with bright skies; while during the snowfalls that affect Northern Italy, the Adriatic coast can see a milder Sirocco wind which makes snow turn to rain -- the mild effects of this wind often disappear just a few kilometres inside the plain, and sometimes the coast from Venice to Grado sees snow while it is raining in Trieste, the Po River mouths and Ravenna. Rarely, the city of Trieste may see snow blizzards with north - eastern winds; in the colder winters, the Venice Lagoon may freeze, and in the coldest ones even enough to walk on the ice sheet.
Summer is usually more stable, although the northern regions often have thunderstorms in the afternoon / night hours and some grey and rainy days. So, while south of Florence the summer is typically dry and sunny, in the north it tends to be more humid and cloudy. Spring and Autumn weather can be very changeable, with sunny and warm weeks (sometimes with Summer - like temperatures) suddenly broken off by cold spells or followed by rainy and cloudy weeks.
In the north, precipitation is more evenly distributed during the year, although the summer is usually slightly wetter. Between November and March the Po valley is often covered by fog, especially in the central zone (Pavia, Piacenza, Cremona and Mantua), while the number of days with lows below 0 ° C (32 ° F) is usually from 60 to 90 a year, with peaks of 100 -- 110 days in the mainly rural zones. Snow is quite common between early December and early March in cities like Turin, Milan and Bologna, but sometime it appears in late November or late March and even April. In the winter of 2005 -- 2006, Milan received around 0.75 -- 0.8 m (2 ft 5.53 in -- 2 ft 7.50 in) or 75 -- 80 cm (29.5 -- 31.5 in) of fresh snow, Como around 1 m (3 ft 3.37 in) or 100 cm (39.4 in), Brescia 0.5 m (1 ft 7.69 in) or 50 cm (19.7 in), Trento 1.6 m (5 ft 2.99 in) or 160 cm (63.0 in), Vicenza around 0.45 m (1 ft 5.72 in) or 45 cm (17.7 in), Bologna around 0.3 m (11.81 in) or 30 cm (11.8 in), and Piacenza around 0.8 m (2 ft 7.50 in) or 80 cm (31.5 in)
Summer temperatures are often similar north to south. July temperatures are 22 -- 24 ° C (71.6 -- 75.2 ° F) north of river Po, like in Milan or Venice, and south of river Po can reach 24 -- 25 ° C (75.2 -- 77.0 ° F) like in Bologna, with fewer thunderstorms; on the coasts of Central and Southern Italy, and in the near plains, mean temperatures goes from 23 ° C to 27 ° C (80.6 ° F). Generally, the hottest month is August in the south and July in the north; during these months the thermometer can reach 38 -- 42 ° C (100.4 -- 107.6 ° F) in the south and 32 -- 35 ° C (89.6 -- 95.0 ° F) in the north; Sometimes the country can be split as during winter, with rain and 20 -- 22 ° C (68.0 -- 71.6 ° F) during the day in the north, and 30 -- 40 ° C (86 -- 104 ° F) in the south; but, having a hot and dry summer does not mean that Southern Italy will not see rain from June to August.
The coldest month is January: the Po valley 's mean temperature is between − 1 -- 1 ° C (30.2 -- 33.8 ° F), Venice 2 -- 3 ° C (35.6 -- 37.4 ° F), Trieste 4 ° C (39.2 ° F), Florence 5 -- 6 ° C (41.0 -- 42.8 ° F), Rome 7 -- 8 ° C (44.6 -- 46.4 ° F), Naples 9 ° C (48.2 ° F), and Cagliari 12 ° C (53.6 ° F). Winter morning lows can occasionally reach − 30 to − 20 ° C (− 22.0 to − 4.0 ° F) in the Alps, − 14 to − 8 ° C (6.8 to 17.6 ° F) in the Po valley, − 7 ° C (19.4 ° F) in Florence, − 4 ° C (24.8 ° F) in Rome, − 2 ° C (28.4 ° F) in Naples and 2 ° C (35.6 ° F) in Palermo. In cities like Rome and Milan, strong heat islands can exist, so that inside the urban area, winters can be milder and summers more sultry.
On some winter mornings it can be just − 3 ° C (26.6 ° F) in Milan 's Dome plaza while − 8 to − 9 ° C (17.6 to 15.8 ° F) in the metropolitan outskirts, in Turin can be just − 5 ° C (23.0 ° F) in the city centre and − 10 to − 12 ° C (14.0 to 10.4 ° F) in the metropolitan outskirts. Often, the largest snowfalls happen in February, sometime in January or March; in the Alps, snow falls more in autumn and spring over 1,500 m (4,921 ft), because winter is usually marked by cold and dry periods; while the Apennines see many more snow falls during winter, but they are warmer and less wet in the other seasons.
Both the mountain chains can see up to 5 -- 10 m (16 ft 4.85 in -- 32 ft 9.70 in) or 500 -- 1,000 cm (196.9 -- 393.7 in) of snow in a year at 2,000 m (6,562 ft); on the highest peaks of the Alps, snow may fall even during mid summer, and glaciers are present.
The record low is − 45 ° C (− 49 ° F) in the Alps, and − 29.0 ° C (− 20.2 ° F) near sea level (recorded on January 12, 1985 at San Pietro Capofiume, hamlet of Molinella, in the Province of Bologna), while in the south cities like Catania, Foggia, Lecce or Alghero have experienced highs of 46 ° C (114.8 ° F) in some hot summers.
(Köppen climate classification)
It is found in all the coastal areas, excluding the north - eastern area, which fits a Humid subtropical climate. The winter average vary from 6 ° C (42.8 ° F), in the northern areas, to 11 -- 14 ° C (51.8 -- 57.2 ° F) in the southern islands. During the summer, averages near 23 ° C (73.4 ° F) in the north (Liguria), and sometimes reaching 26 -- 28 ° C (78.8 -- 82.4 ° F) in the south. Precipitations mostly during the winter. Snowfalls are rare and usually very light in the north, and almost never happen in the south. Summers are dry and hot. Main cities: Cagliari, Palermo, Naples, Rome, Genoa, Pescara.
This climate is found inland and at medium and high elevations in southern Italy, around 1,000 meters (3,281 ft). It is similar to the usual Mediterranean climate: the summers are dry and the winters wetter, but the temperatures are lower in both seasons -- around 3 or 5 ° C (37.4 or 41.0 ° F) in the winter, and between 17 and 21 ° C (62.6 and 69.8 ° F) in the summer. Snowfalls are more common. Main cities and towns: Potenza, Prizzi.
A relatively "continental '' and "four - season '' version of the humid subtropical Cfa climate can be found in the Po and Adige valleys in the North, and sometime in low inland Central and Southern Italy. It is marked by hot and wet summers, while winters are moderately cold. The precipitation is higher and there is no dry season. Average temperatures are around 1 ° C to 3 ° C in January, and more than 22 ° C in July and August. Main cities: Milan, Venice, Verona, Turin, Bologna.
Some parts of Italy have a climate which can not be precisely defined as either Cfa or Csa, presenting elements from both (e.g. summers are not enough wet for Cfa, nor so dry as in Csa; while winters are colder than similar Italian cities of Csa climate, but at the same time milder than in Cfa places). This indeed allows cultivations not seen in the Padana Plain, like olive trees, while keeping those characteristics which are not typical of Mediterranean climates (like more frequent appearances of frost or snow during winters or more frequent summer thunderstorms). This can be found both in some lake and hill resorts of Northern Italy (usually with wetter summers) and in some area like inner Tuscany (usually with drier summers). Florence is a good example of this transition climate:
It can be found in altitude in the Apennines and in the alpine foothills. Summers are between 17 and 21 ° C (62.6 and 69.8 ° F) Main cities and towns: Aosta, Campobasso, L'Aquila, Cuneo, Sondrio, Amatrice -- mild. Belluno, Breno, Feltre -- severe.
This climate is found in the Alps, around 1,200 meters (3,937 ft) in the western side, or around 1,000 m (3,281 ft) in the eastern side. It is marked by low winter averages (between − 7 and − 3 ° C or 19.4 and 26.6 ° F) and mild summers, with temperatures averaging from 13 to 18 ° C (55.4 to 64.4 ° F). Snow is usual from early November until March or early April. Main towns: Brusson, Gressoney - Saint - Jean, Aprica, Vermiglio, Mazzin, Santo Stefano di Cadore, Asiago, Claut, Resia.
In the alpine valley around 1,600 -- 1,800 meters (5,249 -- 5,906 ft). The winters are very cold, averages between − 12 and − 5 ° C (10.4 and 23.0 ° F), and summers are cool, usually around 12 ° C (53.6 ° F). Main towns and villages in this area: Livigno, Chamois, Misurina, Predoi, Rhêmes - Notre - Dame.
Above the tree line in the Alps. All the months with average below 10 ° C (50 ° F). Villages with this climate: Cervinia, Sestriere, Trepalle.
The village of Musi having an annual average of 3313 mm (130.4 inches) is the wettest place in Italy. The maximum rainfall in 24 hours was recorded in Genoa Bolzaneto on 10 September 1970 with a value of 948.4 mm (37.3 inches); however there are many daily rainfall records around Italy exceeding 500 mm (19.7 in). The maximum snow depth was recorded in March 1951 at the meteorological station of Lago D'Avino with a value of 1125 cm (443 inches). In the snowiest years the snowfall can exceed 20 meters (65.6 feet) in some places in high altitudes. During the winter of 1950 / 51 the village of Falcade in the Dolomites received 11.5 m (38.3 feet) of snowfall, setting the record for an Inhabited place. The maximum snowfall in 24 hours (181 cm, 71.3 inches) was recorded in the village of Roccacaramanico (Majella massif) in January 1951. The lowest temperature record for an inhabited place is − 34 ° C (− 29.2 ° F) in 1967 in Livigno, while there are two candidates for the highest temperature: 47.0 ° C (116.6 ° F) recorded in Foggia in Apulia on 25 June 2007, and 48.5 ° C (119.3 ° F) recorded in Catenanuova in Sicily on 10 August 1999. The latter is not official, and generally considered dubious. The official highest temperature in Europe was recorded in Athens on 10 July 1997, at 48.0 ° C (118.4 ° F).
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who did clemson play last year in the bowl game | List of Clemson Tigers bowl games - wikipedia
The Clemson Tigers college football team competes as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), representing Clemson University in the Atlantic Division of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). Since the establishment of the team in 1896, Clemson has appeared in 42 bowl games. Included in these games are 9 combined appearances in the traditional "big four '' bowl games (the Rose, Sugar, Cotton, and Orange). Clemson 's 22 bowl victories currently ranks as 17th all - time among college football programs for most bowl wins. The Tigers also rank 17th in most bowl appearances.
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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list of countries with the highest minimum wage | List of minimum wages by country - wikipedia
This is a list of official minimum wage rates of the 193 United Nations member states, the Chinese special administrative region Hong Kong and the following states with limited recognition: Taiwan (Republic of China), Northern Cyprus, Kosovo, and Palestine.
Some countries may have a very complicated minimum wage system; for example, India has more than 1202 minimum wage rates.
The minimum wages given refer to a gross amount, that is before deduction of taxes and social security contributions, which vary from one country to another. Also excluded from calculations are regulated paid days off, including public holidays, sick pay, annual leave and social insurance contributions paid by the employer.
For the sake of comparison, an annual wage column is provided in international dollars, a hypothetical unit of currency calculated based on the purchasing power parity of household final consumption expenditure. For calculating the annual wage, the lowest general minimum wage was used.
7003300100000000000 ♠ 3,001
7000144000000000000 ♠ 1.44
7003479000000000000 ♠ 4,790
7000230000000099999 ♠ 2.3
7003590800000000000 ♠ 5,908
7000284000000000000 ♠ 2.84
7003196100000000000 ♠ 1,961
6999940000000000000 ♠ 0.94
7003766100000000000 ♠ 7,661
7000368000000000000 ♠ 3.68
7004206270000000000 ♠ 20,627
7000826000000000000 ♠ 8.26
7003326500000000000 ♠ 3,265
7000157000000000000 ♠ 1.57
7004229240000000000 ♠ 22,924
7001116000000000000 ♠ 11.6
7003433600000000000 ♠ 4,336
7000208000000000000 ♠ 2.08
7003944800000000000 ♠ 9,448
7000454000000000000 ♠ 4.54
7003323500000000000 ♠ 3,235
7000130000000000000 ♠ 1.3
7003529200000000000 ♠ 5,292
7000254000000000000 ♠ 2.54
7000100000000000000 ♠ 1
5000000000000000000 ♠ 0
7004200560000000000 ♠ 20,056
7001101500000000000 ♠ 10.15
7003673700000000000 ♠ 6,737
7000288000000000000 ♠ 2.88
7003210200000000000 ♠ 2,102
7000101000000000000 ♠ 1.01
7003208200000000000 ♠ 2,082
7000100000000000000 ♠ 1
7003699000000000000 ♠ 6,990
7000280000000099999 ♠ 2.8
7003457500000000000 ♠ 4,575
7000220000000000000 ♠ 2.2
7003127900000000000 ♠ 1,279
6999510000000000000 ♠ 0.51
7003596200000000000 ♠ 5,962
7000261000000000000 ♠ 2.61
7003786700000000000 ♠ 7,867
7000378000000000000 ♠ 3.78
7003187700000000000 ♠ 1,877
6999900000000000000 ♠ 0.9
7003181200000000000 ♠ 1,812
6999870000000000000 ♠ 0.87
7004168180000000000 ♠ 16,818
7000809000000000000 ♠ 8.09
7003281200000000000 ♠ 2,812
7000123000000000000 ♠ 1.23
7003145500000000000 ♠ 1,455
6999700000000000000 ♠ 0.7
7003340600000000000 ♠ 3,406
7000168000000000000 ♠ 1.68
7003725300000000000 ♠ 7,253
7000310000000000000 ♠ 3.1
7003313900000000000 ♠ 3,139
7000151000000000000 ♠ 1.51
7003685300000000000 ♠ 6,853
7000275000000000000 ♠ 2.75
7003307000000000000 ♠ 3,070
7000148000000000000 ♠ 1.48
7002762000000000000 ♠ 762
6999330000000000000 ♠ 0.33
7003604300000000000 ♠ 6,043
7000291000000000000 ♠ 2.91
7003660300000000000 ♠ 6,603
7000265000000000000 ♠ 2.65
7003185800000000000 ♠ 1,858
6999890000000000000 ♠ 0.89
7003895500000000000 ♠ 8,955
7000430990000099999 ♠ 4.31
7003947600000000000 ♠ 9,476
7000455990000099999 ♠ 4.56
7003418000000000000 ♠ 4,180
7000200999999999999 ♠ 2.01
7003187900000000000 ♠ 1,879
6999820009999900000 ♠ 0.82
7003848500000000000 ♠ 8,485
7000408000000000000 ♠ 4.08
7003219400000000000 ♠ 2,194
6999960000000000000 ♠ 0.96
7003424400000000000 ♠ 4,244
7000170000000000000 ♠ 1.7
7003917000000000000 ♠ 9,170
7000441000000000000 ♠ 4.41
7003462400000000000 ♠ 4,624
7000185000000000000 ♠ 1.85
7004200810000000000 ♠ 20,081
7001110300000000000 ♠ 11.03
7003733600000000000 ♠ 7,336
7000353000000000000 ♠ 3.53
7003110900000000000 ♠ 1,109
6999440000000000000 ♠ 0.44
7002284000000000000 ♠ 284
6999140000000000000 ♠ 0.14
7004222360000000000 ♠ 22,236
7001105600000000000 ♠ 10.56
7003168700000000000 ♠ 1,687
6999810000000000000 ♠ 0.81
7004117250000000000 ♠ 11,725
7000564000000000000 ♠ 5.64
7003719700000000000 ♠ 7,197
7000288000000000000 ♠ 2.88
7002939000000000000 ♠ 939
6999400000000000000 ♠ 0.4
7003356000000000000 ♠ 3,560
7000171000000000000 ♠ 1.71
7003154800000000000 ♠ 1,548
6999620000000000000 ♠ 0.62
7003443100000000000 ♠ 4,431
7000194000000000000 ♠ 1.94
7004112480000000000 ♠ 11,248
7000541000000000000 ♠ 5.41
7004102880000000000 ♠ 10,288
7000495000000000000 ♠ 4.95
7003259000000000000 ♠ 2,590
7000104000000000000 ♠ 1.04
7003270700000000000 ♠ 2,707
7000130000000000000 ♠ 1.3
7002994000000000000 ♠ 994
6999430000000000000 ♠ 0.43
7003504900000000000 ♠ 5,049
7000243000000000000 ♠ 2.43
7004182470000000000 ♠ 18,247
7000900000000000000 ♠ 9
7004136080000000000 ♠ 13,608
7000609000000000000 ♠ 6.09
7003408600000000000 ♠ 4,086
7000196000000000000 ♠ 1.96
7004130880000000000 ♠ 13,088
7000629000000000000 ♠ 6.29
7003779500000000000 ♠ 7,795
7000312000000000000 ♠ 3.12
7003273000000000000 ♠ 2,730
7000131000000000000 ♠ 1.31
7003147300000000000 ♠ 1,473
6999540000000000000 ♠ 0.54
7004131400000000000 ♠ 13,140
7000632000000000000 ♠ 6.32
7003592800000000000 ♠ 5,928
7000285000000000000 ♠ 2.85
7003373300000000000 ♠ 3,733
7000150000000000000 ♠ 1.5
7002558000000000000 ♠ 558
6999270000000000000 ♠ 0.27
7003519300000000000 ♠ 5,193
7000208000000000000 ♠ 2.08
7003764700000000000 ♠ 7,647
7000368000000000000 ♠ 3.68
7003872200000000000 ♠ 8,722
7000349000000000000 ♠ 3.49
7003318500000000000 ♠ 3,185
7000136000000000000 ♠ 1.36
7002823000000000000 ♠ 823
6999330000000000000 ♠ 0.33
7003945700000000000 ♠ 9,457
7000455000000000000 ♠ 4.55
7003842100000000000 ♠ 8,421
7000405000000000000 ♠ 4.05
7004240240000000000 ♠ 24,024
7001115500000000000 ♠ 11.55
7003534700000000000 ♠ 5,347
7000257000000099999 ♠ 2.57
7003167600000000000 ♠ 1,676
6999790000000000000 ♠ 0.79
7003124400000000000 ♠ 1,244
6999500000000000000 ♠ 0.5
7003584000000000000 ♠ 5,840
7000234000000000000 ♠ 2.34
7003151300000000000 ♠ 1,513
6999610000000000000 ♠ 0.61
7004137010000000000 ♠ 13,701
7000659000000000000 ♠ 6.59
7003398100000000000 ♠ 3,981
7000191000000000000 ♠ 1.91
7003381000000000000 ♠ 3,810
7000183000000000000 ♠ 1.83
7003161800000000000 ♠ 1,618
6999690009999900000 ♠ 0.69
7003240100000000000 ♠ 2,401
6999960000000000000 ♠ 0.96
7003183800000000000 ♠ 1,838
6999880000000000000 ♠ 0.88
7003275500000000000 ♠ 2,755
7000132000000000000 ♠ 1.32
7003498000000000000 ♠ 4,980
7000239000000000000 ♠ 2.39
7003858000000000000 ♠ 8,580
7000375000000000000 ♠ 3.75
7003215000000000000 ♠ 2,150
7000103000000000000 ♠ 1.03
7003314300000000000 ♠ 3,143
7000137000000000000 ♠ 1.37
7003281500000000000 ♠ 2,815
7000112990000099999 ♠ 1.13
7004203400000000000 ♠ 20,340
7000978000000099999 ♠ 9.78
7004203060000000000 ♠ 20,306
7000976000000000000 ♠ 9.76
7003347400000000000 ♠ 3,474
7000138990000099999 ♠ 1.39
7003161500000000000 ♠ 1,615
6999780000000000000 ♠ 0.78
7003199600000000000 ♠ 1,996
6999960000000000000 ♠ 0.96
7004195060000000000 ♠ 19,506
7000834000000000000 ♠ 8.34
7003574800000000000 ♠ 5,748
7000230000000099999 ♠ 2.3
7003589800000000000 ♠ 5,898
7000284000000000000 ♠ 2.84
7003513100000000000 ♠ 5,131
7000206000000000000 ♠ 2.06
7003334300000000000 ♠ 3,343
7000146000000000000 ♠ 1.46
7003866100000000000 ♠ 8,661
7000347000000000000 ♠ 3.47
7003601400000000000 ♠ 6,014
7000241000000000000 ♠ 2.41
7003662300000000000 ♠ 6,623
7000265000000000000 ♠ 2.65
7004124660000000000 ♠ 12,466
7000599000000000000 ♠ 5.99
7003984400000000000 ♠ 9,844
7000473000000000000 ♠ 4.73
7003899400000000000 ♠ 8,994
7000432000000000000 ♠ 4.32
7003310600000000000 ♠ 3,106
7000149000000000000 ♠ 1.49
7003889800000000000 ♠ 8,898
7000428000000000000 ♠ 4.28
7003329800000000000 ♠ 3,298
7000159000000000000 ♠ 1.59
7003224000000000000 ♠ 2,240
7000108000000000000 ♠ 1.08
7004266730000000000 ♠ 26,673
7001136800000000000 ♠ 13.68
((List of minimum wages by country / Row Saudi Arabia 3000 monthly 48 2 February 2013 comment = 3,000 Saudi riyals ($720) per month for public sector; does not apply to foreign workers. There are no minimum wage in private sector.
7003161000000000000 ♠ 1,610
6999770000000000000 ♠ 0.77
7003733800000000000 ♠ 7,338
7000353000000000000 ♠ 3.53
7003628700000000000 ♠ 6,287
7000302000000000000 ♠ 3.02
7003248000000000000 ♠ 2,480
7000119000000000000 ♠ 1.19
7003867700000000000 ♠ 8,677
7000417000000000000 ♠ 4.17
7004144010000000000 ♠ 14,401
7000692000000000000 ♠ 6.92
7002948000000000000 ♠ 948
6999410009999900000 ♠ 0.41
7004130970000000000 ♠ 13,097
7000630000000000000 ♠ 6.3
7003249900000000000 ♠ 2,499
7000107000000000000 ♠ 1.07
7003126600000000000 ♠ 1,266
6999610000000000000 ♠ 0.61
7004181990000000000 ♠ 18,199
7000875000000000000 ♠ 8.75
7003144400000000000 ♠ 1,444
6999690009999900000 ♠ 0.69
7002616000000000000 ♠ 616
6999260000000000000 ♠ 0.26
7003722300000000000 ♠ 7,223
7000289000000000000 ♠ 2.89
7003206200000000000 ♠ 2,062
6999900000000000000 ♠ 0.9
7003178900000000000 ♠ 1,789
6999860000000000000 ♠ 0.86
7003559800000000000 ♠ 5,598
7000269000000000000 ♠ 2.69
7003308500000000000 ♠ 3,085
7000124000000000000 ♠ 1.24
7004127790000000000 ♠ 12,779
7000546000000000000 ♠ 5.46
7003455600000000000 ♠ 4,556
7000219000000000000 ♠ 2.19
7001610000000000000 ♠ 61
6998300000000000000 ♠ 0.03
7003730300000000000 ♠ 7,303
7000351000000000000 ♠ 3.51
7004185770000000000 ♠ 18,577
7000938000000000000 ♠ 9.38
7004150800000000000 ♠ 15,080
7000725000000000000 ♠ 7.25
7003576600000000000 ♠ 5,766
7000231000000000000 ♠ 2.31
7003141700000000000 ♠ 1,417
6999680000000000000 ♠ 0.68
7003302900000000000 ♠ 3,029
7000146000000000000 ♠ 1.46
7002134000000000000 ♠ 134
6998600000000000000 ♠ 0.06
7003325900000000000 ♠ 3,259
7000157000000000000 ♠ 1.57
7003194800000000000 ♠ 1,948
6999780000000000000 ♠ 0.78
|
name the function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic distribution the ans | Autonomic nervous system - wikipedia
The autonomic nervous system (ANS), formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight - or - flight response.
Within the brain, the autonomic nervous system is regulated by the hypothalamus. Autonomic functions include control of respiration, cardiac regulation (the cardiac control center), vasomotor activity (the vasomotor center), and certain reflex actions such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. Those are then subdivided into other areas and are also linked to ANS subsystems and nervous systems external to the brain. The hypothalamus, just above the brain stem, acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving ANS regulatory input from the limbic system to do so.
The autonomic nervous system has three branches: the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. Some textbooks do not include the enteric nervous system as part of this system. The sympathetic nervous system is often considered the "fight or flight '' system, while the parasympathetic nervous system is often considered the "rest and digest '' or "feed and breed '' system. In many cases, both of these systems have "opposite '' actions where one system activates a physiological response and the other inhibits it. An older simplification of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as "excitory '' and "inhibitory '' was overturned due to the many exceptions found. A more modern characterization is that the sympathetic nervous system is a "quick response mobilizing system '' and the parasympathetic is a "more slowly activated dampening system '', but even this has exceptions, such as in sexual arousal and orgasm, wherein both play a role.
There are inhibitory and excitatory synapses between neurons. Relatively recently, a third subsystem of neurons that have been named non-noradrenergic, non-cholinergic transmitters (because they use nitric oxide as a neurotransmitter) have been described and found to be integral in autonomic function, in particular in the gut and the lungs.
Although the ANS is also known as the visceral nervous system, the ANS is only connected with the motor side. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the somatic nervous system which provides voluntary control.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic division emerges from the spinal cord in the thoracic and lumbar areas, terminating around L2 - 3. The parasympathetic division has craniosacral "outflow '', meaning that the neurons begin at the cranial nerves (specifically the oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve) and sacral (S2 - S4) spinal cord.
The autonomic nervous system is unique in that it requires a sequential two - neuron efferent pathway; the preganglionic neuron must first synapse onto a postganglionic neuron before innervating the target organ. The preganglionic, or first, neuron will begin at the "outflow '' and will synapse at the postganglionic, or second, neuron 's cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then synapse at the target organ.
The sympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in the lateral grey column from T1 to L2 / 3. These cell bodies are "GVE '' (general visceral efferent) neurons and are the preganglionic neurons. There are several locations upon which preganglionic neurons can synapse for their postganglionic neurons:
These ganglia provide the postganglionic neurons from which innervation of target organs follows. Examples of splanchnic (visceral) nerves are:
These all contain afferent (sensory) nerves as well, known as GVA (general visceral afferent) neurons.
The parasympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in one of two locations: the brainstem (Cranial Nerves III, VII, IX, X) or the sacral spinal cord (S2, S3, S4). These are the preganglionic neurons, which synapse with postganglionic neurons in these locations:
These ganglia provide the postganglionic neurons from which innervations of target organs follows. Examples are:
The sensory arm is composed of primary visceral sensory neurons found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), in cranial sensory ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia, appended respectively to cranial nerves VII, IX and X. These sensory neurons monitor the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen and sugar in the blood, arterial pressure and the chemical composition of the stomach and gut content. They also convey the sense of taste and smell, which, unlike most functions of the ANS, is a conscious perception. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide are in fact directly sensed by the carotid body, a small collection of chemosensors at the bifurcation of the carotid artery, innervated by the petrosal (IXth) ganglion. Primary sensory neurons project (synapse) onto "second order '' visceral sensory neurons located in the medulla oblongata, forming the nucleus of the solitary tract (nTS), that integrates all visceral information. The nTS also receives input from a nearby chemosensory center, the area postrema, that detects toxins in the blood and the cerebrospinal fluid and is essential for chemically induced vomiting or conditional taste aversion (the memory that ensures that an animal that has been poisoned by a food never touches it again). All this visceral sensory information constantly and unconsciously modulates the activity of the motor neurons of the ANS.
Autonomic nerves travel to organs throughout the body. Most organs receive parasympathetic supply by the vagus nerve and sympathetic supply by splanchnic nerves. The sensory part of the latter reaches the spinal column at certain spinal segments. Pain in any internal organ is perceived as referred pain, more specifically as pain from the dermatome corresponding to the spinal segment.
Motor neurons of the autonomic nervous system are found in ' ' autonomic ganglia ' '. Those of the parasympathetic branch are located close to the target organ whilst the ganglia of the sympathetic branch are located close to the spinal cord.
The sympathetic ganglia here, are found in two chains: the pre-vertebral and pre-aortic chains. The activity of autonomic ganglionic neurons is modulated by "preganglionic neurons '' located in the central nervous system. Preganglionic sympathetic neurons are located in the spinal cord, at the thorax and upper lumbar levels. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are found in the medulla oblongata where they form visceral motor nuclei; the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve; the nucleus ambiguus, the salivatory nuclei, and in the sacral region of the spinal cord.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. The sympathetic system is often considered the "fight or flight '' system, while the parasympathetic system is often considered the "rest and digest '' or "feed and breed '' system.
However, many instances of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity can not be ascribed to "fight '' or "rest '' situations. For example, standing up from a reclining or sitting position would entail an unsustainable drop in blood pressure if not for a compensatory increase in the arterial sympathetic tonus. Another example is the constant, second - to - second, modulation of heart rate by sympathetic and parasympathetic influences, as a function of the respiratory cycles. In general, these two systems should be seen as permanently modulating vital functions, in usually antagonistic fashion, to achieve homeostasis. Some typical actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are listed below.
Promotes a fight - or - flight response, corresponds with arousal and energy generation, and inhibits digestion
The parasympathetic nervous system has been said to promote a "rest and digest '' response, promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion. Functions of nerves within the parasympathetic nervous system include:
The enteric nervous system is the intrinsic nervous system of the gastrointestinal system. It has been described as "the Second Brain of the Human Body ''. Its functions include:
At the effector organs, sympathetic ganglionic neurons release noradrenaline (norepinephrine), along with other cotransmitters such as ATP, to act on adrenergic receptors, with the exception of the sweat glands and the adrenal medulla:
A full table is found at Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS.
Caffeine is a bio-active ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short - term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short - term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible that other bio-active ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers.
Caffeine is capable of increasing work capacity while individuals perform strenuous tasks. In one study, caffeine provoked a greater maximum heart rate while a strenuous task was being performed compared to a placebo. This tendency is likely due to caffeine 's ability to increase sympathetic nerve outflow. Furthermore, this study found that recovery after intense exercise was slower when caffeine was consumed prior to exercise. This finding is indicative of caffeine 's tendency to inhibit parasympathetic activity in non-habitual consumers. The caffeine - stimulated increase in nerve activity is likely to evoke other physiological effects as the body attempts to maintain homeostasis.
The effects of caffeine on parasympathetic activity may vary depending on the position of the individual when autonomic responses are measured. One study found that the seated position inhibited autonomic activity after caffeine consumption (75 mg); however, parasympathetic activity increased in the supine position. This finding may explain why some habitual caffeine consumers (75 mg or less) do not experience short - term effects of caffeine if their routine requires many hours in a seated position. It is important to note that the data supporting increased parasympathetic activity in the supine position was derived from an experiment involving participants between the ages of 25 and 30 who were considered healthy and sedentary. Caffeine may influence autonomic activity differently for individuals who are more active or elderly.
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what is the different between cattle and cow | Cattle - wikipedia
Cattle -- colloquially cows -- are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos taurus.
Cattle are raised as livestock for meat (beef and veal), as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals (oxen or bullocks that pull carts, plows and other implements). Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel. In some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning.
Around 10,500 years ago, cattle were domesticated from as few as 80 progenitors in southeast Turkey. According to an estimate from 2011, there are 1.4 billion cattle in the world. In 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft.
Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, the European or "taurine '' cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia); Bos indicus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle. These have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies: Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus.
Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle, Bos taurus africanus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos -- yaks (the dzo or yattle), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos, as well. The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious -- for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine - type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak. However, cattle can not be successfully hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo.
The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Mazovia, Poland, in about 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed.
Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals. It was borrowed from Anglo - Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale ' principal sum of money, capital ', itself derived in turn from Latin caput ' head '. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property (the land, which also included wild or small free - roaming animals such as chickens -- they were sold as part of the land). The word is a variant of chattel (a unit of personal property) and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh ' cattle, property ', which survives today as fee (cf. German: Vieh, Dutch: vee, Gothic: faihu).
The word "cow '' came via Anglo - Saxon cū (plural cȳ), from Common Indo - European gwōus (genitive gwowés) = "a bovine animal '', compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go -, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and an additional plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien, but also kies, kuin and others. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, "kine ''. The Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is "kye ''.
In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, "cattle '' refers to livestock, as opposed to "deer '' which refers to wildlife. "Wild cattle '' may refer to feral cattle or to undomesticated species of the genus Bos. Today, when used without any other qualifier, the modern meaning of "cattle '' is usually restricted to domesticated bovines.
In general, the same words are used in different parts of the world, but with minor differences in the definitions. The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the United Kingdom and other British - influenced parts of the world such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the United States.
Cattle can only be used in the plural and not in the singular: it is a plurale tantum. Thus one may refer to "three cattle '' or "some cattle '', but not "one cattle ''. No universally used singular form in modern English of cattle exists, other than the sex - and age - specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer. Historically, "ox '' was not a sex - specific term for adult cattle, but generally this is now used only for draft cattle, especially adult castrated males. The term is also incorporated into the names of other species, such as the musk ox and "grunting ox '' (yak), and is used in some areas to describe certain cattle products such as ox - hide and oxtail.
Cow is in general use as a singular for the collective cattle, despite the objections by those who insist it to be a female - specific term. Although the phrase "that cow is a bull '' is absurd from a lexicographic standpoint, the word cow is easy to use when a singular is needed and the sex is unknown or irrelevant -- when "there is a cow in the road '', for example. Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate even in the restrictive sense. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences. Merriam - Webster, a US dictionary, recognizes the sex - nonspecific use of cow as an alternate definition, whereas Collins and the OED, UK dictionaries, do not.
Colloquially, more general non specific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Australian, New Zealand and British farmers use the term beast or cattle beast. Bovine is also used in Britain. The term critter is common in the western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young cattle. In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter '', though that term is becoming archaic.
Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the term beef (plural beeves) is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either sex. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called dairy cows or milking cows (formerly milch cows). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are sold for veal, and may be referred to as veal calves.
The term dogies is used to describe orphaned calves in the context of ranch work in the American West, as in "Keep them dogies moving ''. In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a "house cow ''. Other obsolete terms for cattle include "neat '' (this use survives in "neatsfoot oil '', extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing '' (young animal fit for slaughter).
An onomatopoeic term for one of the most common sounds made by cattle is moo (also called lowing). There are a number of other sounds made by cattle, including calves bawling, and bulls bellowing. Bawling is most common for cows after weaning of a calf. The bullroarer makes a sound similar to a bull 's territorial call.
Cattle are large quadrupedal ungulate mammals with cloven hooves. Most breeds have horns, which can be as large as the Texas Longhorn or small like a scur. Careful genetic selection has allowed polled (hornless) cattle to become widespread.
Cattle are ruminants, meaning their digestive system is highly specialized to allow the use of poorly digestible plants as food. Cattle have one stomach with four compartments, the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, with the rumen being the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb ''. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum and irritation from the metal objects causes hardware disease. The omasum 's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "many plies ''. The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "true stomach ''.
Cattle are known for regurgitating and re-chewing their food, known as cud chewing, like most ruminants. While the animal is feeding, the food is swallowed without being chewed and goes into the rumen for storage until the animal can find a quiet place to continue the digestion process. The food is regurgitated, a mouthful at a time, back up to the mouth, where the food, now called the cud, is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized microorganisms in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources, such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract. These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines, allowing cattle to gain a high - quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other tough vegetation.
The gestation period for a cow is about nine months long. A newborn calf 's size can vary among breeds, but a typical calf weighs between 25 to 45 kg (55 to 99 lb). Adult size and weight vary significantly among breeds and sex. Steers are generally killed before reaching 750 kg (1,650 lb). Breeding stock may be allowed a longer lifespan, occasionally living as long as 25 years. The oldest recorded cow, Big Bertha, died at the age of 48 in 1993.
On farms it is very common to use artificial insemination (AI)), a medically assisted reproduction technique consisting of the artificial deposition of semen in the female 's genital tract. It is used in cases where the spermatozoa can not reach the fallopian tubes or simply by choice of the owner of the animal. It consists of transferring, to the uterine cavity, spermatozoa previously collected and processed, with the selection of morphologically more normal and mobile spermatozoa.
A cow 's udder contains two pairs of mammary glands, (commonly referred to as teats) creating four "quarters ''. The front ones are referred to as fore quarters and the rear ones rear quarters.
Bulls become fertile at about seven months of age. Their fertility is closely related to the size of their testicles, and one simple test of fertility is to measure the circumference of the scrotum: a young bull is likely to be fertile once this reaches 28 centimetres (11 in); that of a fully adult bull may be over 40 centimetres (16 in).
Bulls have a fibro - elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.
Induced ovulation can be manipulated to produce farming benefits. For example, to synchronise ovulation of the cattle to benefit dairy farming.
The world record for the heaviest bull was 1,740 kg (3,840 lb), a Chianina named Donetto, when he was exhibited at the Arezzo show in 1955. The heaviest steer was eight - year - old ' Old Ben ', a Shorthorn / Hereford cross weighing in at 2,140 kg (4,720 lb) in 1910.
The weight of adult cattle varies, depending on the breed. Smaller kinds, such as Dexter and Jersey adults, range between 272 to 454 kg (600 to 1,000 lb). Large Continental breeds, such as Charolais, Marchigiana, Belgian Blue and Chianina, adults range from 635 to 1,134 kg (1,400 to 2,500 lb). British breeds, such as Hereford, Angus, and Shorthorn, mature between 454 to 907 kg (1,000 to 2,000 lb), occasionally higher, particularly with Angus and Hereford.
Bulls will be a bit larger than cows of the same breed by a few hundred kilograms. Chianina bulls can weigh up to 1,500 kg (3,300 lb); British bulls, such as Angus and Hereford, can weigh as little as 907 kg (2,000 lb) to as much as 1,361 kg (3,000 lb).
It is difficult to generalize or average out the weight of all cattle because different kinds have different averages of weights. However, according to some sources, the average weight of all cattle is 753 kg (1,660 lb). Finishing steers in the feedlot average about 640 kg (1,410 lb); cows about 725 kg (1,600 lb), and bulls about 1,090 kg (2,400 lb).
In the United States, the average weight of beef cattle has steadily increased, especially since the 1970s, requiring the building of new slaughterhouses able to handle larger carcasses. New packing plants in the 1980s stimulated a large increase in cattle weights. Before 1790 beef cattle averaged only 160 kg (350 lb) net; and thereafter weights climbed steadily.
In laboratory studies, young cattle are able to memorize the locations of several food sources and retain this memory for at least 8 hours, although this declined after 12 hours. Fifteen - month - old heifers learn more quickly than adult cows which have had either one or two calvings, but their longer - term memory is less stable. Mature cattle perform well in spatial learning tasks and have a good long - term memory in these tests. Cattle tested in a radial arm maze are able to remember the locations of high - quality food for at least 30 days. Although they initially learn to avoid low - quality food, this memory diminishes over the same duration. Under less artificial testing conditions, young cattle showed they were able to remember the location of feed for at least 48 days. Cattle can make an association between a visual stimulus and food within 1 day -- memory of this association can be retained for 1 year, despite a slight decay.
Calves are capable of discrimination learning and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the Closed - field Test.
They are also able to discriminate between familiar individuals, and among humans. Cattle can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar animals of the same species (conspecifics). Studies show they behave less aggressively toward familiar individuals when they are forming a new group. Calves can also discriminate between humans based on previous experience, as shown by approaching those who handled them positively and avoiding those who handled them aversively. Although cattle can discriminate between humans by their faces alone, they also use other cues such as the color of clothes when these are available.
In audio play - back studies, calves prefer their own mother 's vocalizations compared to the vocalizations of an unfamiliar mother.
In laboratory studies using images, cattle can discriminate between images of the heads of cattle and other animal species. They are also able to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics. Furthermore, they are able to categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.
When mixed with other individuals, cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, indicating that kin discrimination occurs and may be a basis of grouping behaviour. It has also been shown using images of cattle that both artificially inseminated and cloned calves have similar cognitive capacities of kin and non-kin discrimination.
Cattle can recognize familiar individuals. Visual individual recognition is a more complex mental process than visual discrimination. It requires the recollection of the learned idiosyncratic identity of an individual that has been previously encountered and the formation of a mental representation. By using 2 - dimensional images of the heads of one cow (face, profiles, 3⁄4 views), all the tested heifers showed individual recognition of familiar and unfamiliar individuals from their own breed. Furthermore, almost all the heifers recognized unknown individuals from different breeds, although this was achieved with greater difficulty. Individual recognition was most difficult when the visual features of the breed being tested were quite different from the breed in the image, for example, the breed being tested had no spots whereas the image was of a spotted breed.
Cattle use visual / brain lateralisation in their visual scanning of novel and familiar stimuli. Domestic cattle prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye, i.e. using the right brain hemisphere (similar to horses, Australian magpies, chicks, toads and fish) but use the right eye, i.e. using the left hemisphere, for viewing familiar stimuli.
In cattle, temperament can affect production traits such as carcass and meat quality or milk yield as well as affecting the animal 's overall health and reproduction. Cattle temperament is defined as "the consistent behavioral and physiological difference observed between individuals in response to a stressor or environmental challenge and is used to describe the relatively stable difference in the behavioral predisposition of an animal, which can be related to psychobiological mechanisms ''. Generally, cattle temperament is assumed to be multidimensional. Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed:
In a study on Holstein -- Friesian heifers learning to press a panel to open a gate for access to a food reward, the researchers also recorded the heart rate and behavior of the heifers when moving along the race towards the food. When the heifers made clear improvements in learning, they had higher heart rates and tended to move more vigorously along the race. The researchers concluded this was an indication that cattle may react emotionally to their own learning improvement.
Negative emotional states are associated with a bias toward negative (pessimistic) responses towards ambiguous cues in judgement tasks -- as encapsulated in the question of "is the glass half empty or half full? ''. After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves showed such a cognitive bias indicative of low mood. A similar study showed that after hot - iron disbudding (dehorning), calves had a similar negative bias indicating that post-operative pain following this routine procedure results in a negative change in emotional state.
In studies of visual discrimination, the position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state. When cattle are stressed, this can be recognised by other cattle as it is communicated by alarm substances in the urine.
Cattle are very gregarious and even short - term isolation is considered to cause severe psychological stress. When Aubrac and Fresian heifers are isolated, they increase their vocalizations and experience increased heart rate and plasma cortisol concentrations. These physiological changes are greater in Aubracs. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalisations rapidly decline, regardless of the familiarity of the returning cattle, however, heart rate decreases are greater if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously - isolated individual. Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.
Cattle use all of the five widely recognized sensory modalities. These can assist in some complex behavioural patterns, for example, in grazing behaviour. Cattle eat mixed diets, but when given the opportunity, show a partial preference of approximately 70 % clover and 30 % grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.
Vision is the dominant sense in cattle and they obtain almost 50 % of their information visually.
Cattle are a prey animal and to assist predator detection, their eyes are located on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a wide field of view of 330 ° but limits binocular vision (and therefore stereopsis) to 30 ° to 50 ° compared to 140 ° in humans. This means they have a blind spot directly behind them. Cattle have good visual acuity (1 / 20) but compared to humans, the visual accommodation of cattle is poor.
Cattle have two kinds of color receptors in the cone cells of their retinas. This means that cattle are dichromatic, as are most other non-primate land mammals. There are two to three rods per cone in the fovea centralis but five to six near the optic papilla. Cattle can distinguish long wavelength colors (yellow, orange and red) much better than the shorter wavelengths (blue, grey and green). Calves are able to discriminate between long (red) and short (blue) or medium (green) wavelengths, but have limited ability to discriminate between the short and medium. They also approach handlers more quickly under red light. Whilst having good color sensitivity, it is not as good as humans or sheep.
A common misconception about cattle (particularly bulls) is that they are enraged by the color red (something provocative is often said to be "like a red flag to a bull ''). This is a myth. In bullfighting, it is the movement of the red flag or cape that irritates the bull and incites it to charge.
Cattle have a well - developed sense of taste and can distinguish the four primary tastes (sweet, salty, bitter and sour). They possess around 20,000 taste buds. The strength of taste perception depends on the individual 's current food requirements. They avoid bitter - tasting foods (potentially toxic) and have a marked preference for sweet (high calorific value) and salty foods (electrolyte balance). Their sensitivity to sour - tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal pH.
Plants have low levels of sodium and cattle have developed the capacity of seeking salt by taste and smell. If cattle become depleted of sodium salts, they show increased locomotion directed to searching for these. To assist in their search, the olfactory and gustatory receptors able to detect minute amounts of sodium salts increase their sensitivity as biochemical disruption develops with sodium salt depletion.
Cattle hearing ranges from 23 Hz to 35 kHz. Their frequency of best sensitivity is 8 kHz and they have a lowest threshold of − 21 db (re 20 μN / m), which means their hearing is more acute than horses (lowest threshold of 7 db). Sound localization acuity thresholds are an average of 30 °. This means that cattle are less able to localise sounds compared to goats (18 °), dogs (8 °) and humans (0.8 °). Because cattle have a broad foveal fields of view covering almost the entire horizon, they may not need very accurate locus information from their auditory systems to direct their gaze to a sound source.
Vocalisations are an important mode of communication amongst cattle and can provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and reproductive status of the caller. Calves can recognize their mothers using vocal and vocal behaviour may play a role by indicating estrus and competitive display by bulls.
Cattle have a range of odiferous glands over their body including interdigital, infraorbital, inguinal and sebaceous glands, indicating that olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life. Both the primary olfactory system using the olfactory bulbs, and the secondary olfactory system using the vomeronasal organ are used. This latter olfactory system is used in the flehmen response. There is evidence that when cattle are stressed, this can be recognised by other cattle and this is communicated by alarm substances in the urine. The odour of dog faeces induces behavioural changes prior to cattle feeding, whereas the odours of urine from either stressed or non-stressed conspecifics and blood have no effect.
In the laboratory, cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.
In general, cattle use their sense of smell to "expand '' on information detected by other sensory modalities. However, in the case of social and reproductive behaviours, olfaction is a key source of information.
Cattle have tactile sensations detected mainly by mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and nociceptors in the skin and muzzle. These are used most frequently when cattle explore their environment.
There is conflicting evidence for magnetoreception in cattle. One study reported that resting and grazing cattle tend to align their body axes in the geomagnetic North - South (N-S) direction. In a follow - up study, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment. However, in 2011, a group of Czech researchers reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using Google Earth images.
Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life. Cattle are considered to be "hider '' type animals, but in the artificial environment of small calving pens, close proximity between cow and calf is maintained by the mother at the first three calvings but this changes to being mediated by the calf after these. Primiparous dams show a higher incidence of abnormal maternal behavior.
Beef - calves reared on the range suckle an average of 5.0 times every 24 hours with an average total time of 46 min spent suckling. There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling activity with peaks between 05: 00 -- 07: 00, 10: 00 -- 13: 00 and 17: 00 -- 21: 00.
Studies on the natural weaning of zebu cattle (Bos indicus) have shown that the cow weans her calves over a 2 - week period, but after that, she continues to show strong affiliatory behavior with her offspring and preferentially chooses them for grooming and as grazing partners for at least 4 -- 5 years.
Semi-wild Highland cattle heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5 %.
One study showed that over a 4 - year period, dominance relationships within a herd of semi-wild highland cattle were very firm. There were few overt aggressive conflicts and the majority of disputes were settled by agonistic (non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors that involved no physical contact between opponents (e.g. threatening and spontaneous withdrawing). Such agonistic behavior reduces the risk of injury. Dominance status depended on age and sex, with older animals generally being dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gained superior dominance status over adult cows when they reached about 2 years of age.
As with many animal dominance hierarchies, dominance - associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.
Dominance is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other 's strength in a non-aggressive way. Licking is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus, however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.
The horns of cattle are "honest signals '' used in mate selection. Furthermore, horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle. This leads to more stable social relationships.
In calves, the frequency of agonistic behavior decreases as space allowance increases, but this does not occur for changes in group size. However, in adult cattle, the number of agonistic encounters increases as the group size increases.
When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing 750 - kilogram (1,650 lb) steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm (30 sq in). Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass / area. Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.
Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep, but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbit faeces.
In the 24 April 2009, edition of the journal Science, a team of researchers led by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Agriculture reported having mapped the bovine genome. The scientists found cattle have about 22,000 genes, and 80 % of their genes are shared with humans, and they share about 1000 genes with dogs and rodents, but are not found in humans. Using this bovine "HapMap '', researchers can track the differences between the breeds that affect the quality of meat and milk yields.
Behavioral traits of cattle can be as heritable as some production traits, and often, the two can be related. The heritability of fear varies markedly in cattle from low (0.1) to high (0.53); such high variation is also found in pigs and sheep, probably due to differences in the methods used. The heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 for habituation to handling. Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0.36.
Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle.
Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, having been domesticated since at least the early neolithic age.
Archeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one in the area that is now Turkey, giving rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area that is now Pakistan, resulting in the indicine line. Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80 aurochs tamed in the upper reaches of Mesopotamia near the villages of Çayönü Tepesi in southeastern Turkey and Dja'de el - Mughara in northern Iraq.
Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants. A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and Europe. Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from North African aurochsen.
As early as 9000 BC both grain and cattle were used as money or as barter (Davies) (the first grain remains found, considered to be evidence of pre-agricultural practice date to 17,000 BC). Some evidence also exists to suggest that other animals, such as camels and goats, may have been used as currency in some parts of the world. One of the advantages of using cattle as currency is that it allows the seller to set a fixed price. It even created the standard pricing. For example, two chickens were traded for one cow as cows were deemed to be more valuable than chickens.
Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland. Raising cattle in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily feeding, cleaning and milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging, dehorning, loading, medical operations, vaccinations and hoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. Also, some cultural differences occur in working with cattle; the cattle husbandry of Fulani men rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe, cattle are controlled primarily by physical means, such as fences. Breeders use cattle husbandry to reduce M. bovis infection susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.
Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, and leather, and they are less commonly used for conservation grazing, simply to maintain grassland for wildlife -- for example, in Epping Forest, England. They are often used in some of the most wild places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and semidesert. Modern cattle are more commercial than older breeds and, having become more specialized, are less versatile. For this reason, many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, such as the Jersey dairy breed. In Portugal, Spain, southern France and some Latin American countries, bulls are used in the activity of bullfighting; Jallikattu in India is a bull taming sport radically different from European bullfighting, humans are unarmed and bulls are not killed. In many other countries bullfighting is illegal. Other activities such as bull riding are seen as part of a rodeo, especially in North America. Bull - leaping, a central ritual in Bronze Age Minoan culture (see Sacred Bull), still exists in southwestern France. In modern times, cattle are also entered into agricultural competitions. These competitions can involve live cattle or cattle carcases in hoof and hook events.
In terms of food intake by humans, consumption of cattle is less efficient than of grain or vegetables with regard to land use, and hence cattle grazing consumes more area than such other agricultural production when raised on grains. Nonetheless, cattle and other forms of domesticated animals can sometimes help to use plant resources in areas not easily amenable to other forms of agriculture.
The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day. Cattle do have a stay apparatus, but do not sleep standing up, they lie down to sleep deeply. In spite of the urban legend, cows can not be tipped over by people pushing on them.
The meat of adult cattle is known as beef, and that of calves is veal. Other animal parts are also used as food products, including blood, liver, kidney, heart and oxtail. Cattle also produce milk, and dairy cattle are specifically bred to produce the large quantities of milk processed and sold for human consumption. Cattle today are the basis of a multibillion - dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and represented only 23 % of world beef production. The production of milk, which is also made into cheese, butter, yogurt, and other dairy products, is comparable in economic size to beef production, and provides an important part of the food supply for many of the world 's people. Cattle hides, used for leather to make shoes, couches and clothing, are another widespread product. Cattle remain broadly used as draft animals in many developing countries, such as India. Cattle are also used in some sporting games, including rodeo and bullfighting.
Source: Helgi Library, World Bank, FAOSTAT
About half the world 's meat comes from cattle.
Certain breeds of cattle, such as the Holstein - Friesian, are used to produce milk, which can be processed into dairy products such as milk, cheese or yogurt. Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk production. Most cows are milked twice per day, with milk processed at a dairy, which may be onsite at the farm or the milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product. For dairy cattle to continue producing milk, they must give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it generally is slaughtered at a young age to produce veal. They will continue to produce milk until three weeks before birth. Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow. The Holstein - Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. Around 22 litres per day is average in the UK.
Most cattle are not kept solely for hides, which are usually a by - product of beef production. Hides are most commonly used for leather which can be made into a variety of product including shoes. In 2012 India was the world 's largest producer of cattle hides.
Feral cattle are defined as being ' cattle that are not domesticated or cultivated '. Populations of feral cattle are known to come from and exist in: Australia, United States of America, Colombia, Argentina, Spain, France and many islands, including New Guinea, Hawaii, Galapagos, Juan Fernández Islands, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), Tristan da Cunha and Île Amsterdam, two islands of Kuchinoshima and Kazura Island next to Naru Island in Japan. Chillingham cattle is sometimes regarded as a feral breed. Aleutian wild cattles can be found on Aleutian Islands. The "Kinmen cattle '' which is dominantly found on Kinmen Island, Taiwan is mostly domesticated while smaller portion of the population is believed to live in the wild due to accidental releases.
Other notable examples include cattles vicinity to Hong Kong (in the Shing Mun Country Park, among Sai Kung District and Lantau Island and on Grass Island), and semi-feral animals in Yangmingshan, Taiwan.
Gut flora in cattle include methanogens that produce methane as a byproduct of enteric fermentation, which cattle belch out. The same volume of atmospheric methane has a higher global warming potential than atmospheric carbon dioxide. Methane belching from cattle can be reduced with genetic selection, immunization, rumen defaunation, diet modification and grazing management, among others.
A report from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) states that the livestock sector is "responsible for 18 % of greenhouse gas emissions ''. The IPCC estimates that Cattle and other livestock emit about 80 to 93 Megatonnes of methane per year, accounting for an estimated 37 % of anthropogenic methane emissions, and additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of manure in manure lagoons and other manure storage structures. The net change in atmospheric methane content was recently about 1 Megatonne per year, and in some recent years there has been no increase in atmospheric methane content. While cattle fed forage actually produce more methane than grain - fed cattle, the increase may be offset by the increased carbon recapture of pastures, which recapture three times the CO of cropland used for grain.
One of the cited changes suggested to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is intensification of the livestock industry, since intensification leads to less land for a given level of production. This assertion is supported by studies of the US beef production system, suggesting practices prevailing in 2007 involved 8.6 % less fossil fuel use, 16.3 % less greenhouse gas emissions, 12.1 % less water use, and 33.0 % less land use, per unit mass of beef produced, than those used in 1977. The analysis took into account not only practices in feedlots, but also feed production (with less feed needed in more intensive production systems), forage - based cow - calf operations and back - grounding before cattle enter a feedlot (with more beef produced per head of cattle from those sources, in more intensive systems), and beef from animals derived from the dairy industry.
The number of American cattle kept in confined feedlot conditions fluctuates. From 1 January 2002 through 1 January 2012, there was no significant overall upward or downward trend in the number of US cattle on feed for slaughter, which averaged about 14.046 million head over that period. Previously, the number had increased; it was 12.453 million in 1985. Cattle on feed (for slaughter) numbered about 14.121 million on 1 January 2012, i.e. about 15.5 % of the estimated inventory of 90.8 million US cattle (including calves) on that date. Of the 14.121 million, US cattle on feed (for slaughter) in operations with 1000 head or more were estimated to number 11.9 million. Cattle feedlots in this size category correspond to the regulatory definition of "large '' concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) for cattle other than mature dairy cows or veal calves. Significant numbers of dairy, as well as beef cattle, are confined in CAFOs, defined as "new and existing operations which stable or confine and feed or maintain for a total of 45 days or more in any 12 - month period more than the number of animals specified '' where "(c) rops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal growing season over any portion of the lot or facility. '' They may be designated as small, medium and large. Such designation of cattle CAFOs is according to cattle type (mature dairy cows, veal calves or other) and cattle numbers, but medium CAFOs are so designated only if they meet certain discharge criteria, and small CAFOs are designated only on a case - by - case basis.
A CAFO that discharges pollutants is required to obtain a permit, which requires a plan to manage nutrient runoff, manure, chemicals, contaminants, and other wastewater pursuant to the US Clean Water Act. The regulations involving CAFO permitting have been extensively litigated. Commonly, CAFO wastewater and manure nutrients are applied to land at agronomic rates for use by forages or crops, and it is often assumed that various constituents of wastewater and manure, e.g. organic contaminants and pathogens, will be retained, inactivated or degraded on the land with application at such rates; however, additional evidence is needed to test reliability of such assumptions. Concerns raised by opponents of CAFOs have included risks of contaminated water due to feedlot runoff, soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E. coli contamination. While research suggests some of these impacts can be mitigated by developing wastewater treatment systems and planting cover crops in larger setback zones, the Union of Concerned Scientists released a report in 2008 concluding that CAFOs are generally unsustainable and externalize costs.
An estimated 935,000 cattle operations were operating in the USA in 2010. In 2001, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tallied 5,990 cattle CAFOs then regulated, consisting of beef (2,200), dairy (3,150), heifer (620) and veal operations (20). Since that time, the EPA has established CAFOs as an enforcement priority. EPA enforcement highlights for fiscal year 2010 indicated enforcement actions against 12 cattle CAFOs for violations that included failures to obtain a permit, failures to meet the terms of a permit, and discharges of contaminated water.
Another concern is manure, which if not well - managed, can lead to adverse environmental consequences. However, manure also is a valuable source of nutrients and organic matter when used as a fertilizer. Manure was used as a fertilizer on about 15.8 million acres of US cropland in 2006, with manure from cattle accounting for nearly 70 % of manure applications to soybeans and about 80 % or more of manure applications to corn, wheat, barley, oats and sorghum. Substitution of manure for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 megajoules of fossil fuel energy would be used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.
Grazing by cattle at low intensities can create a favourable environment for native herbs and forbs; in many world regions, though, cattle are reducing biodiversity due to overgrazing. A survey of refuge managers on 123 National Wildlife Refuges in the US tallied 86 species of wildlife considered positively affected and 82 considered negatively affected by refuge cattle grazing or haying. Proper management of pastures, notably managed intensive rotational grazing and grazing at low intensities can lead to less use of fossil fuel energy, increased recapture of carbon dioxide, fewer ammonia emissions into the atmosphere, reduced soil erosion, better air quality, and less water pollution.
The veterinary discipline dealing with cattle and cattle diseases (bovine veterinary) is called buiatrics. Veterinarians and professionals working on cattle health issues are pooled in the World Association for Buiatrics, founded in 1960. National associations and affiliates also exist.
Cattle diseases were in the center of attention in the 1980s and 1990s when the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease, was of concern. Cattle might catch and develop various other diseases, like blackleg, bluetongue, foot rot too.
In most states, as cattle health is not only a veterinarian issue, but also a public health issue, public health and food safety standards and farming regulations directly affect the daily work of farmers who keep cattle. However, said rules change frequently and are often debated. For instance, in the U.K., it was proposed in 2011 that milk from tuberculosis - infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain. Internal food safety regulations might affect a country 's trade policy as well. For example, the United States has just reviewed its beef import rules according to the "mad cow standards ''; while Mexico forbids the entry of cattle who are older than 30 months.
Cow urine is commonly used in India for internal medical purposes. It is distilled and then consumed by patients seeking treatment for a wide variety of illnesses. At present, no conclusive medical evidence shows this has any effect. However, an Indian medicine containing cow urine has already obtained U.S. patents.
Digital dermatitis is caused by the bacteria from the genus Treponema. It differs from foot rot and can appear under unsanitary conditions such as poor hygiene or inadequate hoof trimming, among other causes. It primarily affects dairy cattle and has been known to lower the quantity of milk produced, however the milk quality remains unaffected. Cattle are also susceptible to ringworm caused by the fungus, Trichophyton verrucosum, a contagious skin disease which may be transferred to humans exposed to infected cows.
Mycobacterium vaccae is a non pathogenic, possibly even beneficial bacteria, that is seen naturally in soil; that was first isolated from cow dung.
Stocking density refers to the number of animals within a specified area. When stocking density reaches high levels, the behavioural needs of the animals may not be met. This can negatively influence health, welfare and production performance.
The effect of overstocking in cows can have a negative effect on milk production and reproduction rates which are two very important traits for dairy farmers. Overcrowding of cows in barns has been found to reduced feeding, resting and rumination. Although they consume the same amount of dry matter within the span of a day, they consume the food at a much more rapid rate, and this behaviour in cows can lead to further complications. The feeding behaviour of cows during their post-milking period is very important as it has been proven that the longer animals can eat after milking, the longer they will be standing up and therefore causing less contamination to the teat ends. This is necessary to reduce the risk of mastitis as infection has been shown to increase the chances of embryonic loss. Sufficient rest is important for dairy cows because it is during this period that their resting blood flow increases up to 50 %, this is directly proportionate to milk production. Each additional hour of rest can be seen to translate to 2 to 3.5 more pounds of milk per cow daily. Stocking densities of anything over 120 % have been shown to decrease the amount of time cows spend lying down.
Cortisol is an important stress hormone; its plasma concentrations increase greatly when subjected to high levels of stress. Increased concentration levels of cortisol have been associated with significant increases in gonadotrophin levels and lowered progestin levels. Reduction of stress is important in the reproductive state of cows as an increase in gonadotrophin and lowered progesterone levels may impinge on the ovulatory and lutenization process and to reduce the chances of successful implantation. A high cortisol level will also stimulate the degradation of fats and proteins which may make it difficult for the animal to sustain its pregnancy if implanted successfully.
Oxen (singular ox) are cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, castrated males of larger breeds, although females and bulls are also used in some areas. Usually, an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for plowing, transport, hauling cargo, grain - grinding by trampling or by powering machines, irrigation by powering pumps, and wagon drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low - impact, select - cut logging. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as carting, with additional pairs added when more power is required, sometimes up to a total of 20 or more.
An ox is a mature bovine which has learned to respond appropriately to a teamster 's signals. These signals are given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks). Verbal commands vary according to dialect and local tradition. In one tradition in North America, the commands are:
Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure - footed.
Many oxen are used worldwide, especially in developing countries. About 11.3 million draft oxen are used in sub-Saharan Africa. In India, the number of draft cattle in 1998 was estimated at 65.7 million head. About half the world 's crop production is thought to depend on land preparation (such as plowing) made possible by animal traction.
Cattle are venerated within the Hindu religion of India. In the Vedic period they were a symbol of plenty and were frequently slaughtered. In later times they gradually acquired their present status. According to the Mahabharata they are to be treated with the same respect ' as one 's mother '. In the middle of the first millennium, the consumption of beef began to be disfavoured by lawgivers. Although there has never been any cow - goddesses or temples dedicated to them, cows appear in numerous stories from the Vedas and Puranas. The deity Krishna was brought up in a family of cowherders, and given the name Govinda (protector of the cows). Also, Shiva is traditionally said to ride on the back of a bull named Nandi.
Milk and milk products were used in Vedic rituals. In the postvedic period products of the cow -- milk, curd, ghee, but also cow dung and urine (gomutra), or the combination of these five (panchagavya) -- began to assume an increasingly important role in ritual purification and expiation.
Veneration of the cow has become a symbol of the identity of Hindus as a community, especially since the end of the 19th century. Slaughter of cows (including oxen, bulls and calves) is forbidden by law in several states of the Indian Union. McDonald 's outlets in India do not serve any beef burgers. In Maharaja Ranjit Singh 's empire of the early 19th century, the killing of a cow was punishable by death.
Cattle are typically represented in heraldry by the bull.
Arms of Mecklenburg region, Germany
Arms of Turin, Italy
Arms of Kaunas, Lithuania
Arms of Turek, Poland
Arms of Bielsk Podlaski, Poland
Arms of the Azores
For 2013, the FAO estimated global cattle numbers at 1.47 billion. Regionally, the FAO estimate for 2013 includes: Asia 495 million; South America 348 million; Africa 305 million; Europe 122 million; North America 102 million; Central America 46 million; Oceania 42 million; and Caribbean 9 million. The following table shows the cattle population in 2009.
As of 2003, Africa had about 231 million head of cattle, raised in both traditional and non-traditional systems, but often an "integral '' part of the culture and way of life.
Didactic model of Bovine.
Bovine anatomical model.
Didactic model of a bovine muscular system.
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asia's next top model season 4 episode 8 | Asia 's Next Top Model (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of Asia 's Next Top Model (subtitled as Asia 's Next Top Model 6: Beyond Limits) premiered on August 22, 2018. Filming for the season took place in Bangkok, Thailand. Cindy Bishop and Yu Tsai both returned as judges for panel, while Monika Sta. Maria from season 3, Shikin Gomez and Minh Tu Nguyen from season 5 made appearances as model mentors throughout the season.
The season featured 14 contestants: three from Thailand, two from the Philippines and Indonesia, and one each from Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Taiwan and Vietnam. China, India, Mongolia, Nepal, and South Korea were unrepresented. Japan marked its comeback after its absences from the previous two seasons, while both Hong Kong and Myanmar returned after their absences from the previous season.
The prize package for this season included a Subaru XV, a cover and fashion spread in Harper 's Bazaar Thailand, a featured avatar in the new America 's Next Top Model Mobile Game, and a modeling contract with Storm Model Management in London.
The winner of the competition was 23 year - old Dana Slosar, from Thailand.
(Ages stated are at start of contest)
The models were introduced to the show 's returning alumni mentors, Shikin, Tu and Monika, before meeting host Cindy Bishop at the rooftop of the Bangkok Marriott hotel. They were immediately sent on their first challenge, which came in the form of a colorful selfie runway show at the Chatuchak Weekend Market. Hody and Lena were deemed to be the worst performers during the challenge, and were both eliminated from the competition. The remaining 12 contestants moved into the model house, and were divided into groups to be mentored by the alumni models. The contestants later took part in a tribal jewelry photo shoot with reptiles. At elimination, Beauty received the highest overall score. Jesslyn and Sharnie landed in the bottom two, and Sharnie was eliminated from the competition.
The remaining 11 contestants received makeovers at the Ketvadi Gandini salon. Tension ensued in the model house after several of the girls found some of Mia 's notes that she had written about the other contestants. On set, the models were paired up as black and white swans for an editorial photo shoot inspired by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 's world famous ballet, Swan Lake. At elimination, Jachin received the highest overall score. Iko and Jesslyn landed in the bottom two, and Iko was eliminated from the competition.
The models were introduced to season 5 winner and Subaru ambassador Maureen Wroblewitz, who informed the contestants that they would be divided into teams for a Subaru social media ' insta - race '. The timed challenge consisted of travelling to three separate locations in Bangkok (Khlong Toei Market, Hua Lamphong station, Rama VIII Bridge) to take Instagram photos that embodied the brand 's spirit of adventure. Jachin, Pim, and Vy were later chosen as the winners. For the photo shoot, the models were taken to a luxury villa in Bangkok, where they had to pose with dogs in a campaign for Subaru. At elimination, Mia received the highest overall score. Dana and Jesslyn landed in the bottom two, and Jesslyn was eliminated from the competition
The remaining nine contestants received pep talks from their mentors before being taken to Absolute You Yoga Studio for a rhythm cycling challenge in groups, which consisted of performing a choreographed dance - exercise routine. The winning group, consisting of Adela, Jachin, and Mia, received a day off at Quan Spa. On set, the models took part in an 80s inspired wrestling photo shoot where they had to pose in pairs. At elimination, Adela received the highest overall score. Han and Rubini landed in the bottom two, and Rubini was eliminated from the competition.
Pim was switched from team Tu to team Monika at the beginning of the episode. The contestants later met former judge and mentor Cara G. McIlroy to prepare to take part in a screen test challenge for award - winning skincare brand Estetica ést. lab. Adela was chosen as the best performer, winning products $1,000 worth of the brands products. The models later had a natural beauty photo shoot for Estetica. At elimination, Dana received the highest overall score. Han and Mia landed in the bottom two, and Han was eliminated from the competition.
The remaining seven contestants were divided into teams for a roller derby challenge at the Roller Dome Emporium, where Adela, Beauty, Dana, and Jachin were chosen as the winners. On set, the models had to perform in a supermarket editorial pop - up photo shoot alongside their model mentors, Monika, Shikin, and Tu. At elimination, Beauty received the highest overall score. Jachin and Vy landed in the bottom two, and Jachin was eliminated from the competition, much to the surprise of the other contestants.
The remaining contestants discussed the implications of the previous panel 's elimination, and received a visit from their model mentors, who informed them that the teams would be dissolved at the end of the week. They later had a styling and photo shoot challenge in teams in which they had to create a lookbook collection with three different briefs (uptown, casual, modern) taking selfies with a Huawei P20 Pro phone. The winners of the challenge, Adela, Beauty, and Dana, received an additional 5 minutes at the upcoming photo shoot - a fashion story for Harper 's Bazaar Thailand where the contestants had to pose as fashionable giants in modern pin - up styling on a miniature set. At elimination, Dana received the highest overall score. Mia and Vy landed in the bottom two, and Vy was eliminated from the competition.
(Total and average scores on the table only reflect scores calculated from the full sets added during panel)
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who played jo's boyfriend on facts of life | List of the Facts of Life characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from the NBC sitcom The Facts of Life.
Edna Ann Garrett Gaines, known as Mrs. Garrett or Mrs. G, was played by actress Charlotte Rae from 1978 to 1986.
Garrett was the youngest child in a large family, born and raised on a farm near Appleton, Wisconsin. Her exact age was never disclosed during the series, but on several occasions, it was hinted or implied that she was somewhere in her fifties. On Diff'rent Strokes, she was the housekeeper to the Drummond family in New York City after Willis and Arnold 's mom Lucy (the Drummonds ' original housekeeper) died. In 1979, she took a job as house mother at the Eastland School for Girls in Peekskill, New York (Kimberly Drummond attended Eastland). Over the years, Mrs. Garrett 's role on The Facts of Life changed. At first she was merely a live - in supervisor for the girls of Eastland; in the second season she became their in - house dietitian who managed the school 's cafeteria.
Garrett was married twice, divorced (first marriage), and widowed (second marriage); one early episode showed Mr. Garrett coming to town to woo her and reconcile, but he was unsuccessful because Edna felt that his gambling problem would always be an obstacle. She had two sons, a singer / songwriter / carpenter named Alex (Tom Fitzsimmons) (born 1953) and an accountant named Raymond (Joel Brooks). Raymond helped her raise funds and secure commercial space so she could open her own gourmet food shop, Edna 's Edibles, in the fall of 1983. The girls, who had previously lived with Mrs. Garrett at Eastland, and worked with her in the kitchen to pay off various restitution - related expenses (see below), moved into an apartment above "Edna 's Edibles '' and continued to work for Mrs. Garrett in the shop (this time on the payroll). In the fall of 1985, Edna 's Edibles was extensively damaged by fire; it was rebuilt as a gift shop called "Over Our Heads. '' Since the insurance on Edna 's Edibles had lapsed by the time of the fire, the girls contributed their insurance claim checks to help rebuild, effectively making Mrs. Garrett and the girls equal partners in the business.
Edna Garrett was a mentor to the girls at Eastland, functioning in loco parentis. At times the girls would take her for granted, and forget that Edna herself had problems. Many times Edna would lash out at the girls when they got careless with her. In one episode, she actually fires them from "Edna 's Edibles '' when their irresponsible behavior ends up costing her $500 in fines after a dismal health inspection. She hires them back the next day when the girls promise her that they will be more responsible at their jobs. She also fires George, when he falls behind on his work constructing "Over Our Heads, '' but they later make up. Mrs. Garrett is a Democrat. She is also against censorship, such as book banning.
Mrs. Garrett remarried in 1986. She and her new husband, Dr. Bruce Gaines (Robert Mandan), rejoined the Peace Corps to work in eastern Africa. (Charlotte Rae did not want to continue with the series). Edna was replaced by her sister, Beverly Ann Stickle (Cloris Leachman). However, in the reunion movie that aired in 2001, Mrs. Garrett reunited with the three girls (Blair, Natalie, and Tootie) at a hotel owned by Blair and which was run by her son Raymond. It was also revealed that Mrs. Garrett and Tootie were widows. Its revealed that she was in a romantic relationship with a ship captain.
Mrs. Garrett also appears on the Hello, Larry episode "The Trip '', the first of three crossovers between Diff'rent Strokes and Hello, Larry.
In an episode of Halt and Catch Fire, a man fencing computers refers to married mother Donna Clark (played by Kerry Bishe) as Mrs. Garrett, in reference to her conservative appearance and critical opinion of him.
Natasha Letisha Sage "Natalie '' Green was played by Mindy Cohn. Natalie 's best friend on the show was Tootie, as they were close in age. Natalie 's age was around 13 at the series ' beginning.
Natalie 's most defining physical attribute was that she was large - figured, but she had a healthy self - image, once quoted as saying, "Who wants to be a skinny pencil? I 'd rather be a happy Magic Marker! ''
Natalie is Jewish, as Mindy Cohn is in real life; and her faith was featured in several episodes. In one, she celebrated Hanukkah while the others celebrated Christmas. Her heritage was highlighted when her father, Dr. Green, died unexpectedly; Natalie 's bottled - up grief was a continuing storyline.
Although she was n't a mold - fitting "traditional beauty, '' Natalie was involved in many storylines regarding sex. In an early episode, she dated a boy who spread a rumor that Natalie was easy. In another episode, she was almost sexually assaulted on the way back from a costume party. In the controversial episode "The First Time, '' toward the series ' end, she became the first of the girls to have sex when she slept with her boyfriend Snake on their first anniversary as a couple. A budding writer, she wrote for the Eastland School newspaper.
Natalie graduated from Eastland in 1985, in the Season 6, Episode 25, "Bus Stop, '' and took a year off before college to travel across the country in a bus, leaving family and friends dismayed because she was postponing Princeton. At the year 's end, she decided to attend Langley College, and she became a reporter for the local newspaper in Peekskill. She went to New York City towards the end of the series and decided to stay and pursue her writing career. The episode in which she checks out the SoHo loft she will eventually call home features Richard Grieco and David Spade as her future roommates. (The episode, which aired in 1988, was originally set up for Mindy Cohn to transition into a spinoff series, but the plans never materialized.) In the TV - movie, The Facts of Life Reunion, she is revealed to be a television news producer at CNN and is also involved with two different men; none of whom knew of the other. Her boyfriends Robert and Harper were willing, for a short time, to compete for her heart. Though her friends deemed Robert the winner, Natalie eventually choose Harper. While her now ex, Robert accepted this and parted with Natalie on good terms.
Natalie was the only one of the girls who was adopted. In one episode, Blair successfully tracked down Natalie 's birthmother, but Natalie -- who realized that her adoptive parents were her true parents, even though they were n't biologically related to her -- refused to answer the phone and hear the results of the search, instead inviting her friends to taste the cake "my mother made. '' However, thanks in part to an argument with her adoptive mother during a 1982 episode, the subject arose again, and it was her adoptive mother who finally told Natalie who her biological mother was. Natalie tracked her down and met her, but as before, she still considered the mother who had reared her to be her mother.
Natalie also appears in two episodes of Diff'rent Strokes: "The Slumber Party '' and "The Older Men ''.
Joanna Marie "Jo '' Polniaczek was played by Nancy McKeon. Jo was first introduced in the second season in 1980, at around 15 years old, arriving at the Eastland Academy on her motorcycle. She almost immediately formed a dislike for Blair Warner; Jo found Blair stuck - up, and Blair found Jo short - tempered, bossy, classless, and manly. In a memorable introduction, Blair introduced herself to Jo, to which Jo replied, "Charmed; I 'm Gloria Vanderbilt. '' Jo was Polish American.
Jo convinced the gang to steal the school van and use fake IDs to buy drinks at a bar. The van was wrecked and the girls were forced to work in the Eastland cafeteria to make up the repair costs; this was from the second season two - part premiering in November 1980 "The New Girl Part 1 ''. In the second episode "The New Girl Part 2 '', the girls were also placed on house probation and were forced to live in a room adjoining Mrs. Garrett 's for a year; when the punishment expired, all four girls found other living arrangements, but were responsible for cleaning and painting their former room. While painting, their friendship began to rekindle culminating into an all - out paint fight, which severely damaged the hardwood floor requiring expensive repairs. The girls decided to move back in together and continued to work in the kitchen to pay off the bill for the damaged floor.
Blair 's attitude toward Jo worsened when Blair 's boyfriend asked Jo to a country club dance. However, Blair stood up for Jo when her would - be love interest tried to assault and humiliate her on the ninth green. When asked why Blair stood up for Jo, Blair stated, "At least when I insult you, I know what I 'm talking about! '' Another problem for Jo came when she shoplifted a blouse for Mrs. Garrett 's birthday; Mrs. Garrett was subsequently arrested when she went to exchange the blouse for the smaller size, not knowing the garment was stolen.
Early on, Jo 's sailor boyfriend, Eddie Brennan (actor Clark Brandon), came to Eastland and convinced her to marry him. They planned to elope to West Virginia, where the marriage age was lower, but Mrs. Garrett and Blair tracked her down at a nearby motel to stop her. Jo had by that point already begun to change her mind when she realized just how difficult teenage marriage would be. Jo returned to Peekskill without Eddie. Eddie visited again the following season but things had changed between them. They were moving in different directions and keeping the long distance relationship going was proving to be very difficult, so they decided to see other people for the time being. Eddie returned late in the fifth season, now an officer in the Navy but Tootie discovered he was married to a girl in Italy. Clark Brandon 's last appearance was in the 5th season 's 23rd episode "Seems Like Old Times ''.
In the 15th episode of the 4th season called "Teacher 's Pet '', Jo developed a friendship with her 26 - year - old English teacher, Miss Gail Gallagher (played by Deborah Harmon), who was raised in a similar environment to that of Jo. Gail inspired Jo to think about becoming a teacher herself and Jo went as far as to calling her by her first name. When Jo learned from Blair that Gail was quitting Eastland, she became very disappointed believing that the reason was for a higher - paying job. She was crushed when she found out from Mrs. Garrett that it was because of something unthinkable -- terminal illness. Jo was so shocked that she stopped going to Gail 's class and shunned her completely. She tried to keep herself busy with things that would distract her from thoughts of Gail and went as far as breaking her evening curfew. When Mrs. Garrett and Tootie confronted her about her strange behavior, she managed to overcome the shock and fear and come to terms with Gail. Jo associated the fact that Gail 's dying with her friend Gloria 's death.
Many of Jo 's stories revolved around her tomboyish ways. Jo got into verbal spars with girls who did n't think she was "feminine enough, '' and boys (including some of her boyfriends) were threatened by her mechanical aptitude, which she displayed by getting a job at a local garage.
In the later seasons, Jo 's tomboyish image softened considerably, as she and the girls were growing up and was rarely raised as an issue again. Her relationship with Blair became more friendly as time went on (Jo would even refer to Blair as her best friend by the last season), although the two still argued, traded wisecracks and made fun of each other from time to time. Jo graduated from Eastland as valedictorian of her class, and attended Langley College with Blair, graduating with a degree in education. In one flashback - heavy episode; the ninth sixth season episode "Dear Apple '', Jo relayed her latest ongoing spat with Blair to a computer, which analyzed the data and concluded that Jo should stop being friends with Blair. At the end of the episode, Jo quietly threw the computer 's printout away. In the last season, Jo married Rick Bonner, a concert musician, and she asked Blair to be her maid of honor.
Jo did not appear at the reunion TV special because it was stated that she was now a police officer and was working; however, Rick and their daughter Jamie did attend. This also coincided with Nancy McKeon 's role as a policewoman in the drama series The Division since the reason she could n't participate in the reunion was a conflict in her working schedule.
Dorothy "Tootie '' Ramsey was played by Kim Fields. She was the youngest of the main characters at the age of around 11, and the only African - American girl. She and her family hailed from Washington, D.C.. She attended Eastland Academy for most of the show 's run. Tootie 's most - remembered attributes were her penchant for rollerskates (at first used by Facts of Life producers to mask Fields ' short stature), her gossipy nature, and her braces. In real life, Kim Fields had to wear braces for three years, finally having them removed in 1984, after the show begins the sixth season. A lot of Tootie 's gossip got her and her friends in trouble, and she was noted for her catch phrase, "We are in trou - ble! ''
Tootie was involved in many issue - based storylines. For example, Tootie befriended a boy named Fred who insisted that she only associate with black people, in an attempt to realize "her true roots. '' In another episode, Tootie was chosen by a photographer to model for newspaper advertisements but was instead lured into a borderline kiddie porn operation and was saved by Mrs. Garrett at the last minute. During a trip to New York City, Tootie was almost strong - armed into prostitution before Mrs. Garrett found her and took her home. In another episode, she struggled with the race issue again when her best friend Natalie dated a relative of hers and Tootie intervened, causing conflict between Natalie and herself. Tootie 's favorite singer is Michael Jackson 's older brother Jermaine Jackson.
Tootie helped Mrs. Garrett with her bakery, Edna 's Edibles, after school and then worked full - time at the gift shop Over Our Heads after she graduated from high school in 1986.
In the 2001 The Facts of Life Reunion TV movie, Tootie had attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts in London to pursue an acting career, was a Hollywood - based talk show host, and was the single mother of Tisha, a 10 - year - old (fathered by her longtime boyfriend and later deceased husband, Jeff Williams). After her visit, Tootie (who now preferred to be called "Dorothy '') decided to quit her talk show, Waking Up with Dorothy, and move to New York to take up the theater, but not before becoming the co-owner of the Peekskill Playhouse. Tisha Williams remained behind to attend Eastland Academy and continue the family tradition.
In addition to the Diff'rent Strokes episode "The Girls School '' that serves as the pilot for The Facts of Life, Tootie also appears in "The Slumber Party '', "The Bank Job '', "First Day Blues '' and "The Team ''.
Blair Warner was played by Lisa Whelchel. She was about 14 at the series ' beginning; an episode in the 1985 -- 1986 season centered on her 21st birthday.
At the series ' beginning in 1979, Blair was portrayed as a very rich and very rebellious girl from a blue blood background. She was seen smoking cigarettes, drinking beer, and enjoying great popularity with boys; unlike many of her classmates, she was looking to lose her virginity. When the show was retooled in 1980, all instances of her rebellion were either dropped or given to the new character of Jo Polniaczek, and Blair was rewritten as an unashamedly spoiled "daddy 's girl ''.
Blair was vain, arrogant, egotistical, and shallow, but she is also funny, kind - hearted, and loving to Mrs. Garrett and her friends, especially Jo Polniaczek. She also got good grades, won school awards, was crowned Harvest Queen for 3 straight years, and even convinced a guy to move from Switzerland to attend school near her (when asked about it, Blair dryly remarked, "I 've done it before. '') Blair 's delusions of grandeur were usually played for laughs when Natalie, Tootie or Jo would make sarcastic remarks about her "beauty '', "perfect '' personality, or "naturally blonde hair ''. Blair felt she was more important than "regular '' people because she was the heiress to her father 's multimillion - dollar business, Warner Textile Mills. Any crisis at Eastland would usually prompt a suggested solution from Blair, preceded by her catch phrase: "I just had another one of my brilliant ideas! '' More often than not, though, her "brilliant ideas '' were actually quite the opposite, although on at least two occasions they turned out to actually be brilliant. In the episode Growing Pains, it was her idea to have Mrs Garrett punish them after Tootie gets drunk on wine that Blair, Jo, and Natalie were responsible for, and in The Four Muskateers it was her idea to move back into the room and work in the kitchen to pay off the debt incurred when she and the other girls get into a paint fight while painting the room. She eventually developed a more down - to - earth attitude, especially after she suffered a car accident (after falling asleep at the wheel) that left her slightly scarred, spoiling her "perfect '' beauty.
Blair 's parents (played by Nicolas Coster and Marj Dusay) were divorced on June 14, 1973, and although she did n't usually show it, Blair wished that she had a nuclear family like all of her friends. Later in the series, her mother remarried (for the fourth time) and gave birth to a baby girl (Bailey). Blair had misgivings about her mother 's pregnancy but fell in love with baby Bailey as soon as she saw her.
Another secret Blair kept from her friends was that her cousin Geri (played by comedian Geri Jewell) had cerebral palsy. She was not embarrassed by her cousin, but rather jealous of her, since Blair was used to being the center of attention. Mrs. Garrett told Blair not to lash out against Geri because of her jealousy, and Blair joined Geri, a successful comedian, onstage at an impromptu comedy show Geri threw at the Eastland Academy. Blair 's big sister Meg visited Eastland to tell her little sister that she 's going to become a nun in "Best Sister Part 1 '' and in "Best Sister Part 2 '' it 's revealed that Blair is an atheist because she asked God to not allow her parents ' divorce to become final in 1973, but her parents split up nevertheless.
Blair attended Eastland, and upon graduating in 1983, attended nearby Langley College. She worked with Mrs. Garrett at Edna 's Edibles and, later, Over Our Heads. After graduating from Langley, she enrolled in law school. In the series finale, she purchases the financially troubled Eastland Academy and turns it into a co-educational school.
Blair 's chief foil was Jo. The two made no secret of their mutual dislike: Jo found Blair spoiled and snobbish; Blair thought Jo was classless and crude. However, more than once Blair stuck up for and stood by Jo in her time of need (and vice versa), and eventually the two developed a much friendlier relationship. In one episode, Jo even declared Blair as her official best friend.
In the episode "Legacy, '' Blair, initially enthusiastic about a library being built with her family 's funds and named after her late maternal grandfather, Judge Carlton Blair, thus immortalizing the name "Blair '', was horrified to learn her grandfather had been a member of the Ku Klux Klan. The revelation devastated Blair and made her question all her assumptions about her supposed "superiority, '' even though Jo assured her "You 're not prejudiced; you 're a snob. '' She almost withdrew the library funding to avoid commemorating her grandfather but finally agreed to let it be built so long as it was not given the "Blair '' name.
In addition to the Diff'rent Strokes episode "The Girls School '' that serves as the pilot for The Facts of Life, Blair appears in "The Older Man ''.
In the 2001 TV movie The Facts of Life Reunion, Blair, who became a lawyer, is wealthier than ever and owns a hotel empire (Warner Enterprises) with her husband Tad Warner, managed by Mrs. Garrett 's son Raymond; she and Tad have no children. At end of the movie, she and Tad decided to adopt a child.
Note: Actress Geri Reischl ("fake Jan '' of The Brady Bunch Hour) was given the role of Blair Warner in the television pilot Garrett 's Girls (later renamed The Facts of Life), but was forced to give it up due to her contract with General Mills.
Cindy Webster was played by Julie Anne Haddock. She was around 12 years old at the beginning of The Facts of Life. Cindy was an athletic tomboy, who, at the start of the series, was worried she was n't "normal ''. The first episode of The Facts of Life, which aired in summer 1979, focused on Cindy, who was concerned that she might like girls, after hearing disparaging remarks from snobby Blair. The episode tackled a sensitive issue during an era when lesbianism was rarely talked about on television, although reaction from modern - day critics has been mixed. Stephen Tropiano, writing in 2002, wrote: "While the episode is not really about homosexuality per se, it seems to deliver a contradictory message. On the one hand, wise Mrs. Garrett dispenses Cindy some good advice when she explains the value of being yourself (...) yet there is a sense of relief that Cindy is heading down the road to heterosexuality because she 's fallen for a guy she met at the dance. ''
On the series, Cindy 's best friend and roommate was Sue Ann Weaver, and the pair appeared together frequently in many early episodes, including in an episode where the two girls fight over a racing competition ("Running '', 1980). Cindy also does gymnastics and tries out for Harvest Queen at Eastland. She attends journalism class with Blair, Jo and Sue Ann. The character of Cindy Webster was gradually written out of the show between summer 1980 and winter 1982, with the character making only a few appearances during seasons two and three. However, she reappeared in the 1986 reunion episode "The Little Chill ''; it was revealed in that episode that Cindy had become a model, and was now known professionally as Cindy Baker.
Beverly Ann Stickle was played by Cloris Leachman.
Beverly Ann was first seen in the fall of 1986, after Mrs. Garrett married and moved to Africa to serve in the Peace Corps. In reality, actress Charlotte Rae 's contract had expired, and she did not want to continue with the series. At the time, The Facts of Life was still lucrative for NBC, and NBC president Brandon Tartikoff chose to renew, but only with a new mother figure at the helm.
Beverly Ann, Mrs. Garrett 's divorced sister, moved in with the girls as Mrs. Garrett wanted someone to keep an eye on them as she had. She became the property owner for Mrs. Garrett 's house and the boutique store, Over Our Heads. Beverly Ann 's role expanded from confidante to mother when she legally adopted Over Our Heads worker Andy (Mackenzie Astin), who was being shuffled from foster home to foster home.
She mentioned that she was named after her grandfather, Boris Ann.
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what is meant by transverse nature of em waves | Transverse wave - wikipedia
A transverse wave is a moving wave that consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular (right angled) to the direction of energy transfer (or the propagation of the wave).
If a transverse wave is moving in the positive x-direction, its oscillations are in up and down directions that lie in the y -- z plane.
Light is an example of a transverse wave, while sound is a longitudinal wave. A ripple in a pond and a wave on a string are easily visualized as transverse waves.
Transverse waves are waves that are oscillating perpendicularly (at a right angle) to the direction of propagation. If you anchor one end of a ribbon or string and hold the other end in your hand, you can create transverse waves by moving your hand up and down. Notice though, that you can also launch waves by moving your hand side - to - side. This is an important point. There are two independent directions in which wave motion can occur. In this case, these motions are the Y and X directions mentioned above, while the wave propagates away in the z direction. The other type of waves is the longitudinal wave, which oscillates in the direction of its propagation.
Continuing with the string example, if you move your hand in a clockwise circle, you will launch waves in the form of a left - handed helix as they propagate away. Similarly, if you move your hand in a counter-clockwise circle, a right - handed helix will form. These phenomena of simultaneous motion in two directions go beyond the kinds of waves we observe on the surface of water - in that a wave on a string can be two - dimensional.
Two - dimensional transverse waves exhibit a phenomenon called polarization. A wave produced by moving your hand in a straight line, up and down for instance, is a linearly polarized wave, a special case. A wave produced by moving your hand in a circle or an ellipse is a circularly or elliptically polarized wave, two other special cases.
Electromagnetic waves behave in this same way. Electromagnetic waves are also two - dimensional transverse waves. Transverse waves are waves that travel perpendicular to the direction of the vibration. Ray theory does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which require wave theory (involving the phase of the wave). You can think of a ray of light, in optics, as an idealized narrow beam of electromagnetic radiation. Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system, by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing. A light ray is a line or curve that is perpendicular to the light 's wavefronts (and is therefore collinear with the wave vector). Light rays bend at the interface between two dissimilar media and may be curved in a medium in which the refractive index changes. Geometric optics describes how rays propagate through an optical system.
This two - dimensional nature should not be confused with the two components of an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic field components, which are shown in the light wave diagram here. Each of these fields, the electric and the magnetic, exhibits two - dimensional transverse wave behavior, just like the waves on a string.
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how many years did scott frost coach at ucf | Scott Frost - wikipedia
Scott Andrew Frost (born January 4, 1975) is an American football coach and former player. He is currently the head coach at the University of Nebraska. He was previously the head coach at the University of Central Florida. He played six years in the National Football League (NFL) with the New York Jets, Cleveland Browns, Green Bay Packers, and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Frost was the starting quarterback for Tom Osborne 's 1997 Nebraska team that shared the national championship with Michigan.
Frost attended Wood River High School in Wood River, Nebraska from 1989 to 1993. In four years as the team 's starting quarterback, he threw for 6,859 yards and 67 touchdowns and rushed for 4,278 yards and 72 touchdowns. He led his team to the state playoffs in his sophomore, junior, and senior seasons. In those three postseason appearances, Frost 's teams won five games and twice made it to the state semi-finals. Both of Frost 's parents, Larry and Carol Frost, coached his high school football team.
In addition to football, Frost was a standout in track and field, winning a state championship in the shot put. At the state championship meet his senior year, Frost won an all - class gold medal with a throw of 17.92 m (58 ft 9 ⁄ in). His personal best from earlier that year was 18.62 m (61 ft 1 in).
Frost began his collegiate career as a two - year letterman at Stanford in 1993 and 1994 before transferring to Nebraska in 1995. In his two seasons starting for the Huskers, Frost was a 1997 Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award finalist and quarterbacked his teams to a 24 -- 2 record, completing 192 of 359 passes for 2,677 yards and 18 touchdowns. This includes a senior season in which he became only the tenth player in college football history to both run (1,095) and pass (1,237) for 1,000 yards.
Frost 's senior season featured a now - legendary play called the Flea Kicker. In a game against Missouri, Frost threw a pass that was kicked by Shevin Wiggins and caught by Matt Davison for a touchdown. The touchdown sent the game into overtime where Frost sealed No. 1 Nebraska 's victory with a rushing touchdown. Frost and Nebraska went on to win a share of the 1997 national championship with a 42 -- 17 Orange Bowl win over Peyton Manning 's Tennessee Volunteers.
Following his collegiate career, Frost was selected in the third round (67th overall) of the 1998 NFL Draft by the New York Jets, where he played safety and special teams from 1998 to 2000. His professional football career included stops in Cleveland (2001), Green Bay (2001 -- 02), and Tampa Bay (2003).
As a player, Frost was coached by Stanford 's Bill Walsh, Nebraska 's Tom Osborne, the New York Jets ' Bill Parcells and Bill Belichick, and the Buccaneers ' Mike Tomlin and Jon Gruden. In December 2002, while on the Packers ' injured reserve list, Frost served as a temporary graduate assistant at his alma mater. He was later a graduate assistant at Kansas State in 2006.
Frost took a position at Northern Iowa in 2007 as linebackers coach before being elevated to co-defensive coordinator one year later. His defense finished the 2008 season tied for third in the FCS in takeaways (40) and ninth in scoring defense (17.7 points per game). The 12 -- 3 Panthers also led the Missouri Valley Football Conference in rushing defense (107.1 yards per game) and scoring defense.
Frost joined Oregon 's coaching staff as its wide receivers coach on January 26, 2009. Working under head coach Chip Kelly and offensive coordinator Mark Helfrich, Frost was instrumental in instituting a toughness among his receivers that enhanced their ability as downfield blockers, which contributed to the success of the Ducks ' potent running game. During his four seasons as wide receivers coach, the Ducks reached four straight BCS bowls and three of his departed wide receivers have been invited to NFL camps.
After the departure of Kelly, the University of Oregon promoted Helfrich to head coach and Frost was later officially announced as the offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach on January 31, 2013. In 2014, Frost was a finalist for the Broyles Award, given annually to the nation 's top assistant coach. That season, his protégé Marcus Mariota won the Heisman Trophy en route to a berth in the National Championship game. In his three seasons as the Ducks ' offensive coordinator, Oregon recorded a 33 -- 7 record and finished every year among the nation 's top six teams in terms of both scoring offense and total offense.
On December 1, 2015, Frost was hired as the head football coach at the University of Central Florida. Frost replaced long time UCF head coach George O'Leary and interim head coach Danny Barrett, who took over the Knights when O'Leary resigned following an 0 -- 8 start. The Knights went on to finish 0 -- 12 that year. Frost immediately turned UCF around. He won six games in 2016, taking the Knights to the 2016 Cure Bowl, where they lost to Arkansas State. In 2017, the Knights stormed through the regular season, finishing 11 -- 0. They won The American championship game 62 - 55 in double OT at home against Memphis for their 12th consecutive win.
On December 2, 2017, Frost accepted the head football coach position at the University of Nebraska -- Lincoln. Despite this, Frost led the Knights into the 2018 Peach Bowl -- the school 's second - ever appearance in a major bowl. In that game, they defeated 7th ranked Auburn, completing the first undefeated and untied season in school history. Following the game, the school claimed a national championship.
Scott is married to Grand Canyon University graduate Ashley; they welcomed their son in November 2017.
Frost has worked for the following head coaches as an assistant / positional coach:
# denotes interim head coach
# denotes interim head coach
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what is the monster from jeepers creepers 3 | Jeepers Creepers 3 - wikipedia
Jeepers Creepers 3 is a 2017 American horror film written and directed by Victor Salva, and the third Jeepers Creepers film, taking place in between Jeepers Creepers and Jeepers Creepers 2. Jonathan Breck reprises his role as the Creeper. Gina Philips returns in a cameo as her character Trish Jenner, her first time returning to the series since the original film.
The film was shown in theaters on September 26, 2017, in what was originally announced as a one - night - only showing, and was then shown again on October 4, 2017.
A shuriken flies through the air and hits a wooden post as a man runs for his life. When the man reaches the road, the Creeper drops from the sky and flies off with him, while Kenny Brandon watches from his truck. When he gets out to investigate, he looks up in the air and sees a machete fall from the sky, followed by a severed hand.
Twenty - three years later, shortly after the events of the first film, the police discover the Creeper 's truck filled with dead bodies. The truck has been rigged with several booby - traps, including spikes that emerge from the bed of the truck, and a spear that shoots out from the tail - pipe. When Sheriff Dan Tashtego arrives, Sergeant Davis Tubbs tells him what happened and Tashtego informs him that the Creeper has been around for thousands of years and must be stopped. They then rush to get the Creeper 's truck back after learning it is headed for the impound.
As Frank and Deputy Lang transport the vehicle, the Creeper lands on the tow truck and severs the cables. They then watch as the truck drives off seemingly on its own, while the Creeper stands on top of it. When the truck returns, the Creeper abducts Frank while Lang stands frozen in fear. The next day, Gaylen Brandon sees a vision of her son Kenny, who was killed by the Creeper twenty - three years earlier. He warns her that the Creeper will return soon to uncover something buried on the property and will kill anyone who is still there, including her and her granddaughter, Addison, when it does.
Meanwhile, Tashtego informs Tubbs that he has put together a small team to hunt down the Creeper and kill it once and for all. Later, a group of teenagers discover the Creeper 's truck in a field. After finding the bodies, they take off on dirt bikes, but Kirk is shot in the leg with the spear. As two of the other boys try to free him, the Creeper returns and kills them both with another spear. The last boy is abducted by the Creeper as he tries to escape after peeing on the Creeper 's truck.
Later, Addison goes into town to buy hay for her horse. When she ca n't pay for it, her friend Buddy helps her out and the two drive to a plantation house to deliver more hay. There they find the owner and a couple of men hiding under cars, but before they can get help the Creeper arrives and abducts Addison, leaving Buddy traumatized. Gaylen discovers a sack containing the Creeper 's severed hand buried in her front yard, and when she touches it she goes into a hypnotic state.
When Tashtego and Tubbs arrive with the team, she reveals that the hand contains secrets about the Creeper 's origins, and Tashtego decides to touch it to uncover a way to kill it. Addison wakes up in the Creeper 's truck with Kirk, and together they try to find a way out, but when Kirk reaches for the door handle a metal pipe shoots out and impales him in the head.
Meanwhile, Tashtego and Tubbs discover the Creeper 's location, and they head off to find him, along with Michael (who has a mini gun attached to his truck). They find the Creeper driving down the highway in his truck, but when they shoot at it, the bullets deflect, and Michael is killed. A small explosive is ejected from the bottom of the Creeper 's truck, and when it goes off, Tashtego and Tubbs ' car lands in a field. Tubbs gets out and tries to shoot the Creeper, but all of his attempts fail. However, before the Creeper can kill Tubbs, Tashtego calls him and he goes for him instead. When the Creeper jumps into the air, Tashtego shoots him several times with the machine gun, but the bullets have no effect and he is tackled to the ground and struck in the head with an axe.
That night, the Creeper discovers that Addison is still alive, but before he can kill her, she causes the metal pipe to shoot out and impale him in the head. She quickly escapes and runs through a field, and the Creeper throws a shuriken which barely misses her head. He then throws a spear at her, which also barely misses her. He tries one last time to hit her with an axe, but he is hit by a truck. The axe lands directly at her feet and Addison runs away, leaving the weapon on the ground. When the truck driver gets out to see what happened, he is killed by the Creeper. Addison runs and hides in a field where she is found by Gaylen and Buddy and the three leave together. The Creeper later returns to Gaylen 's house where he finds a sign that says ' We know what you are ', along with the hand, and yells out in anger.
The next day, Addison says goodbye to Buddy before he leaves for a high school basketball game in the same bus that is attacked by the Creeper in the second movie. Twenty - three years later, Trish Jenner is seen reading a letter she presumably wrote on a computer calling for people to fight against the Creeper when it returns, and vows to get revenge on The Creeper for the death of her brother, Darry.
The third film was in talks even before Jeepers Creepers 2 was released back in 2003. In 2006, the movie was "announced '' and was tentatively called Jeepers Creepers 3: The Creeper Walks Among Us. MGM had originally planned to release the movie direct to DVD, but was unable to find proper financing. The movie 's script was written by director Victor Salva, with the new title Jeepers Creepers 3: Cathedral, with Gina Philips returning as Trish Jenner from the first film. For nine more years, the film faced many false starts and setbacks, with Victor Salva saying "the film has come close many times to going before the cameras, and I hope someone sees the wisdom in shooting this ''.
Officially on September 11, 2015, the movie got the green light to start filming from Myriad Pictures, and was to begin filming in early 2016. However, before filming could begin in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canadian talent agencies sent out an alert to warn others about Victor Salva 's criminal past, and then the casting calls were removed, which halted the production. However, producer Stan Spry assured a fan on Twitter that the movie was not cancelled.
On the special edition Blu - ray release of Jeepers Creepers 2, Victor Salva stated that he has written a new script for Jeepers Creepers 3 set between the days of Jeepers Creepers and Jeepers Creepers 2, where the Creeper terrorizes a farming community. Plans changed yet again, as Gina Philips was brought in to reprise her role as Trish in a cameo. The film 's plot is set in between the first two films, in the year 2001, although the original Cathedral storyline had the film take place 23 years after the first two films. Actor Stan Shaw, who plays a sheriff in this film, confirmed to a fan on Twitter that the Cathedral storyline was scrapped as that material was more than 12 years old.
In January 2017, it was confirmed the film was back in pre-production and that filming would begin in February 2017 in Louisiana, instead of Canada as originally planned (more closely duplicating the Florida setting of the original film). Principal photography finally began on February 15, 2017 in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. On April 4, one of the cameramen of the production revealed in their social networks that the filming was already finished.
During an interview for the Edmond Sun, Justin Hall specifically revealed that the film would be released on September 4, but nothing was confirmed by Victor Salva or the movie studio. On August 16, the AMC Theatres website stated Jeepers Creepers 3 opens on September 26, 2017. On August 29, selected theaters began selling tickets along with the official poster, revealing that the film would be on display for only one night. Fathom Events then announced that the film 's premiere would also feature never - before - seen bonus pictures and an interview with Jonathan Breck, who plays the Creeper in all three franchise films. A second showing in theaters on October 4 was later added. Fandango updated the brief film synopsis shortly after, "this Fall, the Creeper returns. See the next film in the iconic horror franchise when Jeepers Creepers 3 returns for a special encore event in movie theaters nationwide for only one night on Wednesday, October 4. '' Other participating theaters included Marcus Theaters and Galaxy Theaters
The film 's Facebook account announced that the film would have its television premiere on the Syfy network on October 28, 2017. The channel aired an encore showing on October 29.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray on December 26, 2017.
Since the announcement of the final filming, several photos began to appear on the internet implying that they were photos leaked from the post-production of Jeepers Creepers 3, mainly for presenting the actor Stan Shaw that had already been confirmed in the film. The photos ended up being confirmed and shortly after it was released a Behind the Scenes video of the film in social networks.
The first teaser trailer for 30 seconds was released on September 6 and the official trailer for the movie was released on September 15 on various YouTube trailer channels.
Jeepers Creepers 3 sparked controversy over using child molestation as a plotline, which resulted in criticism of the film due to director Victor Salva 's 1988 incarceration for sexual abuse of a 12 - year - old and possession of child pornography. The dialogue "Can you blame him though? I mean look at her, the heart wants what it wants, am I right? '', in reference to the film 's character of a sexual abuse victim, was singled out for criticism, ultimately being removed from the theatrical cut, although it was present in the screened version delivered to critics.
During its limited two - day run, Jeepers Creepers 3 grossed $2.2 million in the United States and $1.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $3.6 million. The film opened in 635 theaters for one day and debuted in # 3 in Tuesday box office rankings, alongside Kingsman: The Golden Circle and It.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a negative approval rating of 17 % based on 6 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 3.8 / 10.
Film critic Steve Pulaski gave the film a mixed review, saying that "through all its shortcomings, some admittedly due to what the wonders the passing of time does to one 's expectations, I did find some enjoyment in Jeepers Creepers 3. All of these films have been a tad different from their predecessor, and this one is no exception. It clearly wants to give fans something they can appreciate, it just does n't always know the best route. '' Steve Barton in review to Dread Central gave the film three and a half out of five stars and said, "at the end of the day if you 're a fan of the franchise, you 'll be happy with this latest entry... which for my tastes is better than the second but just falls short of the goodness and quality of the original experience. The door has been left open for Jeepers Creepers 4, and whether or not that will happen remains to be seen ''.
However, Robert Yaniz, Jr. from We Got This Covered said that "lacking in imagination or genuine scares, Jeepers Creepers 3 falls tragically short on just about every front ''. Adam Dileo from IGN gave his verdict saying that being "an unremarkable entry in a cult favorite franchise, Jeepers Creepers 3 offers fans too little to get excited about. While the monster still rules its slice of country highway and the skies above it, the rest of the film crashes in the cornfields ''. Ernie Trinidad gave the film two out of five stars, stating that the film "did n't deliver the story fans were anticipating nor provide enough incentive to want to return for the inevitable sequel ''. Trinidad also felt that the film 's daytime setting only managed to draw attention to its low quality CGI and make - up effects.
In an interview for Diabolique, actress Gina Philips revealed that Victor Salva has a plot ready for a fourth installment. She said "Victor has written what happens from the second after the conclusion of Jeepers Creepers 3. I think that 's all I 'm allowed to say about it, but he wrote in such detail and he had a lot of flashbacks to what happened over the years that it made it very easy for me. I got to see what will eventually happen to the character and he put enough flashbacks in there that I got to see what happened to her over the last 15 years. Let 's just say, there 's more to come. '' As of July 2018, there have been no updates on a 4th film.
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what is the significance of liberia and ethiopia | Ethiopian Highlands - wikipedia
The Ethiopian Highlands is a rugged mass of mountains in Ethiopia, situated in the Horn region in Northeast Africa. It forms the largest continuous area of its altitude in the continent, with little of its surface falling below 1500 m (4,921 ft), while the summits reach heights of up to 4550 m (14,928 ft). It is sometimes called the Roof of Africa due to its height and large area. Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are part of central and northern Ethiopia, and its northernmost portion reaches into Eritrea.
In the southern parts of the Ethiopian Highlands once was located the Kingdom of Kaffa, a medieval early modern state, whence the coffee plant was exported to the Arabian peninsula. The land of the former kingdom is mountainous with stretches of forest. The land is very fertile, capable of three harvests a year. The term "coffee '' derives from the Arabic qahwah (قهوة) and is traced to Kaffa.
The Highlands are divided into northwestern and southeastern portions by the Main Ethiopian Rift, which contains a number of salt lakes. The northwestern portion, which covers the Tigray and Amhara Regions, includes the Semien Mountains, part of which has been designated the Semien Mountains National Park. Its summit, Ras Dashan (4550 m), is the highest peak in Ethiopia. Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile, also lies in the northwestern portion of the Ethiopian Highlands.
The southeastern portion 's highest peaks are located in the Bale Zone of Ethiopia 's Oromia Region. The Bale Mountains, also designated a national park, are nearly as high as those of Semien. The range includes peaks of over 4000 m. Among these are Mount Tullu Demtu (4337 m), which is the second - highest peak in Ethiopia, and Mount Batu (4307 m).
Most of the country 's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000 -- 2,500 m (6,562 -- 8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum.
The Ethiopian Highlands began to rise 75 million years ago, as magma from the Earth 's mantle uplifted a broad dome of the ancient rocks of the Arabian - Nubian Shield. The opening of the Great Rift Valley split the dome of the Ethiopian Highlands into three parts; the mountains of the southern Arabian Peninsula are geologically part of the ancient Ethiopian Highlands, separated by the rifting which created the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and separated Africa from Arabia.
Around 30 million years ago, a flood basalt plateau began to form, piling layers upon layers of voluminous fissure - fed basaltic lava flows. Most of the flows were tholeiitic, save for a thin layer of alkali basalts and minor amounts of felsic (high - silica) volcanic rocks, such as rhyolite. In the waning stages of the flood basalt episode, large explosive caldera - forming eruptions also occurred.
The Ethiopian Highlands were eventually bisected by the Great Rift Valley as the African continental crust pulled apart. This rifting gave rise to large alkaline basalt shield volcanoes beginning about 30 -- 31 million years ago.
The predominant climate type of the Ethiopian Highlands is tropical monsoon, and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator.
Because the highlands elevate Ethiopia, located close to the equator, this has resulted in giving this country an unexpectedly temperate climate. Further, these mountains catch the precipitation of the monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean, resulting in a rainy season that lasts from June until mid-September. These heavy rains cause the Nile to flood in the summer, a phenomenon that puzzled the ancient Greeks, as the summer is the driest season in the Mediterranean climate that they knew.
The Ethiopian Highlands share a similar flora and fauna of other mountainous regions of Africa; this distinctive flora and fauna is known as Afromontane but from the time of the last Ice Age has been populated with some Eurasian (palearctic) flora. The habitats are somewhat different on either side of the Great Rift Valley that splits the highlands.
At lower elevations, the highlands are surrounded by tropical savannas and grasslands, including the Sahelian Acacia savanna to the northwest, the East Sudanian Savanna to the west, and the Somali Acacia - Commiphora bushlands and thickets to the northeast, east, south, and through the Rift Valley.
The highlands themselves are divided into three distinct ecoregions, distinguished by elevation. The Ethiopian montane forests lie between 1,100 and 1,800 meters elevation, above the lowland grasslands and savannas and extends to areas of similar habitat in Eritrea, Sudan, and Djibouti. This woodland belt has several natural plant communities, but has mostly been heavily grazed and converted to agricultural use now. Kolla, is an open woodland found at lower elevations, and dominated by species of Terminalia, Commiphora, Boswellia, and Acacia. Weyna dega is a woodland found in moister and higher locations, dominated by the conifers Afrocarpus gracilior and Juniperus procera. The lower portion of the Harenna Forest is a distinct woodland community, with an open canopy of Warburgia ugandensis, Croton macrostachyus, and Syzygium guineese, and Afrocarpus gracilior, with wild coffee (Coffea arabica) as the dominant understory shrub. The southwesterly winds bring rainfall from May to October with moisture from the Red Sea coming in from the east year round. Fauna at these elevations includes the endemic Harwood 's francolin (Francolinus harwoodi), Prince Ruspoli 's turaco (Tauraco ruspolii) and yellow - throated seedeater (Serinus flavigula), along with the Djibouti francolin (Francolinus ochropectus) in the Djibouti hills that are in the same general ecoregion.
The Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands is the largest of the highland ecoregions, occupying the area between 1800 and 3000 meters elevations. The natural vegetation was closed - canopy forest in moister areas, and grassland, bushland, and thicket in drier areas. However these hillsides have good fertile soil and are heavily populated, largely by farming communities so most of the region has been converted to agriculture with a few areas of natural vegetation remaining. Urban areas in this ecoregion include: Ethiopia 's capital city and Africa 's fourth largest city Addis Ababa, the Amhara Region capital Bahir Dar with its island monasteries on Lake Tana, the old walled city of Harar, the spa town of Ambo, Asella in the Arsi Zone, the trekking center of Dodola, the lakeside Debre Zeyit, the largest city in the southwest Jimma, the market town of Nekemte, and the capital of the Tigray Region, Mek'ele. Awash National Park is a site for birdwatching.
Remaining woodland in the drier areas contains much endemic flora and primarily consists of Podocarpus conifers and Juniperus procera, often with Hagenia abyssinica. In the Harenna Forest, pockets of moist, closed - canopy forest with Pouteria and Olea are draped with lianas and epiphytes, while above 2400 metres, a shrubby zone is home to Hagenia, Schefflera, and giant lobelias (Lobelia gibberroa), species which can be found on the East African mountains further south. The evergreen broadleaved forest of the Semien Mountains, between 2,300 and 2,700 meters elevation, is dominated by Syzygium guineense, Juniperus procera, and Olea africana.
As the lower slopes of the mountains are so heavily populated even the high altitude moorlands are affected by human interference, such as the grazing of livestock and even farming. There are two protected areas of high moorland: Bale Mountains National Park in the southern highlands, accessible from Dinsho; and Semien Mountains National Park, accessible from Gondar, which includes Ras Dashen. However even these parks are losing habitat to livestock grazing, while the lower elevation parks (Harar Wildlife Sanctuary, Awash National Park, Omo National Park, and Nechisar National Park) are even less secure.
These slopes are home to a number of endemic reptiles, birds and animals including the endangered walia ibex (Capra walie) and the gelada baboon, whose thick fur allows it to thrive in the cooler climates of the mountains. These two species are only found on the northern side of the valley while another rare endemic the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) is restricted to the southern side, and now survives at higher altitudes than its original habitat as the lower slopes are heavily farmed. More widespread mammals found here include the mantled guereza (Colobus guereza), which is also threatened as its habitat disappears as is that of many other mammals of the highlands such as olive baboon (Papio anubis), Egyptian wolf (Canis aureus lupaster), African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus), East African lion (Panthera leo melanochaita), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), caracal (Caracal caracal), serval (Felis serval), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) and red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus). Birds include Rueppell 's chat, the finch Ankober serin (Serinus ankoberensis), white - winged flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi), and blue - winged goose. The farmland is home to many butterflies, especially Papilio, Charaxinae, Pieridae and Lycaenidae.
Above 3000 meters elevation lie the high Ethiopian montane moorlands, the largest afroalpine region in Africa. The montane moorlands lie above the tree line, and consist of grassland and moorland with abundant herbs and some shrubs that have adapted to the high mountain conditions. There are several endemic animal species one of which, the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), is critically endangered. Other endemics include the big - headed mole - rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) which is common on the Sanetti Plateau in the Bale Mountains. The mountain nyala finds its way up to the high moorlands although it is more common at lower elevations. Wintering birds include wigeon (Anas penelope), shoveler (Anas clypeata), ruff (Philomachus pugnax) and greenshank (Tringa nebularia).
Other fauna in the area also includes aardvark, eagle, Ethiopian wolf, Egyptian wolf, gelada, secretary bird, Nubian ibex, and marabou stork and Ethiopian endemic species such as the shrew, Crocidura harenna and the narrow - footed woodland mouse (Grammomys minnae) and Menelik 's bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki), which is a subspecies with long, dark fur.
Coordinates: 12 ° 32 ′ 00 '' N 41 ° 23 ′ 8 '' E / 12.53333 ° N 41.38556 ° E / 12.53333; 41.38556
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what is the meaning of the name lena | Lena (name) - wikipedia
Lena is a female given name. The name has evolved in different languages as a variation of several earlier names. In some derivations, Lena comes from the endings of Alina and Helena. Leana is seen in Persian, Hindi and Swedish, and Leena in Finnish.
In Arabic languages, it means "generous and kind ''.
In Latin, it mean "she that allures ''.
In Greek, it means "sunlight '' and "moonlight ''.
In Persian it means "light '', "sunlight '' or "pretty girl ''.
In Hebrew, it means a lady from the city of Magdala.
Lena was the most popular name for girls born in Poland in 2013.
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what are the major cities of el salvador | List of cities in El Salvador - wikipedia
This article shows a list of cities in El Salvador.
Over 100,000 or a High Human Development Index, and a high urbanization. AMSS = San Salvador Metropolitan Area
Over 50,000, medium to low urbanization, or departmental capital.
Within the range of 1,001 to 49,999 or have a really low urbanization, and keeps the colonial look of the country.
Media related to Cities in El Salvador at Wikimedia Commons
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who played ed cooper on one day at a time | Joseph Campanella - wikipedia
Joseph Anthony Campanella (born November 21, 1924) is an American character actor who has appeared in more than 200 television and film roles since the early 1950s.
Campanella was born in Lewistown, Pennsylvania to Philip and Mary O. Campanella, immigrants from Sicily. He appeared in such television shows as Combat, Decoy, The Eleventh Hour, The Doctors (1963), The Fugitive, Mission: Impossible, Marcus Welby, M.D., Gunsmoke, The Big Valley, Alias Smith and Jones, The Untouchables, Police Story, The Road West, The Invaders, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Rockford Files, The Golden Girls, and Mama 's Family.
He had a recurring role from 1959 - 62 as a criminal named Joe Turino on the long - running CBS daytime drama The Guiding Light. He had a role in 1967 as Lew Wickersham in the television series Mannix as Joe Mannix 's boss and friend, before the PI started his own firm. Campanella appeared as attorney Brian Darrell from 1969 - 72 in The Bold Ones: The Lawyers. Campanella played Los Angeles County Sheriff 's Department Captain Monty Ballard in the crime drama TV movie Sky Heist in 1975.
He played Ann Romano 's ex-husband, Ed Cooper, in eight episodes of One Day at a Time (1975 -- 1984) and Barbara Stanwyck 's love interest in the first season (1985 -- 1986) of Aaron Spelling 's short - lived Dynasty spinoff, The Colbys. He appeared in a second - season episode of The Golden Girls as a detective and a seventh - season episode of "Star Trek: Voyager. '' He had a prominent role as Harper Deveraux on the soap opera Days of Our Lives from 1987 to 1988 and from 1990 -- 92, and a recurring role on The Bold and the Beautiful from 1996 to 2005.
Campanella hosted the Canadian educational program Science International between 1976 -- 79, which aired on Nickelodeon as What Will They Think Of Next? He appeared in the independent comedy, For Heaven 's Sake.
On Broadway, Campanella was featured in three productions. His first, The Captains and the Kings, opened in January 1962 and lasted only seven performances. In February 1962, he was cast in A Gift of Time with Henry Fonda and Olivia de Havilland. The show was written and directed by Garson Kanin, and Campanella received a Tony nomination as Best Featured Actor in a Play. His last Broadway performance was in the musical Hot Spot in 1963, which starred Judy Holliday. The show was not well received and delayed its opening four times, resulting in a run of 58 previews and 43 regular performances.
He formerly provided the voice - over for BMW commercials in the United States, intoning, "BMW... the ultimate driving machine. '' For several years beginning in the 1970s, Campanella was a spokesman for Napa Auto Parts.
Campanella voiced the character of Dr. Curt Connors / The Lizard on Spider - Man: The Animated Series (1994 -- 97). He narrated the Discover science series on the Disney Channel from 1992 - 94.
Campanella 's father, Philip, an immigrant from Sicily, was an early member of the American Federation of Musicians. Campanella himself served in the United States Navy during World War II, becoming one of its youngest commanders. He later graduated from Manhattan College in 1948, and attended Columbia University, where he studied drama. Joseph Campanella is the younger brother of actor Frank Campanella, who died in December 2006.
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where are the organs located in the abdomen | Quadrant (abdomen) - wikipedia
The human abdomen is divided into regions by anatomists and physicians for purposes of study, diagnosis, and therapy. In the four - region scheme, four quadrants allow localisation of pain and tenderness, scars, lumps, and other items of interest, narrowing in on which organs and tissues may be involved. The quadrants are referred to as the left lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, right upper quadrant and right lower quadrant, as follows below. These terms are not used in comparative anatomy, since most other animals do not stand erect.
Left lower quadrant:
Left upper quadrant:
Right upper quadrant:
Right lower quadrant:
If abdominal pain or signs of peritonitis are localised in the LLQ, colitis, diverticulitis, ureteral colic or pain due to ovarian cysts or pelvic inflammatory disease may be suspected. Examples of tumors in the left lower quadrant include colon cancer and ovarian tumor.
The LUQ may be painful or tender in the case of intestinal malrotation. The RUQ may be painful or tender in hepatitis, cholecystitis, and peptic ulcer. The RLQ may be painful and / or tender in such conditions as appendicitis.
Children
Adults
Elderly
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who played rowena in mr. holland's opus | Jean Louisa Kelly - wikipedia
Jean Louisa Kelly (born March 9, 1972) is an American actress. After making her film debut as Tia Russell in Uncle Buck (1989) alongside John Candy, she appeared in a wide range of other films including The Fantasticks (1995) and Mr. Holland 's Opus (1995). From 2000 to 2006, she was known for portraying Kim Warner on the CBS sitcom Yes, Dear.
Before attending college, she already had roles in the original Broadway cast of Sondheim 's Into the Woods (as Snow White and understudy to Red Riding Hood) and as Tia Russell in the film Uncle Buck with John Candy. She also took roles in college productions, including with the Barnard College Gilbert and Sullivan Society.
In the mid-1990s, after graduating from college, Kelly became well known for a series of television commercials she did for MCI long distance, in which she played a telephone operator who challenged AT&T. In 1995, she starred as Louisa in the musical film The Fantasticks with Joey McIntyre and Joel Grey, although the film was shelved until 2000. The same year, she appeared in her most prominent role since Tia, as Rowena Morgan, the muse for the title character of Mr. Holland 's Opus. In the 1990s, other films followed. Later starring roles in films have included Landfall (2001) and Little Red Light (2003). Kelly appeared Off Broadway at the York Theatre in the title role in Paul McKibbins and B.T. McNicholl 's The It Girl, based on the 1927 movie It. She also appeared in the York 's "Mufti '' series as Lois Lane in It 's a Bird, It 's a Plane, It 's Superman.
In 1996, Kelly voiced the title role in the second season of the animated series Princess Gwenevere and the Jewel Riders. After several made - for - TV movies, Kelly 's broadest exposure came from her roles in situation comedies, first guest starring in such shows as Mad About You, and then as a cast member of the short - lived NBC version of Cold Feet. From 2000 to 2006, she starred as Kim Warner on the long - running sitcom Yes, Dear. On April 30, 2006, she guest starred in the ABC drama Grey 's Anatomy and has continued to guest star in television dramas.
In 2010, she was cast in a guest starring role in an episode of the television spy drama Burn Notice -- playing a widow who had been swindled out of her life savings by a con man.
She currently appears as Bernice Pope in the Yahoo production of Sin City Saints.
She released an album of children 's music called Color of Your Heart in 2013. On April 14, 2015, she released a collection of original songs in a five - song EP called Willing. Her latest musical release is an album entitled "For My Folks '' and features a collection of standards.
Kelly was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, the daughter of J. Joseph Kelly III and Wendy Kelly. Her father was a high school English teacher, and her mother taught piano. She attended Easton High School in Easton, Maryland. In 1994, Kelly graduated from Columbia University 's Columbia College with a Bachelor of Arts in English.
In 1997, she married James Pitaro.
As of 2010, Kelly resides in Los Angeles. She is close friends with Jennifer Garner, having hosted the baby shower for Garner 's daughter Violet Anne Affleck and interviewed Garner for Self magazine in 2005.
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the equal pay act of 1963 prohibits discrimination in pay based on | Equal pay Act of 1963 - wikipedia
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex (see Gender pay gap). It was signed into law on June 10, 1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program. In passing the bill, Congress stated that sex discrimination:
The law provides (in part) that:
In 1942, Republican congresswoman Winifred C. Stanley from Buffalo, N.Y. introduced H.R. 5056, Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex, which did not pass at the time. The issue languished until 10 June 1963, when Congress passed the Equal Pay Act ("EPA '' or the "Act '') as an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act, to "prohibit discrimination on account of sex in the payment of wages by employers. ''
Congress included within the text of the EPA a clear and concise policy statement and briefly described the problems it was intended to remedy. The clear statement of Congressional intent and policy guiding the EPA 's enactment indicate the Congressional desire to fashion a broad remedial framework to protect employees from wage discrimination on the basis of sex. The Supreme Court has expressly recognized the view that the EPA must be broadly construed to achieve Congress ' goal of remedying sexual discrimination. Congress passed the EPA out of "concern for the weaker bargaining position of women '' to provide a remedy to discriminatory wage structures that reflect "an ancient but outmoded belief that a man, because of his role in society, should be paid more than a woman. '' The EPA protects both men and women. It also protects administrative, professional and executive employees who are exempt under the Fair Labor Standards Act.
The EPA, Section 206 (d) (1), prohibits "employer (s)... (from) discriminat (ing)... on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees (...) at a rate less than the rate (paid) to employees of the opposite sex (...) for equal work on jobs (requiring) equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions (.) '' To establish a prima facie case under the EPA, an employee must show that:
The EPA provides that the employer may not pay lower wages to employees of one gender than it pays to employees of the other gender, employees within the same establishment for equal work at jobs that require equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and that are performed under similar working conditions.
It is important to note that the EPA does not contain any intent requirement within the statutory language. Liability under the EPA is established by meeting the three elements of the prima facie case, regardless of the intention of the employer. As such, the EPA imposes strict liability on employers who engage in wage discrimination on the basis of gender.
Once a plaintiff meets her or his heavy burden and establishes a prima facie case of gender discrimination under the EPA, then the defendant may avoid liability only by proving the existence of one of four statutory affirmative defenses. The EPA 's four affirmative defenses allow unequal pay for equal work when the wages are set "pursuant to (i) a seniority system; (ii) a merit system; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv)... any other factor other than sex (.) ''
Upon its initial enactment, the EPA was "the first step towards an adjustment of balance in pay for women. '' As a part of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, the EPA was subject to the scope and exceptions of covered employees and employers contained within that act. On the floor of the House of Representatives, many Representatives voiced their concern that the EPA should act as the starting point for establishing pay parity for women. Subsequent to the enactment of the EPA, Congress undertook two actions which broadened the scope of federal protection against wage discrimination on the basis of sex.
First, the same 88th Congress enacted Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. By including sex as an element protected from discrimination, Title VII expanded the protection of women from employment discrimination, to include almost all employees working for employers with fifteen or more employees. Foreseeing the potential conflict between the administration of two statutes with overlapping restrictions, Congress included the Bennett Amendment in Title VII, which incorporates the EPA 's four affirmative defenses into Title VII.
Second, Congress expanded the EPA 's coverage to professionals and other white - collar employees. For the first nine years of the EPA, the requirement of equal pay for equal work did not extend to persons employed in an executive, administrative or professional capacity, or as an outside salesperson. Therefore, the EPA exempted white - collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work. In 1972, Congress enacted the Education Amendments of 1972, which amended the FLSA to expand the coverage of the EPA to these employees, by excluding the EPA from the professional workers exemption of the FLSA.
The Congress did not ignore the EPA 's economic consequences on the salaries and employment opportunities for both men and women. First, as an amendment of the FLSA, the EPA is part of the same legislative structure that houses the federal minimum wage laws. The EPA acts as a wage equalizer between men and women for equal jobs, and has the potential of acting as a price floor on the salaries of men or women for particular jobs. Economists, such as Thomas Sowell have asserted the EPA causes unemployment, and additional discrimination against women by excluding them from the labor market. Second, several Representatives voiced their concerns that the negative impact of setting price floors on the wages paid to women would reduce the availability of jobs for women. With the possible side effects of the Act noted on the Congressional record, the Act passed with little opposition, and no indication that any of the four affirmative defenses were intended to remedy or limit its negative consequences.
American women 's salaries have risen relative to men 's since the EPA 's enactment, from 62.3 % of men 's earnings in 1979 to 80.4 % in 2004. The EPA 's equal pay for equal work goals have not been completely achieved, as demonstrated by the BLS data and Congressional findings within the text of the proposed Paycheck Fairness Act.
The EPA did not originally cover executives, administrators, outside salespeople, and professionals, but the Education Amendments of 1972 amended the EPA so that it does.
As a senator, Hillary Clinton first introduced the "Paycheck Fairness Act '' on April 20, 2005, which, among other provisions, proposes to amend the EPA 's fourth affirmative defense to permit only bona fide factors other than sex that are job - related or serve a legitimate business interest. Representative Rosa DeLauro first introduced an identical bill in the House of Representatives on the same day. On January 29, 2009, President Barack Obama signed into law the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, which overturned the holding of a Supreme Court case, Ledbetter v. Goodyear, regarding the applicable statute of limitations. This bill, providing that each gender - unequal paycheck is a new violation of the law, was the first signing of the Obama Presidency and came almost forty - five years after the Equal Pay Act.
However, a 2007 study commissioned by the Department of Labor cautioned against overzealous application of the EPA without closer examination of possible reasons for pay discrepancies. This study notes, for example, that men as a group earn higher wages in part because men dominate blue collar jobs, which are more likely to require cash payments for overtime work; in contrast, women comprise over half of the salaried white collar management workforce that is often exempted from overtime laws. In summary, the study stated: "Although additional research in this area is clearly needed, this study leads to the unambiguous conclusion that the differences in the compensation of men and women are the result of a multitude of factors and that the raw wage gap should not be used as the basis to justify corrective action. Indeed, there may be nothing to correct. The differences in raw wages may be almost entirely the result of the individual choices being made by both male and female workers. ''
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who sings the song raise a little hell | Raise a Little Hell - Wikipedia
"Raise a Little Hell '' is a song by Canadian rock band Trooper. The song is the 10th and final track on the band 's 1978 album Thick as Thieves. It is the band 's only US Hot 100 hit and is regularly played in sports stadiums across Canada.
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when was when i have fears that i may cease to be written | When I Have Fears - Wikipedia
"When I Have Fears '' is an Elizabethan sonnet by the English Romantic poet John Keats. The 14 - line poem is written in iambic pentameter and consists of three quatrains and a couplet. Keats wrote the poem between January 22 and 31, 1818. It was published (posthumously) in 1848 in Life, Letters, and Literary Remains, of John Keats by Richard Monckton Milnes.
When I have fears that I may cease to be Before my pen has glean 'd my teeming brain, Before high - piled books, in charact'ry, Hold like rich garners the full - ripen 'd grain; When I behold, upon the night 's starr 'd face, Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance, And think that I may never live to trace Their shadows, with the magic hand of chance; And when I feel, fair creature of an hour, That I shall never look upon thee more, Never have relish in the faery power Of unreflecting love! -- then on the shore Of the wide world I stand alone, and think Till Love and Fame to nothingness do sink. -
"When I Have Fears '' primarily explores death, the fear of it, and what it prevents Keats from doing. Using the phrase "cease to be '' shows an emphasis on the life Keats will miss out on rather than simply death itself. The repetition of "before '' represents the anxieties Keats has about what he can not achieve before death. He fears he will no longer be able to write, witness the beauty of the world, or experience love or fame once he dies. While the poem ends with a slight resolution, with "Love and Fame '' no longer mattering to Keats, it is a resolution found in isolation and excessive thought. The two do not matter to Keats because death is inevitable and will prevent him from making those achievements, so they sink away from Keats.
References to nature also appear throughout the poem, including harvesting grain, the night sky, clouds, and the shore. Nature is a common theme in Romantic poetry, but in Keats ' poem it demonstrates how essential and natural writing is to his being. The shore and water that love and fame sink within represent an expanse of fears that sit before Keats, giving the natural world a darker theme in those lines.
The theme of creating coincides with references to nature and beauty. The first quatrain equates writing to harvesting grain. Thoughts are tangible items to be grown into "high - piled books, '' as Keats feels he can allow his ideas to flourish if he only had a long enough life. The second quatrain contains more abstract concepts. Stars, cloudy symbols, shadows, reflect the intangible beauty of the world which Keats can also not attempt to understand because of a life cut short. The couplet shows abstract concepts of Love and Fame becoming tangible, though they sink to nothingness as Keats realizes he has no time to achieve them.
The first four lines express Keats ' fear that he will die before he has written all the works he hopes to, "before (his) pen has glean 'd (his) teeming brain. '' The symbols of the night sky and clouds that Keats "may never live to trace '' can represent many things. The first is simply Keats ' desire for literary expression and interpretation of the world around him. Another, though, is more philosophical. Keats ' use of "shadows '' can connect to Plato 's Allegory of the Cave, which then represents his desire to understand life itself. The "magic hand of chance '' may further represent fate as a function of life. Keats is condemned to a short life by chance, and because of that he will remain unable to trace or understand how fate functions.
The "fair creature of an hour, '' according to Richard Woodhouse, the man who advised Keats ' publishers on legal and literary matters, refers to a woman Keats encountered at Vauxhall Gardens. Keats ' reflection on this woman may represent his preoccupation with beauty and his fear of no longer witnessing beauty, in the form of a woman or nature, once he dies. She also represents Keats ' fear of loss and being unable to experience love once he dies.
The final three lines where Keats stands alone and contemplates the end of life may represent a passive acceptance that life must end. Love and fame do not matter and can not be achieved anyway once Keats dies.
"When I Have Fears '' follows a rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCD EFEF GG (Shakespeare Sonnet). Shahidha Bari notes the rhyme scheme may reflect expectation. Readers expect the lines to rhyme with each other, as Keats anticipates the end of his life. The couplet and rhyme signals the end of the poem, as death signals the end of life.
Keats, who died of tuberculosis at the age of 25, is often cited as fearing his own death. The fear may come from Keats ' work as a medical student, where his sympathy for patients, as his friend Charles Brown believed, hindered his work. Keats was aware of the harm that could come to patients if he made any mistakes. Keats ' fear of death is also present for his own life, not just his patients.
This fear is evident on his gravestone, with the words "Here lies one whose name was writ in water. '' The epitaph, which Keats requested on his deathbed, reflects Keats ' fears of death and anger with fate, as "When I Have Fears '' does. The last three lines of the poem which describe "the shore '' and state, "Till Love and Fame to nothingness do sink '' may relate to the reference to water in Keats ' epitaph. His name will sink in water as the fame of writing will.
William Flesch notes the poem 's echoes of Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra. (12) Comparisons have also been made to Shakespeare 's Sonnet 60 for references to time, endings, and the sea and to Sonnet 64 for references to time destroying man - made creations.
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whats the difference between civil law and shariah law | Sharia - wikipedia
Sharia, Sharia law, or Islamic law (Arabic: شريعة (IPA: (ʃaˈriːʕa))) is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God 's immutable divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its human scholarly interpretations. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.
Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). Different legal schools -- of which the most prominent are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and Jafari -- developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad. Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law, ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories: mandatory, recommended, neutral, abhorred, and prohibited. Thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God 's will.
Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwas) were taken into account by ruler - appointed judges who presided over qāḍī 's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler 's council and administered criminal law. Ottoman rulers achieved additional control over the legal system by promulgating their own legal code (qanun) and turning muftis into state employees. Non-Muslim (dhimmi) communities had legal autonomy, except in cases of interconfessional disputes, which fell under jurisdiction of qadi 's courts.
In the modern era, sharia - based criminal laws have been widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education in the Muslim world were likewise brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim - majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia, including reinstatement of hudud corporal punishments, such as stoning. In some cases, this resulted in traditionalist legal reform, while other countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation of sharia advocated by progressive reformers.
The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. Attempts to impose it on non-Muslims have caused intercommunal violence in Nigeria and may have contributed to the breakup of Sudan. Some Muslim - minority countries in Asia (such as Israel), Africa, and Europe recognize the use of sharia - based family laws for their Muslim populations. Some jurisdictions in North America have passed bans on use of sharia, framed as restrictions on religious or foreign laws. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women 's rights.
The word sharīʿah is used by Arabic - speaking peoples of the Middle East to designate a prophetic religion in its totality. For example, sharīʿat Mūsā means law or religion of Moses and sharīʿatu - nā can mean "our religion '' in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse, šarīʿah refers to religious regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word merely means "justice, '' and they will consider any law that promotes justice and social welfare to conform to sharia.
Jan Michiel Otto distinguishes four senses conveyed by the term sharia in religious, legal and political discourse:
A related term al - qānūn al - islāmī (القانون الإسلامي, Islamic law), which was borrowed from European usage in the late 19th century, is used in the Muslim world to refer to a legal system in the context of a modern state.
The primary range of meanings of the Arabic word šarīʿah, derived from the root š - r - ʕ, is related to religion and religious law. The lexicographical tradition records two major areas of use where the word šarīʿah can appear without religious connotation. In texts evoking a pastoral or nomadic environment, the word, and its derivatives refer to watering animals at a permanent water - hole or to the seashore, with special reference to animals who come there. Another area of use relates to notions of stretched or lengthy. This range of meanings is cognate with the Hebrew saraʿ and is likely to be the origin of the meaning "way '' or "path ''. Both these areas have been claimed to have given rise to aspects of the religious meaning.
Some scholars describe the word šarīʿah as an archaic Arabic word denoting "pathway to be followed '' (analogous to the Hebrew term Halakhah ("The Way to Go '')), or "path to the water hole '' and argue that its adoption as a metaphor for a divinely ordained way of life arises from the importance of water in an arid desert environment.
In the Quran, šarīʿah and its cognate širʿah occur once each, with the meaning "way '' or "path ''. The word šarīʿah was widely used by Arabic - speaking Jews during the Middle Ages, being the most common translation for the word torah in the 10th century Arabic Old Testament known as Saʿadya Gaon. A similar use of the term can be found in Christian writers. The Arabic expression Sharīʿat Allāh (شريعة الله "God 's Law '') is a common translation for תורת אלוהים (' God 's Law ' in Hebrew) and νόμος τοῦ θεοῦ (' God 's Law ' in Greek in the New Testament (Rom. 7: 22)). In Muslim literature, šarīʿah designates the laws or message of a prophet or God, in contrast to fiqh, which refers to a scholar 's interpretation thereof.
According to the traditional Muslim view, the emergence of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) goes back to the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In this view, his companions and followers took what he did and approved of as a model (sunnah) and transmitted this information to the succeeding generations in the form of hadith. These reports led first to informal discussion and then systematic legal thought, articulated with greatest success in the eighth and ninth centuries by the master jurists Abu Hanifah, Malik ibn Anas, Al - Shafi'i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who are viewed as the founders of the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafiʿi, and Hanbali legal schools (madhhabs) of Sunni jurisprudence.
Modern historians have presented alternative theories of the formation of fiqh. At first Western scholars accepted the general outlines of the traditional account. An influential revisionist hypothesis was advanced by Ignac Goldziher and elaborated by Joseph Schacht in the mid-20th century. Schacht argued that the hadith reflected local practices of early Muslim communities and their chains of transmission were extended back to Muhammad 's companions at a later date, when it became accepted that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources. In his view, the real architect of Islamic jurisprudence was al - Shafi'i, who formulated this and other elements of classical legal theory in his work al - risala. Both these accounts gave rise to objections, and modern historians generally adopt more cautious, intermediate positions.
While the origin of hadith remains a subject of scholarly controversy, it is generally accepted that early Islamic jurisprudence developed out of a combination of administrative and popular practices shaped by the religious and ethical precepts of Islam. It continued some aspects of pre-Islamic laws and customs of the lands that fell under Muslim rule in the aftermath of the early conquests and modified other aspects, aiming to meet the practical need of establishing Islamic norms of behavior and adjudicating disputes arising in the early Muslim communities. Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local master and discuss religious topics. At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles. As the boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school 's founder. In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith.
Fiqh is traditionally divided into the fields of uṣūl al - fiqh (lit. the roots of fiqh), which studies the theoretical principles of jurisprudence, and furūʿ al - fiqh (lit. the branches of fiqh), which is devoted to elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles.
Classical jurists held that human reason is a gift from God which should be exercised to its fullest capacity. However, they believed that use of reason alone is insufficient to distinguish right from wrong, and that rational argumentation must draw its content from the body of transcendental knowledge revealed in the Quran and through the sunnah of Muhammad.
Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how scriptures should be interpreted from the standpoint of linguistics and rhetoric. It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is abrogated by a passage revealed at a later date. In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus (ijmaʿ) and analogical reasoning (qiyas). It therefore studies the application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools. This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of ijtihad, which refers to a jurist 's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question. The theory of Twelver Shia jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason (ʿaql) as a source of law in place of qiyas and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the imams.
The classical process of ijtihad combined these generally recognized principles with other methods, which were not adopted by all legal schools, such as istihsan (juristic preference), istislah (consideration of public interest) and istishab (presumption of continuity). A jurist who is qualified to practice ijtihad is known as a mujtahid. The use of independent reasoning to arrive at a ruling is contrasted with taqlid (imitation), which refers to following the rulings of a mujtahid. By the beginning of the 10th century, development of Sunni jurisprudence prompted leading jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and the scope of ijtihad was gradually restricted. From the 18th century on, leading Muslim reformers began calling for abandonment of taqlid and renewed emphasis on ijtihad, which they saw as a return to the vitality of early Islamic jurisprudence.
Sharia rulings fall into one of five categories known as "the five decisions '' (al - aḥkām al - khamsa): mandatory (farḍ or wājib), recommended (mandūb or mustaḥabb), neutral (mubāḥ), reprehensible (makrūh), and forbidden (ḥarām). It is a sin or a crime to perform a forbidden action or not to perform a mandatory action. Reprehensible acts should be avoided, but they are not considered to be sinful or punishable in court. Avoiding reprehensible acts and performing recommended acts is held to be subject of reward in the afterlife, while allowed actions entail no judgement from God. Jurists disagree on whether the term ḥalāl covers the first three or the first four categories. The legal and moral verdict depends on whether the action is committed out of necessity (ḍarūra).
Maqāṣid (aims or purposes) of sharia and maṣlaḥa (welfare or public interest) are two related classical doctrines which have come to play an increasingly prominent role in modern times. They were first clearly articulated by al - Ghazali (d. 1111), who argued that maslaha was God 's general purpose in revealing the divine law, and that its specific aim was preservation of five essentials of human well - being: religion, life, intellect, offspring, and property. Although most classical - era jurists recognized maslaha and maqasid as important legal principles, they held different views regarding the role they should play in Islamic law. Some jurists viewed them as auxiliary rationales constrained by scriptural sources and analogical reasoning. Others regarded them as an independent source of law, whose general principles could override specific inferences based on the letter of scripture. While the latter view was held by a minority of classical jurists, in modern times it came to be championed in different forms by prominent scholars who sought to adapt Islamic law to changing social conditions by drawing on the intellectual heritage of traditional jurisprudence. These scholars expanded the inventory of maqasid to include such aims of sharia as reform and women 's rights (Rashid Rida); justice and freedom (Mohammed al - Ghazali); and human dignity and rights (Yusuf al - Qaradawi).
The domain of furūʿ al - fiqh (lit. branches of fiqh) is traditionally divided into ʿibādāt (rituals or acts of worship) and muʿāmalāt (social relations). Many jurists further divided the body of substantive jurisprudence into "the four quarters '', called rituals, sales, marriage and injuries. Each of these terms figuratively stood for a variety of subjects. For example, the quarter of sales would encompass partnerships, guaranty, gifts, and bequests, among other topics. Juristic works were arranged as a sequence of such smaller topics, each called a "book '' (kitab). The special significance of ritual was marked by always placing its discussion at the start of the work.
Some historians distinguish a field of Islamic criminal law, which combines several traditional categories. Several crimes with scripturally prescribed punishments are known as hudud. Jurists developed various restrictions which in many cases made them virtually impossible to apply. Other crimes involving intentional bodily harm are judged according to a version of lex talionis that prescribes a punishment analogous to the crime (qisas), but the victims or their heirs may accept a monetary compensation (diya) or pardon the perpetrator instead; only diya is imposed for non-intentional harm. Other criminal cases belong to the category of taʿzīr, where the goal of punishment is correction or rehabilitation of the culprit and its form is largely left to the judge 's discretion. In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler - administered courts or local police using procedures which were only loosely related to sharia.
The two major genres of furūʿ literature are the mukhtasar (concise summary of law) and the mabsut (extensive commentary). Mukhtasars were short specialized treatises or general overviews that could be used in a classroom or consulted by judges. A mabsut, which usually provided a commentary on a mukhtasar and could stretch to dozens of large volumes, recorded alternative rulings with their justifications, often accompanied by a proliferation of cases and conceptual distinctions. The terminology of juristic literature was conservative and tended to preserve notions which had lost their practical relevance. At the same time, the cycle of abridgement and commentary allowed jurists of each generation to articulate a modified body of law to meet changing social conditions. Other juristic genres include the qawāʿid (succinct formulas meant to aid the student remember general principles) and collections of fatwas by a particular scholar.
The main Sunni schools of law (madhhabs) are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali madhhabs. They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab. These four schools recognize each other 's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries. Rulings of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world. For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in Lower Egypt, East Africa, and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia. The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short - lived Sunni madhhabs. The Zahiri school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought. The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the Twelver, Zaidi and Ismaili madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools. The Ibadi legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of takhayyur (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and talfiq (combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulema as interpreters of the resulting laws. Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the Salafi and Wahhabi movements. Other currents, such as networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim - minority countries, have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law without focusing on traditions of a particular madhhab.
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From the 9th century onward, the power to interpret law in traditional Islamic societies was in the hands of the scholars (ulema). This separation of powers served to limit the range of actions available to the ruler, who could not easily decree or reinterpret law independently and expect the continued support of the community. Through succeeding centuries and empires, the balance between the ulema and the rulers shifted and reformed, but the balance of power was never decisively changed. Over the course of many centuries, imperial, political and technological change, including the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution, ushered in an era of European world hegemony that gradually included the domination of many of the lands which had previously been ruled by Islamic empires. At the end of the Second World War, the European powers found themselves too weakened to maintain their empires as before. The wide variety of forms of government, systems of law, attitudes toward modernity and interpretations of sharia are a result of the ensuing drives for independence and modernity in the Muslim world.
Most Muslim - majority countries incorporate sharia at some level in their legal framework, with many calling it the highest law or the source of law of the land in their constitution. Most use sharia for personal law (marriage, divorce, domestic violence, child support, family law, inheritance and such matters). Elements of sharia are present, to varying extents, in the criminal justice system of many Muslim - majority countries. Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Brunei, Qatar, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Sudan and Mauritania apply the code predominantly or entirely while it applies in some parts of Indonesia.
Most Muslim - majority countries with sharia - prescribed hudud punishments in their legal code do not prescribe it routinely and use other punishments instead. The harshest sharia penalties such as stoning, beheading and other forms of the death penalty are enforced with varying levels of consistency.
Since the 1970s, most Muslim - majority countries have faced vociferous demands from their religious groups and political parties for immediate adoption of sharia as the sole, or at least primary, legal framework. Some moderates and liberal scholars within these Muslim countries have argued for limited expansion of sharia.
With the growing Muslim immigrant communities in Europe, there have been reports in some media of "no - go zones '' being established where sharia law reigns supreme. However, there is no evidence of the existence of "no - go zones '', and these allegations are sourced from anti-immigrant groups falsely equating low - income neighborhoods predominantly inhabited by immigrants as "no - go zones ''. In England, the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal makes use of sharia family law to settle disputes, though this limited adoption of sharia is controversial.
Sharia is enforced in Islamic nations in a number of ways, including mutaween (police enforcement) and hisbah. mutaween (Arabic: المطوعين ، مطوعية muṭawwiʿīn, muṭawwiʿiyyah) are the government - authorized or government - recognized religious police (or clerical police) of Saudi Arabia. Elsewhere, enforcement of Islamic values in accordance with sharia is the responsibility of the Polisi Perda Syariah Islam in Aceh province of Indonesia, the Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Gaza Strip) in parts of Palestine, and the Basiji Force in Iran.
Hisbah (Arabic: حسبة ḥisb (ah), or hisba) is a historic Islamic doctrine which means "accountability ''. Hisbah doctrine holds that it is a religious obligation of every Muslim that he or she report to the ruler (Sultan, government authorities) any wrong behavior of a neighbor or relative that violates sharia or insults Islam. The doctrine states that it is the divinely sanctioned duty of the ruler to intervene when such charges are made, and coercively "command right and forbid wrong '' in order to keep everything in order according to sharia. Al - Jama'a al - Islamiyya (considered a terrorist organization) suggest that enforcement of sharia under the Hisbah doctrine is the sacred duty of all Muslims, not just rulers.
The doctrine of Hisbah in Islam may allow a Muslim to accuse another Muslim, ex-Muslim or non-Muslim for beliefs or behavior that harms Islamic society. This principle has been used in countries such as Egypt, Pakistan and others to bring blasphemy charges against apostates. For example, in Egypt, sharia was enforced on the Muslim scholar Nasr Abu Zayd, through the doctrine of Hisbah for apostasy. Similarly, in Nigeria, after twelve northern Muslim - majority states such as Kano adopted a sharia - based penal code between 1999 and 2000, hisbah became the allowed method of sharia enforcement where Muslim citizens could police compliance of moral order based on sharia. In Aceh province of Indonesia, Islamic vigilante activists have invoked Hisbah doctrine to enforce sharia on fellow Muslims as well as demanding that non-Muslims respect sharia. Hisbah has been used in many Muslim majority countries to enforce sharia restrictions on blasphemy and criticism of Islam over internet and social media.
Sharia judicial proceedings have significant differences from other legal traditions, including those in both common law and civil law. Sharia courts traditionally do not rely on lawyers; plaintiffs and defendants represent themselves. Trials are conducted solely by the judge, and there is no jury system. There is no pre-trial discovery process, and no cross-examination of witnesses. Unlike common law, judges ' verdicts do not set binding precedents under the principle of stare decisis, and unlike civil law, sharia is left to the interpretation in each case and has no formally codified universal statutes.
The rules of evidence in sharia courts also maintain a distinctive custom of prioritizing oral testimony. Witnesses, in a sharia court system, must be faithful, that is Muslim. Male Muslim witnesses are deemed more reliable than female Muslim witnesses, and non-Muslim witnesses considered unreliable and receive no priority in a sharia court. In civil cases in some countries, a Muslim woman witness is considered half the worth and reliability than a Muslim man witness. In criminal cases, women witnesses are unacceptable in stricter, traditional interpretations of sharia, such as those found in Hanbali madhhab.
A confession, an oath, or the oral testimony of Muslim witnesses are the main evidence admissible, in sharia courts, for hudud crimes, that is the religious crimes of adultery, fornication, rape, accusing someone of illicit sex but failing to prove it, apostasy, drinking intoxicants and theft. Testimony must be from at least two free Muslim male witnesses, or one Muslim male and two Muslim females, who are not related parties and who are of sound mind and reliable character. Testimony to establish the crime of adultery, fornication or rape must be from four Muslim male witnesses, with some fiqhs allowing substitution of up to three male with six female witnesses; however, at least one must be a Muslim male. Forensic evidence (i.e., fingerprints, ballistics, blood samples, DNA etc.) and other circumstantial evidence is likewise rejected in hudud cases in favor of eyewitnesses, a practice which can cause severe difficulties for women plaintiffs in rape cases.
Muslim jurists have debated whether and when coerced confession and coerced witnesses are acceptable. In the Ottoman Criminal Code, the executive officials were allowed to use torture only if the accused had a bad reputation and there were already indications of his guilt, such as when stolen goods were found in his house, if he was accused of grievous bodily harm by the victim or if a criminal during investigation mentioned him as an accomplice. Confessions obtained under torture could not be used as a ground for awarding punishment unless they were corroborated by circumstantial evidence.
Quran 2: 282 recommends written financial contracts with reliable witnesses, although there is dispute about equality of female testimony.
Marriage is solemnized as a written financial contract, in the presence of two Muslim male witnesses, and it includes a brideprice (Mahr) payable from a Muslim man to a Muslim woman. The brideprice is considered by a sharia court as a form of debt. Written contracts are paramount in sharia courts in the matters of dispute that are debt - related, which includes marriage contracts. Written contracts in debt - related cases, when notarized by a judge, is deemed more reliable.
In commercial and civil contracts, such as those relating to exchange of merchandise, agreement to supply or purchase goods or property, and others, oral contracts and the testimony of Muslim witnesses triumph over written contracts. Sharia system has held that written commercial contracts may be forged. Timur Kuran states that the treatment of written evidence in religious courts in Islamic regions created an incentive for opaque transactions, and the avoidance of written contracts in economic relations. This led to a continuation of a "largely oral contracting culture '' in Muslim nations and communities.
In lieu of written evidence, oaths are accorded much greater weight; rather than being used simply to guarantee the truth of ensuing testimony, they are themselves used as evidence. Plaintiffs lacking other evidence to support their claims may demand that defendants take an oath swearing their innocence, refusal thereof can result in a verdict for the plaintiff. Taking an oath for Muslims can be a grave act; one study of courts in Morocco found that lying litigants would often "maintain their testimony ' right up to the moment of oath - taking and then to stop, refuse the oath, and surrender the case. '' Accordingly, defendants are not routinely required to swear before testifying, which would risk casually profaning the Quran should the defendant commit perjury; instead oaths are a solemn procedure performed as a final part of the evidence process.
In classical jurisprudence monetary compensation for bodily harm (diya or blood money) is assessed differently for different classes of victims. For example, for Muslim women the amount was half that assessed for a Muslim man. Diya for the death of a free Muslim man is twice as high as for Jewish and Christian victims according to the Maliki and Hanbali madhhabs and three times as high according to Shafi'i rules. Several legals schools assessed diya for Magians (majus) at one - fifteenth the value of a free Muslim male.
Modern countries which incorporate classical diya rules into their legal system treat them in different ways. The Pakistan Penal Code modernized the Hanafi doctrine by eliminating distinctions between Muslims and non-Muslims. In Iran, diya for non-Muslim victims professing one of the faiths protected under the constitution (Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians) was made equal to diya for Muslims in 2004, though according to a 2006 US State Department report, the penal code still discriminates against other religious minorities and women. According to Human Rights Watch and the US State Department, in Saudi Arabia Jewish or Christian male plaintiffs are entitled to half the amount a Muslim male would receive, while for all other non-Muslim males the proportion is one - sixteenth.
A 2013 survey based on interviews of 38,000 Muslims, randomly selected from urban and rural parts in 39 countries using area probability designs, by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life found that a majority -- in some cases "overwhelming '' majority -- of Muslims in a number of countries support making sharia the law of the land, including Afghanistan (99 %), Iraq (91 %), Niger (86 %), Malaysia (86 %), Pakistan (84 %), Morocco (83 %), Bangladesh (82 %), Egypt (74 %), Indonesia (72 %), Jordan (71 %), Uganda (66 %), Ethiopia (65 %), Mali (63 %), Ghana (58 %), and Tunisia (56 %). In Muslim regions of Southern - Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the support is less than 50 %: Russia (42 %), Kyrgyzstan (35 %), Tajikistan (27 %), Kosovo (20 %), Albania (12 %), Turkey (12 %), Kazakhstan (10 %), Azerbaijan (8 %). Regarding specific averages, in South Asia, Sharia had 84 % favorability rating among the respondents; in Southeast Asia 77 %; in the Middle - East / North Africa 74 %; in Sub-Saharan Africa 64 %; in Southern - Eastern Europe 18 %; and in Central Asia 12 %.
However, while most of those who support implementation of sharia favor using it in family and property disputes, fewer supported application of severe punishments such as whippings and cutting off hands, and interpretations of some aspects differed widely. According to the Pew poll, among Muslims who support making sharia the law of the land, most do not believe that it should be applied to non-Muslims. In the Muslim - majority countries surveyed this proportion varied between 74 % (of 74 % in Egypt) and 19 % (of 10 % in Kazakhstan), as percentage of those who favored making sharia the law of the land. Polls demonstrate that for Egyptians, the ' Shariah ' is associated with notions of political, social and gender justice.
In 2008, Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, has suggested that Islamic and Orthodox Jewish courts should be integrated into the British legal system alongside ecclesiastical courts to handle marriage and divorce, subject to agreement of all parties and strict requirements for protection of equal rights for women. His reference to the sharia sparked a controversy. Later that year, Nicholas Phillips, then Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, stated that there was "no reason why sharia principles (...) should not be the basis for mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution. '' A 2008 YouGov poll in the United Kingdom found 40 % of Muslim students interviewed supported the introduction of sharia into British law for Muslims. Michael Broyde, professor of law at Emory University specializing in alternative dispute resolution and Jewish law, has argued that sharia courts can be integrated into the American religious arbitration system, provided that they adopt appropriate institutional requirements as American rabbinical courts have done.
Fundamentalists, wishing to return to basic Islamic religious values and law, have in some instances imposed harsh sharia punishments for crimes, curtailed civil rights and violated human rights. Extremists have used the Quran and their own particular version of sharia to justify acts of war and terror against Muslim as well as non-Muslim individuals and governments, using alternate, conflicting interpretations of sharia and their notions of jihad.
The sharia basis of arguments advocating terrorism is controversial. According to Bernard Lewis, "(a) t no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism '' and the terrorist practice of suicide bombing "has no justification in terms of Islamic theology, law or tradition ''. In the modern era the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to an ideological and political discourse. For al - Qaeda ideologues, in jihad all means are legitimate, including targeting Muslim non-combatants and the mass killing of non-Muslim civilians. According to these interpretations, Islam does not discriminate between military and civilian targets, but rather between Muslims and nonbelievers, whose blood can be legitimately spilled.
Some scholars of Islam, such as Yusuf al - Qaradawi and Sulaiman Al - Alwan, have supported suicide attacks against Israeli civilians, arguing that they are army reservists and hence should be considered as soldiers, while Hamid bin Abdallah al - Ali declared that suicide attacks in Chechnya were justified as a "sacrifice ''. Many prominent Islamic scholars, including al - Qaradawi himself, have issued condemnations of terrorism in general terms. For example, Abdul - Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash - Sheikh, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia has stated that "terrorizing innocent people (...) constitute (s) a form of injustice that can not be tolerated by Islam '', while Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, Grand Imam of al - Azhar and former Grand Mufti of Egypt has stated that "attacking innocent people is not courageous; it is stupid and will be punished on the Day of Judgment ''.
In the Western world, sharia has been called a source of "hysteria '', "more controversial than ever '', the one aspect of Islam that inspires "particular dread ''. On the Internet, "dozens of self - styled counter-jihadis '' emerged to campaign against sharia law, describing it in strict interpretations resembling those of Salafi Muslims. Also, fear of sharia law and of "the ideology of extremism '' among Muslims reportedly spread to mainstream conservative Republicans in the United States. Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich won ovations calling for a federal ban on sharia law. The issue of "liberty versus Sharia '' was called a "momentous civilisational debate '' by right - wing pundit Diana West. In 2008 in Britain, the future Prime Minister (David Cameron) declared his opposition to "any expansion of Sharia law in the UK. '' In Germany, in 2014, the Interior Minister (Thomas de Maizière) told a newspaper (Bild), "Sharia law is not tolerated on German soil. ''
Some countries and jurisdictions have explicit bans on sharia law. In Canada, for example, sharia law has been explicitly banned in Quebec by a 2005 unanimous vote of the National Assembly, while the province of Ontario allows family law disputes to be arbitrated only under Ontario law. In the U.S., opponents of Sharia have sought to ban it from being considered in courts, where it has been routinely used alongside traditional Jewish and Catholic laws to decide legal, business, and family disputes subject to contracts drafted with reference to such laws, as long as they do not violate secular law or the U.S. constitution. After failing to gather support for a federal law making observing Sharia a felony punishable by up to 20 years in prison, anti-Sharia activists have focused on state legislatures. By 2014, bills aimed against use of Sharia have been introduced in 34 states and passed in 11. These bills have generally referred to banning foreign or religious law in order to thwart legal challenges.
According to Jan Michiel Otto, Professor of Law and Governance in Developing Countries at Leiden University, "(a) nthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion. Those who adhere to a confrontational view of sharia tend to ascribe many undesirable practices to sharia and religion overlooking custom and culture, even if high - ranking religious authorities have stated the opposite. ''
Ali Khan states that "constitutional orders founded on the principles of sharia are fully compatible with democracy, provided that religious minorities are protected and the incumbent Islamic leadership remains committed to the right to recall ''. Other scholars say sharia is not compatible with democracy, particularly where the country 's constitution demands separation of religion and the democratic state.
Courts in non-Muslim majority nations have generally ruled against the implementation of sharia, both in jurisprudence and within a community context, based on sharia 's religious background. In Muslim nations, sharia has wide support with some exceptions. For example, in 1998 the Constitutional Court of Turkey banned and dissolved Turkey 's Refah Party on the grounds that "Democracy is the antithesis of Sharia '', the latter of which Refah sought to introduce.
On appeal by Refah the European Court of Human Rights determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy ''. Refah 's sharia - based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion '' was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. It was determined that it would "do away with the State 's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms '' and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy ''.
Several major, predominantly Muslim countries have criticized the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-Western countries. Iran declared in the UN assembly that UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo - Christian tradition '', which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. Islamic scholars and Islamist political parties consider ' universal human rights ' arguments as imposition of a non-Muslim culture on Muslim people, a disrespect of customary cultural practices and of Islam. In 1990, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, a group representing all Muslim majority nations, met in Cairo to respond to the UDHR, then adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam.
Ann Elizabeth Mayer points to notable absences from the Cairo Declaration: provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Article 24 of the Cairo declaration states that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic shari'a ''.
In 2009, the journal Free Inquiry summarized the criticism of the Cairo Declaration in an editorial: "We are deeply concerned with the changes to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by a coalition of Islamic states within the United Nations that wishes to prohibit any criticism of religion and would thus protect Islam 's limited view of human rights. In view of the conditions inside the Islamic Republic of Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Syria, Bangladesh, Iraq, and Afghanistan, we should expect that at the top of their human rights agenda would be to rectify the legal inequality of women, the suppression of political dissent, the curtailment of free expression, the persecution of ethnic minorities and religious dissenters -- in short, protecting their citizens from egregious human rights violations. Instead, they are worrying about protecting Islam. ''
H. Patrick Glenn states that sharia is structured around the concept of mutual obligations of a collective, and it considers individual human rights as potentially disruptive and unnecessary to its revealed code of mutual obligations. In giving priority to this religious collective rather than individual liberty, the Islamic law justifies the formal inequality of individuals (women, non-Islamic people). Bassam Tibi states that sharia framework and human rights are incompatible. Abdel al - Hakeem Carney, in contrast, states that sharia is misunderstood from a failure to distinguish sharia from siyasah (politics).
The Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam conditions free speech with sharia law: Article 22 (a) of the Declaration states that "Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shariah. ''
Blasphemy in Islam is any form of cursing, questioning or annoying God, Muhammad or anything considered sacred in Islam. The sharia of various Islamic schools of jurisprudence specify different punishment for blasphemy against Islam, by Muslims and non-Muslims, ranging from imprisonment, fines, flogging, amputation, hanging, or beheading. In some cases, sharia allows non-Muslims to escape death by converting and becoming a devout follower of Islam.
Blasphemy, as interpreted under sharia, is controversial. Muslim nations have petitioned the United Nations to limit "freedom of speech '' because "unrestricted and disrespectful opinion against Islam creates hatred ''. Other nations, in contrast, consider blasphemy laws as violation of "freedom of speech '', stating that freedom of expression is essential to empowering both Muslims and non-Muslims, and point to the abuse of blasphemy laws, where hundreds, often members of religious minorities, are being lynched, killed and incarcerated in Muslim nations, on flimsy accusations of insulting Islam.
According to the United Nations ' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, every human has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change their religion or belief. Sharia has been criticized for not recognizing this human right. According to scholars of Islamic law, the applicable rules for religious conversion under sharia are as follows:
According to sharia theory, conversion of disbelievers and non-Muslims to Islam is encouraged as a religious duty for all Muslims, and leaving Islam (apostasy), expressing contempt for Islam (blasphemy), and religious conversion of Muslims is prohibited. Not all Islamic scholars agree with this interpretation of sharia theory. In practice, as of 2011, 20 Islamic nations had laws declaring apostasy from Islam as illegal and a criminal offense. Such laws are incompatible with the UDHR 's requirement of freedom of thought, conscience and religion. In another 2013 report based on international survey of religious attitudes, more than 50 % of Muslim population in 6 out of 49 Islamic countries supported death penalty for any Muslim who leaves Islam (apostasy). However it is also shown that the majority of Muslims in the 43 nations surveyed did not agree with this interpretation of sharia.
Some scholars claim sharia allows religious freedom because a Qur'anic verse teaches, "there is no compulsion in religion. '' Other scholars claim sharia recognizes only one proper religion, considers apostasy as sin punishable with death, and members of other religions as kafir (infidel); or hold that sharia demands that all apostates and kafir must be put to death, enslaved or be ransomed. Yet other scholars suggest that sharia has become a product of human interpretation and inevitably leads to disagreements about the "precise contents of the Shari'a. '' In the end, then, what is being applied is not sharia, but what a particular group of clerics and government decide is sharia. It is these differing interpretations of sharia that explain why many Islamic countries have laws that restrict and criminalize apostasy, proselytism and their citizens ' freedom of conscience and religion.
Homosexual intercourse is illegal under sharia law, though the prescribed penalties differ from one school of jurisprudence to another. For example, some Muslim - majority countries impose the death penalty for acts perceived as sodomy and homosexual activities: Iran, Saudi Arabia, and in other Muslim - majority countries such as Egypt, Iraq, and the Indonesian province of Aceh, same - sex sexual acts are illegal, and LGBT people regularly face violence and discrimination.
Many claim sharia law encourages domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects nushuz (disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife. Other scholars claim wife beating, for nashizah, is not consistent with modern perspectives of the Quran.
One of the verses of the Quran relating to permissibility of domestic violence is Surah 4: 34. Sharia has been criticized for ignoring women 's rights in domestic abuse cases. Musawah, CEDAW, KAFA and other organizations have proposed ways to modify sharia - inspired laws to improve women 's rights in Islamic nations, including women 's rights in domestic abuse cases.
Shari'a is the basis for personal status laws in most Islamic majority nations. These personal status laws determine rights of women in matters of marriage, divorce and child custody. A 2011 UNICEF report concludes that sharia law provisions are discriminatory against women from a human rights perspective. In legal proceedings under sharia law, a woman 's testimony is worth half of a man 's before a court.
Except for Iran, Lebanon and Bahrain which allow child marriages, the civil codes in Islamic majority countries do not allow child marriage of girls. However, with sharia personal status laws, sharia courts in all these nations have the power to override the civil code. The religious courts permit girls less than 18 years old to marry. As of 2011, child marriages are common in a few Middle Eastern countries, accounting for 1 in 6 of all marriages in Egypt and 1 in 3 marriages in Yemen. UNICEF and other studies state that the top five nations in the world with highest observed child marriage rates -- Niger (75 %), Chad (72 %), Mali (71 %), Bangladesh (64 %), Guinea (63 %) -- are Islamic - majority countries where the personal laws for Muslims are sharia - based. In his Cairo speech, President Obama spoke out against child marriage.
Rape is considered a crime in all countries, but sharia courts in Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia in some cases allow a rapist to escape punishment by marrying his victim, while in other cases the victim who complains is often prosecuted with the crime of Zina (adultery).
Sharia grants women the right to inherit property from other family members, and these rights are detailed in the Quran. A woman 's inheritance is unequal and less than a man 's, and dependent on many factors. For instance, a daughter 's inheritance is usually half that of her brother 's.
Until the 20th century, Islamic law granted Muslim women certain legal rights, such as the right to own property received as Mahr (brideprice) at her marriage. However, Islamic law does not grant non-Muslim women the same legal rights as the few it did grant Muslim women. Sharia recognizes the basic inequality between master and women slave, between free women and slave women, between Believers and non-Believers, as well as their unequal rights. Sharia authorized the institution of slavery, using the words abd (slave) and the phrase ma malakat aymanukum ("that which your right hand owns '') to refer to women slaves, seized as captives of war. Under Islamic law, Muslim men could have sexual relations with female captives and slaves.
Slave women under sharia did not have a right to own property or to move freely. Sharia, in Islam 's history, provided a religious foundation for enslaving non-Muslim women (and men), but allowed for the manumission of slaves. However, manumission required that the non-Muslim slave first convert to Islam. A non-Muslim slave woman who bore children to her Muslim master became legally free upon her master 's death, and her children were presumed to be Muslims like their father, in Africa and elsewhere.
Starting with the 20th century, Western legal systems evolved to expand women 's rights, but women 's rights under Islamic law have remained tied to the Quran, hadiths and their fundamentalist interpretation as sharia by Islamic jurists.
Early Islamic law developed a number of legal concepts that anticipated similar such concepts that later appeared in English common law. Similarities exist between the royal English contract protected by the action of debt and the Islamic Aqd, between the English assize of novel disseisin and the Islamic Istihqaq, and between the English jury and the Islamic Lafif in classical Maliki jurisprudence. The law schools known as Inns of Court also parallel Madrasahs. The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems, as are the English trust and agency institutions to the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions, respectively.
Elements of Islamic law also have other parallels in Western legal systems. For example, the influence of Islam on the development of an international law of the sea can be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.
Makdisi states Islamic law also parallels the legal scholastic system in the West, which gave rise to the modern university system. He writes that the triple status of faqih ("master of law ''), mufti ("professor of legal opinions '') and mudarris ("teacher ''), conferred by the classical Islamic legal degree, had its equivalents in the medieval Latin terms magister, professor and doctor, respectively, although they all came to be used synonymously in both East and West. Makdisi suggests that the medieval European doctorate, licentia docendi was modeled on the Islamic degree ijazat al - tadris wa - l - ifta ', of which it is a word - for - word translation, with the term ifta ' (issuing of fatwas) omitted. He also argues that these systems shared fundamental freedoms: the freedom of a professor to profess his personal opinion and the freedom of a student to pass judgement on what he is learning.
There are differences between Islamic and Western legal systems. For example, sharia classically recognizes only natural persons, and never developed the concept of a legal person, or corporation, i.e., a legal entity that limits the liabilities of its managers, shareholders, and employees; exists beyond the lifetimes of its founders; and that can own assets, sign contracts, and appear in court through representatives. Interest prohibitions imposed secondary costs by discouraging record keeping and delaying the introduction of modern accounting. Such factors, according to Timur Kuran, have played a significant role in retarding economic development in the Middle East.
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port entry visa for bangladeshi official passport holder | Visa requirements for Bangladeshi citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Bangladeshi citizens are administrative entry restrictions imposed on citizens of Bangladesh by the authorities of other states.
As of 22 May 2018, Bangladeshi citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 41 countries and territories, ranking the Bangladeshi passport 94th in terms of travel freedom (tied with passports from Lebanon, Libya and South Sudan) according to the Henley Passport Index.
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.
Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macao and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States and Fiji) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors that need to apply for a visa.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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where is the tv series liar liar filmed | Liar (TV series) - wikipedia
Liar is a thriller programme created by brothers Harry and Jack Williams, and co-produced by SundanceTV and ITV. The series stars Joanne Froggatt and Ioan Gruffudd and debuted on ITV on 11 September 2017. After the first series concluded on 16 October 2017, it was announced that the programme would be returning for a second series in 2019.
The series follows Laura Nielson and Andrew Earlham, whose initial attraction leads to a date that has far - reaching consequences for the couple and their friends and families, as secrets and lies are revealed.
Liar was announced on 15 April 2016 as the first full production from Two Brothers Pictures. On 30 September 2016, the miniseries was commissioned by American cable network SundanceTV and British commercial broadcaster ITV. Commercial broadcasters TF1 and Seven have also ordered the series. Filming for the series began in London and Kent in November 2016. The marshes were filmed in Tollesbury, Essex. The seashore was filmed at Deal, Kingsdown, and Walmer. Some inner town sequences in Brockley, Nunhead, Shortlands (Episode 3), South Ealing, and Edinburgh (Episode 4)
After the first series concluded on 16 October 2017, it was announced that the programme would be returning for a second series. The second series, set to film and premiere in 2019, will focus on a whodunit storyline involving the cliffhanger of the first series ' finale. Froggatt and Gruffudd are both set to return.
The series premiered on ITV on 11 September 2017 at 9pm, in exactly the same slot that the Two Brothers Pictures series Rellik premiered on BBC One. The series was acquired in Australia by the Seven Network and in New Zealand by TVNZ.
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what is the full form of mcdonald's | McDonald 's - Wikipedia
Footnotes / references
McDonald 's is an American fast food company, founded in 1940 as a restaurant operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald, in San Bernardino, California, United States. They rechristened their business as a hamburger stand. The first time a McDonald 's franchise used the Golden Arches logo was in 1953 at a location in Phoenix, Arizona. In 1955, Ray Kroc, a businessman, joined the company as a franchise agent and proceeded to purchase the chain from the McDonald brothers. McDonald 's had its original headquarters in Oak Brook, Illinois, but moved its global headquarters to Chicago in early 2018.
McDonald 's is the world 's largest restaurant chain by revenue, serving over 69 million customers daily in over 100 countries across approximately 36,900 outlets as of 2016. Although McDonald 's is known for its hamburgers, they also sell cheeseburgers, chicken products, french fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes, wraps, and desserts. In response to changing consumer tastes and a negative backlash because of the unhealthiness of their food, the company has added to its menu salads, fish, smoothies, and fruit. The McDonald 's Corporation revenues come from the rent, royalties, and fees paid by the franchisees, as well as sales in company - operated restaurants. According to a BBC report published in 2012, McDonald 's is the world 's second - largest private employer (behind Walmart) with 1.9 million employees, 1.5 million of whom work for franchises.
The siblings Richard and Maurice McDonald opened in 1940 the first McDonald 's at 1398 North E Street at West 14th Street in San Bernardino, California (at 34 ° 07 ′ 32 '' N 117 ° 17 ′ 41 '' W / 34.1255 ° N 117.2946 ° W / 34.1255; - 117.2946) but it was not the McDonald 's recognizable today; Ray Kroc made changes to the brothers ' business to modernize it. The brothers introduced the "Speedee Service System '' in 1948, putting into expanded use the principles of the modern fast - food restaurant that their predecessor White Castle had put into practice more than two decades earlier. The original mascot of McDonald 's was a chef hat on top of a hamburger who was referred to as "Speedee ''. In 1962 the Golden Arches replaced Speedee as the universal mascot. The symbol, Ronald McDonald, was introduced in 1965. The clown, Ronald McDonald, appeared in advertising to target their audience of children.
On May 4, 1961, McDonald 's first filed for a U.S. trademark on the name "McDonald 's '' with the description "Drive - In Restaurant Services '', which continues to be renewed. By September 13, McDonald 's, under the guidance of Ray Kroc, filed for a trademark on a new logo -- an overlapping, double - arched "M '' symbol. But before the double arches, McDonald 's used the a single arch for the architecture of their buildings. Although the "Golden Arches '' logo appeared in various forms, the present version was not used until November 18, 1968, when the company was favored a U.S. trademark.
The present corporation credits its founding to franchised businessman Ray Kroc in on April 15, 1955. This was in fact the ninth opened McDonald 's restaurant overall, although this location was destroyed and rebuilt in 1984. Kroc later purchased the McDonald brothers ' equity in the company and begun the company 's worldwide reach. Kroc was recorded as being an aggressive business partner, driving the McDonald brothers out of the industry.
Kroc and the McDonald brothers fought for control of the business, as documented in Kroc 's autobiography. The San Bernardino restaurant was eventually torn down (1971, according to Juan Pollo) and the site was sold to the Juan Pollo chain in 1976. This area now serves as headquarters for the Juan Pollo chain, and a McDonald 's and Route 66 museum. With the expansion of McDonald 's into many international markets, the company has become a symbol of globalization and the spread of the American way of life. Its prominence has also made it a frequent topic of public debates about obesity, corporate ethics, and consumer responsibility.
McDonald 's restaurants are found in 120 countries and territories around the world and serve 68 million customers each day. McDonald 's operates 36,899 restaurants worldwide, employing more than 375,000 people as of the end of 2016. There are currently a total of 5,669 company - owned locations and 31,230 franchised locations, which includes 21,559 locations franchised to conventional franchisees, 6,300 locations licensed to developmental licensees, and 3,371 locations licensed to foreign affiliates, primarily Japan.
Focusing on its core brand, McDonald 's began divesting itself of other chains it had acquired during the 1990s. The company owned a majority stake in Chipotle Mexican Grill until October 2006, when McDonald 's fully divested from Chipotle through a stock exchange. Until December 2003, it also owned Donatos Pizza, and it owned a small share of Aroma Cafe from 1999 to 2001. On August 27, 2007, McDonald 's sold Boston Market to Sun Capital Partners.
Notably, McDonald 's has increased shareholder dividends for 25 consecutive years, making it one of the S&P 500 Dividend Aristocrats. In October 2012, its monthly sales fell for the first time in nine years. In 2014, its quarterly sales fell for the first time in seventeen years, when its sales dropped for the entirety of 1997.
In the United States, it is reported that drive - throughs account for 70 percent of sales. McDonald 's closed down 184 restaurants in the United States in 2015, which was 59 more than what they planned to open. This move was also the first time McDonald 's had a net decrease in the number of locations in the United States since 1970.
The company currently owns all the land, which is valued at an estimated $16 to $18 billion, on which its restaurants are situated. The company earns a significant portion of its revenue from rental payments from franchisees. These rent payments rose 26 percent between 2010 and 2015, accounting for one - fifth of the company 's total revenue at the end of the period. In recent times, there have been calls to spin off the company 's US holdings into a potential real estate investment trust, but the company announced at its investor conference on November 10, 2015, that this would not happen. The CEO, Steve Easterbrook discussed that pursuing the REIT option would pose too large a risk to the company 's business model.
The United Kingdom and Ireland business model is different from the U.S, in that fewer than 30 percent of restaurants are franchised, with the majority under the ownership of the company. McDonald 's trains its franchisees and management at Hamburger University in Oak Brook, Illinois. In other countries, McDonald 's restaurants are operated by joint ventures of McDonald 's Corporation and other, local entities or governments.
According to Fast Food Nation by Eric Schlosser (2001), nearly one in eight workers in the U.S. have at some time been employed by McDonald 's. Employees are encouraged by McDonald 's Corp. to maintain their health by singing along to their favorite songs in order to relieve stress, attending church services in order to have a lower blood pressure, and taking two vacations annually in order to reduce risk for myocardial infarction. Fast Food Nation also states that McDonald 's is the largest private operator of playgrounds in the U.S., as well as the single largest purchaser of beef, pork, potatoes, and apples. The selection of meats McDonald 's uses varies to some extent based on the culture of the host country.
The McDonald 's headquarters complex, McDonald 's Plaza, is located in Oak Brook, Illinois. It sits on the site of the former headquarters and stabling area of Paul Butler, the founder of Oak Brook. McDonald 's moved into the Oak Brook facility from an office within the Chicago Loop in 1971.
On June 13, 2016, McDonald 's confirmed plans to move its global headquarters to Chicago 's West Loop neighborhood in the Near West Side. The 608,000 - square - foot structure was built on the former site of Harpo Productions (where the Oprah Winfrey Show and several other Harpo productions taped) and opened on June 4, 2018.
As of November 2014, the board of directors had the following members:
On March 1, 2015, after being chief brand officer of McDonald 's and its former head in the UK and northern Europe, Steve Easterbrook became CEO, succeeding Don Thompson, who stepped down on January 28, 2015.
McDonald 's has become emblematic of globalization, sometimes referred to as the "McDonaldization '' of society. The Economist newspaper uses the "Big Mac Index '': the comparison of a Big Mac 's cost in various world currencies can be used to informally judge these currencies ' purchasing power parity. Switzerland has the most expensive Big Mac in the world as of July 2015, while the country with the least expensive Big Mac is India (albeit for a Maharaja Mac -- the next cheapest Big Mac is Hong Kong).
Thomas Friedman once said that no country with a McDonald 's had gone to war with another. However, the "Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention '' is not strictly true. Exceptions are the 1989 United States invasion of Panama, NATO 's bombing of Serbia in 1999, the 2006 Lebanon War, and the 2008 South Ossetia war. McDonald 's suspended operations in its corporate - owned stores in Crimea after Russia annexed the region in 2014. On August 20, 2014, as tensions between the United States and Russia strained over events in Ukraine, and the resultant U.S. sanctions, the Russian government temporarily shut down four McDonald 's outlets in Moscow, citing sanitary concerns. The company has operated in Russia since 1990 and at August 2014 had 438 stores across the country. On August 23, 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Arkady Dvorkovich ruled out any government move to ban McDonald 's and dismissed the notion that the temporary closures had anything to do with the sanctions.
Some observers have suggested that the company should be given credit for increasing the standard of service in markets that it enters. A group of anthropologists in a study entitled Golden Arches East looked at the impact McDonald 's had on East Asia and Hong Kong, in particular. When it opened in Hong Kong in 1975, McDonald 's was the first restaurant to consistently offer clean restrooms, driving customers to demand the same of other restaurants and institutions. McDonald 's has taken to partnering up with Sinopec, the second largest oil company in the People 's Republic of China, as it takes advantage of the country 's growing use of personal vehicles by opening numerous drive - thru restaurants. McDonald 's has opened a McDonald 's restaurant and McCafé on the underground premises of the French fine arts museum, The Louvre.
The company stated it would open vegetarian - only restaurants in India by mid-2013. Foreign restaurants are banned in Bermuda, with the exception of KFC, which was present before the current law was passed. Therefore, there are no McDonald 's in Bermuda.
On January 9, 2017, 80 % of the franchise rights in the mainland China and in Hong Kong were sold for US $2.080 billion to a consortium of CITIC Limited (for 32 %) and private equity funds managed by CITIC Capital (for 20 %) and Carlyle (for 20 %), which CITIC Limited and CITIC Capital would also formed a joint venture to own the stake.
McDonald 's predominantly sells hamburgers, various types of chicken, chicken sandwiches, French fries, soft drinks, breakfast items, and desserts. In most markets, McDonald 's offers salads and vegetarian items, wraps and other localized fare. On a seasonal basis, McDonald 's offers the McRib sandwich. Some speculate the seasonality of the McRib adds to its appeal.
Products are offered as either "eat - in '' (where the customer opts to eat in the restaurant) or "take - out '' (where the customer opts to take the food for consumption off the premises). "Eat - in '' meals are provided on a plastic tray with a paper insert on the floor of the tray. "Take - out '' meals are usually delivered with the contents enclosed in a distinctive McDonald 's - branded brown paper bag. In both cases, the individual items are wrapped or boxed as appropriate.
Since Steve Easterbrook became CEO of the company, McDonald 's has streamlined the menu which in the United States contained nearly 200 items. The company has also looked to introduce healthier options, and removed high - fructose corn syrup from hamburger buns. The company has also removed artificial preservatives from Chicken McNuggets, replacing chicken skin, safflower oil and citric acid found in Chicken McNuggets with pea starch, rice starch and powdered lemon juice.
Restaurants in several countries, particularly in Asia, serve soup. This local deviation from the standard menu is a characteristic for which the chain is particularly known, and one which is employed either to abide by regional food taboos (such as the religious prohibition of beef consumption in India) or to make available foods with which the regional market is more familiar (such as the sale of McRice in Indonesia, or Ebi (prawn) Burger in Singapore and Japan).
In Germany and some other Western European countries, McDonald 's sells beer. In New Zealand, McDonald 's sells meat pies, after the local affiliate partially relaunched the Georgie Pie fast food chain it bought out in 1996.
In the United States and Canada, after limited trials on a regional basis, McDonald 's began offering in 2015 and 2017, respectively, a partial breakfast menu during all hours its restaurants are open.
Most standalone McDonald 's restaurants offer both counter service and drive - through service, with indoor and sometimes outdoor seating. Drive - Thru, Auto - Mac, Pay and Drive, or "McDrive '' as it is known in many countries, often has separate stations for placing, paying for, and picking up orders, though the latter two steps are frequently combined; it was first introduced in Arizona in 1975, following the lead of other fast - food chains. The first such restaurant in Britain opened at Fallowfield, Manchester in 1986.
In some countries, "McDrive '' locations near highways offer no counter service or seating. In contrast, locations in high - density city neighborhoods often omit drive - through service. There are also a few locations, located mostly in downtown districts, that offer a "Walk - Thru '' service in place of Drive - Thru.
McCafé is a café - style accompaniment to McDonald 's restaurants and is a concept created by McDonald 's Australia (also known, and marketed, as "Macca 's '' in Australia), starting with Melbourne in 1993. As of 2016, most McDonald 's in Australia have McCafés located within the existing McDonald 's restaurant. In Tasmania, there are McCafés in every restaurant, with the rest of the states quickly following suit. After upgrading to the new McCafé look and feel, some Australian restaurants have noticed up to a 60 percent increase in sales. At the end of 2003, there were over 600 McCafés worldwide.
From 2015 -- 2016, McDonald 's tried a new gourmet burger service / restaurant concept based on other gourmet restaurants such as Shake Shack and Grill 'd. It was rolled out for the first time in Australia during the early months of 2015 and expanded to China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Arabia and New Zealand, with ongoing trials in the US market. In dedicated "Create Your Taste '' (CYT) kiosks, customers could choose all ingredients including type of bun and meat along with optional extras. In late 2015 the Australian CYT service introduced CYT salads.
After a person had ordered, McDonald 's advised that wait times were between 10 -- 15 minutes. When the food was ready, trained crew (' hosts ') brought the food to the customer 's table. Instead of McDonald 's usual cardboard and plastic packaging, CYT food was presented on wooden boards, fries in wire baskets and salads in china bowls with metal cutlery. A higher price applied.
In November 2016, Create Your Taste was replaced by a "Signature Crafted Recipes '' program designed to be more efficient and less expensive.
Some locations are connected to gas stations / convenience stores, while others called McExpress have limited seating and / or menu or may be located in a shopping mall. Other McDonald 's are located in Walmart stores. McStop is a location targeted at truckers and travelers which may have services found at truck stops.
In Sweden, customers who order a happy meal can use the meal 's container for a pair of happy goggles. The company created a game for the goggles known as "Slope Stars. '' McDonald 's predicts happy goggles will continue in other countries. In the Netherlands, McDonald 's has introduced McTrax that doubles as a recording studio; it reacts to touch. They can create their own beats with a synth and tweak sounds with special effects.
The first kosher McDonald 's was established in 1997 at the Abasto de Buenos Aires mall in Buenos Aires, Argentina. There are also many kosher branches in Israel.
McDonald 's playgrounds are called McDonald 's PlayPlace. Some McDonald 's in suburban areas and certain cities feature large indoor or outdoor playgrounds. The first PlayPlace with the familiar crawl - tube design with ball pits and slides was introduced in 1987 in the US, with many more being constructed soon after.
McDonald 's Next use open - concept design and offer "Create Your Taste '' digital ordering. The concept store also offering free mobile device charging and table service after 6: 00 pm. The first store opened in Hong Kong in December 2015.
In 2006, McDonald 's introduced its "Forever Young '' brand by redesigning all of its restaurants, the first major redesign since the 1970s.
The goal of the redesign is to be more like a coffee shop, similar to Starbucks. The design includes wooden tables, faux - leather chairs, and muted colors; the red was muted to terracotta, the yellow was shifted to golden for a more "sunny '' look, and olive and sage green were also added.
To create a warmer look, the restaurants have less plastic and more brick and wood, with modern hanging lights to produce a softer glow. Many restaurants now feature free Wi - Fi and flat - screen TVs. Other upgrades include double drive - thrus, flat roofs instead of the angled red roofs, and replacing fiber glass with wood. Also, instead of the familiar golden arches, the restaurants now feature "semi-swooshes '' (half of a golden arch), similar to the Nike swoosh.
McDonald 's began banning smoking in 1994 when it restricted customers from smoking within its 1,400 wholly owned restaurants.
Since the late 1990s, McDonald 's has attempted to replace employees with electronic kiosks which would perform actions such taking orders and accepting money. In 1999, McDonald 's first tested "E-Clerks '' in suburban Chicago, Illinois, and Wyoming, Michigan, with the devices being able to "save money on live staffers '' and attracting larger purchase amounts than average employees.
In 2013, the University of Oxford estimated that in the succeeding decades, there was a 92 % probability of food preparation and serving to become automated in fast food establishments. By 2016, McDonald 's "Create Your Taste '' electronic kiosks were seen in some restaurants internationally where customers could custom order meals. As employees pushed for higher wages in the late - 2010s, some believed that fast food companies such as McDonald 's would use the devices to cut costs for employing individuals.
On August 5, 2013, The Guardian revealed that 90 percent of McDonald 's UK workforce are on zero hour contracts, making it possibly the largest such private sector employer in the country. A study released by Fast Food Forward conducted by Anzalone Liszt Grove Research showed that approximately 84 percent of all fast food employees working in New York City in April 2013 had been paid less than their legal wages by their employers.
From 2007 to 2011, fast food workers in the US drew an average of $7 billion of public assistance annually resulting from receiving low wages. The McResource website advised employees to break their food into smaller pieces to feel fuller, seek refunds for unopened holiday purchases, sell possessions online for quick cash, and to "quit complaining '' as "stress hormone levels rise by 15 percent after ten minutes of complaining. '' In December 2013, McDonald 's shut down the McResource website amidst negative publicity and criticism. McDonald 's plans to continue an internal telephone help line through which its employees can obtain advice on work and life problems.
Liberal thinktank the Roosevelt Institute accuses some McDonald 's restaurants of actually paying less than the minimum wage to entry positions due to ' rampant ' wage theft. In South Korea, McDonald 's pays part - time employees $5.50 an hour and is accused of paying less with arbitrary schedules adjustments and pay delays. In late 2015, Anonymous aggregated data collected by Glassdoor suggests that McDonald 's in the United States pays entry - level employees between $7.25 an hour and $11 an hour, with an average of $8.69 an hour. Shift managers get paid an average of $10.34 an hour. Assistant managers get paid an average of $11.57 an hour. McDonald 's CEO, Steve Easterbrook, currently earns an annual salary of $1,100,000. His total compensation for 2017 was $21,761,052.
McDonald 's workers have on occasions decided to strike over pay, with most of the employees on strike seeking to be paid $15.00. When interviewed about the strikes occurring, former McDonald 's CEO Ed Rensi stated: "It 's cheaper to buy a $35,000 robotic arm than it is to hire an employee who 's inefficient making $15 an hour bagging french fries '' with Rensi explaining that increasing employee wages could possibly take away from entry - level jobs. However, according to Easterbrook, increasing wages and benefits for workers saw a 6 % increase in customer satisfaction when comparing 2015 's first quarter data to the first quarter of 2016, with greater returns seen as a result.
In September 2017, two British McDonald 's stores agreed to a strike over zero hours contracts for staff. Picket lines were formed around the two stores in Crayford and Cambridge. The strike was supported by the Leader of the Opposition, Jeremy Corbyn.
In March 2015, McDonald 's workers in 19 US cities filed 28 health and safety complaints with the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration which allege that low staffing, lack of protective gear, poor training and pressure to work fast has resulted in injuries. The complaints also allege that, because of a lack of first aid supplies, workers were told by management to treat burn injuries with condiments such as mayonnaise and mustard. The Fight for $15 labor organization aided the workers in filing the complaints.
In 2015, McDonald 's pledged to stop using eggs from battery cage facilities by 2025. Since McDonald 's purchases over 2 billion eggs per year or 4 percent of eggs produced in the United States, the switch is expected to have a major impact on the egg industry and is part of a general trend toward cage - free eggs driven by consumer concern over the harsh living conditions of hens. The aviary systems from which the new eggs will be sourced are troubled by much higher mortality rates, as well as introducing environmental and worker safety problems. The high hen mortality rate, which is more than double that of battery cage systems, will require new research to mitigate. The facilities also have higher ammonia levels due to faeces being kicked up into the air. Producers raised concerns about the production cost, which is expected to increase by 36 percent.
McDonald 's continues to source pork from facilities that use gestation crates, and in 2012 pledged to phase them out.
McDonald 's has for decades maintained an extensive advertising campaign. In addition to the usual media (television, radio, and newspaper), the company makes significant use of billboards and signage, sponsors sporting events ranging from Little League to the FIFA World Cup and Olympic Games. Television has played a central role in the company 's advertising strategy. To date, McDonald 's has used 23 different slogans in United States advertising, as well as a few other slogans for select countries and regions.
McDonald 's and NASA explored an advertising agreement for a planned mission to the asteroid 449 Hamburga; however, the spacecraft was eventually cancelled.
McDonald 's is the title sponsor of the McDonald 's All - American Game, all - star basketball games played each year for American and Canadian boys ' and girls ' high school basketball graduates.
McHappy Day is an annual event at McDonald 's, where a percentage of the day 's sales go to charity. It is the signature fundraising event for Ronald McDonald House Charities.
In 2007, it was celebrated in 17 countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, the United States, Finland, France, Guatemala, Hungary, England, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Uruguay.
According to the Australian McHappy Day website, McHappy Day raised $20.4 million in 2009. The goal for 2010 was $20.8 million.
In 1995, St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital received an anonymous letter postmarked in Dallas, Texas, containing a $1 million winning McDonald 's Monopoly game piece. McDonald 's officials came to the hospital, accompanied by a representative from the accounting firm Arthur Andersen, who examined the card under a jeweler 's eyepiece, handled it with plastic gloves, and verified it as a winner. Although game rules prohibited the transfer of prizes, McDonald 's waived the rule and made the annual $50,000 annuity payments for the full 20 - year period through 2014, even after learning that the piece was sent by an individual involved in an embezzlement scheme intended to defraud McDonald 's.
McRefugees are poor people in Hong Kong, Japan, and China who use McDonald 's 24 - hour restaurants as a temporary hostel. One in five of Hong Kong 's population lives below the poverty line. The rise of McRefugees was first documented by photographer Suraj Katra in 2013.
In 1990, activists from a small group known as London Greenpeace (no connection to the international group Greenpeace) distributed leaflets entitled What 's wrong with McDonald 's?, criticizing its environmental, health, and labor record. The corporation wrote to the group demanding they desist and apologize, and, when two of the activists refused to back down, sued them for libel in one of the longest cases in British civil law. A documentary film of the McLibel Trial has been shown in several countries.
In the late 1980s, Phil Sokolof, a millionaire businessman who had suffered a heart attack at the age of 43, took out full - page newspaper ads in New York, Chicago, and other large cities accusing McDonald 's menu of being a threat to American health, and asking them to stop using beef tallow to cook their french fries.
Despite the objections of McDonald 's, the term "McJob '' was added to Merriam - Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary in 2003. The term was defined as "a low - paying job that requires little skill and provides little opportunity for advancement ''.
In 2001, Eric Schlosser 's book Fast Food Nation included criticism of the business practices of McDonald 's. Among the critiques were allegations that McDonald 's (along with other companies within the fast food industry) uses its political influence to increase its profits at the expense of people 's health and the social conditions of its workers. The book also brought into question McDonald 's advertisement techniques in which it targets children. While the book did mention other fast - food chains, it focused primarily on McDonald 's.
In 2002, vegetarian groups, largely Hindu and Buddhist, successfully sued McDonald 's for misrepresenting its French fries as vegetarian, when they contained beef broth.
Morgan Spurlock 's 2004 documentary film Super Size Me claimed that McDonald 's food was contributing to the increase of obesity in society and that the company was failing to provide nutritional information about its food for its customers. Six weeks after the film premiered, McDonald 's announced that it was eliminating the super size option, and was creating the adult Happy Meal.
In 2006, an unsanctioned McDonald 's Video Game by Italian group Molleindustria was released online. It is parody of the business practices of the corporate giant, taking the guise of a tycoon style business simulation game. In the game, the player plays the role of a McDonald 's CEO, choosing whether or not to use controversial practices like genetically altered cow feed, plowing over rainforests, and corrupting public officials. McDonald 's issued a statement distancing itself from the game.
In January 2014, it was reported that McDonald 's was accused of having used a series of tax maneuvers to avoid taxes in France. The company confirmed that tax authorities had visited McDonald 's French headquarters in Paris but insisted that it had not done anything wrong, saying, "McDonald 's firmly denies the accusation made by L'Express according to which McDonald 's supposedly hid part of its revenue from taxes in France. ''
In response to public pressure, McDonald 's has sought to include more healthy choices in its menu and has introduced a new slogan to its recruitment posters: "Not bad for a McJob ''. The word McJob, first attested in the mid-1980s and later popularized by Canadian novelist Douglas Coupland in his book Generation X, has become a buzz word for low - paid, unskilled work with few prospects or benefits and little security. McDonald 's disputes this definition of McJob. In 2007, the company launched an advertising campaign with the slogan "Would you like a career with that? '' on Irish television, asserting that its jobs have good prospects.
In an effort to respond to growing consumer awareness of food provenance, the fast - food chain changed its supplier of both coffee beans and milk. UK chief executive Steve Easterbrook said: "British consumers are increasingly interested in the quality, sourcing, and ethics of the food and drink they buy ''. In a bid to tap into the ethical consumer market, McDonald 's switched to using coffee beans taken from stocks that are certified by the Rainforest Alliance, a conservation group. Additionally, in response to pressure, McDonald 's UK started using organic milk supplies for its bottled milk and hot drinks, although it still uses conventional milk in its milkshakes, and in all of its dairy products in the United States. According to a report published by Farmers Weekly in 2007, the quantity of milk used by McDonald 's could have accounted for as much as 5 percent of the UK 's organic milk output.
McDonald 's announced on May 22, 2008, that, in the United States and Canada, it would switch to using cooking oil that contains no trans fats for its french fries, and canola - based oil with corn and soy oils, for its baked items, pies and cookies, by year 's end.
With regard to acquiring chickens from suppliers who use CAK / CAS methods of slaughter, McDonald 's says that it needs to see more research "to help determine whether any CAS system in current use is optimal from an animal welfare perspective. ''
In April 2008, McDonald 's announced that 11 of its Sheffield, England restaurants have been engaged in a biomass trial that had cut its waste and carbon footprint by half in the area. In this trial, wastes from the restaurants were collected by Veolia Environmental Services and were used to produce energy at a power plant. McDonald 's plans to expand this project, although the lack of biomass power plants in the United States will prevent this plan from becoming a national standard anytime soon. In addition, in Europe, McDonald 's has been recycling vegetable grease by converting it to fuel for its diesel trucks.
McDonald 's has been using a corn - based bioplastic to produce containers for some of its products. The environmental benefits of this technology are controversial, with critics noting that biodegradation is slow, produces greenhouse gases and that contamination of traditional plastic waste streams with bioplastics can complicate recycling efforts.
In 1990, McDonald 's worked with the Environmental Defense Fund to stop using "clam shell '' shaped styrofoam food containers to house its food products. 20 years later, McDonald 's announced they would try replacing styrofoam coffee cups with an alternative material.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has recognized McDonald 's continuous effort to reduce solid waste by designing more efficient packaging and by promoting the use of recycled - content materials. McDonald 's reports that it is committed towards environmental leadership by effectively managing electric energy, by conserving natural resources through recycling and reusing materials, and by addressing water management issues within the restaurant.
In an effort to reduce energy usage by 25 percent in its restaurants, McDonald 's opened a prototype restaurant in Chicago in 2009 with the intention of using the model in its other restaurants throughout the world. Building on past efforts, specifically a restaurant it opened in Sweden in 2000 that was the first to intentionally incorporate green ideas, McDonald 's designed the Chicago site to save energy by incorporating old and new ideas such as managing storm water, using skylights for more natural lighting and installing some partitions and tabletops made from recycled goods.
When McDonald 's received criticism for its environmental policies in the 1970s, it began to make substantial progress in reducing its use of materials. For instance, an "average meal '' in the 1970s -- a Big Mac, fries, and a drink -- required 46 grams of packaging; today, it requires only 25 grams, allowing a 46 percent reduction. In addition, McDonald 's eliminated the need for intermediate containers for cola by having a delivery system that pumps syrup directly from the delivery truck into storage containers, saving two million pounds (910 tonnes) of packaging annually. Overall, weight reductions in packaging and products, as well as the increased usage of bulk packaging ultimately decreased packaging by twenty - four million pounds (11,000 tonnes) annually.
McDonald 's has been involved in a number of lawsuits and other legal cases, most of which involved trademark disputes. The company has threatened many food businesses with legal action unless it drops the Mc or Mac from trading names.
On September 8, 2009, McDonald 's Malaysian operations lost a lawsuit to prevent another restaurant calling itself McCurry. McDonald 's lost in an appeal to Malaysia 's highest court, the Federal Court.
In April 2007, in Perth, Western Australia, McDonald 's pleaded guilty to five charges relating to the employment of children under 15 in one of its outlets and was fined A $8,000.
In 2016, the Australian Taxation Office revealed that McDonald 's Asia - Pacific Consortium had generated $478 million in revenue in 2013 -- 14, but had paid no tax on those earnings whatsoever.
The longest running legal action of all time in the UK was the McLibel case against 2 defendants who criticized a number of aspects of the company. The trial lasted 10 years and called 130 witnesses. The European Court of Human Rights deemed that the unequal resources of the litigants breached the defendants rights to freedom of speech and biased the trial. The result was widely seen as a "PR disaster. ''
A famous legal case in the US involving McDonald 's was the 1994 decision in Liebeck v. McDonald 's Restaurants where Albuquerque, New Mexico, resident Stella Liebeck was initially awarded $2.7 million after she suffered third - degree burns after spilling a scalding cup of McDonald 's coffee on herself. The award was later reduced to $640,000.
In April 2014, it was reported that McDonald 's in Europe will use chicken meat that was produced by using genetically modified animal feed. Greenpeace argues that McDonald 's saves less than one Eurocent for each chicken burger and goes down a path not desired by its customers.
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when is the next season of marvel's agents of shield | Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (Season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), revolves around the character of Phil Coulson and other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and allies as they try to save humanity while in deep space. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. The season is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in May 2017. Alongside Clark Gregg, who reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, principal cast members Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons, while Natalia Cordova - Buckley is promoted to the principal cast after appearing in a recurring role since season three.
The fifth season is set to begin airing on December 1, 2017, after Marvel 's Inhumans has finished airing its episodes, and run for 22 episodes.
Clark Gregg directed the sixth episode in the season.
In January 2017, ahead of the mid-season premiere of the fourth season, ABC 's Channing Dungey said that she was "very bullish '' about S.H.I.E.L.D. 's future, feeling that "the episodes just keep getting better and stronger ''. The series was renewed for a fifth season of 22 episodes on May 11, with ABC looking to lower the cost of the series moving forward, by reducing its budget and licensing fee. Asked whether she had considered giving the season a shorter episode order, Dungey noted that every season of the series had been 22 episodes long, and she felt its prior success in delayed viewership and overseas justified continuing that. She added that the "show has continued to grow creatively every season. I feel like last season (was) its strongest creatively yet. I 'm very excited for what we have planned for Season 5. '' It was reported that Disney, the parent company of Marvel Television, ABC Studios, and ABC, had given a mandate to ABC to renew Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "despite the desire by some at the network to end the series ''.
In May 2017, ahead of the fifth season renewal, showrunner and executive producer Jed Whedon said the writers were not sure what would happen in the season, and that it would be "by the seat of our pants. '' The season will also explore the ramifications of Phil Coulson making a deal with Ghost Rider. Additionally, the season will continue to explore the groundwork laid by Aida for humans to fear S.H.I.E.L.D. and Inhumans, with Whedon stating, "The public perception of S.H.I.E.L.D. is at an all - time low, so we have not resolved that, and there will be still more fallout from it. ''
Regarding if they would break the season up into pods again as with season four, executive producer Jeffrey Bell said, "A 22 - episode arc is a lot for people to hold onto. By breaking it up into either smaller arcs or different pods, by introducing a set of antagonists and putting them down, or moving from space to space, our experience has been that it 's something the viewers enjoy, and it makes it a little easier to digest when you 're telling some of these stories. '' Whedon also noted it would depend on how the season would be "broken up in terms of airing. If everything is running back - to - back, it feels weird to start calling it different things... We will try to have it in bite - sized chunks. '' The writers for the season began work at the end of May 2017.
Main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Leo Fitz, Jemma Simmons, and Alphonso "Mack '' MacKenzie, respectively. Before the 2017 New York Comic - Con, it was revealed that Natalia Cordova - Buckley had been promoted to series regular for the season, after recurring in the past two seasons as Elena "Yo - Yo '' Rodriguez.
In September 2017, it was revealed that former series regular Nick Blood would be returning to reprise his role as Lance Hunter. Blood left the series during the third season, to star on the spin - off series Marvel 's Most Wanted, which never came to fruition. Adrianne Palicki, who portrayed Bobbi Morse and also left in the third season to star on Most Wanted with Blood, expressed interest in October 2017 in returning to guest star in the season, saying she "would absolutely come back '' if asked. Also returning from earlier in the series include Joel Stoffer as Enoch, who was simply credited as "silhouetted man '' in his previous appearance.
Jeff Ward was cast in a recurring role in August 2017. and in October, was revealed to be portraying Deke, alongside other newcomers Eve Harlow as Tess, Coy Stewart as Flint, and Pruitt Taylor Vince as Grill.
After leaving the series during the fourth season, costume designer Ann Foley returned for the first two episodes of the fifth season, before handing over to Whitney Galitz, who had assisted her on the previous few seasons, and Christann Chanell.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2017. In May 2017, Gregg expressed interest in directing an episode in the season, and confirmed that September he would be directing an episode, which will be the sixth of the season. Bennet felt Gregg was able to bring out performances from the cast "that another director probably would n't have been able to because he knows the characters so well. ''
In terms of having connections to Marvel 's Inhumans, Whedon felt it was doubtful, but noted "we also want there to be a bigger reward for people who watch all of (the MCU series), so they 'll start to see that there 's lines connecting it. It 's more fun for people who are playing the whole game, but if you do n't, you 'll still have a great rollercoaster ride. ''
The season is set to begin airing in the United States on ABC on December 1, 2017, beginning once Inhumans has finished airing its episodes. It is set to run for 22 episodes. The fifth season is moving to a Friday timeslot, alongside the seventh season of ABC 's Once Upon a Time, with ABC chief Channing Dungey explaining, "We 've turned Friday into more of a destination for our fantasy and science fiction fans. Once Upon a Time and S.H.I.E.L.D. are airing on the same night for the first time, which is giving many fans of both shows what they 've been asking for for a long time. '' Andy Kubitz, executive vice president for program planning and scheduling at ABC, added that ABC had "confidence that (the S.H.I.E.L.D.) core audience... (would) travel with it '' to its new Friday time slot. He continued, "The great thing about Friday night for these shows is it gives three days of downtime for a lot of these younger viewers to be able to catch up on it. You 've got Saturday and Sunday viewing that will be able to be counted into our C3 to help us monetize it. ''
The main cast of the season appeared at New York Comic Con on October 7, 2017, where they promoted the season and debuted the first 20 minutes of the first episode of the season.
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when was the last time the us hosted a world cup | FIFA World Cup hosts - wikipedia
Seventeen countries have been FIFA World Cup hosts in the competition 's twenty tournaments since the inaugural World Cup in 1930. The organization at first awarded hosting to countries at meetings of FIFA 's congress. The choice of location was controversial in the earliest tournaments, given the three - week boat journey between South America and Europe, the two centers of strength in football at the time.
The decision to hold the first cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these, the 1938 FIFA World Cup, in France was controversial, as the South American countries had been led to understand that the World Cup would rotate between the two continents.
Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the tournament. The first tournament following World War II, held in Brazil in 1950, had three teams withdraw for either financial problems or disagreements with the organization.
To avoid any future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternation between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Asia. The system evolved so that the host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA 's Congress. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The decision is currently made roughly seven years in advance of the tournament, though the hosts for the 2022 tournament were chosen at the same time as those for the 2018 tournament.
Only Mexico, Italy, France, Germany (West Germany until shortly after the 1990 World Cup) and Brazil have hosted the event on two occasions. Mexico City 's Estadio Azteca and Rio de Janeiro 's Maracanã are the only venues ever to have hosted two FIFA World Cup finals. Only the 2002 FIFA World Cup had more than one host, being split between Japan and South Korea.
Upon the selection of Canada -- Mexico -- United States bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, the tournament will be the first to be hosted by more than two countries. Mexico becomes the first country to host three men 's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca, should it be selected, will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments.
Except 1934, host nations are granted an automatic spot in the World Cup group stages. The first host ever to fail to advance past the first round was South Africa in 2010. denotes the best result in the team 's history, - the best result at the time of the competition (improved later).
Bids:
Before the FIFA Congress could vote on the first - ever World Cup host, a series of withdrawals led to the election of Uruguay. The Netherlands and Hungary withdrew, followed by Sweden withdrawing in favour of Italy. Then both Italy and Spain withdrew, in favour of the only remaining candidate, Uruguay. The FIFA Congress met in Barcelona, Spain on 18 May 1929 to ratify the decision, and Uruguay was chosen without a vote.
Results:
Notice that the celebration of the first World Cup coincided with the centennial anniversary of the first Constitution of Uruguay. For that reason, the main stadium built in Montevideo for the World Cup was named Estadio Centenario.
Bids:
Sweden decided to withdraw before the vote, allowing the only remaining candidate Italy to take the hosting job for the 1934 World Cup. The decision was ratified by the FIFA Congress in Stockholm, Sweden and Zürich, Switzerland on 14 May 1932. The Italian Football Federation accepted the hosting duties on 9 October 1932.
Results:
Bids:
Without any nations withdrawing their bids, the FIFA Congress convened in Berlin, Germany on 13 August 1936 to decide the next host. Electing France took only one ballot, as France had more than half of the votes in the first round.
Results:
Bids for 1942:
Cancelled FIFA election of the host for the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939.
Bids for 1946:
Bid:
Brazil, Argentina, and Germany had officially bid for the 1942 World Cup, but the Cup was cancelled after the outbreak of World War II. The 1950 World Cup was originally scheduled for 1949, but the day after Brazil was selected by the FIFA Congress on 26 July 1946 in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, the World Cup was rescheduled for 1950.
Result:
Bid:
The 1954 World Cup hosting duty was decided on 26 July 1946, the same day that Brazil was selected for the 1949 World Cup, in Luxembourg City. On 27 July, the FIFA Congress pushed back the 5th World Cup finals by three years, deciding it should take place in 1954.
Result:
Bid:
Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Sweden expressed interest in hosting the tournament. Swedish delegates lobbied other countries at the FIFA Congress held in Rio de Janeiro around the opening of the 1950 World Cup finals. Sweden was awarded the 1958 tournament unopposed in on 23 June 1950.
Result:
Bids:
West Germany withdrew before the vote, which took place in Lisbon, Portugal on 10 June 1956, leaving two remaining bids. In one round of voting, Chile won over Argentina.
Results:
Bids:
Spain withdrew from the bidding prior to voting by the FIFA Congress, held in Rome, Italy on 22 August 1960. Again, there was only one round of voting, with England defeating West Germany.
Results:
Bids:
The FIFA Congress convened in Tokyo, Japan on 8 October 1964. One round of voting saw Mexico win the hosting duties over Argentina.
Results:
Three hosts for the 1974, 1978, and 1982 World Cups were chosen in London, England on 6 July 1966 by the FIFA Congress. Spain and West Germany, both facing each other in the running for hosting duties for the 1974 and 1982 World Cups, agreed to give one another a hosting job. Germany withdrew from the 1982 bidding process while Spain withdrew from the 1974 bidding process, essentially guaranteeing each a hosting spot. Mexico, who had won the 1970 hosting bid over Argentina just two years prior, agreed to withdraw and let Argentina take the 1978 hosting position.
Bid:
Host voting, handled by the then - FIFA Executive Committee (or Exco), met in Stockholm on 9 June 1974 and ratified the unopposed Colombian bid.
Result:
However, Colombia withdrew after being selected to host the World Cup for financial problems on 5 November 1982, less than four years before the event was to start. A call for bids was sent out again, and FIFA received intent from three nations:
In Zürich on 20 May 1983, Mexico won the bidding unanimously as voted by the Executive Committee, for the first time in FIFA World Cup bidding history (except those nations who bid unopposed).
Results:
Bids:
Except Italy and the Soviet Union, all nations withdrew before the vote, which was to be conducted by Exco in Zürich on 19 May 1984. Once again, only one round of voting was required, as Italy won more votes than the Soviet Union.
Results:
Bids:
Despite having three nations bidding, voting only took one round. The vote was held in Zürich (for the third straight time) on 4 July 1988. The United States gained a majority of votes of the Exco members.
Results:
Bids:
This vote was held in Zürich for the fourth straight time on 1 July 1992. Only one round of voting was required to have France assume the hosting job over Morocco.
Result:
Bids:
On 31 May 1996, the hosting selection meeting was held in Zürich for the fifth straight time. A joint bid was formed between Japan and South Korea, and the bid was "voted by acclamation '', an oral vote without ballots. The first joint bid of the World Cup was approved, edging out Mexico.
Results:
The 2002 FIFA World Cup was co-hosted in Asia for the first time by South Korea and Japan (the final was held in Japan). Initially, the two Asian countries were competitors in the bidding process. But just before the vote, they agreed with FIFA to co-host the event. However, the rivalry and distance between them led to organizational and logistical problems. FIFA has said that co-hosting is not likely to happen again, and in 2004 officially stated that its statutes did not allow co-hosting bids.
Bids:
On 6 July 2000, the host selection meeting was held for the sixth straight time in Zürich. Brazil withdrew its bid three days before the vote, and the field was narrowed to four. This was the first selection in which more than one vote round was required. Three votes were eventually needed. Germany was at least tied for first in each of the three votes, and ended up defeating South Africa by only one vote after an abstention (see below).
The controversy over the decision to award the 2006 FIFA World Cup to Germany led to a further change in practice. The final tally was 12 votes to 11 in favour of Germany over the contenders South Africa, who had been favorites to win. New Zealand FIFA member Charlie Dempsey, who was instructed to vote for South Africa by the Oceania Football Confederation, abstained from voting at the last minute. If he had voted for the South African bid, the tally would have been 12 -- 12, giving the decision to FIFA President Sepp Blatter, who, it was widely believed, would then have voted for South Africa.
Dempsey was among eight members of the Executive Committee to receive a fax by editors of the German satirical magazine Titanic on Wednesday, the night before the vote, promising a cuckoo clock and Black Forest ham in exchange for voting for Germany. He argued that the pressure from all sides including "an attempt to bribe '' him had become too much for him.
On 4 August 2000, consequently, FIFA decided to rotate the hosting of the final tournaments between its constituent confederations. This was until October 2007, during the selection of the host for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, when they announced that they will no longer continue with their continental rotation policy (see below).
Bids:
The first World Cup bidding process under continental rotation (the process of rotating hosting of the World Cup to each confederation in turn) was the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the first World Cup to be held in Africa. On 7 July 2001, during the FIFA Congress in Buenos Aires, a decision was ratified, which was that the rotation will begin in Africa. On 23 September 2002, FIFA 's Executive Committee confirmed that only African member associations, would be invited to submit bids to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
In January 2003, Nigeria entered the bidding process, but withdrew their bid in September. In March 2003, Sepp Blatter initially said Nigeria 's plan to co host the 2010 FIFA World Cup with four African countries would not work. Nigeria had originally hoped to bid jointly with West African neighbours Benin, Ghana, and Togo.
After it was confirmed by FIFA that joint bidding would not be allowed in the future, Libya and Tunisia withdrew both of their bids on 8 May 2004. On 15 May 2004 in Zürich (the seventh consecutive time that a host selection has been made there), South Africa, after a narrow loss in the 2006 bidding, defeated perennial candidate Morocco to host, 14 votes to 10. Egypt received no votes.
On 28 May 2015, media covering the 2015 FIFA corruption case reported that high - ranking officials from the South African bid committee had secured the right to host the World Cup by paying US $10 million in bribes to then - FIFA Vice President Jack Warner and to other FIFA Executive Committee members.
On 4 June 2015, FIFA executive Chuck Blazer, having co-operated with the FBI and the Swiss authorities, confirmed that he and the other members of FIFA 's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African 1998 and 2010 World Cups. Blazer stated, "I and others on the FIFA executive committee agreed to accept bribes in conjunction with the selection of South Africa as the host nation for the 2010 World Cup. ''
On 6 June 2015, The Daily Telegraph reported that Morocco had received the most votes, but South Africa was awarded the tournament instead.
Bids:
FIFA continued its continental rotation procedure by earmarking the 2014 World Cup for South America. FIFA initially indicated that it might back out of the rotation concept, but later decided to continue it through the 2014 host decision, after which it was dropped.
Colombia had expressed interest in hosting the 2014 World Cup, but withdrew undertaking the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Brazil also expressed interest in hosting the World Cup. CONMEBOL, the South American Football Federation, indicated their preference for Brazil as a host. Brazil was the only nation to submit a formal bid when the official bidding procedure for CONMEBOL member associations was opened in December 2006, as by that time, Colombia, Chile and Argentina had already withdrawn, and Venezuela was not allowed to bid.
Brazil made the first unopposed bid since the initial selection of the 1986 FIFA World Cup (when Colombia was selected as host, but later withdrew for financial problems). The FIFA Executive Committee confirmed it as the host country on 30 October 2007 by a unanimous decision.
Result:
2018 Bids:
2022 Bids:
FIFA announced on 29 October 2007 that it will no longer continue with its continental rotation policy, implemented after the 2006 World Cup host selection. The newest host selection policy is that any country may bid for a World Cup, provided that their continental confederation has not hosted either of the past two World Cups. For the 2018 World Cup bidding process, this meant that bids from Africa and South America were not allowed.
For the 2022 World Cup bidding process, this meant that bids from South America and Europe were not allowed. Also, FIFA formally allowed joint bids once more (after they were banned in 2002), because there was only one organizing committee per joint bid, unlike Korea -- Japan, which had two different organizing committees. Countries that announced their interest included Australia, England, Indonesia, Japan, Qatar, Russia, South Korea, United States, the joint bid of Spain and Portugal and the joint bid of Belgium and Netherlands.
The hosts for both World Cups were announced by the FIFA Executive Committee on 2 December 2010. Russia was selected to host the 2018 FIFA World Cup, making it the first time that the World Cup will be hosted in Eastern Europe and making it the biggest country geographically to host the World Cup. Qatar was selected to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, making it the first time a World Cup will be held in the Arab World and the second time in Asia since the 2002 tournament in South Korea and Japan. Also, the decision made it the smallest country geographically to host the World Cup.
Bids:
Under FIFA rules as of 2016, the 2026 Cup could not be in either Europe (UEFA) or Asia (AFC), leaving an African (CAF) bid, a North American (CONCACAF) bid, a South American (CONMEBOL) bid or an Oceanian (OFC) bid as other possible options. In March 2017, FIFA 's president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) had been excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively. ''
The bidding process was originally scheduled to start in 2015, with the appointment of hosts scheduled for the FIFA Congress on 10 May 2017 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. On 10 June 2015, FIFA announced that the bid process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup was postponed. However, following the FIFA Council meeting on 10 May 2016, a new bid schedule was announced for May 2020 as the last in a four - phase process.
On 14 October 2016, FIFA said it would accept a tournament - sharing bid by CONCACAF members Canada, Mexico and the United States.
On 10 April 2017, Canada, the United States, and Mexico announced their intention to submit a joint bid to co-host, with three - quarters of the games to be played in the U.S., including the final.
On 11 August 2017, Morocco officially announced a bid to host.
Therefore, the official 2026 FIFA World Cup bids were from two football confederations. The first one was from CONCACAF, which was triple bid by Canada, United States and Mexico, and the second one was from CAF with a bid by Morocco.
The host was announced on 13 June 2018 at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow, Russia. The United Bid from Canada, Mexico and the United States was selected over the Morocco bid by 134 votes to 65 with 1 selecting neither and 3 abstentions. This will be the first World Cup to be hosted by more than two countries. Mexico becomes the first country to host three men 's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca, should selected, will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments. On the other hand, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both the men 's and women 's World Cups, after Sweden (Men 's: 1958 / Women 's: 1995), United States (Men 's: 1994 / Women 's: 1999, 2003), Germany (Men 's: 1974, 2006 / Women 's: 2011), and France (Men 's: 1934, 1998 / Women 's: 2019). The United States becomes the first country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup twice each.
Two early bids for the 2030 FIFA World Cup - the Centennial World Cup - have been proposed. The first bid has been proposed as a collective bid by the members of the Argentine Football Association and Uruguayan Football Association into a proposed joint bid from Uruguay and Argentina. The second bid has been a proposed bid by The Football Association of England. Under FIFA rules as of 2017, the 2030 World Cup can not be held in Asia (AFC) because the Asian Football Confederation is excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022. Also in June 2017, UEFA 's president Aleksander Čeferin stated that Europe (UEFA) will definitely fight for its right to host the 2030 World Cup.
The Uruguay -- Argentina bid would coincide with the centennial anniversary of the first FIFA World Cup final, and the bicentennial of the first Constitution of Uruguay. The Uruguay - Argentina bid was officially confirmed on 29 July 2017. A joint bid was announced by the Argentine Football Association and the Uruguayan Football Association on 29 July 2017. Before Uruguay and Argentina played out a goalless draw in Montevideo, FC Barcelona players Luis Suárez and Lionel Messi promoted the bid with commemorative shirts. On 31 August 2017, it was suggested Paraguay would join as a third host. CONMEBOL, the South American confederation, confirmed the joint three - way bid in September 2017.
English FA vice chairman David Gill has proposed that his country could bid for 2030, provided the bidding process is made more transparent. "England is one of few countries that could stage even a 48 - nation event in its entirety, while Football Association chief executive Martin Glenn made it clear earlier this year bidding for 2030 was an option. '' In June 2017, UEFA stated that "it would support a pan-British bid for 2030 or even a single bid from England. '' Moreover, a possible English bid for 2030 was also backed by the German Football Association.
On 17 June 2018, the Royal Moroccan Football Federation announced its co-bidding for the 2030 World Cup. There are two possible joint bids one with the Tunisia and the Algeria or the other with two UEFA members Spain and Portugal.
On 17 June 2018, the English Football Association announced that they are in talks with home nations over a UK - wide bid to host 2030 World Cup.
On 10 July 2018, Egypt 's Sports Minister expressed interest in bidding to host.
Confirmed bid:
Potential bid:
The first bid for the 2034 FIFA World Cup has been proposed as a collective bid by the members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The idea of a combined ASEAN bid had been mooted as early as January 2011, when the Football Association of Singapore 's then - President, Zainudin Nordin, said in a statement that the proposal had been made at an ASEAN Foreign Ministers meeting. In 2013, Nordin and Special Olympics Malaysia President, Datuk Mohamed Feisol Hassan, recalled the idea for ASEAN to jointly host a World Cup. Under FIFA rules as of 2017, the 2030 World Cup can not be held in Asia (AFC) as Asian Football Confederation members are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022. Therefore, the earliest bid by an AFC member could be made for 2034.
Later, Malaysia has withdrawn from involvement but Singapore and other ASEAN countries continued the campaign to submit a joint bid for the World Cup in 2034. In February 2017, ASEAN held talks on launching a joint bid during a visit by FIFA chief Gianni Infantino to Yangon, Myanmar.
In July 2017, Joko Driyono, the Vice-President of Indonesia 's Football Association, during the meeting in Vietnam said that Indonesia and Thailand were set to lead a consortium of South - East Asian nations in the bid. Driyono added that, for geographic and infrastructure considerations and the expanded format (48 teams), at least two or three ASEAN countries combined would be in a position necessary to host matches.
In September 2017, the Football Association of Thailand 's Deputy CEO, Benjamin Tan, at the ASEAN Football Federation (AFF) Council meeting, confirmed that his Association has "put in their interest to bid and co-host '' the 2034 World Cup with Indonesia. On the same occasion, the General Secretary of the AFF, Dato Sri Azzuddin Ahmad, confirmed that Indonesia and Thailand will submit a joint bid.
Indonesia is the only Southeast Asian country to have participated in the World Cup; its national team was the first from Asia to do so and it became one of the fewest World Cup teams to qualify without playing a match because of opponents ' withdrawals. The 1938 World Cup is the Indonesians ' only appearance to date when they were known as the Dutch East Indies. A loss to Hungary made Indonesia the only national team in World Cup history to have played a single match. Far from ever hosting the World Cup, no other Southeast Asian country has ever played at the tournament. As of June 2018, Indonesia is ranked by FIFA at 164th place.
China has announced its interest in bidding several times and reports stated "that China is likely to host the World Cup for the first time in 2034. ''
Egypt is considering the possibility of bidding to host the 2034 FIFA World Cup the country 's Sports and Youth Minister Ashraf Sobhy said on Tuesday.
Expressed interest in bidding:
World Cup - winning bids are bolded. Planned but not - yet - official bids for 2030 and beyond are not included.
It is widely considered that home advantage is common in the World Cup, with the host team usually performing above average. Of the eight countries that have won the tournament, only Brazil and Spain have not been champions while hosting, and England has their only title as hosts.
Further, Sweden got to its only final as hosts of the 1958 tournament, and only the Swedes and Brazilians finished as runner - up in home soil. The host country reached the semi-finals thirteen times in twenty tournaments, and both Chile and South Korea had their only finishes on the top four at home. Only South Africa in 2010 managed to not go past the group stage.
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where do the tomatoes for la tomatina come from | La Tomatina - wikipedia
La Tomatina (Spanish pronunciation: (la tomaˈtina)) is a festival that is held in the Valencian town of Buñol, a town located in the East of Spain 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the Mediterranean, in which participants throw tomatoes and get involved in this tomato fight purely for entertainment purposes. Since 1945 it has been held on the last Wednesday of August, during the week of festivities of Buñol.
It started the last Wednesday of August in 1945 when some young people spent the time in the town square to attend the Giants and Big - Heads figures parade. The young boys decided to have a place among the retinue of a parade with musician, Giants and Big - Heads figures. The energy of these young people made that one participant fall off. The participant flew into a fit of rage, started to hit everything in his path. There was a market stall of vegetable that fell victim of the furious crowd: people started to pelt each other with tomatoes until the local forces ended that fruit battle. The following year, the young people picked a quarrel by their own decision and brought the tomatoes from home. Although the police broke up the early tradition in the following years, the young boys had made history without being conscious about it. La Tomatina was banned in the early 50s, which was not a problem for the participants who were even arrested. But the people spoke and the festivity was again allowed with more participants and more frenetic feelings. The festivity was again cancelled till 1957 when, as a sign of protest, the tomato burial was held. It was a demonstration in which the residents carried a coffin with a huge tomato inside. The parade was accompanied by a music band which played funeral marches and it was totally successful. La Tomatina Festival was finally allowed and became an official festivity. As a result of the report of Javier Basilio, broadcast in the Spanish television program called Informe Semanal, the festivity started to be known in the rest of Spain. Since then, the number of participants increased year after year as well as the excitement about La Tomatina Festival. In 2002, La Tomatina of Buñol was declared Festivity of International Tourist Interest by the Secretary Department of Tourism due to its success.
Usually the fight lasts for an hour, after which the town square is literally covered with tomato debris. Fire trucks then hose down the streets and participants often use hoses that locals provide to remove the tomatoes from their bodies. Some participants go to the "Los Peñones '' pool to wash. The citric acid in the tomatoes leads to the washed surfaces in the town becoming very clean.
Since 2013 participation in the event has been restricted to the holders of paid tickets. In 2015, it was estimated that almost 145 000 kg of tomatoes were thrown.
The city council follows a short list of instructions for the safety of the participants and the festival:
La Tomatina Buñol has inspired similar celebrations in other parts of the world:
Coordinates: 39 ° 25 ′ 10 '' N 0 ° 47 ′ 26 '' W / 39.41944 ° N 0.79056 ° W / 39.41944; - 0.79056
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how did american manufacturers handle rising oil prices during the late 1970s | 1979 Energy crisis - wikipedia
The 1979 (or second) oil crisis or oil shock occurred in the world due to decreased oil output in the wake of the Iranian Revolution. Despite the fact that global oil supply decreased by only ~ 4 %, widespread panic resulted, driving the price far higher. The price of crude oil more than doubled to $39.50 per barrel over the next 12 months, and long lines once again appeared at gas stations, as they had in the 1973 oil crisis.
In 1980, following the outbreak of the Iran -- Iraq War, oil production in Iran nearly stopped, and Iraq 's oil production was severely cut as well. Economic recessions were triggered in the United States and other countries. Oil prices did not subside to pre-crisis levels until the mid-1980s.
After 1980, oil prices began a 20 - year decline, except for a brief rebound during the Gulf War, eventually reaching a 60 percent fall - off during the 1990s. As with the 1973 crisis, global politics and power balance were impacted. Oil exporters such as Mexico, Nigeria, and Venezuela expanded production; the Soviet Union became the top world producer; North Sea and Alaskan oil flooded the market. It seemed that the United States of America and Norway had much more oil reserves than forecasted in the 1970s. OPEC lost influence.
Amid massive protests, the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, fled his country in early 1979 and the Ayatollah Khomeini soon became the new leader of Iran. Protests severely disrupted the Iranian oil sector, with production being greatly curtailed and exports suspended. In November 1978, a strike by 37,000 workers at Iran 's nationalized oil refineries initially reduced production from 6 million barrels (950,000 m) per day to about 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m). Foreign workers (including skilled oil workers) fled the country. On January 16, 1979, the Shah and his wife left Iran at the behest of Prime Minister Shapour Bakhtiar (a longtime opposition leader himself), who sought to calm the situation.
The rise in oil price benefited other OPEC members, which made record profits. When oil exports were later resumed under the new Iranian government, they were inconsistent and at a lower volume, pushing prices up. Saudi Arabia and other OPEC nations, under the presidency of Mana Al Otaiba, increased production to offset most of the decline, and in early 1979 the overall loss in worldwide production was about 4 percent.
OPEC failed to hold on to its preeminent position, especially after Iran and Iraq went to war in 1980 and caused a further 10 % drop in worldwide production -- and by 1981, OPEC production was surpassed by other exporters. Additionally, its own member nations were divided among themselves. Saudi Arabia, a "swing producer '' trying to gain back market share after 1985, increased production and caused downward pressure on prices, making high - cost oil production facilities less profitable or even unprofitable.
The oil crisis had mixed effects in the United States, due to some parts of the country being oil - producing regions and other parts being oil - consuming regions. Richard Nixon had imposed price controls on domestic oil. Gasoline controls were repealed, but controls on domestic US oil remained.
The Jimmy Carter administration began a phased deregulation of oil prices on April 5, 1979, when the average price of crude oil was US $ 15.85 per barrel (42 US gallons (160 L)). Starting with the Iranian revolution, the price of crude oil rose to $39.50 per barrel over the next 12 months (its all - time highest real price until March 3, 2008.) Deregulating domestic oil price controls allowed U.S. oil output to rise sharply from the large Prudhoe Bay fields, while oil imports fell sharply.
And although not directly related, the near - disaster at Three Mile Island on March 28, 1979, also increased anxiety about energy policy and availability.
Due to memories of oil shortage in 1973, motorists soon began panic buying, and long lines appeared at gas stations, as they had six years earlier during the 1973 oil crisis.
As the average vehicle of the time consumed between two and three liters (about 0.5 -- 0.8 gallons) of gasoline (petrol) an hour while idling, it was estimated that Americans wasted up to 150,000 barrels (24,000 m) of oil per day idling their engines in the lines at gas stations.
During the period, many people believed the oil companies artificially created oil shortages to drive up prices, rather than factors beyond human control or the US ' own price controls. The amount of oil sold in the United States in 1979 was only 3.5 percent less than the record set for oil sold the year previously. A telephone poll of 1,600 American adults conducted by the Associated Press and NBC News and released in early May 1979 found that only 37 % of Americans thought the energy shortages were real, 9 % were not sure, and 54 % thought the energy shortages were a hoax.
Many politicians proposed gas rationing; one such proponent was Harry Hughes, Governor of Maryland, who proposed odd - even rationing (only people with an odd - numbered license plate could purchase gas on an odd - numbered day), as was used during the 1973 Oil Crisis. Several states actually implemented odd - even gas rationing, including California, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Oregon, and Texas. Coupons for gasoline rationing were printed but were never actually used during the 1979 crisis.
On July 15, 1979, President Carter outlined his plans to reduce oil imports and improve energy efficiency in his "Crisis of Confidence '' speech (sometimes known as the "malaise '' speech). It is often said that during the speech, Carter wore a cardigan (he actually wore a blue suit) and encouraged citizens to do what they could to reduce their use of energy. He had already installed solar hot water panels on the roof of the White House and a wood - burning stove in the living quarters. However, the panels were removed in 1986, reportedly for roof maintenance, during the administration of his successor, Ronald Reagan.
Carter 's speech argued the oil crisis was "the moral equivalent of war ''. Critics, then and now, argued that his varied proposals would make the situation worse, not better. In November 1979, Iranian revolutionaries seized the American Embassy, and Carter imposed an embargo against Iranian oil. In January 1980, he issued the Carter Doctrine, declaring: "An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States. '' Additionally, as part of his administration 's efforts at deregulation, Carter proposed removing price controls that had been imposed by the administration of Richard Nixon before the 1973 crisis. Carter agreed to remove price controls in phases; they were finally dismantled in 1981 under Reagan. Carter also said he would impose a windfall profit tax on oil companies. While the regulated price of domestic oil was kept to $6 a barrel, the world market price was $30.
In 1980, the U.S. Government established the Synthetic Fuels Corporation to produce an alternative to imported fossil fuels.
When the price of West Texas Intermediate crude oil increased 250 percent between 1978 and 1980, the oil - producing areas of Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Colorado, Wyoming, and Alaska began experiencing an economic boom and population inflows.
In response to the high oil prices of the 1970s, industrial nations took steps to reduce their dependence on OPEC oil. Electric utilities worldwide switched from oil to coal, natural gas, or nuclear power; national governments initiated multibillion - dollar research programs to develop alternatives to oil; and commercial exploration developed major non-OPEC oilfields in Siberia, Alaska, North Sea, and Gulf of Mexico. By 1986, daily worldwide demand for oil dropped by 5 million barrels, non-OPEC production rose by an even - larger amount, and OPEC 's market share sank from 50 % in 1979 to just 29 % in 1985.
At the time, Detroit 's "Big Three '' automakers (Ford, Chrysler, GM) were marketing downsized full - sized automobiles like the Chevrolet Caprice, the Ford LTD Crown Victoria and the Dodge St. Regis which met the CAFE fuel economy mandates passed in 1978. Detroit 's response to the growing popularity of imported compacts like the Toyota Corolla and the Volkswagen Rabbit were the Chevrolet Citation, and the Ford Fairmont; Ford replaced the Ford Pinto with the Ford Escort and Chrysler, on the verge of bankruptcy, introduced the Dodge Aries K. GM was having unfavorable market reactions to the Citation, and introduced the Chevrolet Corsica and Chevrolet Beretta in 1987 which did sell better. GM also replaced the Chevrolet Monza, introducing the 1982 Chevrolet Cavalier which was better received. Ford experienced a similar market rejection of the Fairmont, and introduced the front wheel drive Ford Tempo in 1984.
Checker Motors, known for its iconic Marathon sedans used for the taxicab livery, ceased its automotive production in 1982 transitioning to stamping sheetmetal for GM. American Motors, the final independent manufacturer outside of Detroit 's Big Three, entered into a joint venture with Renault where its mass market automobiles were sold alongside the remaining AMC product lineup which have declined in sales while AMC 's Jeep division was profiting, especially with the introduction of its downsized XJ sport utilities which led to the company 's demise (its homegrown compacts dating back to 1970 -- they were phased out in 1983 (with the exception of the Eagle 4WD wagon making it the final AMC designed product) and financial woes with the Renault partnership ended the reign of the final independent. Renault ended up owning 100 % of AMC in 1982 (resulting in the divestment of AM General) until late 1986 where they sold AMC 's shares to Chrysler Corporation. They later absorbed AMC in late 1987 where the Jeep division is now part of Chrysler (now FCA automobiles).
Detroit was not well prepared for the sudden rise in fuel prices, and imported brands (primarily the Asian marques which were mass marketed and had a lower manufacturing cost as opposed to British and West German brands - the rising value of the Deutsche Mark and English Pound resulted in the transition to the rise of Japanese manufacturers where exporting their product from Japan at a lower cost would yield profitable gains despite accusations of price dumping) were now more widely available in North America and had developed a loyal customer base - the Japanese Big Three launched their respective advertisement campaigns (Honda with its ' We Make It Simple ' tagline, Datsun (Nissan after 1984) with the tagline ' We Are Driven ', and Toyota with ' Oh What A Feeling ' (they ran a previous ad campaign prior to 1979 where the company mocked the Plymouth Volare with the tagline ' You Asked For It -- You Got It ') -- luring away traditional Big Three consumers (Subaru in the late 1970s ran an ad campaign where former owners of a Big Three automobile drove their products -- one TV ad started with the tagline ' Ford drives Subaru ').
A year after the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Japanese manufacturers surpassed Detroit 's production totals becoming first in the world. Japanese exports would later displace the automotive market once dominated by lowered tier European manufacturers (Alfa Romeo, Fiat, Opel, Peugeot, MG, Triumph, Citroen). Some would declare bankruptcy (e.g. Triumph, Simca) or withdraw from the U.S. market, especially in the wake of grey market automobiles or the inability of the vehicle to meet DOT requirements (from emission requirements to automotive lighting). Many imported brands utilized fuel saving technologies such as fuel injection and multi-valve engines over the common use of carburetors. Also, the imported brands used their innovative business ethic e.g. a just - in - time inventory system but the U.S. Government imposed import quotas where the Japanese brands (later extended to South Korean and European marques) began outsourcing their operations by opening assembly plants in the United States (especially the Southern U.S. where import automakers were not on friendly terms with labor unions from the Rust Belt states), Canada, and Mexico to produce their mass market automobiles and light trucks. The Japanese (and later South Korean) brands which assembled its automobiles on U.S. soil had exterior dimensions which were sized to its domestic counterparts and engine displacement over 2.0 liters for the USA market (Japanese regulations on vehicle sizing and engine displacement determines the road tax paid on an annual basis which is not practiced in the USA and Canada).
Import brands also complied with local content laws where an import automobile must have a percentage of automotive components (in the United States automobiles with 70 percent local content manufacture is considered a domestic build regardless of manufacturer) sourced from the United States, Canada, or Mexico (prior to the establishment of NAFTA) and the American Automobile Labeling Act of 1994 which mandated the percentage of automotive parts content printed on the Monroney sticker of an automobile sold through a dealership. The import quota resulted in the Japanese automakers importing a limited amount of automobiles but to comply with the U.S. Government imposition of the 1981 Voluntary Export Restraints, the automakers established their respective luxury marques (Acura, Lexus, Infiniti) but run respectively by their parent manufacturers (Honda, Toyota, Nissan). GM 's Cadillac division experimented with their V8 - 6 - 4 power plant (the ancestor of the modern - day Active Fuel Management and / or variable displacement), which was a market failure. Nonetheless, overall fuel economy increased, which was one factor leading to the subsequent 1980s oil glut.
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who survived from lynyrd skynyrd's plane crash | 1977 Mississippi CV - 240 crash - wikipedia
On October 20, 1977, a Convair CV - 240 ran out of fuel and crashed in southwestern Mississippi, near Gillsburg. Chartered by the rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd from L&J Company of Addison, Texas, it was near the end of its flight from Greenville, South Carolina, to Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Lead vocalist / founding member Ronnie Van Zant, guitarist / vocalist Steve Gaines, backing vocalist Cassie Gaines (Steve 's older sister), assistant road manager Dean Kilpatrick, pilot Walter McCreary, and co-pilot William Gray all died as a result of the crash; twenty others survived.
On October 20, 1977, three days after releasing their album Street Survivors, Lynyrd Skynyrd 's chartered Convair CV - 240 airplane ran out of fuel near the end of their flight from South Carolina to Louisiana. The band had just performed at the Greenville Memorial Auditorium and were to play at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge.
Upon realizing that the plane had insufficient fuel, the pilots were going to attempt an emergency landing on a small rural airstrip. Despite their efforts, they did not make it and the plane crashed in a wooded area near Gillsburg, Mississippi. Lead singer / founding member Ronnie Van Zant, guitarist / vocalist Steve Gaines, backing vocalist Cassie Gaines, assistant road manager Dean Kilpatrick, pilot Walter McCreary, and copilot William Gray all died in the crash.
Cassie Gaines had been so fearful of flying in the Convair that she had preferred to travel in the band 's cramped equipment truck instead, but Ronnie Van Zant convinced her to board the plane on October 20. Keyboard player Billy Powell 's nose was nearly torn off as he suffered severe facial lacerations and deep lacerations to his right leg. Decades later Powell gave a lurid account of the flight 's final moments on a VH1 Behind The Music special. He said Van Zant, who was n't wearing a seat belt, was thrown violently from his seat and died immediately when his head impacted a tree as the plane broke apart. Some elements of Powell 's version of the events, however, have been disputed by both drummer Artimus Pyle and Van Zant 's widow Judy Van Zant Jenness, who posted the autopsy reports on the band 's web site in early 1998 to "set the record straight '', while essentially confirming Powell 's account. Pyle suffered broken ribs but managed to leave the crash site and notify a nearby resident.
Another member of the band 's trio of back - up singers (collectively known as the "Honkettes ''), JoJo Billingsley, was not on the plane; she was home sick and planned to join the tour in Little Rock, Arkansas, on October 23. Billingsley said that she had dreamed of the plane crash and begged guitarist / founding member Allen Collins by telephone not to continue using the Convair.
It was later discovered that the very same aircraft had earlier been inspected by members of Aerosmith 's flight crew for possible use in 1977, but it was rejected because it was felt that neither the plane nor the crew were up to standards. Aerosmith 's assistant chief of flight operations, Zunk Buker, told of observing pilots McCreary and Gray sharing a bottle of Jack Daniel 's while he and his father inspected the plane. Aerosmith 's touring family were quite shaken after receiving word of the crash, as Steven Tyler and Joe Perry had pressured their management into renting that specific plane for use on their 1977 American tour.
The doomed flight of October 20, 1977 was intended to be the last Lynyrd Skynyrd would make on the Convair CV - 240. "We were flying in a plane that looked like it belonged to the Clampett family, '' said drummer Pyle, and the band had decided that their status as one of the world 's top rock acts warranted an upgrade. After arriving in Baton Rouge, the band planned on acquiring a Learjet to replace the 30 - year - old plane which all in the band 's circle agreed was well past its prime.
-- NTSB Accident Report
On the American Top 40 show of February 25, 1978, Casey Kasem reported that musical act LeBlanc & Carr had been bumped from the ill - fated flight. The bands were touring together, and last - minute changes prevented the duo from boarding the plane after initially being offered seats.
When fellow rock band Journey learned of the crash during sessions for their 1978 album Infinity, guitarist Neal Schon and newly hired vocalist Steve Perry composed the song "Patiently '', recorded as a memorial to the lost members of Lynyrd Skynyrd.
Keyboardist Billy Powell, among others, spoke of seeing flames shooting out of the plane 's right engine during a flight just days before the crash. The subsequent NTSB report listed "an engine malfunction of undetermined nature '' in that same engine as a contributing factor in the crash
Drummer Artimus Pyle told Howard Stern years later in an interview that the fuel gauge in the older - model plane was known to malfunction and the pilots had neglected to manually check the tanks before taking off. In his book Lynyrd Skynyrd: Remembering the Free Birds of Southern Rock, Gene Odom comes to the conclusion that copilot Gray was potentially impaired and had been observed using cocaine the previous evening; however, toxicology reports from both pilots ' autopsies found no traces of alcohol or other drugs. "Crew inattention to fuel supply '' was ultimately determined to be responsible for the crash.
After the accident, the NTSB removed, inspected, and tested the right engine 's ignition magneto and found it to be operating normally, concluding, "No mechanical or electrical discrepancies were found during the examination of the right magneto. '' The inspection also determined that "All of the fuel cross-feed and fuel dump valves were in the closed position. ''
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who sang the song i get knocked down but i get up again | Tubthumping - wikipedia
"Tubthumping '' (also known colloquially as "I Get Knocked Down '', after the first line) is a song released by British rock band Chumbawamba in 1997. It was the band 's most successful song, peaking at number two on the UK Singles Chart. It topped the charts in Australia, Canada, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand and peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 (although it topped the US Modern Rock and Mainstream Top 40 charts). At the 1998 Brit Awards, "Tubthumping '' was nominated for the Brit Award for Best British Single. As of April 2017, the song had sold 880,000 copies in the UK.
The song was the group 's lead single from Tubthumper, their major - label debut. Vocalist Dunstan Bruce retrospectively observed that, before the group wrote the song, they "were in a mess: we had become directionless and disparate ''. He credited "Tubthumping '' with changing that, telling the Guardian that "It 's not our most political or best song, but it brought us back together. The song is about us -- as a class and as a band. The beauty of it was we had no idea how big it would be. ''
A Leeds pub called the Fforde Grene served as the group 's inspiration for writing the song; guitarist Boff Whaley told the Guardian that the song was written about "the resilience of ordinary people ''.
Upon its release, the song became an international hit. On the UK Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 2 on the chart dated 23 August 1997; it spent three consecutive weeks at number 2, held off the top spot by Will Smith 's "Men in Black. '' The song spent a total of 11 consecutive weeks in the top 10, and 20 consecutive weeks on the top 100. On the chart dated 24 January 1998, three weeks after its last week on the chart, the song re-entered the singles chart at number 88; the following week, it fell to number 96 before exiting the chart.
In the United States, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 dated 13 September 1997, at number 79. The following week, the song rose 16 places to number 63 on the chart, attaining the week 's biggest gain in airplay. Two weeks later, on the chart dated 4 October 1997, the song was again the biggest airplay gainer of the week, entering the top 40 in its rise from 47 to 35. In its twelfth week on the chart, on the chart dated 29 November 1997, the song reached its peak of number 6, where it spent two weeks. The song spent a total of 31 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100.
The single was also present on many year - end singles charts for 1997. In the United Kingdom, it was ranked as the year 's seventh most - popular single, while it placed at number 3 on Australia 's top 100 songs of the year. The single also placed within the top 20 of year - end charts in Sweden and Italy, and placed within the top 100 of 1997 in Belgium, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United States. In the United States, the song placed at number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100 's year - end ranking for 1998.
"Tubthumping '' was placed at number 12 in Rolling Stone 's list of the 20 Most Annoying Songs. Conversely, "Tubthumping '' was voted as the second - best single of 1997 on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll, after Hanson 's "MMMBop ''.
"Tubthumping (remix) '' was released in 2003 as a promotional CD by Chumbawamba on their MUTT Records label. The remixed version of the song was done by The Flaming Lips and Dave Fridmann. It is a slower version of the song, with a more minor key feeling to the music.
The other two songs on the CD were taken from the album Readymades and Then Some.
12 - inch promo (Universal, 1997)
Side A
Side B
CD Single (EMI, 1997)
CD Maxi - single (EMI, 1997)
Tubthumping (remix) (Koch, 2003)
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3 safety devices that contribute to passenger safety | Automobile safety - wikipedia
Automobile safety is the study and practice of design, construction, equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of traffic collisions. Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design.
One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory of Buffalo, New York. The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards. However, the primary vector of traffic - related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim, the pedestrian.
In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes, and are 1.5 times more likely than a vehicle 's occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing.
Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries. Nevertheless, auto collisions are the leading cause of injury - related deaths, an estimated total of 1.2 million in 2004, or 25 % of the total from all causes. Of those killed by autos, nearly two - thirds are pedestrians. Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices, regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives.
Coalitions to promote road and automobile safety, such as Together for Safer Roads (TSR), brings together global private sector companies, across industries, to collaborate on improving road safety. TSR brings together members ' knowledge, data, technology, and global networks to focus on five road safety areas that will make the greatest impact globally and within local communities.
The rising trend of Autonomous Things is largely driven by the move towards the Autonomous car, that both addresses the main existing safety issues and creates new issues. The autonomous car is expected to be much safer than existing vehicles, by eliminating the single most dangerous element - the driver. The Center for Internet and Society at Stanford Law School claims that "Some ninety percent of motor vehicle crashes are caused at least in part by human error ''. But while safety standards like the ISO 26262 specify the required safety, it is still a burden on the industry to demonstrate acceptable safety.
Work - related roadway crashes are the leading cause of death from traumatic injuries in the U.S. workplace. They accounted for nearly 12,000 deaths between 1992 and 2000. Deaths and injuries from these roadway crashes result in increased costs to employers and lost productivity in addition to their toll in human suffering. Truck drivers tend to endure higher fatality rates than workers in other occupations, but concerns about motor vehicle safety in the workplace are not limited to those surrounding the operation of large trucks. Workers outside the motor carrier industry routinely operate company - owned vehicles for deliveries, sales and repair calls, client visits etc. In these instances, the employer providing the vehicle generally plays a major role in setting safety, maintenance, and training policy. As in non-occupational driving, young drivers are especially at risk. In the workplace, 45 % of all fatal injuries to workers under age 18 between 1992 and 2000 in the United States resulted from transportation incidents.
The terms "active '' and "passive '' are simple but important terms in the world of automotive safety. "Active safety '' is used to refer to technology assisting in the prevention of a crash and "passive safety '' to components of the vehicle (primarily airbags, seatbelts and the physical structure of the vehicle) that help to protect occupants during a crash.
Crash avoidance systems and devices help the driver -- and, increasingly, help the vehicle itself -- to avoid a collision. This category includes:
A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems, which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle. Driver assistance systems include:
Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening. Much research is carried out using anthropomorphic crash test dummies.
Post-crash survivability is the chance that drivers and passengers survive a crash after it occurs. Technology such as Advanced Automatic Collision Notification can automatically place calls to emergency services and send information about a vehicle collision.
Automobiles are much more dangerous to pedestrians than they are to drivers and passengers. Two - thirds of 1.3 million yearly auto related deaths are pedestrians. Since at least the early 1970s, attention has also been given to vehicle design regarding the safety of pedestrians in car - pedestrian collisions. Proposals in Europe would require cars sold there to have a minimum / maximum hood (bonnet) height. From 2006 the use of "bull bars '', a fashion on 4x4s and SUVs, became illegal in the European Union, after having been banned on all new cars in 2002.
Vehicles are equipped with a variety of lights and reflectors to mark their presence, position, width, length, and direction of travel as well as to convey the driver 's intent and actions to other drivers. These include the vehicle 's headlamps, front and rear position lamps, side marker lights and reflectors, turn signals, stop (brake) lamps, and reversing lamps. School buses and Semi-trailer trucks in North America are required to bear retroreflective strips outlining their side and rear perimeters for greater conspicuity at night.
Daytime running lamps have been required in Nordic countries since the mid-1970s, in Canada since 1990, and throughout the European Union since 7 February 2011.
A 2004 essay on the relation between car colour and safety stated that no previous studies had been scientifically conclusive. Since then, a Swedish study found that pink cars are involved in the fewest and black cars are involved in the most crashes (Land transport NZ 2005). In Auckland New Zealand, a study found that there was a significantly lower rate of serious injury in silver cars, with higher rates in brown, black, and green cars. The Vehicle Colour Study, conducted by Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC) and published in 2007, analysed 855,258 crashes that occurring between 1987 and 2004 in the Australian states of Victoria and Western Australia that resulted in injury or in a vehicle being towed away. The study analysed risk by light condition. It found that in daylight black cars were 12 % more likely than white to be involved in a collision, followed by grey cars at 11 %, silver cars at 10 %, and red and blue cars at 7 %, with no other colours found to be significantly more or less risky than white. At dawn or dusk the risk ratio for black cars jumped to 47 % more likely than white, and that for silver cars to 15 %. In the hours of darkness only red and silver cars were found to be significantly more risky than white, by 10 % and 8 % respectively.
Many different inventions and ideas which may or may not have been practical about auto safety have been put forward but never made it to a production car. Such items include the driver seat in the middle (to give the person a better view) (the exception being the Mclaren F1 sports car), rear - facing seats (except for infant car seats), and control stick steering.
Automobile safety may have become an issue almost from the beginning of mechanised road vehicle development. The second steam - powered "Fardier '' (artillery tractor), created by Nicolas - Joseph Cugnot in 1771, is reported by some to have crashed into a wall during its demonstration run. However, according to Georges Ageon, the earliest mention of this occurrence dates from 1801 and it does not feature in contemporary accounts. One of the earliest recorded automobile fatalities was Mary Ward, on August 31, 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland.
In 1922, the Duesenburg Model A became the first car to have four - wheel hydraulic brakes.
In 1930, safety glass became standard on all Ford cars. In the 1930s, plastic surgeon Claire L. Straith and physician C.J. Strickland advocated the use of seat belts and padded dashboards. Strickland founded the Automobile Safety League of America.
In 1934, GM performed the first barrier crash test.
In 1936, the Hudson Terraplane came with the first back - up brake system. Should the hydraulic brakes fail, the brake pedal would activate a set of mechanical brakes for the back wheels.
In 1937, Chrysler, Plymouth, DeSoto, and Dodge added such items as a flat, smooth dash with recessed controls, rounded door handles, a windshield wiper control made of rubber, and the back of the front seat heavily padded to provide protection for rear passengers.
In 1942, Hugh DeHaven published the classic Mechanical analysis of survival in falls from heights of fifty to one hundred and fifty feet.
In 1947 the American Tucker was built with the world 's first padded dashboard. It also came with middle headlight that turned with the steering wheel, a front steel bulkhead, and a front safety chamber.
In 1949 SAAB incorporated aircraft safety thinking into automobiles making the Saab 92 the first production SAAB car with a safety cage.
Also in 1949, the Chrysler Crown Imperial was the first car to come with standard disc brakes.
In 1955 a USAF surgeon who advised the US Surgeon General wrote an article on how to make cars safer for those riding in it. Aside from the usual safety features, such as seat belts and padded dash boards, bumper shocks were introduced.
In 1956, Ford tried unsuccessfully to interest Americans in purchasing safer cars with their Lifeguard safety package. (Its attempt nevertheless earns Ford Motor Trend 's "Car of the Year '' award for 1956.)
In 1958, the United Nations established the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations, an international standards body advancing auto safety. Many of the most life saving safety innovations, like seat belts and roll cage construction were brought to market under its auspices. That same year, Volvo engineer Nils Bohlin invented and patented the three - point lap and shoulder seat belt, which became standard equipment on all Volvo cars in 1959. Over the next several decades, three - point safety belts were gradually mandated in all vehicles by regulators throughout the industrialised world.
In 1959, American Motors Corporation offered the first optional head rests for the front seat. Also in 1959, the Cadillac Cyclone concept by Harley Earl had "a radar - based crash - avoidance system '' located in the on the nose cones of the vehicle that would make audible and visual signals to the driver if there were obstacles in the vehicles path.
Effective on new passenger cars sold in the United States after January 1, 1964. front outboard lap belts were required.
On September 9, 1966, the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act became law in the U.S., the first mandatory federal safety standards for motor vehicles.
Effective in 1966, US - market passenger cars were required to be equipped with padded instrument panels, front and rear outboard lap belts, and white reverse (backup) lamps.
In 1966, the U.S. established the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) with automobile safety as one of its purposes. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was created as an independent organization on April 1, 1967, but was reliant on the DOT for administration and funding. However, in 1975 the organization was made completely independent by the Independent Safety Board Act (in P.L. 93 - 633; 49 U.S.C. 1901).
In 1967, equipment specifications by such major fleet purchasers as the City and County of Los Angeles, California encouraged the voluntary installation in most new cars sold in the US of safety devices, systems, and design features including:
In 1968, the precursor agency to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 's first Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards took effect. These required shoulder belts for left and right front - seat vehicle occupants, side marker lights, collapsible steering columns, and other safety features. 1969 saw the addition of head restraints for front outboard passengers, addressing the problem of whiplash in rear - end collisions. These safety requirements did not apply to vehicles classified as "commercial, '' such as light - duty pickup trucks. Thus manufacturers did not always include such hardware in these vehicles, even though many did passenger - car duty.
Volvo developed the first rear - facing child seat in 1964 and introduced its own booster seat in 1978.
In 1974, GM offered driver and passenger airbags as optional equipment on large Cadillacs, Buicks, and Oldsmobiles.
In 1979 NHTSA began crash - testing popular cars and publishing the results, to inform consumers and encourage manufacturers to improve the safety of their vehicles. Initially, the US NCAP (New Car Assessment Program) crash tests examined compliance with the occupant - protection provisions of FMVSS 208. Over the subsequent years, this NHTSA program was gradually expanded in scope. In 1997, the European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) was established to test new vehicles ' safety performance and publish the results for vehicle shoppers ' information. The NHTSA crash tests are presently operated and published as the U.S. branch of the international NCAP programme.
In 1984 New York State passed the first U.S. law requiring seat belt use in passenger cars. Seat belt laws have since been adopted by 49 states (New Hampshire has not). NHTSA estimates the resulting increased seat belt use saves 10,000 per year in the United States.
In 1986 the central 3rd brake light was mandated in North America with most of the world following with similar standards in automotive lighting.
In 1989, companies in Israel implemented Advanced Brake Warning systems, where the driver would be alerted as to how hard the driver in front of them was pressing on their brakes. This has yet to be implemented into mainstream Europe or America.
Airbags were first installed in production vehicles in the 1980s as standard equipment instead of an option as was done in the mid 1970s (such as the Oldsmobile Toronado in 1974). In 1981, airbags were an available option on the Mercedes - Benz W126 (S - Class). In 1987, the Porsche 944 Turbo became the first car to have driver and passenger airbags as standard equipment, and airbags were offered as an available option on the 944 and 944S. The first airbag was also installed in a Japanese car, the Honda Legend, in 1987. In 1988, Chrysler was the first United States company to install standard driver 's side air bags, in six of its passenger models. In 1989, Chrysler became the first U.S. auto manufacturer to install driver - side air bags in all its domestic - built automobiles.
In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) began frontal offset crash tests. Also in the same year, Volvo introduced the world 's first car with side airbags: the 850.
In 1997 EuroNCAP was founded.
In 2000 the NHTSA released a regulation making trunk releases mandatory for new cars by September of the following year due, in part, to the lobbying efforts of Janette Fennell.
In 2003 the IIHS began conducting side impact crash tests. In 2004 NHTSA released new tests designed to test the rollover risk of new cars and SUVs. Only the Mazda RX - 8 got a 5 - star rating.
In 2009 Citroën became the first manufacturer to feature "Snowmotion '', an Intelligent Anti Skid system developed in conjunction with Bosch, which gives drivers a level of control in extreme ice or snow conditions similar to a 4x4
In 2009 NHTSA upgraded its roof - crush standard for vehicles weighing 6000 pounds or less. The new standard increased the crush load requirement from 1.5 to 3 times the vehicle 's curb weight.
Starting in 2012, all cars under 10,000 lbs. sold in the USA are required to have Electronic Stability Control.
In 2015, recognizing that safer roads are a shared responsibility, Together for Safer Roads (TSR) was formally launched to align the private sector 's road safety efforts with the United Nations Decade of Action for Road Safety.
Despite technological advances, about 34,000 people die every year in the U.S. Although the fatality rates per vehicle registered and per vehicle distance travelled have steadily decreased since the advent of significant vehicle and driver regulation, the raw number of fatalities generally increases as a function of rising population and more vehicles on the road. However, sharp rises in the price of fuel and related driver behavioural changes are reducing 2007 - 8 highway fatalities in the U.S. to below the 1961 fatality count. Litigation has been central in the struggle to mandate safer cars.
In 1996, the U.S. had about 2 deaths per 10,000 motor vehicles, compared to 1.9 in Germany, 2.6 in France, and 1.5 in the UK. In 1998, there were 3,421 fatal crashes in the UK, the fewest since 1926; in 2010 this number was further reduced to 1,857 and was attributed to the 2009 -- 2010 scrappage scheme.
The sizable traffic safety lead enjoyed by the USA since the 1960s had narrowed significantly by 2002, with the US improvement percentages lagging in 16th place behind those of Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, United Kingdom, Iceland, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland in terms of deaths per thousand vehicles, while in terms of deaths per 100 million vehicle miles travelled, the USA had dropped from first place to tenth place.
Government - collected data, such as that from the U.S. Fatality Analysis Reporting System, show other countries achieving safety performance improvements over time greater than those achieved in the U.S.:
Research on the trends in use of heavy vehicles indicate that a significant difference between the U.S. and other countries is the relatively high prevalence of pickup trucks and SUVs in the U.S. A 2003 study by the U.S. Transportation Research Board found that SUVs and pickup trucks are significantly less safe than passenger cars, that imported - brand vehicles tend to be safer than American - brand vehicles, and that the size and weight of a vehicle has a significantly smaller effect on safety than the quality of the vehicle 's engineering. The level of large commercial truck traffic has substantially increased since the 1960s, while highway capacity has not kept pace with the increase in large commercial truck traffic on U.S. highways. However, other factors exert significant influence; Canada has lower roadway death and injury rates despite a vehicle mix comparable to that of the U.S. Nevertheless, the widespread use of truck - based vehicles as passenger carriers is correlated with roadway deaths and injuries not only directly by dint of vehicular safety performance per se, but also indirectly through the relatively low fuel costs that facilitate the use of such vehicles in North America; motor vehicle fatalities decline as fuel prices increase.
NHTSA has issued relatively few regulations since the mid-1980s; most of the vehicle - based reduction in vehicle fatality rates in the U.S. during the last third of the 20th Century were gained by the initial NHTSA safety standards issued from 1968 to 1984 and subsequent voluntary changes in vehicle design and construction by vehicle manufacturers.
When pregnant, women should continue to use seatbelts and airbags properly. A University of Michigan study found that "unrestrained or improperly restrained pregnant women are 5.7 times more likely to have an adverse fetal outcome than properly restrained pregnant women ''. If seatbelts are not long enough, extensions are available from the car manufacturer or an aftermarket supplier.
Children present significant challenges in engineering and producing safe vehicles, because most children are significantly smaller and lighter than most adults. Additionally, children far from being just scaled down adults, still have an undeveloped skeletal system. This means that vehicle restraint systems such as airbags and seat belts, far from being effective, are hazardous if used to restrain young children. In recognition of this, many medical professionals and jurisdictions recommend or require that children under a particular age, height, and / or weight ride in a child seat and / or in the back seat, as applicable.
Within Europe ECE Regulation R44 dictates that children below 150 cm must travel in a child restraint that is appropriate for their weight. Each country have their own adaptions of this Regulation. For instance, in the United Kingdom, children must travel in a child restraint until they are 135 cm tall or reach 12 years of age, which ever comes soonest. As another example in Austria the driver of passenger vehicles is responsible for people shorter than 150 cm and below 14 years to be seated in an adequate child safety seat. Moreover, it is not allowed for children below the age of 3 to ride in a passenger vehicle without "security system '' (which in practice means the vehicle is not equipped with any seat belts or technical systems like Isofix), whereas children between 3 and 14 years have to ride in the back seat.
Sweden specify that a child or an adult shorter than 140 cm is legally forbidden to ride in a place with an active airbag in front of it.
The majority of medical professionals and biomechanical engineers agree that children below the age of two year old are much safer if they travel in a rearward facing child restraint.
Child safety locks and driver - controlled power window lockout controls prevent children from opening doors and windows from inside the vehicle.
Very young children can perish from heat or cold if left unattended in a parked car, whether deliberately or through absentmindedness. In 2004 the U.S. NHTSA estimated 25 fatalities per year among children left in hot cars.
In the UK, a full driving licence can be had at age 17, and most areas in the United States will issue a full driver 's license at the age of 16, and all within a range between 14 and 18. In addition to being relatively inexperienced, teen drivers are also cognitively immature, compared to other drivers. This combination leads to a relatively high crash rate among this demographic.
In some areas, new drivers ' vehicles must bear a warning sign to alert other drivers that the vehicle is being driven by an inexperienced and learning driver, giving them opportunity to be more cautious and to encourage other drivers to give novices more leeway. In the U.S. New Jersey has Kyleigh 's Law citing that teen drivers must have a decal on their vehicle.
Some countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and New Zealand, have graduated levels of driver 's licence, with special rules. By 2010, all US states required a graduated driver 's licence for drivers under age 18. In Italy, the maximum speed and power of vehicles driven by new drivers is restricted. In Romania, the maximum speed of vehicles driven by new drivers (less than one year in experience) is 20 km / h lower than the national standard (except villages, towns and cities). Many U.S. states allow 18 - year - olds to skip some requirements that younger drivers would face, which statistics show may be causing higher crash rates among new drivers. New Jersey has the same requirements for new drivers up to the age of 21, which may obviate this problem.
According to a study published in 2017 in the Mayo Clinic Proceedings, although most drivers with medical conditions were safe drivers, drivers with psychiatric conditions or substance abuse were particularly at higher risks of unsafe driving. The study also reported that drivers with neurological conditions were the majority of the entire study population (Belgium) who were referred for a driving evaluation, but they were not the most unsafe drivers.
Insurance statistics in the United States indicate a 30 % increase in the number of elderly killed, comparing 1975 to 2000. Several states require additional testing for elderly drivers. On a per - driver basis, the number of fatal and overall crashes decreases with age, with some exceptions for drivers over 75. The overall trend may be due to greater experience and avoiding driving in adverse conditions. However, on a per - miles - travelled basis, drivers younger than 25 - 30 and older than 65 - 70 have significantly higher crash rates. Survivability of crashes decreases monotonically with the age of the victim.
A common problem for the elderly is the question of when a medical condition or biological aging presents a serious enough problem that one should stop driving. In some cases, this means giving up some personal independence, but in urban areas often means relying more on public transportation. Many transit systems offer discounted fares to seniors, and some local governments run "senior shuttles '' specifically targeted at this demographic.
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who sings vocals on the nights by avicii | The Nights - wikipedia
"The Nights '' is a song by Swedish DJ and record producer Avicii. It features uncredited vocals by Nicholas Furlong, who co-wrote the song with Jordan Suecof, Gabriel Benjamin, and John Feldmann. On 1 December 2014, it was released as a digital download by PRMD Music and Universal Island on Avicii 's The Days / Nights EP, then on 11 January 2015 in the United Kingdom. The song peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart and number one on the UK Dance Chart. On 23 January 2015, Avicii released "The Nights (Avicii by Avicii) '', his own remix of the song. The song appears on the UK version of Avicii 's second studio album Stories (2015).
Furlong noted that he began writing the song as an ode to his father. The inspiration for the "pirate - y fight song '' sound came to him while at a bar in Ireland. Furlong recalled:
"I had been going back and forth with Jordan and Gabe about this song idea that merged commercially sound rock music with the signature sound of an Irish drinking song. When I returned to Los Angeles we all went into the studio. ''
Furlong sent the original idea, titled "My Father Told Me '', to Arash Pournouri, Avicii 's manager. Pournouri recognised an immediate draw to the track, saying that the song had that same sense of euphoria which characterises so much of Avicii 's music. In an interview with Yahoo! Music, Pournouri said: "It made absolute sense to work on it with Ras... (Avicii and I just needed) to make it more ' us ' and that 's what (we) did. ''
Like his previous hits "Wake Me Up '' and "Hey Brother '', "The Nights '' is a progressive house song containing elements of folk rock. It is written in the key of F#.
On 1 December 2014, a lyric video to accompany the release of "The Nights '' was released on YouTube.
On 15 December 2014, the official music video for "The Nights '' was released on YouTube and premiered on the front page of Yahoo Music. The video was produced, directed by, and stars "professional life liver '' Rory Kramer, who filmed an exuberant action - packed recollection of his own life on roller coasters, surfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, balloon flying, making a four door convertible out of a toyota, etc. -- living a life to be remembered.
"The Nights '' was featured on the soundtrack of the EA Sports video game FIFA 15.
The song was also used during Sportscenter 's ' Images of 2014 ' segment on ESPN, recapping the year 's best moments in sports.
"The Nights '' will be featured on the soundtrack of the video game WRC 5.
It has been the goal song of the Carolina Hurricanes since the 2015 -- 16 season, and the victory song of the New York Rangers since the 2015 -- 16 season.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when was the song grandma got run over by a reindeer written | Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer - wikipedia
"Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' is a novelty Christmas song. Written by Randy Brooks, the song was originally performed by the husband - and - wife duo of Elmo and Patsy Trigg Shropshire in 1979.
In the lyrics, a grandmother is celebrating at a Christmas Eve party with her family when, while off her medication and drunk on spiked eggnog, she staggers outside into a snowstorm against the pleas of everyone in the room. She is found the next day, trampled; Santa Claus and his reindeer are determined to be the culprit when "incriminating Claus marks '' are found on Grandma 's back. The second and third verses describe the Christmas gathering where "all the family 's dressed in black '' and the family wonders if all the Christmas gifts they bought for her should be returned (the consensus is a firm yes). Christmas dinner otherwise goes on as normal, with a centerpiece of roast goose, figgy pudding for dessert, and "blue and silver candles '' to match Grandma 's hairpiece; the newly widowed Grandpa seems completely unfazed by his wife 's demise and spends the holiday "watching football, drinking beer and playing cards with Cousin Mel '' (who, while not stated as such in the lyrics, is an attractive and much younger woman in the music video and animated film). The upshot is a warning to the listener to be aware, because "a man who drives a sleigh and plays with elves '' should have never received a driver 's license.
In the music video, in which Elmo plays both Grandma and Grandpa while Patsy plays Cousin Mel, Grandma survives the attack and makes a triumphant return through the chimney.
According to Brooks, he played the song while sitting in with Elmo and Patsy at the Hyatt Lake Tahoe in December 1978, and after the show they had him make a cassette of the song for them to learn. A year later, they were selling 45s of the song from the stage, with Elmo himself appearing in drag on the album cover as "Grandma ''.
The song was originally self - released in San Francisco by the Shropshires in 1979 on their own record label (on "Elmo ' n ' Patsy '' # 2984), with the B - side titled "Christmas ''. Initial copies appeared on a cream - colored label, with a sketch of a pig clearly visible, at left. Once initial copies had sold out, later - pressed # 2984 cream - colored 45 label copies retained the same pig sketch, but decided to both move the sketch, and add the word "Oink '', to the top of the 45 's label. Meanwhile, the duo 's names were moved to the bottom of the label, below the song title. By the early 1980s, the song was becoming a seasonal hit, first on country stations and then on Top 40 stations. Oink Records, still based in Windsor, California, continued distribution of the 45 rpm record in the western U.S., with "Nationwide Sound Distributors '' (NSD) of Nashville, Tennessee pressing and distributing the song on its Soundwaves Records in the eastern U.S., peaking at # 92 on the country singles charts. In 1982, the duo both re-recorded and re-released the song as a single, again as Oink # 2984. But this time, Oink chose to handle all nationwide product distribution themselves, ending the old NSD - Soundwaves agreement. Re-recorded Oink # 2984 45 copies appeared on a white label, not a cream - colored label, however. That is the easiest way (aside from listening to the 45 itself) to differentiate between the original, 1979 Oink # 2984 recording and its now - much - more familiar, 1982 re-recording. An entire LP, named after their hit song, was also recorded in 1982, and was initially released as Oink # 8223. In 1984, with the song now a big hit nationally, CBS Records was interested in re-issuing both the 1982 Oink 45 re-recording, and the 1982 Oink LP. Soon after, Epic Records acquired the rights to both, from Elmo and Patsy. The Epic # 04703 45 opted to replace the Oink 45 's B - side, "Christmas '', with a track from the LP, ("Percy, the Puny Poinsettia ''). Epic 's 1984 re-release of the 1982 Oink LP was a straight re-issue, on Epic # 39931. By the end of 1984, it was reported that sales of "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' were, by record label: Oink: 50,000 45s sold; Soundwaves: 175,000 45s sold; Epic: 150,000 45s sold and 90,000 LPs sold. The Epic Records version charted at # 64 on the country charts in 1998 and # 48 in 1999.
The original version was released in the United Kingdom on Stiff Records (BUY 99) in 1980. It did not chart.
Other releases by the original artist (s) would follow:
A sequel, "Grandpa 's Gonna Sue the Pants Off of Santa '', was released by Elmo Shropshire on his album, Dr. Elmo 's Twisted Christmas (1992). Grandpa gets lawyers to fight Santa in court.
The song has been recorded by other acts.
Z100 Portland Morning Zoo made a New Kids on the Block - bashing parody of the song for Christmas 1989, entitled "New Kids Got Run Over by a Reindeer ''.
A parody "Grandpa Got Run Over by a Beer Truck '' was released by Da Yoopers in 1993. Radio personality Bob Rivers recorded his own topical parody titled "Osama Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' on the 2002 White Trash Christmas album.
Cledus T. Judd in 1996 released a parody called "Grandpa Got Run Over by a John Deere '' as a sequel to "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' and as well did a cover of the song in 2002.
Stan Boreson sings a Norwegian - American version, "Lena Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' on his Christmas album, Stan Boreson Fractures Christmas.
Others include "Grandma Got Molested at the Airport '' by Donny Aldridge, also sung by Dick Mango; and "Grandma Got Dismembered by a Chainsaw ''.
Edison Media Research and Pinnacle Media Worldwide independently survey radio listeners on which Christmas songs they like and dislike. In both surveys, results of which were reported in 2007, the only song that reached the top of both liked and disliked lists was "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer. '' Its "loved '' ratings in the Edison and Pinnacle polls were relatively high -- 47 and 32 percent, respectively -- but so were the "hate '' or "dislike '' ratings -- 17 and 22 percent.
A major Washington, D.C. radio station, WASH (97.1 FM), dropped the song from its playlist. "It was too polarizing, '' says Bill Hess, program director. "It was n't strong, except with a few people, and it had a lot of negatives. '' The song also gained notoriety at Davenport, Iowa radio station WLLR in 1985 when a disc jockey played the song 27 times back - to - back during the morning show before station management was able to stop him. The disc jockey, who was suspended, was reportedly depressed and upset that a co-worker had left employment at the station to work out - of - state.
Shropshire claims it is "a beloved holiday favorite. '' The video of the song was "a holiday staple on MTV for many seasons. '' It has been "incorporated into talking toys and a musical greeting card. '' "My royalties are four or five times what they were '' 20 years ago, claims Elmo, who performs the song with his bluegrass group year - round. "A lot of younger people say it 's not really Christmas until they hear it. ''
The 2000 animated television program Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer portrays the events depicted in the song, though made for children; the cartoon is toned down a bit, so that Grandma survives. Moreover, Santa is actually innocent of the crime, which was instead masterminded by scheming relative Cousin Mel, who is mentioned briefly in the song but made into a gold - digging villainness in the special. Elmo Shropshire narrates the special and voices Grandpa. The special is a staple of Cartoon Network 's holiday programming and airs every holiday season on The CW (The special originally aired on the WB Network every holiday season until the 2006 merge with UPN to form The CW, where it continues to air today).
In the 2015 episode of the tv show Scorpion, titled, ' Dam Breakthrough ', three of the main characters sing part of this song, while inhaling helium.
The promotional music video for Elmo & Patsy 's "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer '' was released in the mid-1980s, and aired on MTV for at least 18 years. The video could also be seen on VH1, CMT, TNN, GAC, and VH1 Classic during the holiday season, as well as being on Spike 's official website and YouTube. Elmo Shropshire played Grandpa and Grandma while Patsy played Cousin Mel.
While the family matriarch was run over by Santa Claus 's reindeer, she has survived the accident (unlike in the song) and thus reappears toward the end of the video, alive and very much well, but somewhat fazed by the trampling. While being escorted inside the house by two policemen, she finally speaks the cautionary last line of the last verse as though commenting on Santa 's driving: "They should NEVER give a license / To a man who drives a sleigh and plays with elves ''.
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nearest metro station to ernakulam north railway station | List of Kochi Metro stations - Wikipedia
This is a list of stations in phase 1 of the Kochi Metro. There are 22 stations planned on the line from Aluva to Pettah.
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where is the biggest ball of yarn located | Biggest ball of twine - wikipedia
There are multiple claims to the world 's biggest ball of twine record in the United States. As of 2014, the ball of twine with the largest circumference is located in Cawker City, Kansas.
In Cawker City, Kansas, Frank Stoeber created a ball that had 1.6 million feet (490,000 m) of twine and 11 - foot - diameter (3.4 m) when he died in 1974. Cawker City built an open - air gazebo over Stoeber 's ball where every August a "Twine - a-thon '' is held and more twine is added to the ball. By 2006, the twine ball had reached 17,886 pounds (8,111 kg, 8.9 US tons), a circumference of 40 feet (12 m), and a length of 7,801,766 feet (2,377,978 m). In 2013, its weight was estimated at 19,973 pounds. In August 2014, the ball measures 41.42 feet (12.62 m) in circumference, 8.06 feet (2.46 m) in diameter and 10.83 feet (3.30 m) in height, and it still growing.
Darwin, Minnesota, is the home of a ball of baler twine rolled by Francis A. Johnson. It is 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter and weighs 17,400 pounds (7,900 kg). Johnson began rolling the twine in March 1950, and wrapped four hours every day for 29 years. It is currently housed in an enclosed gazebo across from the town park on Main Street at (45 ° 05 ′ 47 '' N 94 ° 24 ′ 37 '' W / 45.096332 ° N 94.410276 ° W / 45.096332; - 94.410276) to prevent the public from touching it. The town celebrates "Twine Ball Day '' on the second Saturday in August every year. An adjacent volunteer - run, free to visit museum and gift shop has information on the history of the ball, as well as selling a variety of souvenirs. It was the long - standing holder of the "biggest ball of twine '' title in the Guinness Book of World Records, holding the title from its completion in 1979 until 1994, and was referenced by "Weird Al '' Yankovic in his 1989 song "The Biggest Ball of Twine in Minnesota. ''
In Lake Nebagamon, Wisconsin, James Frank Kotera claims to have made the heaviest ball of twine ever built. He started it in 1979 and is still working. Kotera estimates, by measuring the weight of each bag of twine that he winds on, that the ball weighs 8,770 kg (19,336 pounds), making it the heaviest ball of twine ever built. The ball is housed in an open - air enclosure in Kotera 's lawn. The ball has a smaller companion, "Junior '', that is made of string.
In Branson, Missouri, a ball of nylon twine built by J.C. Payne of Valley View, Texas, is on display in Ripley 's Believe It or Not museum. The ball, which measures 41.5 feet (12.6 m) in circumference, was certified as the world 's largest ball of twine by the Guinness Book of World Records in 1993. It is, however, the lightest of the four contenders, weighing 12,000 pounds.
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the set of northbridge and the southbridge are collectively known as the | Northbridge (computing) - wikipedia
A northbridge or host bridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset architecture on a PC motherboard, the other being the southbridge. Unlike the southbridge, northbridge is connected directly to the CPU via the front - side bus (FSB) and is thus responsible for tasks that require the highest performance. The northbridge is usually paired with a southbridge, also known as I / O controller hub. In systems where they are included, these two chips manage communications between the CPU and other parts of the motherboard, and constitute the core logic chipset of the PC motherboard.
On older Intel based PCs, the northbridge was also named external memory controller hub (MCH) or graphics and memory controller hub (GMCH) if equipped with integrated graphics. Increasingly these functions became integrated into the CPU chip itself, beginning with memory and graphics controllers. For Intel Sandy Bridge and AMD Accelerated Processing Unit processors introduced in 2011, all of the functions of the northbridge reside on the CPU, while AMD FX CPUs still require external northbridge and southbridge chips.
Separating the different functions into the CPU, northbridge, and southbridge chips was due to the difficulty of integrating all components onto a single chip. In some instances, the northbridge and southbridge functions have been combined onto one die when design complexity and fabrication processes permitted it; for example, the Nvidia GeForce 320M in the 2010 MacBook Air is a northbridge / southbridge / GPU combo chip.
As CPU speeds increased over time, a bottleneck eventually emerged between the processor and the motherboard, due to limitations caused by data transmission between the CPU and its support chipset. Accordingly, starting with the AMD Athlon64 series CPUs (based on the Opteron), a new architecture was used where some functions of the north - and southbridge chips were moved to the CPU. Modern Intel Core processors have the northbridge integrated on the CPU die, where it is known as the uncore or system agent.
The northbridge typically handles communications among the CPU, in some cases RAM, and PCI Express (or AGP) video cards, and the southbridge. Some northbridges also contain integrated video controllers, also known as a Graphics and Memory Controller Hub (GMCH) in Intel systems. Because different processors and RAM require different signaling, a given northbridge will typically work with only one or two classes of CPUs and generally only one type of RAM.
There are a few chipsets that support two types of RAM (generally these are available when there is a shift to a new standard). For example, the northbridge from the Nvidia nForce2 chipset will only work with Socket A processors combined with DDR SDRAM; the Intel i875 chipset will only work with systems using Pentium 4 processors or Celeron processors that have a clock speed greater than 1.3 GHz and utilize DDR SDRAM, and the Intel i915g chipset only works with the Intel Pentium 4 and the Celeron, but it can use DDR or DDR2 memory.
The name is derived from drawing the architecture in the fashion of a map. The CPU would be at the top of the map comparable to due north on most general purpose geographical maps. The CPU would be connected to the chipset via a fast bridge (the northbridge) located north of other system devices as drawn. The northbridge would then be connected to the rest of the chipset via a slow bridge (the southbridge) located south of other system devices as drawn.
The northbridge plays an important part in how far a computer can be overclocked, as its frequency is commonly used as a baseline for the CPU to establish its own operating frequency. This chip typically gets hotter as processor speed becomes faster, requiring more cooling. There is a limit to CPU overclocking, as digital circuits are limited by physical factors such as slew rate of operational amplifiers and propagation delay, which increases with (among other factors) operating temperature; consequently most overclocking applications have software - imposed limits on the multiplier and external clock setting.
The overall trend in processor design has been to integrate more functions onto fewer components, which decreases overall motherboard cost and improves performance. The memory controller, which handles communication between the CPU and RAM, was moved onto the processor die by AMD beginning with their AMD64 processors and by Intel with their Nehalem processors. One of the advantages of having the memory controller integrated on the CPU die is to reduce latency from the CPU to memory.
Another example of this kind of change is Nvidia 's nForce3 for AMD64 systems. It combines all of the features of a normal southbridge with an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) port and connects directly to the CPU. On nForce4 boards it was marketed as a media communications processor (MCP).
AMD Accelerated Processing Unit processors feature full integration of northbridge functions onto the CPU chip, along with processor cores, memory controller and graphics processing unit (GPU). This was an evolution of the AMD64, since the memory controller was integrated on the CPU die in the AMD64.
The northbridge was replaced by the system agent introduced by the Sandy Bridge microarchitecture in 2011, which essentially handles all previous Northbridge functions. Intel 's Sandy Bridge processors feature full integration of northbridge functions onto the CPU chip, along with processor cores, memory controller and graphics processing unit (GPU). This was a further evolution of the Westmere architecture, which also featured a CPU and GPU in the same package.
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when do you vote for the house of representatives | United States House of Representatives - Wikipedia
Majority (235)
Minority (193)
Vacant (7)
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress, the Senate being the upper chamber. Together they comprise the legislature of the United States.
The composition of the House is established by Article One of the United States Constitution. The House is composed of Representatives who sit in congressional districts that are allocated to each of the 50 states on a basis of population as measured by the U.S. Census, with each district entitled to one representative. Since its inception in 1789, all Representatives have been directly elected. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435. As of the 2010 Census, the largest delegation is that of California, with fifty - three representatives. Seven states have the smallest delegation possible, a single representative: Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming.
The House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. In addition to this basic power, the House has certain exclusive powers which include the power to initiate all bills related to revenue, the impeachment of federal officers, who are sent to trial before the Senate, and in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for President, the duty falls upon the House to elect one of the top three recipients of electors for that office, with one vote given to each state for that purpose.
The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is therefore traditionally the leader of the controlling party. The Speaker and other floor leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conference, depending on whichever party has more voting members. The House meets in the south wing of the United States Capitol.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a unicameral body in which each state was equally represented, and in which each state had a veto over most action. After eight years of a more limited confederal government under the Articles, numerous political leaders such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton initiated the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which received the Confederation Congress 's sanction to "amend the Articles of Confederation ''. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates.
The issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. Edmund Randolph 's Virginia Plan called for a bicameral Congress: the lower house would be "of the people '', elected directly by the people of the United States and representing public opinion, and a more deliberative upper house that would represent the individual states, and would be less susceptible to variations of mass sentiment, would be elected by the lower house.
The House is referred to as the lower house, with the Senate being the upper house, although the United States Constitution does not use that terminology. Both houses ' approval is necessary for the passage of legislation. The Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which called for a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states.
Eventually, the Convention reached the Connecticut Compromise or Great Compromise, under which one house of Congress (the House of Representatives) would provide representation proportional to each state 's population, whereas the other (the Senate) would provide equal representation amongst the states. The Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (nine out of the 13) in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4, 1789. The House began work on April 1, 1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time.
During the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives. However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed.
Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery. One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican -- American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War (1861 -- 1865), which began soon after several southern states attempted to secede from the Union. The war culminated in the South 's defeat and in the abolition of slavery. All southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, and therefore the Senate did not hold the balance of power between North and South during the war.
The years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Union 's victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877; the ensuing era, known as the Gilded Age, was marked by sharp political divisions in the electorate. The Democratic Party and Republican Party each held majorities in the House at various times.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw a dramatic increase in the power of the Speaker of the House. The rise of the Speaker 's influence began in the 1890s, during the tenure of Republican Thomas Brackett Reed. "Czar Reed '', as he was nicknamed, attempted to put into effect his view that "The best system is to have one party govern and the other party watch. '' The leadership structure of the House also developed during approximately the same period, with the positions of Majority Leader and Minority Leader being created in 1899. While the Minority Leader was the head of the minority party, the Majority Leader remained subordinate to the Speaker. The Speakership reached its zenith during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon, from 1903 to 1911. The powers of the Speaker included chairmanship of the influential Rules Committee and the ability to appoint members of other House committees. These powers, however, were curtailed in the "Revolution of 1910 '' because of the efforts of Democrats and dissatisfied Republicans who opposed Cannon 's arguably heavy - handed tactics.
The Democratic Party dominated the House of Representatives during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 -- 1945), often winning over two - thirds of the seats. Both Democrats and Republicans were in power at various times during the next decade. The Democratic Party maintained control of the House from 1955 until 1995. In the mid-1970s, there were major reforms of the House, strengthening the power of sub-committees at the expense of committee chairs and allowing party leaders to nominate committee chairs. These actions were taken to undermine the seniority system, and to reduce the ability of a small number of senior members to obstruct legislation they did not favor. There was also a shift from the 1990s to greater control of the legislative program by the majority party; the power of party leaders (especially the Speaker) grew considerably.
The Republicans took control of the House in 1995, under the leadership of Speaker Newt Gingrich. Gingrich attempted to pass a major legislative program, the Contract with America, on which the House Republicans had been elected, and made major reforms of the House, notably reducing the tenure of committee chairs to three two - year terms. Many elements of the Contract did not pass Congress, were vetoed by President Bill Clinton, or were substantially altered in negotiations with Clinton. However, after Republicans held control in the 1996 election, Clinton and the Gingrich - led House agreed on the first balanced federal budget in decades, along with a substantial tax cut. The Republicans held on to the House until 2006, when the Democrats won control and Nancy Pelosi was subsequently elected by the House as the first female Speaker. The Republicans retook the House in 2011, with the largest shift of power since the 1930s.
Under Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution, seats in the House of Representatives are apportioned among the states by population, as determined by the census conducted every ten years. Each state is entitled to at least one Representative, however small its population.
The only constitutional rule relating to the size of the House states: "The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative. '' Congress regularly increased the size of the House to account for population growth until it fixed the number of voting House members at 435 in 1911. In 1959, upon the admission of Alaska and Hawaii, the number was temporarily increased to 437 (seating one Representative from each of those states without changing existing apportionment), and returned to 435 four years later, after the reapportionment consequent to the 1960 census.
The Constitution does not provide for the representation of the District of Columbia or of territories. The District of Columbia and the territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are each represented by one non-voting delegate. Puerto Rico elects a Resident Commissioner, but other than having a four - year term, the Resident Commissioner 's role is identical to the delegates from the other territories. The five Delegates and Resident Commissioner may participate in debates; prior to 2011, they were also allowed to vote in committees and the Committee of the Whole when their votes would not be decisive.
States that are entitled to more than one Representative are divided into single - member districts. This has been a federal statutory requirement since 1967. Prior to that law, general ticket representation was used by some states.
States typically redraw district boundaries after each census, though they may do so at other times, such as the 2003 Texas redistricting. Each state determines its own district boundaries, either through legislation or through non-partisan panels. "Malapportionment '' is unconstitutional and districts must be approximately equal in population (see Wesberry v. Sanders). Additionally, Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits redistricting plans that are intended to, or have the effect of, discriminating against racial or language minority voters. Aside from malapportionment and discrimination against racial or language minorities, federal courts have allowed state legislatures to engage in gerrymandering for the benefit of political parties or incumbents. In a 1984 case, Davis v. Bandemer, the Supreme Court held that gerrymandered districts could be struck down on the basis of the Equal Protection Clause, but the Court did not articulate a standard for when districts are impermissibly gerrymandered. However, the Court overruled Davis in 2004 in Vieth v. Jubelirer, and Court precedent currently holds gerrymandering to be a political question. According to calculations made by Burt Neuborne using criteria set forth by the American Political Science Association, about 40 seats, less than 10 % of the House membership, are chosen through a genuinely contested electoral process, given partisan gerrymandering.
Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for representatives. Each representative must: (1) be at least twenty - five years old; (2) have been a citizen of the United States for the past seven years; and (3) be (at the time of the election) an inhabitant of the state they represents. Members are not required to live in the districts they represent, but they traditionally do. The age and citizenship qualifications for representatives are less than those for senators. The constitutional requirements of Article I, Section 2 for election to Congress are the maximum requirements that can be imposed on a candidate. Therefore, Article I, Section 5, which permits each House to be the judge of the qualifications of its own members does not permit either House to establish additional qualifications. Likewise a State could not establish additional qualifications.
Disqualification: under the Fourteenth Amendment, a federal or state officer who takes the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engages in rebellion or aids the enemies of the United States, is disqualified from becoming a representative. This post -- Civil War provision was intended to prevent those who sided with the Confederacy from serving. However, disqualified individuals may serve if they gain the consent of two - thirds of both houses of Congress.
Elections for representatives are held in every even - numbered year, on Election Day the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. By law, Representatives must be elected from single - member districts. After a census is taken (in a year ending in 0), the year ending in 2 is the first year in which elections for U.S. House districts are based on that census (with the Congress based on those districts starting its term on the following Jan. 3).
In most states, major party candidates for each district are nominated in partisan primary elections, typically held in spring to late summer. In some states, the Republican and Democratic parties choose their respective candidates for each district in their political conventions in spring or early summer, which often use unanimous voice votes to reflect either confidence in the incumbent or the result of bargaining in earlier private discussions. Exceptions can result in so - called floor fight -- convention votes by delegates, with outcomes that can be hard to predict. Especially if a convention is closely divided, a losing candidate may contend further by meeting the conditions for a primary election.
The courts generally do not consider ballot access rules for independent and third party candidates to be additional qualifications for holding office and there are no federal regulations regarding ballot access. As a result, the process to gain ballot access varies greatly from state to state, and in the case of a third party may be affected by results of previous years ' elections.
In 1967, the United States Congress passed the Uniform Congressional District Act, which requires almost all representatives be elected from single - member - districts. Following the Wesberry v. Sanders decision, Congress was motivated by fears that courts would impose at - large plurality districts on states that did not redistrict to comply with the new mandates for districts roughly equal in population, and Congress also sought to prevent attempts by southern states to use such voting systems to dilute the vote of racial minorities. Several states have used multi-member districts in the past, although only two states (Hawaii and New Mexico) used multi-member districts in 1967. Hawaii and New Mexico were made exempt from the Uniform Congressional District Act, and are free to use multi-member districts, although neither state chooses to do so.
Louisiana is unique in that it holds an all - party "primary election '' on the general Election Day with a subsequent run - off election between the top two finishers (regardless of party) if no candidate received a majority in the primary. The states of Washington and California now use a similar (though not identical) system to that used by Louisiana. Seats vacated during a term are filled through special elections, unless the vacancy occurs closer to the next general election date than a pre-established deadline. The term of a member chosen in a special election usually begins the next day, or as soon as the results are certified.
Additionally, Washington D.C. and the five inhabited U.S. territories each elect a non-voting delegate. With the exception of the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, each representative and delegate serves for a two - year term. They have a voice and can introduce bills on the floor, but can not vote there.
Representatives and Delegates serve for two - year terms, while the Resident Commissioner serves for four years. The Constitution permits the House to expel a member with a two - thirds vote. In the history of the United States, only five members have been expelled from the House; in 1861, three were removed for supporting the Confederate states ' secession: John Bullock Clark (D - MO), John William Reid (D - MO) and Henry Cornelius Burnett (D - KY). Michael Myers (D - PA) was expelled after his criminal conviction for accepting bribes in 1980, and James Traficant (D - OH) was expelled in 2002 following his conviction for corruption. The House also has the power to formally censure or reprimand its members; censure or reprimand of a member requires only a simple majority, and does not remove that member from office.
As a check on the regional, popular, and rapidly changing politics of the House, the Senate has several distinct powers. For example, the "advice and consent '' powers (such as the power to approve treaties) are a sole Senate privilege. The House, however, has the exclusive power to initiate bills for raising revenue, to impeach officials, and to choose the President in the event that a presidential candidate fails to get a majority of the Electoral College votes. The Senate and House are further differentiated by term lengths and the number of districts represented: the Senate has longer terms of six years, fewer members (currently one hundred, two for each state), and (in all but seven delegations) larger constituencies per member. The Senate is informally referred to as the "upper '' house, and the House of Representatives as the "lower '' house.
As of December 2014, the annual salary of each Representative is $ 174,000. The Speaker of the House and the Majority and Minority Leaders earn more: $223,500 for the Speaker and $193,400 for their party leaders (the same as Senate leaders). A cost - of - living - adjustment (COLA) increase takes effect annually unless Congress votes to not accept it. Congress sets members ' salaries; however, the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits a change in salary (but not COLA) from taking effect until after the next election of the whole House. Representatives are eligible for retirement benefits after serving for five years. Outside pay is limited to 15 % of congressional pay, and certain types of income involving a fiduciary responsibility or personal endorsement are prohibited. Salaries are not for life, only during active term.
Representatives use the prefix "The Honorable '' before their names. A member of the House is referred to as a representative, congressman, or congresswoman. While senators are members of Congress, the terms congressman and congresswoman are not generally used by them.
All members of Congress are automatically (without the option of withdrawal) enrolled in the Federal Employees Retirement System, a pension system also used for federal civil servants. They become eligible to receive benefits after five years of service (two and one - half terms in the House). The FERS is composed of three elements:
Members of Congress may retire with full benefits at age 62 after five years of service, at age 50 after twenty years of service, and at any age after twenty - five years of service. They may retire with reduced benefits at ages 55 to 59 after five years of service. Depending on birth year, they may receive a reduced pension after ten years of service if they are between 55 years and 57 years of age.
Members of Congress are permitted to deduct up to $3,000 of living expenses per year incurred while living away from their district or home state.
Prior to 2014, members of Congress and their staff had access to essentially the same health benefits as federal civil servants; they could voluntarily enroll in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP), an employer - sponsored health insurance program, and were eligible to participate in other programs, such as the Federal Flexible Spending Account Program (FSAFEDS).
However, Section 1312 (d) (3) (D) of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) provided that the only health plans that the federal government can make available to members of Congress and certain congressional staff are those created under the ACA or offered through a health care exchange. The Office of Personnel Management promulgated a final rule to comply with Section 1312 (d) (3) (D). Under the rule, effective January 1, 2014, members and designated staff are no longer able to purchase FEHBP plans as active employees. However, if members enroll in a health plan offered through a Small Business Health Options Program (SHOP) exchange, they remain eligible for an employer contribution toward coverage, and members and designated staff who are eligible for retirement may enroll in a FEHBP plan upon retirement.
The ACA and the final rule do not affect members ' or staffers ' eligibility for Medicare benefits. The ACA and the final rule also do not affect members ' and staffers ' eligibility for other health benefits related to federal employment, so current members and staff are eligible to participate in FSAFEDS (which has three options within the program), the Federal Employees Dental and Vision Insurance Program, and the Federal Long Term Care Insurance Program.
There is an Office of the Attending Physician at the U.S. Capitol, which current members may seek health care from for an annual fee. The attending physician provides routine exams, consultations, and certain diagnostics, and may write prescriptions (although it does not dispense them). The office does not provide vision or dental care.
Current members (but not their dependents, and not former members) may also receive medical and emergency dental care at military treatment facilities. There is no charge for outpatient care if it is provided in the National Capital Region, but members are billed at full reimbursement rates (set by the Department of Defense) for inpatient care. (Outside the National Capital Region, charges are at full reimbursement rates for both inpatient and outpatient care).
House members are eligible for a Member 's Representational Allowance (MRA) to support them in their official and representational duties to their district. The MRA is calculated based on three components: one for personnel, one for official office expenses and one for official or franked mail. The personnel allowance is the same for all members; the office and mail allowances vary based on the members ' district 's distance from Washington, D.C., the cost of office space in the member 's district, and the number of non-business addresses in their district. These three components are used to calculate a single MRA that can fund any expense -- even though each component is calculated individually, the franking allowance can be used to pay for personnel expenses if the member so chooses. In 2011 this allowance averaged $1.4 million per member, and ranged from $1.35 to $1.67 million.
The Personnel allowance was $944,671 per member in 2010. Each member may employ no more than 18 permanent employees. Members ' employees ' salary is capped at $168,411 as of 2009.
Each member - elect and one staffer can be paid for one round trip between their home in their congressional district and Washington, D.C. for organization caucuses.
The party with a majority of seats in the House is known as the majority party. The next - largest party is the minority party. The Speaker, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members '' of committees) in the minority party.
The Constitution provides that the House may choose its own Speaker. Although not explicitly required by the Constitution, every Speaker has been a member of the House. The Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker, which are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the House. Speakers have a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of their party (which need not be the majority party; theoretically, a member of the minority party could be elected as Speaker with the support of a fraction of members of the majority party). Under the Presidential Succession Act (1947), the Speaker is second in the line of presidential succession behind the Vice President.
The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House but does not preside over every debate. Instead, s / he delegates the responsibility of presiding to other members in most cases. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the House chamber. The powers of the presiding officer are extensive; one important power is that of controlling the order in which members of the House speak. No member may make a speech or a motion unless s / he has first been recognized by the presiding officer. Moreover, the presiding officer may rule on a "point of order '' (a member 's objection that a rule has been breached); the decision is subject to appeal to the whole House.
Speakers serve as chairs of their party 's steering committee, which is responsible for assigning party members to other House committees. The Speaker chooses the chairmen of standing committees, appoints most of the members of the Rules Committee, appoints all members of conference committees, and determines which committees consider bills.
Each party elects a floor leader, who is known as the Majority Leader or Minority Leader. The Minority Leader heads their party in the House, and the Majority Leader is their party 's second - highest - ranking official, behind the Speaker. Party leaders decide what legislation members of their party should either support or oppose.
Each party also elects a Whip, who works to ensure that the party 's members vote as the party leadership desires. The current majority whip in the House of Representatives is Steve Scalise, who is a member of the Republican Party. The current minority whip is Steny Hoyer, who is a member of the Democratic Party. The whip is supported by chief deputy whips.
In the 115th Congress, the Democratic Party has an additional Assistant Minority Leader, Jim Clyburn, who ranks between the whips and the caucus / conference chair.
After the whips, the next ranking official in the House party 's leadership is the Party Conference Chair (styled as the Republican Conference Chair and Democratic Caucus Chair).
After the Conference Chair, there are differences between each party 's subsequent leadership ranks. After the Democratic Caucus Chair is the Campaign Committee Chair (Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee), then the co-chairs of the Steering Committee. For the Republicans it is the Chair of the House Republican Policy Committee, followed by the Campaign Committee Chairman (styled as the National Republican Congressional Committee).
The chairs of House committees, particularly influential standing committees such as Appropriations, Ways and Means, and Rules, are powerful but not officially part of House leadership hierarchy. Until the post of Majority Leader was created, the Chair of Ways and Means was the de facto majority leader.
When the Presidency and Senate are controlled by a different party from the one controlling the House, the Speaker can become the de facto "leader of the opposition ''. Some notable examples include Tip O'Neill in the 1980s, Newt Gingrich in the 1990s, and John Boehner in the 2010s. Since the Speaker is a partisan officer with substantial power to control the business of the House, the position is often used for partisan advantage.
In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition '', often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.
The House is also served by several officials who are not members. The House 's chief such officer is the Clerk, who maintains public records, prepares documents, and oversees junior officials, including pages, until the discontinuation of the House pages in 2011. The Clerk also presides over the House at the beginning of each new Congress pending the election of a Speaker. Another officer is the Chief Administrative Officer, responsible for the day - to - day administrative support to the House of Representatives. This includes everything from payroll to foodservice.
The position of Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) was created by the 104th Congress following the 1994 mid-term elections, replacing the positions of Doorkeeper and Director of Non-Legislative and Financial Services (created by the previous congress to administer the non-partisan functions of the House). The CAO also assumed some of the responsibilities of the House Information Services, which previously had been controlled directly by the Committee on House Administration, then headed by Representative Charlie Rose of North Carolina, along with the House "Folding Room ''.
The Chaplain leads the House in prayer at the opening of the day. There is also a Sergeant at Arms, who as the House 's chief law enforcement officer maintains order and security on House premises. Finally, routine police work is handled by the United States Capitol Police, which is supervised by the Capitol Police Board, a body to which the Sergeant at Arms belongs, and chairs in even - numbered years.
Like the Senate, the House of Representatives meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the Speaker, Speaker Pro Tempore, or (when in the Committee of the Whole) the Chair presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members ' seats are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern facing the rostrum and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the left of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the right, facing the presiding officer 's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of the House are generally open to the public; visitors must obtain a House Gallery pass from a congressional office. Sittings are broadcast live on television and have been streamed live on C - SPAN since March 19, 1979, and on HouseLive, the official streaming service operated by the Clerk, since the early 2010s.
The procedure of the House depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs, precedents, and traditions. In many cases, the House waives some of its stricter rules (including time limits on debates) by unanimous consent. A member may block a unanimous consent agreement; in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer, the Speaker of the House enforces the rules of the House, and may warn members who deviate from them. The Speaker uses a gavel to maintain order. The box in which legislation is placed to be considered by the House is called the hopper.
In one of its first resolutions, the U.S. House of Representatives established the Office of the Sergeant at Arms. In an American tradition adopted from English custom in 1789 by the first Speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, the Mace of the United States House of Representatives is used to open all sessions of the House. It is also used during the inaugural ceremonies for all Presidents of the United States. For daily sessions of the House, the sergeant at Arms carries the mace in front of the Speaker in procession to the rostrum. It is placed on a green marble pedestal to the Speaker 's right. When the House is in committee, the mace is moved to a pedestal next to the desk of the Sergeant at Arms.
The Constitution provides that a majority of the House constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the House, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. House rules prevent a member from making a point of order that a quorum is not present unless a question is being voted on. The presiding officer does not accept a point of order of no quorum during general debate, or when a question is not before the House.
During debates, a member may speak only if called upon by the presiding officer. The presiding officer decides which members to recognize, and can therefore control the course of debate. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr. Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, members do not refer to each other only by name, but also by state, using forms such as "the gentleman from Virginia '', "the distinguished gentlewoman from California '', or "my distinguished friend from Alabama ''.
There are 448 permanent seats on the House Floor and four tables, two on each side. These tables are occupied by members of the committee that have brought a bill to the floor for consideration and by the respective party leadership. Members address the House from microphones at any table or "the well, '' the area immediately in front of the rostrum.
Per the constitution, the House determines the rules according to which it passes legislation. The rules are in principle open to change with each new Congress, but in practice each new session amends a standing set of rules built up over the history of the body in an early resolution published for public inspection. Before legislation reaches the floor of the House, the Rules Committee normally passes a rule to govern debate on that measure (which then must be passed by the full House before it becomes effective). For instance, the committee determines if amendments to the bill are permitted. An "open rule '' permits all germane amendments, but a "closed rule '' restricts or even prohibits amendment. Debate on a bill is generally restricted to one hour, equally divided between the majority and minority parties. Each side is led during the debate by a "floor manager '', who allocates debate time to members who wish to speak. On contentious matters, many members may wish to speak; thus, a member may receive as little as one minute, or even thirty seconds, to make his / her point.
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. In many cases, the House votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "yea '' or "aye '' (in favor of the motion) or "nay '' or "no '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A member may however challenge the presiding officer 's assessment and "request the yeas and nays '' or "request a recorded vote ''. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one - fifth of the members present. In practice, however, members of congress second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. Some votes are always recorded, such as those on the annual budget.
A recorded vote may be taken in one of three different ways. One is electronically. Members use a personal identification card to record their votes at 46 voting stations in the chamber. Votes are usually held in this way. A second mode of recorded vote is by teller. Members hand in colored cards to indicate their votes: green for "yea '', red for "nay '', and orange for "present '' (i.e., to abstain). Teller votes are normally held only when electronic voting breaks down. Finally, the House may conduct a roll call vote. The Clerk reads the list of members of the House, each of whom announces their vote when their name is called. This procedure is only used rarely (such as for the election of a Speaker) because of the time consumed by calling over four hundred names.
Voting traditionally lasts for, at most, fifteen minutes, but it may be extended if the leadership needs to "whip '' more members into alignment. The 2003 vote on the prescription drug benefit was open for three hours, from 3: 00 to 6: 00 a.m., to receive four additional votes, three of which were necessary to pass the legislation. The 2005 vote on the Central American Free Trade Agreement was open for one hour, from 11: 00 p.m. to midnight. An October 2005 vote on facilitating refinery construction was kept open for forty minutes.
Presiding officers may vote like other members. They may not, however, vote twice in the event of a tie; rather, a tie vote defeats the motion.
The House uses committees and their subcommittees for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. The appointment of committee members is formally made by the whole House, but the choice of members is actually made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual members, giving priority on the basis of seniority. Historically, membership on committees has been in rough proportion to the party 's strength in the House as a whole, with two exceptions: on the Rules Committee, the majority party fills nine of the thirteen seats; and on the Ethics Committee, each party has an equal number of seats. However, when party control in the House is closely divided, extra seats on committees are sometimes allocated to the majority party. In the 109th Congress, for example, the Republicans controlled about 53 % of the House as a whole, but had 54 % of the Appropriations Committee members, 55 % of the members on the Energy and Commerce Committee, 58 % of the members on the Judiciary Committee, and 69 % of the members on the Rules Committee.
The largest committee of the House is the Committee of the Whole, which, as its name suggests, consists of all members of the House. The Committee meets in the House chamber; it may consider and amend bills, but may not grant them final passage. Generally, the debate procedures of the Committee of the Whole are more flexible than those of the House itself. One advantage of the Committee of the Whole is its ability to include otherwise non-voting members of Congress.
Most committee work is performed by twenty standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a specific set of issues, such as Agriculture or Foreign Affairs. Each standing committee considers, amends, and reports bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Committees have extensive powers with regard to bills; they may block legislation from reaching the floor of the House. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.
The House also has one permanent committee that is not a standing committee, the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and from time to time may establish committees that are temporary and advisory in nature, such as the Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming. This latter committee, created in the 110th Congress and reauthorized for the 111th, has no jurisdiction over legislation and must be chartered anew at the start of every Congress. The House also appoints members to serve on joint committees, which include members of the Senate and House. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.
Each House committee and subcommittee is led by a chairman (always a member of the majority party). From 1910 to the 1970s, committee chairs were powerful. Woodrow Wilson in his classic study, suggested:
Power is nowhere concentrated; it is rather deliberately and of set policy scattered amongst many small chiefs. It is divided up, as it were, into forty - seven seigniories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court - baron and its chairman lord - proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within the reach of the full powers of rule, may at will exercise almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself.
From 1910 to 1975 committee and subcommittee chairmanship was determined purely by seniority; congressmembers sometimes had to wait 30 years to get one, but their chairship was independent of party leadership. The rules were changed in 1975 to permit party caucuses to elect chairmen, shifting power upward to the party leaders. In 1995, Republicans under Newt Gingrich set a limit of three two - year terms for committee chairs. The chairman 's powers are extensive; he controls the committee / subcommittee agenda, and may prevent the committee from dealing with a bill. The senior member of the minority party is known as the Ranking Member. In some committees like Appropriations, partisan disputes are few.
Most bills may be introduced in either House of Congress. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ''. As a result of the Origination Clause, the Senate can not initiate bills imposing taxes. This provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Furthermore, congressional tradition holds that the House of Representatives originates appropriation bills.
Although it can not originate revenue bills, the Senate retains the power to amend or reject them. Woodrow Wilson wrote the following about appropriations bills:
(T) he constitutional prerogative of the House has been held to apply to all the general appropriations bills, and the Senate 's right to amend these has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.
The approval of the Senate and the House of Representatives is required for a bill to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies. For the stages through which bills pass in the Senate, see Act of Congress.
The President may veto a bill passed by the House and Senate. If he does, the bill does not become law unless each House, by a two - thirds vote, votes to override the veto.
The Constitution provides that the Senate 's "advice and consent '' is necessary for the President to make appointments and to ratify treaties. Thus, with its potential to frustrate Presidential appointments, the Senate is more powerful than the House.
The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '' and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. The House may approve "articles of impeachment '' by a simple majority vote; however, a two - thirds vote is required for conviction in the Senate. A convicted official is automatically removed from office and may be disqualified from holding future office under the United States. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another, Richard Nixon, resigned after the House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment but before a formal impeachment vote by the full House.) Only two Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction.
Under the Twelfth Amendment, the House has the power to elect the President if no presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. The Constitution provides that "the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote. '' It is rare for no presidential candidate to receive a majority of electoral votes. In the history of the United States, the House has only had to choose a President twice. In 1800, which was before the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment, it elected Thomas Jefferson over Aaron Burr. In 1824, it elected John Quincy Adams over Andrew Jackson and William H. Crawford. (If no vice-presidential candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the Senate elects the Vice President from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes.)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 20 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88889 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88889; - 77.00889
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why would a patient need a picc line | Peripherally inserted central catheter - wikipedia
A peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC or PIC line), less commonly called a percutaneous indwelling central catheter, is a form of intravenous access that can be used for a prolonged period of time (e.g., for long chemotherapy regimens, extended antibiotic therapy, or total parenteral nutrition) or for administration of substances that should not be done peripherally (e.g., antihypotensive agents a.k.a. pressors). It is a catheter that enters the body through the skin (percutaneously) at a peripheral site, extends to the superior vena cava (a central venous trunk), and stays in place (dwells within the veins) for days or weeks.
First described in 1975, it is an alternative to central venous catheters in major veins such as the subclavian vein, the internal jugular vein or the femoral vein. Subclavian and jugular line placements may result in pneumothorax (air in the pleural space of lung), while PICC lines have no such issue because of the method of placement.
In those who are very unwell PICC lines are appropriate when more than two weeks of treatment is needed.
Side effects include blood clots and infection.
Other complications may include catheter occlusion, phlebitis and bleeding. Urokinase or low - dose tPA may be used to break down obstructions. The type of occlusion (caused by medication precipitate or by thrombus) may determine which drug will be used in an attempt to clear the line. To decrease the risk of infection, particularly a blood stream infection, those involved in the management of the PICC must adhere to strict infection control procedures.
A PICC is inserted in a peripheral vein in the arm, such as the cephalic vein, basilic vein or brachial vein, and then advanced proximally toward the heart through increasingly larger veins, until the tip rests in the distal superior vena cava or cavoatrial junction.
PICCs are usually inserted by physicians, physician assistants (in the US), radiologist assistants (in the US), respiratory therapists, nurse practitioners, or specially trained certified registered nurses and radiologic technologists using ultrasound, chest radiographs, and fluoroscopy to aid in their insertion and to confirm placement. PICC insertion is a sterile procedure, but does not require the use of an operating room. When done at bedside (that is, in the patient 's room), a suitable sterile field must be established and maintained throughout the procedure. For this reason, visitors are normally requested to leave the room until the insertion is complete, and some form of skin preparation should be used to clean the patient 's skin.
The insertable portion of a PICC varies from 25 to 60 cm in length, that being adequate to reach the desired tip position in most patients. Some lines are designed to be trimmed to the desired length before insertion; others are simply inserted to the needed depth with the excess left outside. As supplied, the line has a guide wire inside. This wire is provided to stiffen the (otherwise very flexible) line so it can be threaded through the veins. The wire is removed and discarded after insertion.
The PICC is also provided with a "wing '' having holes for either sutures or an adhesive securing device. Securing the catheter prevents post-insertion movements of the line, which otherwise could place the tip in an unsafe position.
PICCs can remain in situ for extended periods of time, from seven days to 4 months up to 12 months although little information is available with respect to viability timeframes. They are used in both the hospital and community settings. PICCs can be used for intravenous delivery of total parenteral nutrition (TPN), chemotherapy, antibiotics or other medications, and can also be used for blood sampling if the lumen is 4 French or larger in size (Arrow and Bard manufacturers guidelines). To maintain patency, PICC management should include regular flushing with normal saline and "locking '' with Heparin or normal saline when not in use. The type of locking procedure depends on the type of PICC and bung; Groshong PICCs have a three - way valve at the tip so the use of a heparin lock is not necessary, and there are no clamps on the external length. In comparison, Arrow PICCs have clamps on the exterior line and require a heparin lock. The use of heparin to maintain line patency, though, is questionable, and currently randomized clinical control trials are investigating this further. Heparin locks have been associated with complications, including heparin - induced thrombocytopaenia.
Blood pressure should not be taken on the arm with a PICC, which is a problem if there are reasons not to take pressure on the other arm, such as a dialysis shunt, absence, cast, infection, lymph node removal, etc. Blood pressure readings on legs are often 10 -- 20 % higher than those on the brachial artery.
Certain types of PICCs have recently been approved by the FDA for use in power injection. These types, often referred to as power - injectable PICCs, are designed to withstand the high pressures associated with radiocontrast studies.
PICCs can also be used to measure central venous pressure, which is a rough estimate of the right atrial pressures of the heart and can give valuable information about fluid status.
In most cases the removal of a PICC is a simple procedure. Generally, the catheter line can be safely and quickly removed by a trained nurse, even in the patient 's own home, in a matter of minutes. After removal, the insertion site is normally bandaged with sterile gauze and kept dry for a few days, during which the wound can close and begin healing. Usually, a smaller adhesive bandage can be placed over the wound site after the gauze is removed if the wound is slow to heal. The tip of the catheter is sent for MCS (microscopy culture and sensitivity) if the patient is systemically unwell at the time of removal of the PICC. In certain units, it is sent as routine investigation.
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how many episodes is season 7 of game of thrones | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 % approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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who is known as the human computer of india | Shakuntala Devi - wikipedia
Shakuntala Devi (Kannada: ಶಕುಂತಲಾ ದೇವಿ; 4 November 1929 -- 21 April 2013) was an Indian writer and mental calculator, popularly known as the "human computer ''. A child prodigy, her talent earned her a place in the 1982 edition of The Guinness Book of World Records.
As a writer, Devi wrote a number of books, including novels as well as texts about mathematics, puzzles, and astrology. She wrote the book, The World of Homosexuals, which is considered the first study of homosexuality in India. She treated homosexuality in an understanding light and is considered a pioneer in the field.
Shakuntala Devi was born in Bengaluru, Karnataka, India, to an orthodox Kannada Brahmin family. Her father rebelled against becoming a temple priest and instead joined a circus where he worked as a trapeze artist, lion tamer, tightrope walker and magician. He discovered his daughter 's ability to memorise numbers while teaching her a card trick when she was about three years old. Her father left the circus and took her on road shows that displayed her ability at calculation. She did this without any formal education. At the age of six, she demonstrated her arithmetic abilities at the University of Mysore.
In 1944, Devi moved to London with her father.
Devi travelled the world demonstrating her arithmetic talents, including a tour of Europe in 1950 and a performance in New York City in 1976. In 1988, she travelled to the US to have her abilities studied by Arthur Jensen, a professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Jensen tested her performance of several tasks, including the calculation of large numbers. Examples of the problems presented to Devi included calculating the cube root of 61,629,875 and the seventh root of 170,859,375. Jensen reported that Devi provided the solution to the above mentioned problems (395 and 15, respectively) before Jensen could copy them down in his notebook. Jensen published his findings in the academic journal Intelligence in 1990.
In 1977, at Southern Methodist University, she gave the 23rd root of a 201 - digit number in 50 seconds. Her answer -- 546,372,891 -- was confirmed by calculations done at the US Bureau of Standards by the UNIVAC 1101 computer, for which a special program had to be written to perform such a large calculation.
On 18 June 1980, she demonstrated the multiplication of two 13 - digit numbers -- 7,686,369,774,870 × 2,465,099,745,779 -- picked at random by the Computer Department of Imperial College London. She correctly answered 18,947,668,177,995,426,462,773,730 in 28 seconds. This event was recorded in the 1982 Guinness Book of Records. Writer Steven Smith said, "the result is so far superior to anything previously reported that it can only be described as unbelievable ''.
Devi explained many of the methods she used to do mental calculations in her book ' Figuring: The Joy of Numbers ', that is still in print. See the Works section below.
In 1977, she wrote The World of Homosexuals, the first study of homosexuality in India. In the documentary For Straights Only, she said that her interest in the topic came out of her marriage to a homosexual man and her desire to look at homosexuality more closely to understand it.
The book, considered "pioneering '', features interviews with two young Indian homosexual men, a male couple in Canada seeking legal marriage, a temple priest who explains his views on homosexuality, and a review of the existing literature on homosexuality. It ends with a call for decriminalization of homosexuality, and "full and complete acceptance -- not tolerance and sympathy ''. The book, however, went mostly unnoticed at that time.
She returned to India in the mid-1960s and married Paritosh Banerji, an officer of the Indian Administrative Service from Kolkata. They were divorced in 1979. In 1980, she contested in the Lok Sabha elections as an independent, from Bombay South and from Medak in part of Andhra Pradesh (now Telangana). In Medak she stood against Indira Gandhi, saying she wanted to "defend the people of Medak from being fooled by Mrs. Gandhi ''; she stood ninth, with 6514 votes (1.47 % of the votes). Devi returned to Bengaluru in the early 1980s.
In addition to her work as a mental calculator, Devi was an astrologer and an author of several books, including cookbooks and novels.
In April 2013, Devi was admitted to a hospital in Bengaluru with respiratory problems. Over the following two weeks she suffered from complications of the heart and kidneys. She died in the hospital on 21 April 2013. She was 83 years old then. She is survived by her daughter, Anupama Banerjee.
On 4 November 2013, Devi was honoured with a Google Doodle for what would have been her 84th birthday (https://www.google.com/doodles/shakuntala-devis-84th-birthday).
Some of her books are:
For Garcia - Arroyo the beginning of the debate on homosexuality in the twentieth century is made with Shakuntala Devi 's book The World of Homosexuals published in 1977. (...) Shakuntala Devi 's (the famous mathematician) (sic) book appeared. This book went almost unnoticed, and did not contribute to queer discourse or movement. (...) The reason for this book not making its mark was because Shakuntala Devi was famous for her mathematical wizardry and nothing of substantial import in the field of homosexuality was expected from her. Another factor for the indifference meted out to the book could perhaps be a calculated silence because the cultural situation in India was inhospitable for an open and elaborate discussion on this issue.
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the flaming lips yoshimi battles the pink robots meaning | Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots - wikipedia
Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots is the tenth studio album by The Flaming Lips, released by Warner Bros. Records on July 16, 2002, in the United States and the previous day in the United Kingdom. It is characterized by electronic - influenced, psychedelic - tinged indie rock compositions. It has been certified Gold by the RIAA. Yoshimi was well - received critically and commercially, helping the band break into the mainstream. The album was adapted into a musical in 2012.
The lyrics of Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots concern a diverse array of subject matter, mostly melancholy ponderings about love, mortality, artificial emotion, pacifism, and deception, while telling the story of Yoshimi 's battle. The title character is inspired by Boredoms / OOIOO member Yoshimi P - We, following a comment in the Flaming Lips studio that her machine - sound abstract singing sounds like she is battling monsters -- Coyne added ' pink '. P - We also performs on the album. Some listeners consider Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots to be a concept album; however, the story is debated, as it is only directly apparent in the first four tracks. Despite the story - type title and science fiction themes of the album, Flaming Lips frontman Wayne Coyne has made it clear that the album is not intended to be a concept album.
The vocal melody of track one, "Fight Test '', echoes Cat Stevens 's "Father and Son ''. Stevens, now Yusuf Islam, is receiving royalties following a relatively uncontentious settlement. The band 's frontman, Wayne Coyne, claims that he was unaware of the songs ' similarities until producer Dave Fridmann pointed them out. This claim however is contradicted by his statement to Rolling Stone magazine: ' I know "Father and Son '' and I knew there would be a little bit of comparison. "Fight Test '' is not a reference necessarily to the ideas of "Father and Son '', but definitely a reference to the cadence, the melody, and chord progression. I think it 's such a great arrangement of chords and melody '.
The final track, "Approaching Pavonis Mons by Balloon (Utopia Planitia) '', won a 2002 Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance. The Flaming Lips also won the same award for "The Wizard Turns On... '', taken from At War with the Mystics, in 2006.
In addition to the single Compact Disc format, Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots was also released as a special two - disc release in 2003. This version contains the regular album and a DVD containing various alternate takes, b - sides, music videos, video footage from the album recordings, and the trailer for The Flaming Lips ' film, Christmas on Mars. In addition to bonus content on the DVD, there is a 5.1 DVD - Audio version of the entire album included. There was also a limited edition translucent red LP version.
In recent years, Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots has proved itself to have a bigger commercial impact than the band 's 1999 breakthrough album, The Soft Bulletin, and became their first gold - certified release in April 2006.
In 2003, British bastard pop DJ Eric Kleptone released a mashup album called Yoshimi Battles the Hip - Hop Robots which paired instrumentals from the album with rap samples and lyrics.
For the television show Friends, Flaming Lips re-wrote the song "Yoshimi Battles The Pink Robots '' into "Phoebe Battles The Pink Robots '' to fit one of the show 's main characters. The music video appears on Disc 4 of the 9th Season DVD.
As a 2014 April Fool 's gag, Funny or Die posted a fake trailer for Yoshimi: Fall of the Chosen starring members of The Flaming Lips. The short is laced with references from the album: "Evil Natured Robots Programed to Destroy Us '' scrolls by during news footage, "Yoshimi! Do n't let them eat me! '' is heard in the dialogue, and there is a quick shot of Yoshimi taking her vitamins.
Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots received acclaim from music critics. Calling the album "as strange as it is wonderful, '' Billboard nonetheless noted that "beneath the sunny, computer - generated atmospherics and the campy veneer of talk about gladiator - style clashes between man and machines with emotions, Yoshimi is actually a somber rumination on love and survival in an unfathomable world. '' Tom Moon of Rolling Stone praised the album 's "ambitious '' production, while Fortune magazine called it "a lush and haunting electronic symphony. '' Uncut declared that "even by their standards, Yoshimi is astonishing. '' Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a three - star honorable mention rating, indicating "an enjoyable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well treasure ''. Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots appeared in the best - albums - of - the - decade lists of several music publications, such as Rolling Stone (# 27) and Uncut (# 11), with Uncut also declaring it the greatest album released in the magazine 's lifetime. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
As of 2009 it has sold 570,000 copies in United States according to Nielsen SoundScan.
It was announced in March 2007 that the album would be made into a Broadway musical by The West Wing creator Aaron Sorkin and director Des McAnuff. Frontman Wayne Coyne said of the plot:
Des McAnuff stated that Aaron Sorkin exited the project after it became clear the musical would be sung through.
The musical includes existing songs from the album, as well as two other Flaming Lips albums, The Soft Bulletin and At War with the Mystics.
The show received its world premiere at the Tony Award - winning La Jolla Playhouse in November 2012, starring Kimiko Glenn as Yoshimi Yasukawa, Paul Nolan as Ben Nickel, Nik Walker as Booker, Pearl Sun as Mrs. Yasukawa, John Haggerty as Mr. Yasukawa and Tom Hewitt as Dr. Petersen.
All tracks written by The Flaming Lips (Wayne Coyne, Steven Drozd, Michael Ivins) except where noted.
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lee daniels star is there a season 3 | Star (TV series) - wikipedia
Star is an American musical drama television series created by Lee Daniels and Tom Donaghy for Fox. It revolves around three talented young singers who navigate the music business on their road to success. The series, which is set in Atlanta, consists of original music, along with musical fantasy sequences, as dreams of the future. Queen Latifah, Benjamin Bratt, Amiyah Scott and Quincy Brown co-star.
The series premiered on December 14, 2016. With the premiere of the series, Amiyah Scott became the third openly transgender person to play a trans major character in a scripted television drama series in America, after Laverne Cox on Orange is the New Black and Jamie Clayton on Sense8.
On February 22, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on September 27, 2017 and crossed over with other Fox series Empire.
In August 2015, Fox announced it had ordered a pilot for a potential new musical drama series titled Star from Empire - creator Lee Daniels about three girls forming a girl group. In October that same year, casting for the series began. It was revealed that the series would feature a transgender character. On December 7, 2015, it was announced that Queen Latifah had joined the cast as Carlotta, Jude Demorest as Star, Brittany O'Grady as Simone and Ryan Destiny as Alexandra. On December 11, 2015, it was confirmed that Benjamin Bratt has joined the cast as Jahil, a talent manager. On December 14, 2015, Darius McCrary joined the series as the abusive foster father of Simone (O'Grady). Production for the pilot began in December 2015. The series was picked up, with a 12 - episode order, on April 27, 2016. On October 9, 2017, FOX ordered an additional five episodes for the second season, bringing the season total to 18 episodes.
On May 4, 2016, it was announced that Charles Murray would serve as showrunner during its first season. On September 13, 2016, it was announced that Charles Pratt Jr. would replace Murray as the series ' showrunner, following his decision to depart the series, due to creative differences.
Following the conclusion of the show 's first season, Pratt stepped down as showrunner and was subsequently replaced by Karin Gist.
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who created the aegis breastplate for the greek god zeus | Aegis - wikipedia
The aegis (/ ˈiːdʒɪs / EE - jis; Ancient Greek: αἰγίς aigis), as stated in the Iliad, is carried by Athena and Zeus, but its nature is uncertain. It had been interpreted as an animal skin or a shield, sometimes bearing the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex or Aix, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 13). The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the Iliad. "It produced a sound as from a myriad roaring dragons (Iliad, 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle... and among them went bright - eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight - woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen. ''
The modern concept of doing something "under someone 's aegis '' means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source. The word aegis is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well, where the Greek word aegis is applied by extension.
Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus ' forge, who "busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods -- a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake - skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess 's breast -- a severed head rolling its eyes '', furnished with golden tassels and bearing the Gorgoneion (Medusa 's head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase - painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and "re-born '' through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.
When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear. "Aegis - bearing Zeus '', as he is in the Iliad, sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the Iliad when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton 's Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes, the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was "awful to behold ''. However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.
Classical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena. It was supposed by Euripides (Ion, 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon, yet the usual understanding is that the Gorgoneion was added to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.
In a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire - breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70), or as a chlamys. The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the great serpent, with its scales clearly delineated.
John Tzetzes says that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.
In a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (Poetical Astronomy ii. 13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (aigis "goat - skin '') which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.
The aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal 's skin thrown over Athena 's shoulders and arms, occasionally with a border of snakes, usually also bearing the Gorgon head, the gorgoneion. In some pottery it appears as a tasselled cover over Athena 's dress. It is sometimes represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on cameos and vases. A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon.
Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the ægis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks. "Athene 's garments and ægis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents. ''
Robert Graves in The Greek Myths (1955; 1960) asserts that the ægis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent - haired visage with tusk - like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.
One current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (kursas), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H.G. Güterbock, was a source of the aegis.
The Greek αἰγίς aigis, has many meanings including:
The original meaning may have been the first, and Ζεὺς Αἰγίοχος Zeus Aigiokhos = "Zeus who holds the aegis '' may have originally meant "Sky / Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm ''. The transition to the meaning "shield '' or "goatskin '' may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.
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who is part of the saudi led coalition | Saudi Arabian - led intervention in Yemen - wikipedia
Ongoing
Saudi Arabia UAE Bahrain Kuwait Qatar (until 2017) Egypt Jordan Morocco Senegal Sudan Supported by: United States
United Kingdom (intelligence, logistical support, weapons, and blockade) Canada (weapons sales) Turkey China (weapons sales) Germany (weapons sales) Logistical Support: Djibouti Eritrea Somalia France
In support of: Yemen (Hadi government)
Non-state co-belligerents:
Yemen (Revolutionary Committee / Supreme Political Council)
Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud Lt. Gen. Muhammad Al Shaalan † Maj. Gen. Abdulrahman bin Saad al - Shahrani † Brig. Gen. Ahmad Asiri Brig. Gen. Ibrahim Hamzi † Col. Abdullah al - Sahian † Col. Hassan Ghasoum Ageeli † Lt. Col. Abdullah al - Balwi † Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan Col. Mohammed Ali al - Kitbi † / Cmdr. Mike Hindmarsh Sabah Al - Ahmad Al - Jaber Al - Sabah Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Khalid bin Hamad Al Khalifa (WIA) Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani Abdel Fattah el - Sisi Omar al - Bashir Abdullah II Mohamed VI Macky Sall
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi Mahmoud al - Subaihi (POW) Gen. Ali Mohsen Al - Ahmar
Mohammed Ali al - Houthi (2015 -- 2016) Saleh Ali al - Sammad (from 2016) Mohamed al - Atafi (from 2016) Hussein Khairan (2015 -- 2016) Sharaf Luqman Ali Al - Jaifi Hussein al - Ezzi
100 warplanes and 150,000 troops 30 warplanes, one brigade and 1,800 mercenaries from Latin America 4 warplanes and 6,000 troops
150,000 -- 200,000 fighters 200,000 -- 250,000
449 soldiers killed 10 captured; 2 aircraft lost; 9 helicopters lost 20 M1A2S lost 1 frigate damaged 120 soldiers killed 3 aircraft lost 3 helicopters lost 1 HSV - 2 Swift lost 412 soldiers killed 8 soldiers killed 1 F - 16 crashed 4 soldiers killed 1 soldier killed 1 F - 16 shot down 1 F - 16 lost 16 foreign mercenaries killed (1 1 1 10 1 1
134 soldiers killed and 292 wounded (friendly fire) 164 soldiers killed
12,907 civilians killed (Including 1,980 women and 2,768 children) According to the Legal Center for Rights and Development. 10,000 + Yemeni civilians killed 500 + Saudi civilians killed on the Saudi - Yemen border
Transition and AQAP campaign (2012 -- 13)
Houthi rebellion (2014 -- 15)
Yemeni Civil War (2015 -- present)
A military intervention was launched by Saudi Arabia in 2015, leading a coalition of nine African and Middle East countries, to influence the outcome of the Yemeni Civil War in favour of the government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. Code - named Operation Decisive Storm (Arabic: عملية عاصفة الحزم ` Amaliyyat ` Āṣifat al - Ḥazm), the intervention initially consisted of a bombing campaign on Houthi Rebels and later saw a naval blockade and the deployment of ground forces into Yemen. The Saudi - led coalition has attacked the positions of the Houthi militia and loyalists of the former President of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, allegedly supported by Iran (See Iran -- Saudi Arabia proxy conflict), in response to a request from the internationally - recognized but domestically opposed government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. The perception that Iran is supporting the Houthis is contradicted due to statement made on April 2015, by National Security Council spokeswoman Bernadette Meehan: "It remains our assessment that Iran does not exert command and control over the Houthis in Yemen ''
Fighter jets and ground forces from Egypt, Morocco, Jordan, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and Academi mercenaries also took part in the operation. Djibouti, Eritrea and Somalia made their airspace, territorial waters and military bases available to the coalition. The United States provided intelligence and logistical support, including aerial refueling and search - and - rescue for downed coalition pilots. It also accelerated the sale of weapons to coalition states. US and Britain have deployed their military personnel in the command and control centre responsible for Saudi - led air strikes on Yemen, having access to lists of targets. Pakistan was called on by Saudi Arabia to join the coalition, but its parliament voted to maintain neutrality. On 21 April 2015, the Saudi - led military coalition announced an end to Operation Decisive Storm, saying the intervention 's focus would "shift from military operations to the political process ''. The kingdom and its coalition partners said they would be launching political and peace efforts, which they called Operation Restoring Hope (Arabic: عملية إعادة الأمل ` Amaliyyat ' I ` ādat al - ' Amal). However, the coalition did not rule out using force, saying it would respond to threats and prevent Houthi militants from operating within Yemen. Qatar is now not allowed to be a part of the team, because of the current crisis.
The war has received widespread criticism and had a dramatic worsening effect on the humanitarian situation, that reached the level of a "humanitarian disaster '' or "humanitarian catastrophe ''. After the Saudi - led coalition declared the entire Saada Governorate a military target, the UN 's Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen and Human Rights Watch said that air strikes by the Saudi - led coalition on Saada city in Yemen were in breach of international law. On 1 July UN declared for Yemen a "level - three '' emergency -- the highest UN emergency level -- for a period of six months. Human rights groups repeatedly blamed the Saudi - led military coalition for killing civilians and destroying health centers and other infrastructure with airstrikes. The de facto blockade left 78 % (20 million) of the Yemeni population in urgent need of food, water and medical aid. Aid ships are allowed, but the bulk of commercial shipping, on which the country relies, is blocked. In one occasion, coalition jets prevented an Iranian Red Crescent plane from landing by bombing Sana'a International Airport 's (SIA) runway, which blocked aid delivery via air. As of 10 December, more than 2,500,000 people had been internally displaced by the fighting. Many countries evacuated more than 23,000 foreign citizens from Yemen. More than 1,000,000 people fled Yemen for Saudi Arabia, Djibouti, Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan and Oman.
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, running unopposed for president, won the 2012 Yemeni elections. The Houthis (or Ansar Allah), a Zaidi Shia movement and militant group thought to be backed by Iran, took control of the Yemeni government through a series of actions in 2014 and 2015. Saudi Arabia and other countries denounced this as an unconstitutional coup d'état.
In military operations on the ground, the Houthis were supported by sections of the Yemeni armed forces loyal to former president Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was removed from power as part of the 2011 Arab Spring uprisings. Houthi leaders claimed that Saudi Arabia was trying to break the alliance between the Houthis and Saleh 's supporters; reports claimed that Saleh 's son Ahmed Ali Saleh had traveled to the Saudi capital to attempt to broker a deal to end the airstrikes. Saudi media claim that Saleh or his son had approached Riyadh seeking such a deal.
By September 2014, Houthi fighters captured Sana'a, toppling Hadi 's government. Soon after, a peace deal (known as the Peace and Partnership Agreement) was concluded between the Hadi government and the Houthis, but was not honored by either party. The deal was drafted with the intent of defining a power - sharing government. A conflict over a draft constitution resulted in the Houthis consolidating control over the Yemeni capital in January 2015. After resigning from his post alongside his prime minister and remaining under virtual house arrest for one month, Hadi fled to Aden in southern Yemen in February. Upon arriving in Aden, Hadi withdrew his resignation, saying that the actions of the Houthis from September 2014 had amounted to a "coup '' against him. By 25 March, forces answering to Sana'a were rapidly closing in on Aden, which Hadi had declared to be Yemen 's temporary capital.
During the Houthis ' southern offensive, Saudi Arabia began a military buildup on its border with Yemen. In response, a Houthi commander boasted that his troops would counterattack against any Saudi aggression and would not stop until they had taken Riyadh, the Saudi capital.
On 25 March, Hadi called on the UN Security Council to authorise "willing countries that wish to help Yemen to provide immediate support for the legitimate authority by all means and measures to protect Yemen and deter the Houthi aggression ''.
Yemen 's foreign minister, Riad Yassin, requested military assistance from the Arab League on 25 March, amid reports that Hadi had fled his provisional capital. On 26 March, Saudi state TV station Al - Ekhbariya TV reported that Hadi arrived at a Riyadh airbase and was met by Saudi Defense Minister Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud. His route from Aden to Riyadh was not immediately known.
At a summit of the Arab League held in Sharm El - Sheikh, Egypt, on 28 -- 29 March, President Hadi again repeated his calls for international intervention in the fighting. A number of League members pledged their support to Hadi 's government during that meeting.
According to the Saudi news outlet Al Arabiya, Saudi Arabia contributed 100 warplanes and 150,000 soldiers to the military operation. Reuters indicated that planes from Egypt, Morocco, Jordan, Sudan, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Bahrain were taking part.
The UAE contributed 30 fighter jets, Kuwait sent 15 (understood to be three squadrons of F / A-18 Hornet aircraft), Bahrain sent 15, Qatar 10, Jordan and Morocco six each and Sudan four.
The operation was declared over on 21 April 2015.
On March 2015 in a joint statement, the member - states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (with the exception of Oman) said they had decided to intervene against the Houthis at the request of Hadi 's government.
The coalition declared Yemeni airspace to be a restricted area, with King Salman declaring the RSAF to be in full control of the zone. Saudi Arabia began airstrikes, reportedly relying on US intelligence reports and surveillance images to select and hit targets, including weapons, aircraft on the ground and air defences. Al Jazeera reported that Mohammed Ali al - Houthi, a Houthi commander appointed in February as president of the Revolutionary Committee, was injured and three other Houthi commanders were killed by airstrikes in Sana'a.
Strikes on 26 March also hit Al Anad Air Base, a former U.S. special operations forces facility in Lahij Governorate seized by Houthis earlier in the week. The targets reportedly included the Houthi - controlled missile base in Sana'a and its fuel depot. Strikes overnight also targeted Houthis in Taiz and Sa'dah. Thousands demonstrated in Sana'a against the intervention, which ex-president Ali Abdullah Saleh also condemned. In Taiz thousands came out supporting Hadi and Saudi Arabia.
The scope of strikes expanded further on 27 March, with a radar installation in the Ma'rib Governorate and an airbase in the Abyan Governorate coming under air attack. The commander of the operation dismissed reports of civilian casualties, saying airstrikes were being carried out with precision. Additional strikes early in the next day hit targets in Al Hudaydah, Sa'dah and the Sana'a area, as well as Ali Abdullah Saleh 's main base. Rumours indicated Saleh fled to Sanhan, on the outskirts of the Houthi - controlled capital. An Aden government official said Saudi strikes destroyed a long - range missile facility controlled by the Houthis.
The Houthis claimed to have shot down a Sudanese Air Force plane over northern Sana'a and captured its pilot on 28 March. The Sudanese government denied that any of its four warplanes had come under fire or been shot down. On the previous day, the Houthis claimed to have shot down a "hostile '' Saudi drone in Sana'a.
Airstrikes hit an arms depot, military airbase and special forces headquarters in Sana'a early on 29 March. A weapons depot outside Sana'a was destroyed, causing damage to an airport and planes on the ground. Sa'dah and Al Hudaydah were targeted as well. Brigadier General Ahmed Asiri, the coalition 's spokesman, said Saudi artillery and Apache attack helicopters were mobilised to "deter '' Houthi fighters massing on the border with Saudi Arabia.
On 30 March, at least 40 people including children were killed and 200 were injured by an airstrike that hit Al - Mazraq refugee camp near a military installation in northern district of Haradh, international organizations said. Airstrikes also hit areas near the presidential palace in Sana'a, as well as Aden International Airport.
Food storage of Yemen Economic Corporation in Hodeidah was destroyed by three coalition strikes on 31 March. Airstrikes were not limited to the Yemeni mainland. Missiles struck homes on the island of Perim, according to residents who fled by boat to Djibouti.
Dozens of casualties came from an explosion at a dairy and oil factory in Al Hudaydah, which was variously blamed on an airstrike or a rocket from a nearby military base on 1 April. Medical sources reported 25 deaths, while the Yemen Army said 37 were killed and 80 wounded. Airstrikes also hit targets in Sa'dah on 1 April.
Despite persistent airstrikes, Houthi and allied units continued to advance on central Aden, backed by tanks and heavy artillery. Houthis seized the presidential palace on 2 April, but reportedly withdrew after overnight air raids early the next day. Coalition planes also airdropped weapons and medical aid to pro-Hadi fighters in Aden.
The International Committee of the Red Cross announced on 5 April that it had received permission from the coalition to fly medical supplies and aid workers into Sana'a and was awaiting permission to send a surgical team by boat to Aden. The coalition said it had set up a special body to coordinate aid deliveries to Yemen.
On 6 April, airstrikes began before sunset and struck targets in western Sana'a, Sa'dah and the Ad Dali ' Governorate, a supply route for Houthis in the Battle of Aden.
Airstrikes on 7 April hit a Republican Guard base in the Ibb Governorate, injuring 25 troops. Yemeni sources claimed three children at a nearby school were killed by the attack, while six were injured.
The Parliament of Pakistan voted against military action on 10 April, despite a request from Saudi Arabia that it join the coalition.
Airstrikes launched on 12 April, against the base of the 22nd Brigade of the Yemeni Republican Guard in the Taiz Governorate struck both the brigade and a nearby village inhabited by members of the Al - Akhdam minority community, killing eight civilians and injuring more than ten others. On 17 April, both the GCC coalition 's spokesman called by Saudi broadcaster Al - Ehkbariya TV and a commander of the pro-Hadi rebels on the ground said airstrikes had intensified, focusing on both Sana'a and Taiz. One strike on the Republican Palace in Taiz killed 19 pro-Houthi gunmen.
Egypt and Saudi Arabia committed warships to support coalition operations. Somalia offered its airspace and territorial waters. Four Egyptian Navy vessels steamed toward the Gulf of Aden after operations began. Riyadh requested access to Somali airspace and waters to carry out operations. On 27 March, the Egyptian military said a squadron of Egyptian and Saudi warships took up positions at the Bab al - Mandab strait. The Saudi military threatened to destroy any ship attempting to make port.
The Royal Saudi Navy evacuated diplomats and United Nations staff from Aden to Jeddah on 28 March.
Witnesses told Reuters that Egyptian warships bombarded Houthi positions as they attempted to advance on Aden on 30 March. Warships again fired on Houthi positions at Aden International Airport on or about 1 April.
Djibouti foreign minister Mahmoud Ali Youssouf said the Houthis placed heavy weapons and fast attack boats on Perim and a smaller island in the Bab al - Mandab strait. He warned that "the prospect of a war in the strait of Bab al - Mandab is a real one '' and said the weapons posed "a big danger '' to his country, commercial shipping traffic, and military vessels. He called on the coalition to clear the islands, which he said included missiles and long - range cannons.
On 4 April, Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el - Sisi called protecting Red Sea shipping and securing the Bab al - Mandab "a top priority for Egypt 's national security ''.
On 15 April, coalition spokesman Saudi Brigadier General Ahmed Al - Asiri, said that the its warships were focusing on protecting shipping routes and screening ships heading to port for shipments intended for the Houthis.
The US Navy provided support to the naval blockade, halting and searching vessels suspected of carrying Iranian arms to the Houthis. On 21 April, the United States announced it was deploying warships to Yemeni waters to monitor Iranian ships. The US in particular noted a convoy of Iranian vessels, which US authorities said could potentially be carrying weapons to Houthi fighters in contravention of UN sanctions. The US reported that the Iranian convoy reversed course on 23 April.
Sudan said it was stationing ground troops in Saudi Arabia. The Special Forces of the Bahrain Defence Force, Taskforce 11, were also deployed to Yemen.
Between 31 March and April, Saudi and Houthi forces reportedly traded artillery and rocket fire across the border between SA and Yemen. A Saudi border guard was killed on 2 April, the campaign 's first confirmed coalition casualty. Followed by another two soldiers killed the next day. Two Egyptian truck drivers died by Houthi artillery shelling.
SA reportedly began removing sections of the Saudi -- Yemen barrier fence along its border with the Sa'dah and Hajjah governorates on 3 April. The purpose of the removal was not immediately clear.
On 12 April, members of the Takhya tribe launched an attack on a Saudi base after several of its members died in an airstrike. Weapons and ammunition were taken.
On 19 April, as Houthi leader Abdul - Malek El - Houthi accused SA of planning to invade Yemen, Asiri claimed that coalition forces had information regarding a planned Houthi incursion into SA. A Saudi border guard died on 19 April and two others were injured from gunfire and mortar shelling across the border.
On 21 April, the Saudi Defence Ministry declared it was ending the campaign of airstrikes because it had "successfully eliminated the threat '' to its security posed by Houthi ballistic and heavy weaponry. It announced the start of a new phase codenamed Operation Restoring Hope. In a televised address, Hadi said the end of airstrikes had come at his request and thanked the Arab coalition for their support.
Earlier that day King Salman ordered the Saudi National Guard to join the military operation. Air and naval strikes continued despite the announcement that Decisive Storm had ended.
Both the Omani and Iranian governments said they welcomed the end of airstrikes. On 22 April, Oman presented a seven - point peace deal to both parties. The proposed peace treaty entailed the reinstatement of Hadi 's government and the evacuation of Houthi fighters from major cities.
On 8 May, Saudi Arabia announced a five - day ceasefire set to start on 12 May, following heavy pressure from the US. Later in the day, Saudi airplanes dropped leaflets in the Saada Governorate warning of airstrikes throughout the area. Houthi spokesman Mohamed al - Bukhaiti later told the BBC that the ceasefire had not been formally proposed and the Houthis would not respond until a plan was properly laid out. A spokesman for the Houthi - aligned military announced agreement to the ceasefire plan on 10 May, although he warned that a breach of the truce would prompt a military response.
On 13 May, humanitarian agencies said they were trying to get aid into Yemen after a five - day ceasefire took effect on Tuesday night. Ships carrying humanitarian supplies docked at the Houthi - controlled Red Sea port of Hudaydah as planes were standing by to help evacuate the injured. Meanwhile, King Salman doubled his country 's Yemen aid pledge to $540 million, funds the UN said would "meet the life - saving and protection needs of 7.5 million people affected ''.
At the operation 's announcement, coalition leadership stressed that their campaign would attempt a political solution and that they would continue the air and naval blockade. However, airstrikes resumed almost immediately following the coalition 's announcement of the end of Operation Decisive Storm.
On 22 April airstrikes continued in Taiz, where an army base was hit shortly after Houthi fighters took it over, and Aden, where an airstrike targeted Houthi tanks moving into a contested district, among other locations, such as Al Hudaydah and Ibb. The Houthis continued to fight for territory, with a Houthi spokesman saying the group would be prepared for peace talks on the condition of "a complete halt of attacks ''. The previous round of UN-sponsored talks collapsed after Houthi rebels attacked Hadi 's residence in Sana'a.
By 26 April, coalition forces were striking what they described as Houthi military targets in Sana'a and Aden and in other locations, notably in Sa'ada province near the Saudi border, nearly every night. On 26 April, after midnight, airstrikes struck Houthi and pro-Saleh positions and targets in and around Sana'a, Aden, and the Ma'rib and Ad Dali ' governorates, backing up anti-Houthi fighters in the latter three locations, with more than 90 rebels reportedly killed. Coalition warships shelled fighters near Aden 's commercial port. Saudi warplanes also targeted Houthis in the Sa'dah Governorate, while Saudi artillery fired on targets in the Hajjah Governorate along the border. The Saudi National Guard was deployed on the border.
On 28 April, Sana'a International Airport was bombed by Saudi F - 15 fighters to prevent an Iranian plane belonging to Iranian Red Crescent Society (IRCS) from landing, while it was approaching to land. The fighters had warned the plane to turn back, in an unsuccessful attempt to thwart its landing, but the Iranian pilot ignored the "illegal warnings '', saying that, on the basis of international law, his plane did not need further permission to land.
On the night of 6 May 2015, the Saudi - led coalition carried out 130 airstrikes in Yemen in a 24 - hour period. At first, coalition spokesperson Ahmed Asiri admitted that schools and hospitals were targeted but claimed that these were used as weapon storage sites. Asiri later claimed that his words had been mistranslated. The United Nations humanitarian coordinator for Yemen Johannes Van Der Klaauw said that these bombings constituted a war crime. "The indiscriminate bombing of populated areas, with or without prior warning, is a contravention international humanitarian law, '' he said. He continued to say that he was particularly concerned about airstrikes on Saada "where scores of civilians were reportedly killed and thousands were forced to flee their homes after the coalition declared the entire governate a military target ''.
The Iranian Foreign Ministry summoned the Saudi chargé d'affaires, and the Iranian Parliament and the Iranian Red Crescent Society blasted Saudi Arabia for blocking Iranian humanitarian aid.
The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) "strongly urged '' the coalition to stop targeting airports and seaports so that aid could reach all Yemenis.
ICRC and Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) said they were extremely concerned about damage to the airports at Sanaa and the port city of Hodeidah.
Overnight on 29 and 30 April, SA was reported to have airdropped arms to anti-Houthi fighters in Taiz. Later in the day, the Houthi 's announced the death of 1 soldier due to airstrikes on the local police station in Al Bayda, Yemen.
On 30 April airstrikes hit five provinces. New airstrikes hit SIA, completely halting aid deliveries.
Intense airstrikes on the Al Amar area of the As Safra District killed 1 Yemeni soldier and injured 6 others. Source also reported that there were several airstrikes on farms and buildings in the Sahar District.
On 6 May coalition airstrikes targeted the Police Training Center in the Dhamar Governorate, damaging nearby houses meanwhile the civil aviation authority announced it would re-open the airport to receive aid.
Coalition airstrikes targeted the houses of Saleh in Sana'a in the early hours of 10 May, eyewitnesses said. Khabar, a Yemeni news agency allied with Saleh said that the former president and his family were unharmed.
The Moroccan government said on 10 May that one of its General Dynamics F - 16 Fighting Falcon aircraft taking part in the air campaign went missing in action over Yemen, along with its pilot. The Houthis claimed responsibility, with Yemeni state TV broadcasting a report on the jet being downed by tribal militias over the Sa'dah Governorate and showing images of the wreckage.
On 18 May Saudi - led airstrikes reportedly resumed on Houthi positions after a humanitarian ceasefire expired late on Sunday. Three coalition airstrikes hit Sa'ada on Monday. Yemen 's exiled Foreign Minister Riyadh Yassin blamed the rebel group for the renewal of hostilities. Al - Arabiya said Saudi forces shelled Houthi outposts along Yemen 's northern border after the fighters fired mortars at a Saudi army post in Najran province.
On 23 May OCHA reported that airstrikes continued in the northern governorates of Sa'ada (Baqim, Haydan, Saqayn and As Safra) and Hajjah (Abs, Hayran, Haradh, Huth, Kuhlan Affar and Sahar districts). The road connecting Haradh and Huth districts was reportedly hit. Airstrikes were also reported in Al Jawf Governorate (Bart Al Anan district).
On 27 May airstrikes hit a police station in the capital, Sana'a, killing 45 officers. The Houthi - controlled Ministry of Health announced that in total, 96 people were killed.
On 3 June the residence of a Houthi leader in Ibb province was hit by an airstrike, according to eyewitnesses.
On 12 June Saudi jets bombed the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Sana'a Old City, killing at least six people and destroying some of the ancient buildings. UNESCO Director General Irina Bokova said in a statement that she is "profoundly distressed by the loss of human lives as well as by damage inflicted on one of the world 's oldest jewels of Islamic urban landscape ''. Locals also condemned the action.
On 23 September 2015, the Saudi - led coalition destroyed a ceramics factory in the town of Matnah. One civilian was killed and others were wounded. According to the BBC, the bomb is believed to have been produced in the United Kingdom by GEC - Marconi Dynamics. The factory 's owner Ghalib al - Sawary told the BBC: "We built it over 20 years but to destroy it took only twenty minutes. '' Campaigners say this attack was a violation of the laws of war.
On 26 October 2015 Doctors Without Borders reported that a coalition airstrike had completely destroyed the Médecins Sans Frontières hospital in Saada province 's Haydan governorate, including the operating room. When the first strike hit an unused part of the hospital the facility was completely evacuated, so there were no direct casualties. However, a spokesman for the coalition forces, Brig - Gen Ahmed al - Asiri, disclaimed responsibility for the attack. "With the hospital destroyed, at least 200,000 people now have no access to lifesaving medical care, '' MSF said. "This attack is another illustration of a complete disregard for civilians in Yemen, where bombings have become a daily routine, '' said Hassan Boucenine, MSF head of mission in Yemen. The GPS coordinates of the only hospital in the Haydan district were regularly shared with the Saudi - led coalition, and the roof of the facility was clearly identified with the MSF logo, he said. UNICEF said the hospital in Saada was the 39th health center hit in Yemen since March, when the violence escalated. "More children in Yemen may well die from a lack of medicines and healthcare than from bullets and bombs, '' its executive director Anthony Lake said in a statement. He added that critical shortages of fuel, medication, electricity and water could mean many more will close. Amnesty International said the strike may amount to a war crime and called for an independent investigation.
In February 2016, the Saudis bombed the ancient citadel of Kawkaban, killing seven civilians.
On 8 October 2016, Saudi - led airstrikes targeted a hall in Sana'a where a funeral was taking place. At least 140 people were killed and about 600 were wounded. According to The Independent, one rescuer said: "The place has been turned into a lake of blood. '' After initially denying it was behind the attack, the Coalition 's Joint Incidents Assessment Team admitted that it had bombed the hall but claimed that this attack had been a mistake caused by bad information. After this attack, US national security spokesperson said that the US government was "deeply disturbed '' by the bombing and added that US support for the Saudi - led coalition was "not a blank cheque ''. He added "we have initiated an immediate review of our already significantly reduced support to the Saudi - led Coalition. '' The United Nations humanitarian co-ordinator in Yemen Jamie McGoldrick said he was "shocked and outraged '' by the "horrific '' bombing. "This violence against civilians in Yemen must stop, '' he said.
On the night of 15 February 2017, the Saudi - led coalition bombed a funeral reception near Sanaa. Initial reports suggest the bombing killed nine women and one child with ten more women reported wounded. "People heard the sound of planes and started running from the house but then the bombs hit the house directly. The roof collapsed and there was blood was everywhere, '' a resident of the village told a Reuters news agency cameraman.
On 25 April MSF said that the town of Haradh, close to the border with Saudi Arabia, had been left a ghost town and that Saudi shelling killed 11 and injured more than 70.
On 26 April the Saudi government announced that the first National Guard units had arrived in Najran, in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border. The same day, Al - Hamdan tribe attacked Saudi positions in Najran and reported several Saudi casualties with the Saudi Arabian Interior Ministry confirming 1 dead and 2 injured. Al - Hamdan tribesmen later retreated due to heavy bombings in the area.
In early May 2015 several dozen fighters arrived on the side of anti-Houthi defenders of Aden. The force was speculated to be advance ground troops from the coalition, but Hadi 's foreign minister said they were Yemeni special forces troops retrained in Gulf Arab countries and redeployed to assist anti-Houthi militants.
Houthi fighters again struck Jizan and Najran with rockets and mortars on 11 May, in response to Saudi bombardment of the Sa'dah and Hajjah governorates. Saudi Arabia said the shelling killed one and injured three others, including two expatriates.
On 11 May Saudi Arabia deployed a tank "strike force '' to its southern border hours after Houthis fired 150 Katyusha rockets and mortars on Najran and Jizan. Hadath TV broadcast footage purportedly showing columns of military trucks carrying tanks heading towards the Kingdom 's southern frontier. The Houthis went on to repeatedly attack Jizan during 2015.
On 6 June Houthi 's fired a SCUD missile into SA, targeting the King Khaled air base. SA announced that it had shot down the missile.
On the night of 8 July, an Arab Coalition bombing killed by error over 70 soldiers loyal to president Hadi. Another 200 were injured at the Hadramut province.
On 14 October, A Scud missile attack was launched by Houthis towards a base in Asir Province, Saudi Arabia.
On 22 December 2015, a Qaher - 1 missile attack was launched by Houthies towards an Oil company in Jizan, Saudi Arabia.
On 19 February 2017 a ballistic missile from Yemen hit a power facility in Jizan.
On 3 April, CNN cited an unnamed Saudi source who claimed that Saudi special forces were on the ground in and around Aden, "coordinating and guiding '' the resistance. The Saudi government officially declined to comment on whether it had special forces, with Saudi Ambassador to the United States Adel al - Jubeir saying on 2 April that Saudi Arabia had no "formal '' troops in Aden.
The Battle of Aden came to an end with pro-Hadi forces again seized control of Aden port and moving into the city 's commercial center. On 22 July, pro-Hadi forces had retaken full control of Aden, and the Aden Airport was reopened. In late July, an offensive launched by pro-Hadi forces drove Houthi forces out of the towns neighboring Aden.
On 4 September a Houthi OTR - 21 Tochka missile hit an ammunition dump at a military base in Safer in Ma'rib Governorate killing 52 UAE, 10 Saudi and 5 Bahraini soldiers. The Safer base was being built up by coalition forces for a push against Sanaa. "It was the deadliest single attack on coalition soldiers since the start of its operation against Houthi rebels in March '' Asseri said. The attacked was the highest casualty loss in the history of the UAE military. Qatar deployed 1000 troops to Yemen after the incident.
By 8 September it was reported that the Saudi - led forces deployed in Yemen exceeded 10,000 troops and included 30 AH - 64 Apache attack helicopters.
On 14 December media reported a Houthi & Saleh Forces missile attack at a Saudi military camp south - west of the besieged city of Taiz, while sources confirmed the killings of over 150 coalition soldiers including 23 Saudi troops, 9 UAE officers and soldiers, 7 Moroccan soldiers and 42 Blackwater troops.
On 19 December 2015, reported clashes leaves over 40 Houthi Rebels and 35 Government Loyalist dead and dozens of wounded on both sides.
Saudi Arabia faced growing criticism for the Saudi - led naval and air blockade, which effectively isolated the country.
A "military source and pro-Hadi militiamen '' told the AFP on 26 April that coalition warships were participating in the shelling of Aden.
On 30 April, the Iranian navy announced it had deployed two destroyers to the Gulf of Aden to "ensure the safety of commercial ships of our country against the threat of pirates '', according to a rear admiral. According to the same source, the deployment was scheduled to last until mid-June. Iran 's deputy foreign minister, Hossein Amir - Abdollahian, told state - run Tasnim News Agency that "others will not be allowed to put our shared security at risk with military adventures ''.
On 13 April 2015, HRW wrote that some airstrikes were in apparent violation of the laws of war, such as the 30 March attack on a displaced - persons camp in Mazraq that struck a medical facility and a market. Other incidents noted by HRW that had been deemed as indiscriminate or disproportionate or "in violation of the laws of war '' were: a strike on a dairy factory outside the Red Sea port of Hodaida (31 civilian deaths); a strike that destroyed a humanitarian aid warehouse of the international aid organization Oxfam in Saada; and the coalition 's blockade that kept out fuel. On 30 June 2015, HRW reported that several airstrikes were in clear violation of international law. The report confirmed 59 (including 14 women and 35 children) civilian deaths in Saada between 6 April and 11 May. The report also highlighted attacks on 6 civilian homes as well as five markets that were deliberate attacks.
In February 2016, Amnesty International (AI) reported that it had investigated the circumstances and impact of more than 30 air strikes of the Saudi Arabia - led coalition forces in Sana'a, Hodeidah, Hajjah and Sa'da. They believed that the coalition was intentionally striking civilian targets. On 24 April 2015, Amnesty International said that airstrikes hit five densely populated areas (Sa'dah, Sana'a, Hodeidah, Hajjah and Ibb), and "raise concerns about compliance with the rules of international humanitarian law. '' Their research indicates that there were at least 97 civilian deaths, including 33 children, and 157 civilians were wounded.
According to Farea Al - Muslim, direct war crimes were committed during the conflict; for example, an IDP (Internally displaced person camp was hit by a Saudi airstrike, while Houthis sometimes prevented aid workers from giving aid. The UN and human rights groups discussed the possibility that war crimes may have been committed by Saudi Arabia during the air campaign.
U.S. Representative Ted Lieu has criticized the Saudi - led attacks on Yemen: "Some of these strikes look like war crimes to me, and I want to get answers as to why the U.S. appears to be assisting in the execution of war crimes in Yemen. ''
In March 2017, Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported that "Since the start of the current conflict, at least 4,773 civilians had been killed and 8,272 wounded, the majority by coalition airstrikes... Human Rights Watch has documented 62 apparently unlawful coalition airstrikes, some of which may amount to war crimes, that have killed nearly 900 civilians, and documented seven indiscriminate attacks by Houthi - Saleh forces in Aden and Taizz that killed 139 people, including at least eight children. ''
On 8 May, a spokesperson for the Saudi - led coalition declared the entire city of Sa'dah, with a population of around 50,000 people, was a military target. According to Human Rights Watch: "This not only violated the laws - of - war prohibition against placing civilians at particular risk by treating a number of separate and distinct military objectives as a single military target, but possibly also the prohibition against making threats of violence whose purpose is to instil terror in the civilian population. ''
Human Rights Watch compiled the names and ages of some of the people killed in Saada City between 6 April and 11 May. Of the 59 people they found information on, 35 were children and 14 were women. The organisation 's analysis of air - strike locations in Sa'dah showed that bombs fell across the city including near markets, schools and hospitals.
U.N. Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen, Johannes van der Klaauw, agreed that the Saud - led coalition 's actions breached international humanitarian law. "The indiscriminate bombing of populated areas, with or without prior warning, is in contravention of international humanitarian law, '' he said. He added that he was concerned that "scores of civilians were reportedly killed and thousands were forced to flee their homes after the coalition declared the entire governate a military target. ''
Save the Children 's Country Director in Yemen, Edward Santiago, said that the "indiscriminate attacks after the dropping of leaflets urging civilians to leave Sa'ada raises concerns about the possible pattern being established in breach of International Humanitarian Law. Warning civilians does not exonerate the coalition from their obligation to protect civilians and civilian infrastructure, and we have seen in the last days that the warnings have not been enough to spare civilian lives. At the same time, people are largely unable to flee for safety because of the de facto blockade imposed by the coalition leading to severe fuel shortages. ''
Since the Saudi - led coalition began military operations against Ansar Allah on 26 March 2015, Saudi - led coalition airstrikes unlawfully struck hospitals and other facilities run by aid organizations, according to Human Rights Watch. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) medical facilities in Yemen were attacked four times in three months. On 26 October 2015, HRW documented six Saudi - led airstrikes which bombed a MSF hospital in Haydan district (Sa'dah Governorate), wounding two patients. An Saudi - led coalition airstrike then hit a MSF mobile clinic on 2 December 2015, in Al Houban district (Taizz). Eight people were wounded, including two MSF staff members, and one other civilian nearby was killed. On 10 January 2016, six people were killed and seven wounded when a hospital in Sa'ada was hit by a projectile. MSF said it could not confirm whether the hospital was hit in an air strike by warplanes of the Saudi - led coalition, or by a rocket fired from the ground, and at least one other landed nearby. On 21 January 2016, an MSF ambulance was hit by an airstrike. Seven people were killed and dozens were wounded.
MSF 's director of operations Raquel Ayora said: "The way war is being waged in Yemen is causing enormous suffering and shows that the warring parties do not recognise or respect the protected status of hospitals and medical facilities. We witness the devastating consequences of this on people trapped in conflict zones on a daily basis. Nothing has been spared -- not even hospitals, even though medical facilities are explicitly protected by international humanitarian law. ''
The Saudi embassy in London, in early February 2016, advised United Nations and other aid organizations to move their offices and staff away from "regions where the Houthi militias and their supporters are active and in areas where there are military operations ''. It claimed this was in order to "protect the international organizations and their employees ''. The UN refused to pull out the humanitarian aid workers and protested against the Saudi demands. On 7 February 2016, the UN humanitarian chief Stephen O'Brien wrote to Saudi Arabia 's UN Ambassador Abdallah al - Mouallimi, pointing out that Saudi Arabia is obligated under international law to permit access, and has "duty of care obligations under the conduct of military operations for all civilians, including humanitarian workers ''.
HRW declared, on 17 February 2016, that Saudi Arabia 's warnings to stay away were insufficient to fulfil their legal obligations to protect aid stations and their occupants. James Ross, Legal and Policy Director at HRW, said: "A warning is no justification for an unlawful airstrike. They ca n't shift the blame for shirking their responsibility onto aid agencies that are struggling to address a deepening crisis. ''
After an air - strike on an MSF hospital in the Hajjah province on 15 August 2016, MSF announced the pulling of their staff from Saada and Hajjah provinces affecting 6 facilities. The group also complained that the results of previous investigations into hospital bombings by the Saudi - led coalition were never shared.
In early May 2015, Human Rights Watch accused Saudi Arabia of using US - supplied cluster munitions on at least two occasions. The Saudi military acknowledged using CBU - 105 bombs, but it claimed they were only employed against armoured vehicles and not in population centers. Yemeni security officials claimed that cluster bombs were dropped in a civilian area of the Western suburbs of the Yemeni capital Sanaa. In an earlier statement, Saudi Arabia had denied that the Saudi - led military coalition was using cluster bombs at all.
Internationally outlawed cluster bombs supplied by the USA were used by the Saudi - led military coalition and wounded civilians despite evidence of prior civilian casualties, based on multiple reports issued by HRW.
On 8 January 2016, the UN Secretary General Ban Ki - moon announced that Saudi coalition use of cluster munitions could be a war crime. HRW condemned the Saudi - led coalition for the attacks saying: "The coalition 's repeated use of cluster bombs in the middle of a crowded city suggests an intent to harm civilians, which is a war crime. These outrageous attacks show that the coalition seems less concerned than ever about sparing civilians from war 's horrors. '' A week later, Amnesty International published new evidence that appeared to confirm reports of coalition forces using US - made cluster munitions on Sana'a on 6 January 2016.
In December 2016, a Saudi spokesperson admitted that at least some of the coalition 's cluster bombs were manufactured in the United Kingdom. British prime minister Theresa May refused to answer when asked in parliament when she first became aware that UK - made cluster bombs were being used.
Amnesty International has called on Saudi Arabia to destroy its stockpile of cluster bombs and accede to the International Convention on Cluster Munitions. It also asked the Saudi - led coalition to provide the United Nations with precise locations of cluster munition attacks. The coalition has yet to do so.
A UN panel of experts said in a report for the UN Security Council in January 2016, which was leaked to The Guardian, that the Saudi - led coalition had undertaken 119 sorties in Yemen that violated international humanitarian law. The panel said it had "documented that the coalition had conducted airstrikes targeting civilians and civilian objects, in violation of international humanitarian law, including camps for internally displaced persons and refugees; civilian gatherings, including weddings; civilian vehicles, including buses; civilian residential areas; medical facilities; schools; mosques; markets, factories and food storage warehouses; and other essential civilian infrastructure, such as the airport in Sana'a, the port in Hudaydah and domestic transit routes ''. The report said: "Many attacks involved multiple airstrikes on multiple civilian objects. Of the 119 sorties, the panel identified 146 targeted objects. The panel also documented three alleged cases of civilians fleeing residential bombings and being chased and shot at by helicopters. '' While the UN experts were not allowed on the ground in Yemen, they studied satellite imagery of cities before and after attacks, that showed "extensive damage to residential areas and civilian objects ''. The UN panel concluded that "civilians are disproportionately affected '' by the fighting and deplored tactics that "constitute the prohibited use of starvation as a method of warfare ''. The report said: "The coalition 's targeting of civilians through airstrikes, either by bombing residential neighbourhoods or by treating the entire cities of Sa'dah and Maran as military targets, is a grave violation of the principles of distinction, proportionality and precaution. In certain cases, the panel found such violations to have been conducted in a widespread and systematic manner. '' The report called for an international commission, set up by the Security Council, that should "investigate reports of violations of international humanitarian law and human rights law in Yemen by all parties and to identify the perpetrators of such violations ''. Saudi Arabia had previously objected to an inquiry being set up.
Five days after the release of UN Panel of Experts report on Yemen, on 31 January 2016, the Saudi - led Arab coalition announced it had formed "an independent team of experts in international humanitarian law and weapons to assess the incidents and investigate the rules of engagement ''. The coalition said the objective was to "develop a clear and comprehensive report on each incident with the conclusions, lessons learned, recommendations and measures that should be taken '' to spare civilians.
On 16 February 2016, Adama Dieng, the U.N. 's Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, and Jennifer Welsh, the Special Adviser on the Responsibility to Protect, said in a joint statement: "We now expect that commitments by the Yemeni authorities and by Saudi Arabia to conduct credible and independent investigations into all alleged violations and provide reparations to victims will be swiftly implemented. It is imperative that the international community also gives immediate consideration to the most effective means of supporting this goal, including the possibility of establishing an international independent and impartial mechanism to support accountability in Yemen. ''
In September 2016, The Washington Post reported that Saudi Arabia "appears '' to be using US - made white phosphorus munitions against Yemen, based on images and videos posted to social media. Under US regulations, white phosphorus is only allowed to be used to signal to other troops and to reduce visibility in open ground, creating a smoke - screen. It is not to be used to attack humans as it burns human flesh down to the bone, which is considered excessively cruel. A United States official said the department was looking into whether the Saudis used white phosphorus improperly.
The United Nations alleged that the Saudi - led coalition had committed a war crime because the bombing was a ' double tap ' attack. This is when the first bombing is followed by a second one soon after, which aims to attack the wounded, aid workers and medical personnel tending to them. The UN report said: "The second air strike, which occurred three to eight minutes after the first air strike, almost certainly resulted in more casualties to the already wounded and the first responders. '' Saudi Foreign Minister Adel al - Jubeir said that his government was being careful to abide by humanitarian law.
According to the Save the Children group, children have died as a result of Saudi Arabia delaying aid for Yemen by month.
The coalition accused Iran of militarily and financially supporting the Houthis. On 9 April U.S. secretary of state John Kerry said there were "obviously supplies that have been coming from Iran '', with "a number of flights every single week that have been flying in '', and warned Iran to stop its alleged support of the Houthis. Iran denied these claims.
Anti-Houthi fighters defending Aden claimed they captured two officers in the Iranian Quds Force on 11 April, who had purportedly been serving as military advisers to the Houthi militias in the city. However, this claim was not repeated. Iran denied presence of any Iranian military force.
According to Michael Horton, an expert on Yemeni affairs, the notion that the Houthis are an Iranian proxy is "nonsense ''.
According to the AFP, a confidential report presented to the Security Council 's Iran sanctions committee in April 2015 claimed that Iran had been shipping weapons to the Houthi rebels since between 2009 and 2013. The panel further noted the absence of reports of any weapon shipments since 2013.
On 2 May, Abdollahian said that Tehran would not let regional powers jeopardize its security interests.
According to American officials, Iran discouraged Houthi rebels from taking over the Yemeni capital in late 2014, casting further doubt on claims that the rebels were fighting a proxy war on behalf of Iran. A spokeswoman for the US National Security Council said that it remained the council 's assessment that "Iran does not exert command and control over the Houthis in Yemen. ''
On 6 May Iran 's supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, said, "The Americans shamelessly support the killing of the Yemeni population, but they accuse Iran of interfering in that country and of sending weapons when Iran only seeks to provide medical and food aid. ''
On 26 September 2015, Saudi Arabia announced that an Iranian fishing boat loaded with weapons, including rockets and anti-tank shells, was intercepted and seized in the Arabian Sea, 150 miles southeast of the Omani Port of Salalah, by Arab coalition forces.
The UK and the US support the effort through arms sales and technical assistance. France had also made recent military sales to Saudi Arabia. MSF emergency coordinator Karline Kleijer called the US, France and the UK part of the Saudi - led coalition, which imposed the weapons embargo and blocked all ships from entering Yemen with supplies. Rights groups have criticized the countries for supplying arms, and accuse the coalition of using cluster munitions, which are banned in most countries. Oxfam pointed out that Germany, Iran, and Russia have also reportedly sold arms to the conflicting forces. Tariq Riebl, head of programmes in Yemen for Oxfam, said, "it 's difficult to argue that a weapon sold to Saudi Arabia would not in some way be used in Yemen, '' or "if it 's not used in Yemen it enables the country to use other weapons in Yemen. '' Amnesty International urged the US and the UK to stop supplying arms to Saudi Arabia and to the Saudi - led coalition.
In March 2015, President Barack Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen, establishing a "Joint Planning Cell '' with Saudi Arabia. This includes aerial refueling permitting coalition aircraft more loitering time over Yemen, and permitting some coalition members to home base aircraft rather than relocate them to Saudi Arabia.
US supported the intervention by "providing intelligence sharing, targeting assistance, advisory and logistical support to the military intervention '', according to the state department. In April 2015, the US expanded its intelligence - sharing with the coalition. Deputy Secretary of State Tony Blinken said: "As part of that effort, we have expedited weapons deliveries, we have increased our intelligence sharing, and we have established a joint coordination planning cell in the Saudi operation centre. '' Human Rights Watch (HRW) said that evidence shows that SA had been using U.S. - supplied cluster bombs outlawed in much of the world. According to Anthony Cordesman, the US government does not want "the strategic Bab - el - Mandeb strait '' to be threatened.
According to press reporting, many in US SOCOM reportedly favor Houthis, as they have been effective at combating al - Qaeda and recently ISIL, "something that hundreds of U.S. drone strikes and large numbers of advisers to Yemen 's military had failed to accomplish ''. According to a senior CENTCOM commander, "the reason the Saudis did n't inform us of their plans is because they knew we would have told them exactly what we think -- that it was a bad idea. '' As Yemen expert Michael Horton puts it, the US had been "Iran 's air force in Iraq '', and "al - Qaeda 's air force in Yemen ''. According to an Al Jazeera report, one reason for US support may be the diplomatic logic of tamping down SA 's opposition to the Iranian nuclear deal by backing them. Another is the view among some US military commanders that countering Iran took strategic priority over combating Al - Qaeda and ISIL.
Senator John McCain, the chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, praised the intervention, saying, "The prospect of radical groups like Iranian - backed Houthi militants '' was "more than (U.S. Arab allies) could withstand. ''
On 30 June an HRW report stated that US - made bombs were being used in attacks indiscriminately targeting civilians and violating the laws of war. The report photographed "the remnants of an MK - 83 air - dropped 1,000 - pound bomb made in the U.S ''.
U.S. Representative Ted Lieu has been publicly raising concerns over U.S. support for Saudi - led war in Yemen. In March 2016, he sent a letter to Secretary of State John Kerry and Secretary of Defense Ash Carter. He wrote in the letter that the "apparent indiscriminate airstrikes on civilian targets in Yemen seem to suggest that either the coalition is grossly negligent in its targeting or is intentionally targeting innocent civilians ''. Following American concern about civilian casualties in the Saudi - led war in Yemen, the US military involvement is mostly ineffective due to coalition 's airstrikes targeting civilian and hospitals.
In September 2016, Senators Rand Paul and Chris Murphy worked to prevent the proposed sale of $1.15 billion in arms from the U.S. to Saudi Arabia. The U.S. Senate voted 71 to 27 against the Murphy -- Paul resolution to block the U.S. -- Saudi arms deal. CNN 's Wolf Blitzer questioned Senator Paul 's reasoning during an interview, stating that cutting off military aid would hurt the profits of the arms industry. "So for you this is a moral issue, '' he told Senator Paul on CNN. "Because you know, there 's a lot of jobs at stake. Certainly if a lot of these defense contractors stop selling war planes, other sophisticated equipment to Saudi Arabia, there 's going to be a significant loss of jobs, of revenue here in the United States. That 's secondary from your standpoint? '' Following the vote, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell said: "I think it 's important to the United States to maintain as good a relationship with Saudi Arabia as possible. ''
A March 2016 Human Rights Watch report states that U.S. participation in specific military operations, such as selecting targets and aerial refueling during Saudi air raids "may make US forces jointly responsible for laws - of - war violations by coalition forces ''. In September The Guardian reported that one in three bombing raids hit civilian sites.
U.S. government lawyers have considered whether the United States is legally a "co-belligerent '' in the conflict, but have not reached a conclusion as of September 2016. Such a finding would oblige the U.S. to investigate allegations of war crimes by the Saudi coalition, and U.S. military personnel could be subject to prosecution.
On 13 October 2016, the USS Nitze fired Tomahawk missiles at Houthi - controlled radar sites "in the Dhubab district of Taiz province, a remote area overlooking the Bab al - Mandab Straight known for fishing and smuggling. ''
In January 2017, Secretary of State nominee Rex Tillerson voiced support for the Saudi Arabian - led intervention in Yemen. U.S. Secretary of Defense James Mattis asked President Donald Trump to remove restrictions on U.S. military support for Saudi Arabia. In February 2017, Mattis wanted to intercept and board an Iranian ship in the Arabian Sea to look for contraband weapons, which would have constituted an "act of war ''. In April 2017, Justin Amash, Walter Jones and other members of Congress criticized U.S. involvement in Saudi Arabian military campaign in Yemen, highlighting that Al Qaeda in Yemen "has emerged as a de facto ally of the Saudi - led militaries with whom (Trump) administration aims to partner more closely ''.
The UK is one of the largest suppliers of arms to Saudi Arabia, and London immediately expressed strong support for the Saudi - led campaign. Six months into the bombing, Oxfam said the UK was "quietly fuelling the Yemen conflict and exacerbating one of the world 's worst humanitarian crises '' by keeping its arms pipeline to Saudi Arabia open; the Campaign Against Arms Trade (CAAT) agreed that "UK arms and UK cooperation have been central to the devastation of Yemen. '' In mid-September 2015, the deputy chief executive of Oxfam complained that the government even refused to reveal to Parliament the details of the 37 arms export licences it had granted for sales to Saudi Arabia since March that year. The attack on Yemen saw sales of UK bombs for 2015 increase from £ 9m to over £ 1bn in three months. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have shown that UK arms are being used on civilian targets. Furthermore, the UK government has been repeatedly accused of violating domestic, EU, and international law, in particular the Arms Trade Treaty, by maintaining its flow of weapons to the Kingdom.
Despite this, it was reported in November 2015 that the UK planned a number of high - level visits to Saudi Arabia over the following three to six months with the aim of securing major arms deals.
In January 2016, it emerged that UK military advisors were assisting Saudi personnel in the selection of targets. On 2 February 2016, the International Development Select Committee finally added its call for the UK to cease exporting arms to Saudi Arabia and to end its opposition to an independent international inquiry into the way the military campaign had been conducted thus far. The committee 's call went unheeded; indeed, just weeks later, on the day the EU held a non-binding vote in favour of an arms embargo on the country because of its destructive bombing of Yemen, Prime Minister David Cameron boasted about the "brilliant '' arms, components, and other military technology that the UK would continue to sell to Saudi Arabia, Oman, and other Gulf states.
Angus Robertson, the SNP 's Parliamentary Group Leader, said David Cameron should admit to British involvement in Saudi Arabia 's war in Yemen: "Is n't it time for the Prime Minister to admit that Britain is effectively taking part in a war in Yemen that is costing thousands of civilians lives and he has not sought parliamentary approval to do this? '' A few months later, leading American security expert Bruce Riedel noted: "If the United States and the United Kingdom, tonight, told King Salman (of Saudi Arabia) ' this war has to end, ' it would end tomorrow. The Royal Saudi Air Force can not operate without American and British support. ''
As well as supplying materiel and targeting support for the bombing of Yemen, the UK has assisted the coalition diplomatically. For example, the UK response, provided by Middle East Minister Tobias Ellwood, to the leaked report of a UN panel in January 2016, which documented more than one hundred instances of coalition air strikes that had violated international law, was to say that the Saudis had made "mistakes '' and claim that other cases may have been "fabricated '' by the Houthis.
Theresa May succeeded David Cameron as prime minister in July 2016, but maintained her predecessor 's policy because, she claimed, close ties with the Saudis "keep people on the streets of Britain safe ''. In September 2016, her foreign minister, Boris Johnson, refused to block UK arms sales to Saudi Arabia, saying there remained no clear evidence of breaches of international humanitarian law by Saudi Arabia in the war in Yemen, and that it would be best for Saudi Arabia to investigate itself. Amid reports from Yemen of famine conditions and "emaciated children (...) fighting for their lives '', CAAT observed that the notion of self - investigation would rightly never pass muster if it were proposed for Russia 's bombing in support of Assad in Syria. Indeed, in October 2016, Boris Johnson commended the notion of referring allegations of Russian and Russian - backed war crimes to the International Court of Justice. The previous month, Johnson had rejected a proposal for the UN Human Rights Council to conduct an inquiry into the war in Yemen. Furthermore, Britain blocked such an inquiry from taking place.
In October 2016, it emerged that the United Kingdom was continuing to provide instruction to pilots of the Royal Saudi Air Force, both in the UK and in Saudi Arabia.
On 22 November 2015, The New York Times reported the United Arab Emirates had secretly deployed 450 Colombian, Panamanian, Salvadoran and Chilean mercenaries to Yemen in October. Their training program, which mainly recruits Colombians, was initially run by Erik Prince, formerly of Blackwater USA, who had flown them into the UAE posing as construction workers in 2010, at the request of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan. Operational control was reportedly handed to the Emirati military shortly thereafter. This is the program 's first deployment. Their exact role in Yemen is unclear.
Colombia Reports said in October that about 800 former Colombian Armed Forces members had signed up for three months of service in return for $1,000 per week and instant Emirati citizenship, if they survive. A retired CAF commander told El Tiempo, "We are called mercenaries, traitors, cowards and opportunists. We are nothing like that. We are men who made a decision in response to the lack of guarantees. ''
On 9 December, Australian media reported an Australian mercenary commander was killed in Yemen alongside six Colombian nationals after Houthi fighters and Saleh army units attacked Saudi - led forces in the country 's south - west.
A Houthi spokesman stated on 28 April that the airstrikes had killed 200 members of all pro-Houthi forces since the campaign started. In addition, UNICEF reported on 24 April that the strikes had killed 64 children.
Between 26 March and 21 April, The New York Times confirmed 18 airstrikes that resulted in civilian casualties.
According to the United Nations, between 26 March and 10 May 2015, the conflict, killed at least 828 Yemeni civilians, including 91 women and 182 children. 182 were killed between 4 and 10 May alone, with most of those due to the airstrikes.
On 6 May HRW reported that an airstrike struck a residential home in Saada, killing 27 members of one family, including 17 children and on 26 May, 7 more members of the same family were killed in another airstrike.
On 27 May nearly 100 people were killed due to airstrikes hitting Sanaa, Sa'da and Hodeida in the largest ever one - day death toll throughout the conflict.
On 28 June a coalition airstrike hit and damaged the UN compound in Aden, severely damaging the UNDP building and injuring a guard.
On 30 June HRW released a report stating that coalition airstrikes on the northern Yemeni city of Saada, a Houthi rebel stronghold, had killed dozens of civilians and wrecked homes and markets. The group said it had documented a dozen airstrikes on Saada that destroyed or damaged civilian homes, five markets, a school and a petrol station although there was no evidence of military use. "Saada City 's streets are littered with bomb craters, destroyed buildings, and other evidence of coalition airstrikes, '' HRW 's Sarah Leah Whitson said in the report and later added. "These attacks appear to be serious laws - of - war violations that need to be properly investigated. ''
On 6 July airstrikes killed over 100 people including more than 30 civilians in Al Joob, Amran. The state - run news agency said that 40 had been killed in a raid on a livestock market in al - Foyoush. Local residents also reported 30 deaths in a raid they said apparently targeted a Houthi checkpoint on the main road between Aden and Lahj. They said 10 of the dead were Houthi fighters. MSF head of mission in Yemen said "It is unacceptable that airstrikes take place in highly concentrated civilian areas where people are gathering and going about their daily lives, especially at a time such as Ramadan. ''
On 25 July airstrikes killed over 120 civilians in the town of Mokha, marking the deadliest strike yet against civilians. The airstrikes hit workers ' housing for a power plant in Mokha, flattening some of the buildings, the officials said. A fire erupted in the area, charring many of the corpses. "It just shows what is the trend now of the airstrikes from the coalition, '' said Hassan Boucenine of the Geneva - based Doctors Without Borders. "Now, it 's a house, it 's a market, it 's anything. '' He added that many of the workers had families visiting for the Eid al - Fitr holiday at the end of the holy month of Ramadan. Mokha, populated largely by fisherman, had a reputation as one of the safest places in the country embroiled in war, said Boucenine.
On 18 August AI reported that it had confirmed 141 civilian deaths from eight airstrikes.
On 15 March 2016 Saudi - led airstrikes on a market in Mastaba killed at least 119 people, including 25 children.
The attack on 8 October 2016 killed 140 people and injuring 500 persons in one of the single worst death tolls in the two - year war. There are coalitions between Saudi Arabia and his allies in the subject. Also Uk is under pressure for exporting Lucrative Arms and weapons to Saudi Arabia.
On 11 September 2015, UN Human Rights Commissioner said that of 1,527 civilians killed between 26 March and 30 June, at least 941 people were killed by airstrikes carried out by the Saudi - led coalition.
On 24 August, the UN special representative of the secretary - general for children and armed conflict said, that of 402 children killed in Yemen since late March 2015, 73 percent were victims of Saudi coalition - led airstrikes. The UN also said at this time that an average of 30 people had been killed in Yemen every single day since the beginning of the war. On top of this, more than 23,000 had been wounded.
On 27 October, the OHCHR said that out of 2,615 civilians killed between 26 March and 26 October 2015, 1,641 civilians had reportedly been killed due to airstrikes carried out by the Saudi - led coalition.
The January 2016 report of a UN panel of experts, presented to the UN security council, attributed 60 percent (2,682) of all civilian deaths and injuries in the war since 26 March 2015 to air - launched explosive weapons.
On 1 February 2016 Reuters reported: "Mortars and rockets fired at Saudi Arabian towns and villages have killed 375 civilians, including 63 children, since the start of the Saudi - led military campaign in Yemen in late March, Riyadh said. ''
On 16 September 2016, The Guardian reported: "The independent and non-partisan survey, based on open - source data, including research on the ground, records more than 8,600 air attacks between March 2015, when the Saudi - led campaign began, and the end of August this year. Of these, 3,577 were listed as having hit military sites and 3,158 struck non-military sites... The UN has put the death toll of the 18 - month war at more than 10,000, with 3,799 of them being civilians. ''
In October 2016, a densely populated funeral in Yemen was struck, leaving at least 155 dead and 525 wounded, including the senior military and security officials of the Shia Houthi and loyalists of former president Ali Abdullah Saleh. The attack was reportedly carried out by Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia accepts the finding of the Joint Incidents Assessment Team, a setup of coalition states to investigate complaints against coalitions ' conduct in Decisive Storm, that coalition 's bombardment at a funeral ceremony in Sana'a, in which over 140 people were killed and more than 600 injured, was based on wrong information. Reportedly, the United States is reviewing its policy of support for the Saudi - led coalition. U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry sought assurances from Saudi Arabia that incidents such as the airstrike on a civilian funeral in Sana'a will not happen again. He proposed a cease - fire and a return to talks aiming for a political resolution of the conflict. Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman said he hoped to institute a 72 - hour cease - fire as soon as possible, provided the Houthis will agree.
In 2015 Yemen was ranked 168th out of 180 countries in the Reporters Without Borders (RSF) press freedom index. According to an annual round - up published on 29 December 2015 by RSF, six journalists in Yemen (out of 67 worldwide) were killed in 2015 because of their work or while reporting. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, at least six journalists were killed in airstrikes by the Saudi - led coalition between March 2015 and the end of January 2016.
On 17 January 2016, the freelance Yemeni journalist Almigdad Mojalli was killed in an airstrike by the Saudi - led coalition in Jaref, a Houthi - controlled district in the outskirts of Sana'a. Mojalli had gone there, working for Voice of America (VOA), to interview survivors of air strikes in Jaref in which up to 21 civilians had been killed days earlier. Rory Peck Trust honored him as "key source of information for visiting journalists '' in Yemen. Daniel Martin Varisco, President of the American Institute for Yemeni Studies and Research Professor at Qatar University, said in an obituary that Mojalli 's work "was a voice documenting the humanitarian crisis that the world outside Yemen has largely ignored '' and a voice that "has been silenced ''. RSF, CPJ, International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), Yemen Journalists ' Syndicate (YJS) and UNESCO condemned Mojalli 's death. UNESCO Director - General Irina Bokova and RSF reminded all the parties to the armed conflict in Yemen that they were required to respect and ensure the safety of all journalists by UN Security Council Resolution 2222, adopted in 2015, and by the Geneva Conventions.
On 21 January 2016, the 17 - year - old TV cameraman Hashem al - Hamran was mortally injured by an air - strike by the Saudi - led coalition in the city of Dahian (Saada Governorate), when he was filming bombing raids for the Houthi - run television channel al - Masirah TV. He died from his wounds on 22 January 2016. The YJS, the IFJ and Irina Bokova, Director General of UNESCO, condemned the killing of Hashem Al Hamran.
The director of Yemen TV, Munir al - Hakami, and his wife, Suaad Hujaira, who also worked for the state - owned, Houthi - controlled broadcaster, were killed along with their three children by a coalition air strike on 9 February 2016. They were living in a residential area nowhere near a possible military target; the killing of the two media workers was condemned by the head of UNESCO.
In terms of "numbers of people in need '' the humanitarian crisis in Yemen was "the largest in the world '', according to the UN Security Council. In August 2015, the head of the International Red Cross said, "Yemen after five months looks like Syria after five years. ''
The U.N. human rights office reported more than 8,100 civilians were killed or wounded between 26 March and the end of 2015, the vast majority from airstrikes by Saudi - led coalition forces.
At the beginning of May 2015, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) said, that there had been "severe destruction of civilian infrastructure, including houses, in many districts '' since 26 March. Severe damage caused by attacks on Yemen 's essential civilian infrastructure such as airports in Sana'a and Hodeida by the Saudi - led military coalition was obstructing the delivery of much - needed humanitarian assistance and movement of humanitarian personnel according to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF).
In the first weeks since 26 March massive destruction of civilian infrastructure particularly happened in Aden and Sa'da, according to OHCHR.
In August 2015, air attacks of the Saudi - led coalition on port facilities at Al - Hudaydah "in clear contravention of international humanitarian law '', said Under - Secretary - General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator Stephen O'Brien.
In mid-February 2016, Stephen O'Brien said the situation in Yemen was a "humanitarian catastrophe '', with 21 million people in need of some kind of aid, 7.6 million people "severely food - insecure '', and over 3.4 million children out of school. O'Brien noted the situation had not been helped by the diversion of an aid vessel by coalition forces.
On 26 March, Interior Ministry officials linked to Ansar Allah documented that 23 civilians had been killed and 24 wounded. Among the dead were 5 children, ages 2 to 13, 6 women and an elderly man. The wounded included 12 children, ages 3 to 8, and 2 women due to airstrike against Sana'a particularly in Bani Hawat, a predominantly Houthi neighborhood near Sanaa 's airports and al - Nasr, near the presidential palace. HRW documented the deaths of 11 civilians, including 2 women and 2 children, other than those provided by the Yemeni officials along with 14 more wounded, including 3 children and 1 woman. According to AI, that bombing destroyed at least 14 homes in Bani Hawat.
On 31 March, OCHA reported that 13 of 22 Governorates were affected and highlighted infrastructure effects that detailed coalition bombing of a refugee camp that killed 29 and injured 40. Fuel shortages in the south threatened water access to citizens and in Lahj, electricity and water services had not been functioning for several days. Later that day, AI reported that at least six civilians, including four children, were burned to death as a result of an airstrike. It reported that two fuel stations were destroyed. In al - Kadima area in al - Kita, several passengers were killed in a car that had stopped to refuel and a worker was injured. The third strike, apparently aimed at a passing fuel tanker, set fire to at least three civilian homes. AI then stated that "it is becoming increasingly apparent that the Saudi Arabian - led coalition is turning a blind eye to civilian deaths and suffering caused by its military intervention. ''
On 17 April, OCHA reported on the increasing deterioration of the humanitarian situation, reporting airstrikes hitting in Saada City a water tank, the electricity station, a petrol station, a plastics processing factory, a shopping centre and a housing complex. Several days earlier, airstrikes had hit private homes, the post office, a community centre, government offices, markets and vehicles. Local partners estimated about 50 dead within the past week. In Sana'a residential neighborhoods near Assir, Ayban and Faj Attan were affected due to their proximity to military camps. In Amran, airstrikes hit a petrol station, an educational institute and a bridge. According to local reports, a local water corporation in Hajjah (Abbs District) was hit. The report also stated that civilian casualties were under - reported as families without access to hospitals bury their members at home.
On 20 April coalition airstrikes hit the Fajj Atan military base, causing a large explosion that killed 38 civilians and injured over 500. The airstrike also targeted the office of Yemen Today, a TV network owned by Ali Abdullah Saleh, killing three and injuring other workers. An eye witness reported that emergency rooms were overwhelmed. The head of the ICRC in Yemen later clarified that 90 people had died during this attack.
On 21 April the BBC reported a warning from the UN about worsening health services and a dire need for medicines.
On 24 April UNICEF released a report stating that since the start of the military intervention, 115 children had been killed, with at least 64 from aerial bombardment.
According to OCHA 's fifth report, released on 26 April, humanitarian operations would come to a complete halt within two weeks and hospitals in both Sanaa and Aden would close completely due to the lack of fuel. The lack of fuel affected water supplies. Markets in affected governorates are not able to provide food, with wheat grain and flour prices rising by 42 % and 44 %, respectively. The healthcare system faced an imminent collapse with hospitals struggling to operate due to lack of medicines and supplies. Essential medicine prices increased by 300 %.
Casualties from 19 March to 22 April reached 1,080 (28 children and 48 women) and 4,352 wounded (80 children and 143 women). According to the WFP, 12 million people were food insecure, a 13 % rise.
On 29 April OCHA reported that airstrikes hit SIA on 28 April, damaging the runway and hampering aid deliveries. Airstrikes were also reported at Al Hudayda Airport and Saada. Widespread internet and phone disruptions were reported in several governorates due to the lack of fuel and electricity. On 25 April, the Yemen Public Telecommunications Corporation warned that unless the fuel crisis was resolved, telecommunication services (mobile phones, internet, and land lines) would shut down within a week. The disruption in communication was affecting information flow on humanitarian needs and operations. On 29 April, Haradh was heavily bombarded, including areas near the main hospital. Food distribution and aid would reportedly stop within a week if additional fuel could not be obtained. As of 29 April the Al Hudaydah Governorate ran out of fuel and aid operations could not be completed.
On 30 April OCHA 's Flash Update 22 reported that airstrikes hit the only main roads that connect the Sana'a Governorate with Ibb. It also indicated that over 3,410 people from Yemen had arrived in Somalia since the fighting escalated, with 2,285 arrivals registered in Puntland and 1,125 registered in the Somaliland. A further 8,900 migrants were registered in Djibouti, 4,700 of whom were third country nationals.
On 4 May coalition airstrikes hit SIA, destroying a cargo ship and other planes used to transport food and supplies. OCHA reported that several airstrikes hit the Al Hudayda airport and surrounding areas in Al Hudayda City. In Aden, the districts of Craiter and Al - Muala were without electricity, water and telecommunication for over a week according to residents.
On 5 May, in order to send humanitarian aid, van der Klaauw haggled with the coalition to stop bombing SIA. He emphasized the effects on persons with disabilities stating that over 3,000,000 people with disabilities could not meet their basic needs. The conflict forced more than 300 centres to close. He added that they were especially concerned about an airstrike that targeted a military field hospital.
On 6 May, the OCHA reported lack of fuel to support humanitarian operations beyond one week, with fuel and food prices continuing to increase. The World Food Programme declared that shortages of fuel has changed to a serious threat for hospitals and food supplies. Edward Santiago, country director for Save the Children, said in statement a short time ceasefire is not enough to allow for humanitarian supplies.
On 7 May, trade sources stated that merchant ships had been delayed weeks Yemen and in one case, following inspection and approval, a food supply ship was denied access. The food crisis increased to include over 20 million people (80 % of the population) going hungry. Airstrikes destroyed a mine factory and a communications center. Local sources reported that 13 villagers were killed due to shelling near the border.
On 18 May, HRW documented airstrikes that hit homes and markets and killed and wounded civilians. HRW documented the bombing of four markets.
On 21 May, OCHA reported airstrikes that hit two farms adjacent to a humanitarian facility in Hajjah Governorate and resulted in civilian casualties. A warehouse containing humanitarian supplies was damaged in another strike. In Sa'adah City, satellite imagery analysis identified widespread damage to infrastructure with 1,171 structures affected, damaged or destroyed. The analysis showed that as of 17 May, 35 impact craters existed within the city, mostly along the runway of Sa'ada airport. Similar imagery of Aden identified 642 affected structures, including 327 destroyed. Local partners reported that 674 schools were forced to close in Sana'a, affecting 551,000 students.
Fuel prices increased by over 500 % and food supplies by 80 % since 26 March. The continued restrictions on the arrival of goods via air and sea ports, and insecurity on roads, restricted the delivery of essential supplies. In Sana'a, security concerns due to airstrikes prevented delivery of food assistance.
On 21 May, five Ethiopian migrants were killed and two others injured in an airstrike that hit open space 500 metres from an IOM - managed Migrant Response Centre. With continued conflict and import restrictions, Emergency (IPC Phase 4) outcomes were likely in the coming month. In six governorates, reports from OCHA partners show that basic food items are no longer available (Aden, Abyan, Al Dhale'e, Al Bayda, Lahj, Sa'ada).
On 3 June, The Operations Room of the Ministry of Health in Sana'a was damaged. It manages emergency operations nationwide.
On 5 June, the Washington Post reported that several Yemeni cultural and heritage strikes had been repeatedly targeted by Saudi airstrikes. Reports stated that Al - Qahira Castle, the 1,200 - year - old al - Hadi Mosque and Dhamar Museum with over 12,500 artifacts were destroyed and the Great Dam of Marib was hit.
On 17 June, an OCHA report highlighted that food security had continued to worsen, with 19 out of 22 governorates now classified ' crisis ' or ' emergency '. Half the population was ' food insecure ' and nearly a quarter ' severely food insecure. A joint analysis of household food security by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) WFP and the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation in Yemen (MoPIC) found that Yemen was sliding into catastrophe. More than six million Yemenis were then in a Phase 4 Emergency, and nearly 6.9 million people are in a Phase 3 Crisis: These figures indicate that Yemen was approaching a complete breakdown in food security and health.
On 26 July, the OCHA announced that airstrikes hit the residential complex of the Al Mukha Power Station in Al Mukha District, Taiz Governorate with health facilities reporting 55 deaths and 96 injuries and media reports as high as 120, all civilians.
On 27 August, the OCHA announced that airstrikes targeting that Al - Hudaydah port facilities late on 17 August and early 18 August had brought the port activities to a near halt and that the port was empty of all vessels and remained non-operational. A UN-chartered aid vessel carrying 2,230 MT of mixed food commodities left the port and was rerouted to Djibouti.
On 5 January 2016, an airstrike by the Saudi - led military coalition hit the Al Noor Center for Care and Rehabilitation of Blind, in the Safiah district of Sana'a, the capital 's only center, school, and home for people with visual disabilities. Five people were injured. Human Rights Watch and media reported, if the bomb had exploded, the damage would have been much worse. Human Rights Watch blamed both the Saudi - led coalition for hitting civilian targets and the Houthi militants battling the coalition. HRW said Houthi militants were partially to blame for using civilian sites for military purposes. Armed Houthis were stationed near the Al Noor center, putting the students at risk.
On 20 April 2016 the UN General Assembly Security Council in a report covering the period January to December 2015 "verified a sixfold increase in the number of children killed and maimed compared with 2014, totalling 1,953 child casualties (785 children killed and 1,168 injured). More than 70 per cent were boys. Of the casualties, 60 per cent (510 deaths and 667 injuries) were attributed to the Saudi Arabia - led coalition. ''
The last attack on 8 October 2016 led to kill 140 people and injuring 500 persons in one of the single worst death tolls in the two - year war. There are coalitions between Saudi Arabia and his allies in the subject. Also, the United Kingdom is under pressure for exporting Lucrative Arms and weapons to Saudi Arabia.
Saada was the governorate of origin of 500,794 IDPs (out of 2,509,068 in total) as of December 2015.
On 18 April, an airstrike in Saada hit an Oxfam warehouse, damaging humanitarian supplies and killing at least one civilian. Aid groups widely condemned the strike.
On 8 and 9 May 2015, large - scale displacement was reported in Saada to neighbouring areas, after the Saudi - led military coalition declared the entire Saada governorate a "military zone '' and started heavy airstrikes. Around 70,000 people, including 28,000 children, fled from the Governorate of Sa'ada. The Save the Children 's Country Director in Yemen, Edward Santiago, said that many more were "largely unable to flee for safety because of the de facto blockade imposed by the coalition leading to severe fuel shortages ''. On 9 May 2015, the U.N. Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen, Johannes van der Klaauw, condemned the air strikes on Saada city as being in breach of international humanitarian law.
In August 2015 the Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development (ACTED) reported that "the crisis has taken an immeasurably heavy toll on civilians in this poor, rural governorate, causing death, injury and frequent damage and destruction of infrastructure. ''
In January 2016 the Houthi - controlled Saada area, including medical facilities run by Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), received almost daily attacks. Michael Seawright, a Saada - based MSF project coordinator, said that they treated a high number of casualties, many with severe injuries. The Shiara hospital in Razeh District in Saada City, the only hospital with a trauma centre in the governorate of Saada and in most of northern Yemen, was hit on 10 January, and several people were killed, including medical personnel. MSF had been working in the facility since November 2015.
457.502 IDPs (out of 2,509,068 in total) originated from Sana'a Governorate and Sana'a city as of December 2015.
After the Old City of Sana'a was heavily bombed in May 2015, causing severe damage to many of its historic buildings, Director - General of UNESCO, Irina Bokova, said "I am particularly distressed by the news concerning air strikes on heavily populated areas such as the cities of Sana'a and Saa'dah. ''
Following a surge in aerial bombing raids in the Old City of Sana'a in June 2015, the UN warned, that the country 's extensive archaeological and historic heritage had been increasingly under threat. In July 2015, the Old City of Sana'a, which had sustained serious damage due to armed conflict, was added to List of World Heritage in Danger.
On 6 September 2015, Al Sabaeen paediatric hospital in Sana'a had to be evacuated after a nearby airstrike. The United Nations ' Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA) described the event as "a severe blow to a tattered health system ''. Before its closure the Al Sabaeen paediatric hospital -- standing amid bombed out buildings in the center of Sana'a -- had been the primary paediatric hospital in the area. "Before the crisis it had a catchment population of about 300,000; but, since the crisis that number has risen to almost 3 million, with the entire governorate reliant on it for specialist care, '' said Save the Children spokesperson Mark Kaye.
A joint report by the UK - based charity Action on Armed Violence (AOAV) and the UN-OCHA, that concluded that airstrikes were responsible for 60 percent of civilian casualties in the first seven months of 2015, came to the result, that more than half (53 per cent) of the reported civilian toll was recorded in Sana'a and surrounding districts.
On 7 January 2016, HRW reported and condemned that the Saudi Arabia - led coalition forces had used cluster bombs on residential areas of Sanaa on 6 January. On 8 January the United Nations warned that their use could be a war crime. The UN Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon said he was "particularly concerned about reports of intense airstrikes in residential areas and on civilian buildings in Sana'a, including the Chamber of Commerce, a wedding hall and a centre for the blind ''.
In April and May 2015 mass displacement was observed primarily in Saada, Amran and Hajjah governorates as airstrikes and shelling intensified in the north of Yemen.
On 13 April, OCHA reported that (as of 11 April) more than 120,000 people were estimated to have been internally displaced since 26 March 2015.
On 17 May the UN, citing Yemen 's health services, said that as of 15 May 545,000 had been internally displaced because of the war, up from 450,000 announced on 15 May 2015.
On 1 June, the UN announced that 1,019,762 people had been internally displaced as of 28 May 2015.
On 6 July the UN announced that as of 2 July there were 1,267,590 internally displaced people in Yemen.
On 5 August, a task force of the Global Protection Cluster announced their estimate of 1,439,118 internally displaced persons from more than 250,000 households in Yemen.
On 15 October the IOM - UNHCR displacement - tracking mechanism published new data showing in the 5th RFPM report that the IDP population had reached 2,305,048 people.
The 6th RFPM report (published on 10 December 2015) gave a figure of 2,509,068 internally displaced persons. Much of the increase from the previous report, published in October, could be attributed to improved tracking methods.
On 14 June 2015, OCHA reported a large outbreak of Dengue fever that killed over 113 people and infected over 4,000. Patients could not be treated due to lack of water in affected areas. OCHA was also investigating reports of a Measles outbreak. Health officials considered the breakdown in health services, including decrease in immunization coverage, closure of health facilities and difficulty in accessing health services as possible contributing factors.
In June 2015, Oxfam 's humanitarian programme manager in Sanaa said that Saudi - led naval blockade "means it 's impossible to bring anything into the country. There are lots of ships, with basic things like flour, that are not allowed to approach. The situation is deteriorating, hospitals are now shutting down, without diesel. People are dying of simple diseases. ''
On 1 July 2015, the UN announced that Yemen was at the highest level of humanitarian disaster with over 80 % of the population needing help. UN agencies agreed to classify Yemen as a level 3 emergency as the UN Envoy for Yemen stated that Yemen is one step away from famine.
In February 2016, the OCHA reported that 21 million people (85 % of the population) were in need of some form of humanitarian assistance, 7.6 million people were "severely '' food insecure, and that more than 3.4 million children were not attending school.
On 4 October 2016, the UN children 's agency UNICEF said 1.5 million children in Yemen suffer of malnutrition, including 370,000 enduring very severe malnutrition.
In October 2016, health authorities in Yemen confirmed a cholera outbreak in Sanaa and Taiz. In June 2017, cholera cases passed 100,000 with 798 deaths in the country. The water and sanitation systems are largely inoperable The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the UN, have pointed to the Saudi - led naval and aerial blockade and bombing campaign as central causes behind the preventable cholera epidemic.
"With the right medicines, these (diseases) are all completely treatable -- but the Saudi Arabia - led coalition is stopping them from getting in. ''
In December 2015, David Ottaway, a senior scholar at the Wilson Center in Washington, estimated the Saudi - led military coalition was spending $200 million a day on military operations in Yemen. His sources speculate that the Saudis are supplying most of the funding.
Following the call by the leader of the Houthi movement, Abdul - Malik al - Houthi, tens of thousands Yemenis of various socioeconomic backgrounds took to the streets of the rebel - controlled capital, Sana'a, to voice their anger at the Saudi intervention.
On 21 April, representatives of 19 Yemeni political parties and associations rejected UN Resolution 2216, stating that it encouraged terrorist expansion, intervened in Yemen 's sovereign affairs, violated Yemen 's right of self - defence and emphasized the associations ' support of the Yemeni Army.
On 23 April, a spokesman for the Houthis said UN-sponsored peace talks should continue, but only following "a complete halt of attacks '' by the coalition.
In a televised address on 24 April, Saleh called on the Houthis and other armed groups to withdraw from the territory they had seized and participate in UN-sponsored peace talks, in exchange for an end to the air campaign. Exiled Yemeni Foreign Minister rejected the peace proposal saying that Saleh had no role in the talks.
On 26 April, the General Authority for Archeology and Museums in Yemen condemned attacks targeting historical sites. The statement highlighted an attack that completely destroyed an ancient fortress in the Damt District of the Ad Dali ' Governorate. Yemeni political parties issued a letter to UN Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon requesting that he continue the peace talks. The letter emphasized that Yemen was still under attack by air, land and sea and that the existing blockade was increasing the humanitarian crisis and that education had been denied for 3 million students due to the "random attacks ''.
On 2 May, the Yemenis Forum Of Persons With Disability stated that 300 centres and organizations had been forced to stop operations following the intervention. The organization denounced the air and sea blockade that "increased the suffering of the disabled greatly ''. The same day Hussein al - Ezzi, the Houthi head of foreign relations, sent a letter addressed to Secretary General Ban seeking an end to the "unjustified Saudi aggression ''. He asked the UN to seek an end to what Houthis described as blatant aggression against the country.
On 7 May, 17 humanitarian agencies stressed that life - saving aid would run out in a week and emphasized the need to remove the existing blockade. The International Non-Government Organizations Forum in Yemen appealed for allowing basic materials to enter the country immediately.
On 10 May, Houthi military spokesman Sharaf Luqman welcomed the Russian initiative, which advocated a suspension of military operations and also lifting the blockade.
Anti-Houthi groups, especially Sunnis, while supporting the intervention did not wish for the return to power of Hadi, since they viewed him as the man "who ceded control of the capital without a fight six months ago ''.
On 3 April, the Al - Islah party, the Yemeni branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, declared its support for the campaign. Supporters of the party reportedly suffered consequences, including kidnappings and raids, as a result of this declaration.
On 26 April, the foreign minister in Hadi 's government, Riad Yaseen, rejected Saleh 's calls for UN-sponsored peace talks on the ground.
On 5 April a firefight broke out between anti-government Shiite rioters and security forces in Saudi Arabia 's Shiite - minority in Eastern Province, with one police officer killed and three others injured. The firefight broke out after calls in the Eastern Province to protest against the military intervention.
On 29 April, King Salman dismissed his appointed crown prince, Muqrin of Saudi Arabia. Some regional political analysts speculated that the decision was precipitated by Muqrin 's alleged opposition to the intervention. Salman appointed Muhammad bin Nayef, who publicly announced his support of the operation, to replace Muqrin.
On 21 April, Saudi prince Al - Waleed bin Talal reportedly offered 100 Bentleys to participating pilots. The announcement was met with substantial criticism.
Among the general populace, the war was popular.
On 3 April Bahrainis protested against the war on Yemen. A prominent Bahraini opposition politician, Fadhel Abbas, was reportedly arrested by Bahraini authorities for condemning the bombing as "flagrant aggression ''.
Supporters of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood demonstrated against Egypt 's military intervention.
Shiite parliament member Abdul Hamid Dashti reportedly criticized the war and described it as an "act of aggression ''. A prominent Shiite lawyer, Khalid Al Shatti, was summoned by Kuwaiti authorities for his criticism of the Saudi government.
On 28 April, Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Sabah Al - Khalid Al - Sabah stated that the only solution to the Yemen crisis was political.
The Arab League, United States, Turkey, OIC and Hamas voiced support for the intervention, but the European Union, Russia and the United Nations criticised it. The United Kingdom, and France supported the intervention, and along with Canada have supplied the Saudi military with equipment.
Iran condemned intervention as "US - backed aggression ''. Iran 's U.N. Ambassador Gholamali Khoshroo said that "those who violate international law, including international humanitarian law, should be held accountable for their acts and there should be no room for impunity. '' Iraqi Prime Minister Haidar al - Abadi expressed the Iraqi government 's opposition to the intervention: "This (Yemen war) can engulf the whole region in another conflict. We do n't need another sectarian war in the region. '' The Hezbollah secretary general criticized Saudi Arabia and its allies, saying "all invaders end up being defeated ''.
Somalia 's government blamed the Saudi - led coalition for the killing of at least 42 Somali refugees off the Yemeni coast. Somali Prime Minister Hassan Ali Khayre called the attack on a boat carrying refugees "atrocious '' and "appalling:.
Asian countries including China, India, Malaysia and Pakistan, moved within days to evacuate their citizens from Yemen.
On 4 April, the ICRC called for a 24 - hour humanitarian ceasefire after the coalition blocked three aid shipments to Yemen. Russia also called for "humanitarian pauses '' in the coalition bombing campaign, bringing the idea before the United Nations Security Council in a 4 April emergency meeting. However, Saudi Arabia 's UN ambassador raised questions over whether humanitarian pauses are the best way of delivering humanitarian assistance. On 7 April, China renewed calls for an immediate ceasefire.
On 10 April, the Pakistani Parliament declined a Saudi Arabian request to join the coalition. The Parliament clarified the wish to maintain a neutral diplomatic stance.
On 16 April a group of US and UK - based Yemen scholars wrote an open letter, stating that the operation was illegal under international law and calling for the UN to enforce an immediate ceasefire.
On 19 April, international aid agency Oxfam condemned SA over airstrikes it said hit one of its warehouses containing humanitarian supplies in Saada.
Aid groups came out against the air campaign: Amnesty International said some of the coalition 's airstrikes "appear to have failed to take necessary precautions to minimize harm to civilians and damage to civilian objects ''. Reporters without Borders condemned a strike in Sanaa on 20 April that caused the deaths of four employees of Al - Yemen Al - Youm TV and injured ten others; it also condemned attacks on journalists by pro-Houthi forces.
On 4 May the UN called on the coalition to stop attacking Sanaa Airport to allow delivery of humanitarian aid. On 10 May the UN Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen stated that the attacks on Saada province were in breach of international law. On 29 June, Secretary General Ban Ki - moon denounced a coalition airstrike that had hit a UN compound in Aden the previous day and requested a full investigation.
Human Rights Watch criticized the UN Security Council repeatedly for "remaining almost silent on coalition abuses ''. In January 2016 an unpublished United Nations panel investigating the Saudi - led bombing campaign in Yemen uncovered "widespread and systematic '' attacks on civilian targets in violation of international humanitarian law, calling UN Security Council up for an international commission of inquiry. Saudi Arabia had previously objected to an inquiry being set up, and had not been supported by Western governments.
In February 2016 the Secretary - General of the UN (UNSG) Ban Ki - moon raised strong concerns over continued Saudi - led airstrikes, saying that "coalition air strikes in particular continue to strike hospitals, schools, mosques and civilian infrastructures '' in Yemen. He urged States that are signatories to the Arms Trade Treaty to "control arms flows to actors that may use them in ways that breach of international humanitarian law ''.
In June 2016, Ban Ki - moon removed a Saudi - led coalition from a list of children 's rights violators, saying that Saudi Arabia threatened to cut Palestinian aid and funds to other UN programs if coalition was not removed from blacklist for killing children in Yemen. According to one source, there was also a threat of "clerics in Riyadh meeting to issue a fatwa against the UN, declaring it anti-Muslim, which would mean no contacts of OIC members, no relations, contributions, support, to any UN projects, programs ''.
In September 2016, British Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson was accused of blocking the UN inquiry into Saudi war crimes in Yemen.
Both al - Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and Islamic State had a presence in Yemen before the Saudi - led intervention. AQAP had controlled substantial pieces of territory for some time, while Islamic State claimed for twin bombings in Sanaa the following month that killed 140 people and injured hundreds more.
The two radical groups have used the conflict to expand and consolidate, an obvious fact accepted by the Pentagon. AQAP 's most determined opponent, the Houthis, disengaged to face rival Yemeni militias at the same time as they were being hit by coalition air strikes; Yemeni troops in the south remained in their bases instead of confronting al - Qaeda militants, fearing Saudi air strikes on any troop movements. With the destruction of much of Yemen 's military infrastructure by the coalition, even once peace is achieved, there are questions about the ability of the country to confront its Islamist militancy problem.
Within weeks of the commencement of the coalition 's campaign, AQAP had exploited the chaos to capture the south - eastern port city of Mukalla, along with nearby military, transport, and economic infrastructure. A series of prison breaks by al - Qaeda -- they emptied Mukalla 's jail of 300 prisoners and loosed 1,200 inmates in June 2015 from the central prison in Taiz -- released jailed jihadists of all ranks. Worse, Yemen 's prisons had, in preceding years, reportedly become "de facto jihadi academies '', as veteran militants were placed in cells alongside young, regular criminals.
The coalition took Yemen 's second city of Aden in July 2015. AQAP and Islamic State thereafter increased their presence in the city, "a base they could only have dreamed of before this war began '', in the words of the BBC 's Frank Gardner. Residents of Aden faced a wave of bombings and shootings that prevented efforts at stabilization. Seven months after rebel fighters from the Houthi militia had been driven from Aden, there were almost daily assassinations of judges, security officials, and police.
At the start of February 2016, AQAP recaptured Azzan, an important commercial city in Shabwa province. A few weeks later, al - Qaeda fighters and Saudi - led coalition forces were seen fighting together against Houthi rebels. But the situation is different in Aden, the AQAP / ISIS and pro-Hadi allies in Taiz that were fighting together side by side are enemies in Aden battlefield, on 29 February 2016, a suicide car killed 4 pro-Hadi troops in Shiek Othman district in Aden, the city that Hadi uses as a temporary capital.
On 25 March, Gulf Air, the Bahraini flag carrier airline announced the immediate suspension of service to Sana'a. Somali airlines such as Daallo Airlines and Jubba Airways also encountered difficulties, as they were unable to fly over Yemen after its airspace became restricted. On 15 April, Turkish Airlines suspended all Yemen flights until 1 June.
Following Hadi 's request, the administration of the Egypt - based Nilesat and Saudi - based Arabsat, two satellite communication companies, stopped broadcasting Yemeni state - run television channels that had fallen under Houthi control. The channels included Al - Yemen, Al - Eman, Saba News Agency and Aden TV. Armed Houthis closed down the Sana'a offices of four media outlets, including Al Jazeera, Yemen Shabab and Suhail channels, as well as Al - Masdar 's newspaper and website. Al - Saeeda channel was also stormed, but was allowed to remain open on the condition it not broadcast anti-Houthi material. Houthi Political Office member Mohammad Al - Bukhaiti said the channels were closed for supporting the coalition.
King Salman replaced his half - brother Muqrin as crown prince with Muhammad bin Nayef and named his son Mohammed bin Salman as defence minister, and then - Ambassador to the United States Adel al - Jubeir as foreign minister. Some reports linked the cabinet reshuffle to the war. At least one political analyst suggested that Muqrin was not supportive of the military intervention, and that this cost him his position. Prince Muqrin 's Yemeni Lineage was pointed out as another possible cause.
The exiled Yemeni government sent a request to the UN, asking for foreign troops on the ground.
On 19 June, WikiLeaks announced the intention of releasing over 500,000 Saudi diplomatic documents to the internet. In its statement, WikiLeaks referred to a recent electronic attack on the Saudi Foreign Ministry by a group calling itself the Yemen Cyber Army, but did not indicate whether they passed the documents to WikiLeaks.
On 26 August, Bob Semple, a British hostage who was held by Al Qaeda in Yemen was freed by the UAE armed forces.
On 15 May, new UN envoy to Yemen Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed proposed peace talks in Geneva. Rebel spokesman Hamed al - Bokheiti said the Houthis were willing to hold talks in any "neutral '' country. Five days later the Secretary - General of the United Nations, Ban Ki - moon announced that peace talks would be held in Geneva starting on 28 May and urged all parties to participate. Houthi rebels reiterated their support for the talks while exiled government officials said they would participate only if the Houthi 's withdrew from occupied cities.
On 26 May, Ban announced that the peace talks were to be postponed indefinitely after exiled Yemeni officials refused to attend until rebels withdrew from all occupied cities. However, on 6 June the UN announced that peace talks would take place on 14 June Both the exiled officials and the Houthi group confirmed their attendance.
Secretary - General Ban called for a "humanitarian pause '' during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. Peace talks between the exiled government and the Houthis concluded in Geneva without reaching a ceasefire.
On 4 July, Houthi spokesman Mohammed Abdul Salam said in a post on his Facebook page that he had met Ahmed on Friday to discuss a Ramadan truce. The US and EU announced their support for a humanitarian truce.
On 9 July, the UN announced an unconditional truce between 10 July until the end of Eid ul Fitr on 17 July. The Special Envoy to Yemen assured the agreement of all warring factions. In a televised speech, Abdel - Malek al - Houthi, head of the Houthi 's, endorsed the truce, but doubted that the ceasefire would hold. The truce was pierced within an hour by airstrikes. Coalition spokesman later added that the coalition was not bound by the truce and that any truce would be counterproductive. It later added that it was not requested to pause by the exiled Yemeni Government.
On 8 September, Vice News revealed a leaked email by UN Envoy to Yemen Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed. In it, the envoy confirms that Houthi rebels and the party of former president and Houthi ally Ali Abdullah Saleh have expressed willingness to accept -- with some reservations -- a UN Security Council resolution, approved in April. This demanded the rebels "withdraw their forces from all areas they have seized, including the capital, Sanaa ''. "AA / GPC agreed to a new wording on UNSC resolution 2216 that states unequivocally that they are committed to the implementation of 2216 (see document attached) with the exception of article which infringe on Yemeni sovereignty and those related to sanctions, '' wrote Ould Cheikh Ahmed, referring to Ansar Allah (AA) -- another name for the Houthis -- and Saleh 's General People 's Congress party (GPC). "In addition, the new text includes acceptance of the return of the current government for a period of 60 days during which a government of national unity shall be formed, '' wrote the envoy in the email. According to Ould Cheikh Ahmed, during talks, the Houthis gave ground on certain language, including "mandatory support by the international community for reconstruction that was in the earlier version ''. "The latter was particularly opposed by KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and GCC Gulf Cooperation Council who did not want it to be interpreted as a form of mandatory compensation, '' added the UN envoy.
On 10 September, UN Envoy to Yemen announced that all parties had agreed to peace talks. A statement from Hadi 's office following a meeting on the issue of new talks affirmed the president 's "complete support for the sincere efforts exerted by the special envoy ''. It urged Ahmed to "exert efforts to achieve the public and honest commitment on the part of the Houthis and Saleh '' to implement the 14 April council resolution unconditionally. On 13 September, the exiled Yemeni government announced that it would no longer participate in the peace talks.
On 18 April, peace talks aimed at ending Yemen 's civil war that were set to begin faltered before they could start, when delegates representing Yemen 's Houthi rebels refused to attend.
On 20 April, talks convened, based on UN Security Council resolution 2216 which called for the Houthi fighters to withdraw from areas they seized since 2014 and hand heavy weapons back to the government.
On 6 August, the UN special envoy to Yemen, Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed, announced the suspension in Kuwait, where the talks were being held. He said that the negotiations were not a failure and that they would resume in a month at an undisclosed location. Mr. Ahmed is the second United Nations envoy to try to broker peace talks between the Houthis and other factions in Yemen since March 2015. His predecessor quit after similar peace talk efforts failed. After the breakdown of the talks, one of the Houthi negotiators, Nasser Bagazgooz, blamed the United Nations envoy for seeking what he said amounted to a military solution on behalf of the Saudi - led coalition. Previous negotiations floated the idea of forming a unity government -- composed of Houthi and former Hadi government leaders. But the exiled Hadi leaders have consistently rejected any deal that would diminish their power over Yemen, and the Houthis have said that they will reject any deal that does not give them a seat at the table.
The Saudi - led military coalition and Houthis (Ansar Allah) arrived at a swift ceasefire agreement effective 17 November 2016, as a result of efforts of U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry and Omani dignitaries.
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lyrics to mama's little baby loves short'nin bread | Shortnin ' Bread - wikipedia
"Shortnin ' Bread '' (also spelled "Shortenin ' Bread, '' "Short'nin ' Bread, '' or "Sho'tnin ' Bread '') is a song written by James Whitcomb Riley in 1900. A folk version was published by E.C. Perrow in 1915. It is song number 4209 in the Roud Folk Song Index. Shortening bread refers to a fried batter bread, made of corn meal, flour, hot water, eggs, baking powder, milk and shortening.
"Shortnin ' Bread '' is often thought of as a traditional plantation song. However, the first version was written by white poet James Whitcomb Riley in 1900. His song was named "A Short'nin ' Bread Song -- Pieced Out '', the chorus of which is:
Fotch dat dough fum the kitchin - shed Rake de coals out hot an ' red Putt on de oven an ' putt on de led Mammy 's gwineter cook som short'nin ' bread
The verse includes:
When corn plantin ' done come roun ' Blackbird own de whole plowed groun ' Corn is de grain as I 've hearn said Dat 's de blackbird 's short'nin ' bread
Titled "Shortened Bread '', E.C. Perrow published the first folk version of this song in 1915, which he collected from East Tennessee in 1912. The folk version of the song -- as with Riley 's -- does not have any distinct theme, but consists of various floating lyrics, some relating to "shortnin ' bread '', some not. The traditional chorus associated with the folk song goes:
Mammy 's little baby loves short'nin ', short'nin ' Mammy 's little baby loves short'nin ' bread
The song was recorded by the American rock band the Beach Boys numerous times. Only one version has seen official release as a track on their 1979 album L.A. (Light Album).
During the 1970s, their principal songwriter Brian Wilson was reportedly obsessed with the song, recording more than a dozen versions of the tune. Alex Chilton recalled receiving middle - of - the - night phone calls from Wilson asking him to sing on a recording of "Shortenin ' Bread '' '; "He was telling me I have the perfect voice for it. '' Micky Dolenz wrote of in his autobiography that while tripping on LSD with Wilson, John Lennon, and Harry Nilsson, he remembers Wilson playing "Shortenin ' Bread '' on piano "over and over again ''. Elton John and Iggy Pop were mutually bemused by an extended, contumacious Wilson - led singalong of "Shortenin ' Bread '', leading Pop to flee the room proclaiming, "I got ta get out of here, man. This guy is nuts! ''
Beach Boy Al Jardine speculates that Wilson 's obsession with the song may have begun after he had co-written the song "Ding Dang '' with Roger McGuinn in the early 1970s. McGuinn explained that Wilson had one day come to his house for amphetamines while escaping from his therapist. After McGuinn spent some time crafting "Ding Dang '' with Wilson, he went to bed. The next day, he awoke to Wilson, still awake, and still playing "Ding Dang '' on piano. Only one lyric was ever written: "I love a girl and I love her madly / I treat her so fine but she treats me so badly ''. During sessions for The Beach Boys Love You, engineer Earle Mankey noted that "everybody who showed up got subjected to ' Ding Dang '. ''
Innumerable permutations of Wilson 's "Ding Dang '' and "Shortenin ' Bread '' 1 - to - 4 - up piano riff exist on studio tape, most of them unreleased with titles such as "Clangin ' '' (recorded with Harry Nilsson), "Brian 's Jam '', and "Rolling Up to Heaven ''. A version was completed for the unreleased album Adult / Child in late 1977. This recording was developed from a 1973 session conducted with Wilson 's girl group side - project American Spring.
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head of the episcopal church in the united states | Episcopal Church (United States) - Wikipedia
The Episcopal Church (TEC) is the United States - based member church of the worldwide Anglican Communion. It is a mainline Christian denomination divided into nine provinces and has dioceses in the United States, Taiwan, Micronesia, the Caribbean, Central and South America, as well as the Convocation of Episcopal Churches in Europe and the Navajoland Area Mission. The presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church is Michael Bruce Curry, the first African - American bishop to serve in that position.
In 2017, the Episcopal Church had 1,871,581 active baptized members, of whom 1,712,563 were members located in the United States. In 2011, it was the nation 's 14th largest denomination. In 2015, Pew Research estimated that 1.2 percent of the adult population in the United States, or 3 million people, self - identify as mainline Episcopalians / Anglicans.
The church was organized after the American Revolution, when it became separate from the Church of England, whose clergy are required to swear allegiance to the British monarch as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The Episcopal Church describes itself as "Protestant, yet Catholic ''. The Episcopal Church claims apostolic succession, tracing its bishops back to the apostles via holy orders. The Book of Common Prayer, a collection of traditional rites, blessings, liturgies, and prayers used throughout the Anglican Communion, is central to Episcopal worship.
The Episcopal Church was active in the Social Gospel movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the 1960s and 1970s, the church has pursued a decidedly more liberal course. It has opposed the death penalty and supported the civil rights movement and affirmative action. Some of its leaders and priests are known for marching with influential civil rights ' demonstrators such as Martin Luther King Jr. The Church calls for the full legal equality of LGBT people, a movement partly inspired by their similar call for racial equality during the mid-1950s. In 2015, the Church 's 78th triennial General Convention passed resolutions allowing the blessing of same - sex marriages and approved two official liturgies to bless such unions, though they are not yet official rites within the Book of Common Prayer. Due to the complex process of editing or making additions to the Prayer Book, the BCP still describes marriage as being the union of a man and a woman.
The Episcopal Church ordains women and LGBT people to the priesthood, the diaconate, and the episcopate, despite opposition from a number of other member churches of the global Anglican Communion. In 2003, Gene Robinson was the first non-celibate openly gay person ordained as a bishop in documented Christian history.
The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America (PECUSA) and "The Episcopal Church '' (TEC) are both official names specified in the church 's constitution. The latter is much more commonly used. In other languages, an equivalent is used. For example, in Spanish, the church is called La Iglesia Episcopal Protestante de los Estados Unidos de América or La Iglesia Episcopal. and in French L'Église protestante épiscopale dans les États Unis d'Amérique or L'Église épiscopale.
Until 1964, the only official name in use was "The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America ''. In the 19th century, High Church members advocated changing the name, which they felt did not acknowledge the church 's Catholic heritage. They were opposed by the church 's evangelical wing, which felt that the "Protestant Episcopal '' label accurately reflected the Reformed character of Anglicanism. After 1877, alternative names were regularly proposed and rejected by the General Convention. A commonly proposed alternative was "the American Catholic Church ''. By the 1960s, opposition to dropping the word "Protestant '' had largely subsided. In a 1964 General Convention compromise, priests and lay delegates suggested adding a preamble to the church 's constitution, recognizing "The Episcopal Church '' as a lawful alternate designation while still retaining the earlier name.
The 66th General Convention voted in 1979 to use the name "The Episcopal Church '' (dropping the adjective "Protestant '') in the Oath of Conformity of the Declaration for Ordination. The evolution of the name can be seen in the church 's Book of Common Prayer. In the 1928 BCP, the title page read, "According to the use of The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America '', whereas on the title page of the 1979 BCP it states, "' According to the use of The Episcopal Church ''.
The Episcopal Church in the United States of America (ECUSA) has never been an official name of the church but is an alternative commonly seen in English. Since several other churches in the Anglican Communion also use the name "Episcopal '' like churches in Scotland and the Philippines, some, for example Anglicans Online, add the phrase "in the United States of America ''.
A common mistake by non-Episcopalians is over the use of the words "Episcopal '' (adjective) and "Episcopalian '' (noun). Thus, it is an Episcopal Church, and its members are called Episcopalians.
The full legal name of the national church corporate body is the "Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America '', which was incorporated by the legislature of New York and established in 1821. The membership of the corporation "shall be considered as comprehending all persons who are members of the Church ''. This, however, should not be confused with the name of the church itself, as it is a distinct body relating to church governance.
The Episcopal Church has its origins in the Church of England in the American colonies, and it stresses continuity with the early universal Western Church and claims to maintain apostolic succession (though the Catholic and Orthodox churches do not recognize this claim).
The first parish was founded in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, under the charter of the Virginia Company of London. The tower of Jamestown Church (c. 1639 -- 43) is one of the oldest surviving Anglican church structures in the United States. The Jamestown church building itself is a modern reconstruction.
Although no American Anglican bishops existed in the colonial era, the Church of England had an official status in several colonies, which meant that local governments paid tax money to local parishes, and the parishes handled some civic functions. The Church of England was designated the established church in Virginia in 1609, in New York in 1693, in Maryland in 1702, in South Carolina in 1706, in North Carolina in 1730, and in Georgia in 1758.
From 1635 the vestries and the clergy came loosely under the diocesan authority of the Bishop of London. After 1702, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) began missionary activity throughout the colonies. On the eve of Revolution about 400 independent congregations were reported throughout the colonies.
Embracing the symbols of the British presence in the American colonies, such as the monarchy, the episcopate, and even the language of the Book of Common Prayer, the Church of England almost drove itself to extinction during the upheaval of the American Revolution. More than any other denomination, the War of Independence internally divided both clergy and laity of the Church of England in America, and opinions covered a wide spectrum of political views: patriots, conciliators, and loyalists. While many Patriots were suspicious of Loyalism in the church, about three - quarters of the signers of the Declaration of Independence were nominally Anglican laymen, including Thomas Jefferson, William Paca, and George Wythe. It was often assumed that persons considered "High Church '' were Loyalists, whereas persons considered "Low Church '' were Patriots; assumptions with possibly dangerous implications for the time.
Of the approximately three hundred clergy in the Church of England in America between 1776 and 1783, over 80 percent in New England, New York, and New Jersey were loyalists. This is in contrast to the less than 23 percent loyalist clergy in the four southern colonies. Many Church of England clergy remained loyalists as they took their two ordination oaths very seriously. Anglican clergy were obliged to swear allegiance to the king as well as to pray for the king, the royal family, and the British Parliament. In general, loyalist clergy stayed by their oaths and prayed for the king or else suspended services. By the end of 1776, some Anglican churches were closing. Anglican priests held services in private homes or lay readers who were not bound by the oaths held morning and evening prayer. During 1775 and 1776, the Continental Congress had issued decrees ordering churches to fast and pray on behalf of the patriots. Starting July 4, 1776, Congress and several states passed laws making prayers for the king and British Parliament acts of treason. The patriot clergy in the South were quick to find reasons to transfer their oaths to the American cause and prayed for the success of the Revolution. One precedent was the transfer of oaths during the Glorious Revolution in England. Most of the patriot clergy in the South were able to keep their churches open and services continued.
In the wake of the Revolution, American Episcopalians faced the task of preserving a hierarchical church structure in a society infused with republican values.
When the clergy of Connecticut elected Samuel Seabury as their bishop in 1783, he sought consecration in England. The Oath of Supremacy prevented Seabury 's consecration in England, so he went to Scotland; the non-juring Scottish bishops there consecrated him in Aberdeen on November 14, 1784, making him, in the words of scholar Arthur Carl Piepkorn, "the first Anglican bishop appointed to minister outside the British Isles ''. On August 3, 1785, the first ordinations on American soil took place at Christ Church in Middletown, Connecticut.
By 1786, the church had succeeded in translating episcopacy to America and in revising the Book of Common Prayer to reflect American political realities. Later, through the efforts of Bishop Philander Chase (1775 -- 1852) of Ohio, Americans successfully sought material assistance from England for the purpose of training Episcopal clergy. The development of the Protestant Episcopal Church provides an example of how Americans in the early republic maintained important cultural ties with England.
In 1787, two priests -- William White of Pennsylvania and Samuel Provoost of New York -- were consecrated as bishops by the archbishop of Canterbury, the archbishop of York, and the bishop of Bath and Wells, the legal obstacles having been removed by the passage through Parliament of the Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786. Thus there are two branches of Apostolic succession for the American bishops: through the non-juring bishops of Scotland who consecrated Samuel Seabury and through the English church who consecrated William White and Samuel Provoost. All bishops in the American Church are ordained by at least three bishops. One can trace the succession of each back to Seabury, White and Provoost. (See Succession of Bishops of the Episcopal Church.)
In 1789, representative clergy from nine dioceses met in Philadelphia to ratify the church 's initial constitution. The Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England in 1789 so that clergy would not be required to accept the supremacy of the British monarch. A revised version of the Book of Common Prayer was written for the new church that same year. The fourth bishop of the Episcopal Church was James Madison, the first bishop of Virginia. Madison was consecrated in 1790 by the Archbishop of Canterbury and two other Church of England bishops. This third American bishop consecrated within the English line of succession occurred because of continuing unease within the Church of England over Seabury 's nonjuring Scottish orders. The Episcopal Church thus became the first Anglican Province outside the British Isles.
On 17 September 1792, at the triennial general convention (synod) of the Episcopal Church at Trinity Church on Wall Street, in New York City, Thomas John Claggett was elected the first bishop of Maryland. He was the first bishop of the Episcopal Church ordained and consecrated in America and the fifth Bishop consecrated for the Episcopal Church in the United States.
In 1856 the first society for African Americans in the Episcopal Church was founded by James Theodore Holly. Named The Protestant Episcopal Society for Promoting The Extension of The Church Among Colored People, the society argued that blacks should be allowed to participate in seminaries and diocesan conventions. The group lost its focus when Holly emigrated to Haiti, but other groups followed after the Civil War. The current Union of Black Episcopalians traces its history to the society. Holly went on to found the Anglican Church in Haiti, where he became the first African - American bishop on November 8, 1874. As Bishop of Haiti, Holly was the first African American to attend the Lambeth Conference. However, he was consecrated by the American Church Missionary Society, an Evangelical Episcopal branch of the Church.
Episcopal missions chartered by African - Americans in this era were chartered as a Colored Episcopal Mission. All other missions (white) were chartered as an Organized Episcopal Mission. Many historically Black parishes are still in existence to date.
When the American Civil War began in 1861, Episcopalians in the South formed the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America. However, in the North the separation was never officially recognized. By May 16, 1866, the southern dioceses had rejoined the national church.
By the middle of the 19th century, evangelical Episcopalians disturbed by High Church Tractarianism, while continuing to work in interdenominational agencies, formed their own voluntary societies, and eventually, in 1874, a faction objecting to the revival of ritual practices established the Reformed Episcopal Church.
Samuel David Ferguson was the first black bishop consecrated by the Episcopal Church, the first to practice in the U.S. and the first black person to sit in the House of Bishops. Bishop Ferguson was consecrated on June 24, 1885, with the then - Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church acting as a consecrator.
During the Gilded Age, highly prominent laity such as banker J.P. Morgan, industrialist Henry Ford, and art collector Isabella Stewart Gardner played a central role in shaping a distinctive upper class Episcopalian ethos, especially with regard to preserving the arts and history. These philanthropists propelled the Episcopal Church into a quasi-national position of importance while at the same time giving the church a central role in the cultural transformation of the country. Another mark of influence is the fact that more than a quarter of all presidents of the United States have been Episcopalians (see religious affiliations of Presidents of the United States). It was during this period that the Book of Common Prayer was revised, first in 1892 and later in 1928.
At the 1958 General Convention, a coalition of liberal church members succeeded in passing a resolution recognizing "the natural dignity and value of every man, of whatever color or race, as created in the image of God ''. It called on Episcopalians "to work together, in charity and forbearance, towards the establishment... of full opportunities in fields such as education, housing, employment and public accommodations ''. In response, the Episcopal Society for Cultural and Racial Unity (ESCRU) was founded in December 1959 in order to eliminate racial, ethnic and class barriers within the Episcopal Church. Opposition from southern church leaders prevented the Episcopal Church from taking a strong stand on civil rights prior to 1963. One prominent opponent of the movement was Charles C.J. Carpenter, the bishop of Alabama. By 1963, many church leaders felt more comfortable speaking out in support of racial equality. That year, Presiding Bishop Arthur Lichtenberger wrote a pastoral letter urging Christians to work "across lines of racial separation, in a common struggle for justice '', and the House of Bishops endorsed civil rights legislation.
In 1967, Lichtenberger 's successor, John Hines led the Episcopal Church to implement the General Convention Special Program (GCSP). The Special Program was designed to redirect nine million dollars over a three - year period (a quarter of the church 's operating budget at the time) to fund special grants for community organizations and grassroots efforts facilitating black empowerment in America 's urban ghettos. The effectiveness of the GCSP was limited due to the reluctance of conservative bishops in southern dioceses, who objected to the awarding of grants to groups perceived as radical. The GCSP also drew opposition from the recently formed Foundation for Christian Theology, a conservative organization opposed to "involv (ing) the Church in the social, political, and economic activities of our times ''. The tension between liberal and conservative constituencies in the church erupted during the Special General Convention of 1969. The convention was disrupted by black militants who demanded that the Episcopal Church hear their concerns. When white deputies objected to allowing the militants a hearing, African - American deputies walked out of the convention. The Special General Convention also witnessed protests of the Vietnam War. During this time period, African - American clergy organized the Union of Black Episcopalians to achieve full inclusion of African Americans at all levels of the Episcopal Church
The liberal policies of Presiding Bishop Hines and the General Conventions of 1967 and 1969 led to a conservative reaction. Facing declining membership and a one million dollar budget cut, the Special Program became an easy target for conservatives, who succeeded in drastically reducing the financial support for the program in 1970. It was finally ended in 1973 with little protest. A year later, Hines was succeeded by John M. Allin, the bishop of Mississippi and a conservative.
The first women were admitted as delegates to General Convention in 1970. In 1975, Vaughan Booker, who confessed to the murder of his wife and was sentenced to life in prison, was ordained to the diaconate in Graterford State Prison 's chapel in Pennsylvania, after having repented of his sins, becoming a symbol of redemption and atonement.
In recent decades, the Episcopal Church, like other mainline churches, has experienced a decline in membership as well as internal controversy over women 's ordination and the place of homosexuals in the church. The 1976 General Convention also passed a resolution calling for an end to apartheid in South Africa and in 1985 called for "dioceses, institutions, and agencies '' to create equal opportunity employment and affirmative action policies to address any potential "racial inequities '' in clergy placement. Because of these and other controversial issues including abortion, individual members and clergy can and do frequently disagree with the stated position of the church 's leadership. In January 2016, the Anglican Primates Meeting at Canterbury decided that in response to the "distance '' caused by what it called "unilateral action on matters of doctrine without catholic unity '', "for a period of three years, The Episcopal Church (would neither) represent (the Communion) on ecumenical and interfaith bodies... (nor) take part in decision making on any issues pertaining to doctrine or polity. ''
In 1976, the General Convention adopted a new prayer book, which was a substantial revision and modernization of the previous 1928 edition. It incorporated many principles of the Roman Catholic Church 's liturgical movement, which had been discussed at Vatican II. This version was adopted as the official prayer book in 1979 after an initial three - year trial use. Several conservative parishes, however, continued to use the 1928 version.
On July 29, 1974, a group of women known as the Philadelphia Eleven were irregularly ordained as priests in the Episcopal Church by bishops Daniel Corrigan, Robert L. DeWitt, and Edward R. Welles, assisted by Antonio Ramos. On September 7, 1975, four more women (the "Washington Four '') were irregularly ordained by retired bishop George W. Barrett. In the wake of the controversy over the ordination of the Philadelphia Eleven, the General Convention permitted the ordination of women in 1976 and recognized the ordinations of the 15 forerunners. The first women were canonically ordained to the priesthood in 1977. The first woman to become a bishop, Barbara Harris, was consecrated on February 11, 1989.
At the same time, there was still tolerance for those dioceses who opposed women 's ordination. In 1994, the General Convention affirmed that there was value in the theological position that women should not be ordained. In 1997, however, the General Convention then determined that "the canons regarding the ordination, licensing, and deployment of women are mandatory '' and required noncompliant dioceses to issue status reports on their progress towards full compliance.
In 2006, the General Convention elected Katharine Jefferts Schori as Presiding Bishop. She is the first and, currently, the only woman to become a primate in the Anglican Communion. Schori 's election was controversial in the wider Anglican Communion because not all of the communion recognizes the ordination of women.
At the time of the formation of the Anglican Church in North America (ACNA), three U.S. dioceses did not ordain women as priests or bishops: San Joaquin, Quincy, and Fort Worth. Following the departures of their conservative majorities, all three dioceses now ordain women. With the October 16, 2010, ordination of Margaret Lee, in the Peoria - based Diocese of Quincy, Illinois, women have been ordained as priests in all 110 dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States.
The Episcopal Church affirmed at the 1976 General Convention that homosexuals are "children of God '' who deserve acceptance and pastoral care from the church and equal protection under the law. The first openly gay person ordained as a priest was Ellen Barrett in 1977. Despite such an affirmation of gay rights, the General Convention affirmed in 1991 that "physical sexual expression '' is only appropriate within the monogamous, lifelong "union of husband and wife ''.
The Church elected its first openly gay bishop, Gene Robinson, in June 2003. News of Robinson 's election caused a crisis in both the American church and the wider Anglican Communion. In October 2003, Anglican primates (the heads of the Anglican Communion 's 38 member churches) convened an emergency meeting. The meeting 's final communiqué included the warning that if Robinson 's consecration proceeded, it would "tear the fabric of the communion at its deepest level ''. The news of his ordination caused such an outrage that during the ceremony, at which his long - time partner was present, Robinson was forced to wear a bullet - proof vest beneath his vestments, and he received numerous death threats following his installation as bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire as well.
In 2009, the General Convention charged the Standing Commission on Liturgy and Music to develop theological and liturgical resources for same - sex blessings and report back to the General Convention in 2012. It also gave bishops an option to provide "generous pastoral support '', especially where civil authorities have legalized same - gender marriage, civil unions, or domestic partnerships.
On July 14, 2009, the Episcopal Church 's House of Bishops voted that "any ordained ministry '' is open to gay men and lesbians. The New York Times said the move was "likely to send shockwaves through the Anglican Communion. '' This vote ended a moratorium on ordaining gay bishops passed in 2006 and passed in spite of Archbishop Rowan Williams 's personal call at the start of the convention that, "I hope and pray that there wo n't be decisions in the coming days that will push us further apart. ''
On July 10, 2012, the Episcopal Church approved an official liturgy for the blessing of same - sex relationships. This liturgy was not a marriage rite, but the blessing included an exchange of vows and the couple 's agreement to enter into a lifelong committed relationship.
On June 29, 2015, at the 78th General Convention of the Episcopal Church, a resolution removing the definition of marriage as being between one man and one woman was passed by the House of Bishops with 129 in favor, 26 against, and 5 abstaining. The current Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, expressed "deep concern '' over the ruling. In 2016, Anglican leaders temporarily suspended the U.S. Episcopal Church from key positions in their global fellowship in response to the Church changing its canons on marriage.
After considerable internal debate following the ordination of Bp. Gene Robinson, some members of a number of congregations and six dioceses left the Episcopal Church.
Many of those who separated themselves joined the Continuing Anglican movement or advocated Anglican realignment, claiming alignment with overseas Anglican provinces including the Anglican Province of the Southern Cone of America and the Church of Nigeria.
Differences over social issues led to the formation of the Anglican Church in North America which has over 900 parishes. Episcopal Church leaders, particularly former Presiding Bishop Katharine Jefferts Schori, responded by taking a firm stance against the separatists, initiating litigation against departing dioceses and parishes that has cost all parties tens of millions of dollars; one estimate has the Episcopal Church spending over $42 million and separatists roughly $18 million, for a total of over $60 million in court costs. Litigation has largely centered around church properties, with the Episcopal leadership asserting ownership of buildings occupied by departing congregations.
On October 15, 2012, the Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina voted to withdraw from the Episcopal Church and become an autonomous Anglican diocese after a long period of conflict with the national leadership of the Episcopal Church. Established in 1785, the diocese was one of the nine original dioceses of the Episcopal Church. On 11 March 2017, The Diocese of South Carolina voted unanimously to affiliate with ACNA at their 226th Convention, held in Summerville. ACNA 's Provincial Council voted unanimously to formally receive the Diocese of South Carolina at ACNA 's Third Provincial Assembly, meeting in Wheaton, Illinois, on 27 June 2017.
In a letter to the House of Bishops during summer 2009, Presiding Bishop Katharine Jefferts Schori instructed local dioceses not to sell parish property to departing groups. She stated: "We do not make settlements that encourage religious bodies who seek to replace The Episcopal Church ''.
Before Schori took this stand, prior Bishops had treated parish property disputes as internal diocesan matters that are "not subject to the review or oversight of the presiding bishop. '' One example was when then - Presiding Bishop Frank Griswold told the Diocese of Western Louisiana on May 11, 2006 that the national church involved itself in parish property disputes only upon invitation of the local bishop and diocesan standing committees. Schori 's letter stated that her firm stance was the consensus of the Council of Advice and expressed hope that "those who have departed can gain clarity about their own identity ''.
After the South Carolina Diocese voted to withdraw, it sued the national Episcopal Church to retain control over its property, and in a court decision announced in February 2015, the local diocese kept $500 million worth of property including the historic Cathedral of St. Luke and St. Paul. Circuit Court Judge Diane Goodstein ruled that the conservative diocese and its parishes are "the owners of their real, personal and intellectual property '' and that the national church has no legal interest in the properties. However, this ruling was substantially overturned by the Supreme Court of South Carolina on August 2, 2017, which issued a split decision that effectively returns the property of 29 parishes and the St. Christopher Camp and Conference Center to the Episcopal Church in South Carolina, while seven parishes retained their properties because they had never ratified the Episcopal Church 's Dennis Canon (a church bylaw meant to impose a trust on parish property). Because of a tie on the court, the Circuit Court 's ruling on the name "Episcopal Diocese of South Carolina '' and related intellectual property remains in place.
As of 2014, the Episcopal Church reports 1,956,042 baptized members. The majority of members are in the United States, where the Church has 1,866,758 members, a decrease of 27,423 persons (- 1.4 percent) from 2012. Outside of the U.S. the Church has 142,326 members, a decrease of 30,203 persons (- 17.5 percent) from 2012. Total average Sunday attendance (ASA) for 2013 was 657,102 (623,691 in the U.S. and 33,411 outside the U.S.), a decrease of 3.4 percent from 2012.
According to ARIS / Barna, 3.5 million Americans self -- identified as Episcopalians, highlighting "a gap between those who are affiliated with the church (on membership rolls), versus those who self - identify (as Episcopalians) ''. Church Pension Group also cited having 3.5 million adherents in 2002. More recently, in 2014, Pew Research found that approximately 1.2 percent of 245 million U.S adults, around 3 million people, self -- identified as mainline Episcopalian / Anglican.
According to data collected in 2000, the District of Columbia, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Virginia have the highest rates of adherents per capita, and states along the East Coast generally have a higher number of adherents per capita than in other parts of the country. New York was the state with the largest total number of adherents, over 200,000. In 2013, the Episcopal Diocese of Haiti was the largest single diocese, with 84,301 baptized members, which constitute slightly over half of the church 's foreign membership.
According to the latest statistics U.S. membership dropped 2.7 percent from a reported 1,866,758 members in 2013 to 1,745,156 in 2016, a loss of 121,602 persons. Attendance took an even steeper hit, with the average number of Sunday worshipers dropping from 623,691 in 2013 to 570,454 in 2016, a decline of 53,237 persons in the pews, down 8.5 percent. Congregations dropped to 6,473.
The Episcopal Church experienced notable growth in the first half of the 20th century, but like many mainline churches, it has had a decline in membership in more recent decades. Membership grew from 1.1 million members in 1925 to a peak of over 3.4 million members in the mid-1960s. Between 1970 and 1990, membership declined from about 3.2 million to about 2.4 million. Once changes in how membership is counted are taken into consideration, the Episcopal Church 's membership numbers were broadly flat throughout the 1990s, with a slight growth in the first years of the 21st century. A loss of 115,000 members was reported for the years 2003 -- 05. Some theories about the decline in membership include a failure to sufficiently reach beyond ethnic barriers in an increasingly diverse society, and the low fertility rates prevailing among the predominant ethnic groups traditionally belonging to the church. In 1965, there were 880,000 children in Episcopal Sunday School programs. By 2001, the number had declined to 297,000.
In the twentieth century, Episcopalians tended to be wealthier and more educated (having more graduate and postgraduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in the United States, and were disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business, law, and politics.
In the 1970s, a Fortune magazine study found one - in - five of the country 's largest businesses and one - in - three of its largest banks was run by an Episcopalian. Numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts, Astors, Whitneys, Morgans and Harrimans are Episcopalians. The Episcopal Church also has the highest number of graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita (56 %) of any other Christian denomination in the United States, as well as the most high - income earners. According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, Episcopalians ranked as the third wealthiest religious group in the United States, with 35 % of Episcopalians living in households with incomes of at least $100,000.
The Episcopal Church is governed according to episcopal polity with its own system of canon law. This means that the church is organized into dioceses led by bishops in consultation with representative bodies. It is a unitary body, in that the power of the General Convention is not limited by the individual dioceses. The church has, however, a highly decentralized structure and characteristics of a confederation.
At the local level, there are 6,447 Episcopal congregations, each of which elects a vestry or bishop 's committee. Subject to the approval of its diocesan bishop, the vestry of each parish elects a priest, called the rector, who has spiritual jurisdiction in the parish and selects assistant clergy, both deacons and priests. (There is a difference between vestry and clergy elections -- clergy are ordained members usually selected from outside the parish, whereas any member in good standing of a parish is eligible to serve on the vestry.) The diocesan bishop, however, appoints the clergy for all missions and may choose to do so for non-self - supporting parishes.
The middle judicatory consists of a diocese headed by a bishop who is assisted by a standing committee. The bishop and standing committee are elected by the diocesan convention whose members are selected by the congregations. The election of a bishop requires the consent of a majority of standing committees and diocesan bishops. Conventions meet annually to consider legislation (such as revisions to the diocesan constitution and canons) and speak for the diocese. Dioceses are organized into nine provinces. Each province has a synod and a mission budget, but it has no authority over its member dioceses.
There are 110 dioceses in the United States, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Haiti, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Taiwan, Venezuela and the Virgin Islands. The Convocation of Episcopal Churches in Europe and the Navajoland Area Mission are jurisdictions similar to a diocese. The Presiding Bishop is one of three Anglican primates who together exercise metropolitan jurisdiction over the Episcopal Church of Cuba, which is an extraprovincial diocese in the Anglican Communion.
The National Cathedral is the seat of the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church as well as the bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Washington.
The highest legislative body of the Episcopal Church is the triennial General Convention, consisting of the House of Deputies and the House of Bishops. All active (whether diocesan, coadjutor, suffragan, or assistant) and retired bishops make up the over 300 members of the House of Bishops. Diocesan conventions elect over 800 representatives (each diocese elects four laity and four clergy) to the House of Deputies. The House of Deputies elects a president and vice-president to preside at meetings. General Convention enacts two types of legislation. The first type is the rules by which the church is governed as contained in the Constitution and Canons; the second type are broad guidelines on church policy called resolutions. Either house may propose legislation. The House of Deputies only meets as a full body once every three years; however, the House of Bishops meets regularly throughout the triennium between conventions.
The real work of General Convention is done by interim bodies, the most powerful being the Executive Council, which oversees the work of the national church during the triennium. The council has 40 members; 20 are directly elected by the General Convention, 18 are elected by the nine provinces, and the Presiding Bishop and President of the House of Deputies are ex officio members. Other interim bodies include a number of standing commissions which study and draft policy proposals for consideration and report back to General Convention. Each standing commission consists of three bishops, three priests or deacons, and six laypersons. Bishops are appointed by the Presiding Bishop while the other clergy and laypersons are appointed by the president of the House of Deputies.
The Presiding Bishop is elected from and by the House of Bishops and confirmed by the House of Deputies for a nine - year term. The Presiding Bishop is the chief pastor and primate of the Episcopal Church and is charged with providing leadership in the development of the Church 's program as well as speaking on behalf of the Church. The Presiding Bishop does not possess a territorial see; since the 1970s, however, the Presiding Bishop has enjoyed extraordinary jurisdiction (metropolitical authority) and has authority to visit dioceses for sacramental and preaching ministry, for consulting bishops, and for related purposes. The Presiding Bishop chairs the House of Bishops as well as the Executive Council of the General Convention. In addition, the Presiding Bishop directs the Episcopal Church Center, the national administrative headquarters of the denomination. Located at 815 Second Avenue, New York City, New York, the center is often referred to by Episcopalians simply as "815 ''.
A system of ecclesiastical courts is provided for under Title IV of the canons of General Convention. These courts are empowered to discipline and depose deacons, priests, and bishops.
Varying styles and degrees of liturgical practice prevail within the church, including: traditional hymns and anthems, more modern religious music, Anglican chant, liturgical dance, charismatic prayer, and vested clergy. As varied as services can be, the central binding aspect is the Book of Common Prayer or supplemental liturgies. Most Episcopal services are similar in structure and liturgy to the Roman Catholic Church, as the Eucharist is the central focus of the service (sometimes called Mass in High Church and some Broad Church circles), though Protestant theology in the Book of Common Prayer distinguishes Episcopal services from Roman Catholic ones. Generally Anglican / Episcopal churches have retained features such as the altar rail, the inclusion or exclusion of which, does not elicit controversy like in the Catholic Church but celebrate in the versus populum orientation like contemporary Catholic churches.
Often a congregation or a particular service will be referred to as Low Church or High Church. In theory:
A majority of Episcopal services could be considered to be "High Church '' while still falling somewhat short of a typical Anglo - Catholic "very '' high church service. In contrast, "Low Church '' services are somewhat rarer. However, while some Episcopalians refer to their churches by these labels, often there is overlapping, and the basic rites do not greatly differ. There are also variations that blend elements of all three and have their own unique features, such as New England Episcopal churches, which have elements drawn from Puritan practices, combining the traditions of "high church '' with the simplicity of "low church ''. Typical parish worship features Bible readings from the Old Testament as well as from both the Epistles and the Gospels of the New Testament. Some latitude in selecting Bible readings is allowed, but every service includes at least a passage from one of the Gospels, as well as the praying of the Lord 's Prayer.
In the Eucharist or Holy Communion service, the Book of Common Prayer specifies that bread and wine are consecrated for consumption by the people. A valid communion is made in either species, so those wishing for whatever reason to avoid alcohol can decline the cup and still make a valid communion. A Eucharist can be part of a wedding to celebrate a sacramental marriage and of a funeral as a thank offering (sacrifice) to God and for the comfort of the mourners.
The veneration of saints in the Episcopal Church is a continuation of an ancient tradition from the early Church which honors important people of the Christian faith. The usage of the term "saint '' is similar to Catholic and Orthodox traditions. There are explicit references in the 1976 Book of to invoking the aid of the prophets, patriarchs, saints, martyrs and the Virgin Mary as in an optional prayer in the committal at a funeral, p. 504. In general Anglicans pray with and for the saints in the fellowship of the saints, not to them, although their intercessions may be requested. Those inclined to the Anglo - Catholic traditions may explicitly invoke saints as intercessors in prayer.
The Episcopal Church publishes its own Book of Common Prayer (BCP) (similar to other Anglican prayer books), containing most of the worship services (or liturgies) used in the Episcopal Church. Because of its widespread use in the church, the BCP is both a reflection and source of theology for Episcopalians.
The full name of the BCP is: The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church Together with The Psalter or Psalms of David According to the use of The Episcopal Church.
Previous American BCPs were issued in 1789, 1892, and 1928. A proposed BCP was issued in 1786 but not adopted. The BCP is in the public domain; however, any new revisions of the BCP are copyrighted until they are approved by the General Convention, after which they are placed in the public domain.
The current edition dates from 1979 and is marked by language modernization and, in returning to ancient Christian tradition, a restoration of the Eucharist as the central liturgy of the church. The 1979 version reflects the theological and worship changes of the ecumenical reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. On the whole, the revision changed the theological emphasis of the church to be more Catholic in nature. In 1979, the Convention adopted the revision as the "official '' BCP and required churches using the previous 1928 prayer book to also use the new revision. There was enough strife in implementing and adopting the 1979 BCP that an apology was issued at the 2000 General Convention to any who were "offended or alienated during the time of liturgical transition to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer. '' The 2000 General Convention also authorized the occasional use of some parts of the 1928 book, under the direction of the bishop.
The 1979 edition contains a provision for the use of "traditional '' (Elizabethan) language under various circumstances not directly provided for in the book, and the Anglican Service Book was produced accordingly, as "a traditional language adaptation of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer together with the Psalter or Psalms of David and Additional Devotions. ''
The center of Episcopal teaching is the life and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The basic teachings of the church, or catechism, include:
The full catechism is included in the Book of Common Prayer and is posted on the Episcopal website.
The Episcopal Church follows the via media or "middle way '' between Protestant and Roman Catholic doctrine and practices: that is both Catholic and Reformed. Although many Episcopalians identify with this concept, those whose convictions lean toward either evangelicalism or Anglo - Catholicism may not.
A broad spectrum of theological views is represented within the Episcopal Church. Some Episcopal members or theologians hold evangelical positions, affirming the authority of scripture over all. The Episcopal Church website glossary defines the sources of authority as a balance between scripture, tradition, and reason. These three are characterized as a "three - legged stool '' which will topple if any one overbalances the other. It also notes
The Anglican balancing of the sources of authority has been criticized as clumsy or "muddy. '' It has been associated with the Anglican affinity for seeking the mean between extremes and living the via media. It has also been associated with the Anglican willingness to tolerate and comprehend opposing viewpoints instead of imposing tests of orthodoxy or resorting to heresy trials.
This balance of scripture, tradition and reason is traced to the work of Richard Hooker, a 16th - century apologist. In Hooker 's model, scripture is the primary means of arriving at doctrine and things stated plainly in scripture are accepted as true. Issues that are ambiguous are determined by tradition, which is checked by reason. Noting the role of personal experience in Christian life, some Episcopalians have advocated following the example of the Wesleyan Quadrilateral of Methodist theology by thinking in terms of a "Fourth Leg '' of "experience ''. This understanding is highly dependent on the work of Friedrich Schleiermacher.
A public example of this struggle between different Christian positions in the church has been the 2003 consecration of Gene Robinson, an openly gay man living with a long - term partner. The acceptance / rejection of his consecration is motivated by different views on the understanding of scripture. This struggle has some members concerned that the church may not continue its relationship with the larger Anglican Church. Others, however, view this pluralism as an asset, allowing a place for both sides to balance each other.
Comedian and Episcopalian Robin Williams once described the Episcopal faith (and, in a performance in London, specifically the Church of England) as "Catholic Lite -- same rituals, half the guilt ''.
In 1991, the Convention recommended parity in pay and benefits between clergy and lay employees in equivalent positions. Several times between 1979 and 2003, the Convention expressed concern over affordable housing and supported work to provide affordable housing. In 1982 and 1997, the Convention reaffirmed the Church 's commitment to eradicating poverty and malnutrition, and challenged parishes to increase ministries to the poor. The Convention urged the church in 1997 and 2000 to promote living wages for all. In 2003, the Convention urged U.S. legislators to raise the national minimum wage, and to establish a living wage with health benefits as the national standard.
At its 2015 triennial General Convention, the Church adopted "canonical and liturgical changes to provide marriage equality for Episcopalians. '' The canonical change eliminated "language defining marriage as between a man and a woman. '' The "two new marriage rites '' contain language that allows "them to be used by same - sex or opposite - sex couples. '' The blessing of same - sex relationships is not uniform throughout the Episcopal Church. Bishops may determine whether churches and priests within their dioceses are permitted to use the new liturgies. Bishops who do not permit their use must connect same - sex couples to a diocese where the liturgies are allowed. Still, no Episcopal priest is required to perform the new liturgies, even in dioceses in which they are permitted. The Church also opposes any state or federal constitutional amendments designed to prohibit the marriages of same - sex couples.
Openly gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender individuals are eligible to be ordained.
In 1861, a pamphlet entitled, A Scriptural, Ecclesiastical, and Historical View of Slavery, written by John Henry Hopkins, attempted to justify slavery based on the New Testament and gave a clear insight into the Episcopal Church 's involvement in slavery. Bishop Hopkins ' Letter on Slavery Ripped Up and his Misuse of the Sacred Scriptures Exposed, written by G.W. Hyer in 1863, opposed the points mentioned in Hopkins ' pamphlet and revealed a startling divide in the Episcopal Church over the issue of slavery. In 1991, the General Convention declared "the practice of racism is sin, '' and in 2006, a unanimous House of Bishops endorsed Resolution A123 apologizing for complicity in the institution of slavery, and silence over "Jim Crow '' laws, segregation, and racial discrimination.
The Church does not approve of the use of abortion as a means of birth control or family planning, but considers it a woman 's right to receive one. Abortion is condoned only in cases of rape, incest, fetal abnormalities, or when a mother 's physical or mental health is at risk. The Church opposes any legislation which would prevent women from obtaining abortions or information about abortions.
The Episcopal Church disapproves of assisted suicide and other forms of euthanasia, but does teach that it is permissible to withdraw medical treatment, such as artificial nutrition and hydration, when the burden of such treatment outweighs its benefits to an individual.
SIM is the only organization raising funds on a national basis for Episcopal seminarian support. SIM 's founding purpose in 1857 -- "to find suitable persons for the Episcopal ministry and aid them in acquiring a thorough education. '' SIM has awarded scholarships to qualified, full - time seminary students.
Episcopal Relief & Development is the international relief and development agency of the Episcopal Church of the United States. It helps to rebuild after disasters and aims to empower people by offering lasting solutions that fight poverty, hunger and disease. Episcopal Relief and Development programs focus on alleviating hunger, improving food supply, creating economic opportunities, strengthening communities, promoting health, fighting disease, responding to disasters, and rebuilding communities.
There are about 60 trust funds administered by the Episcopal Church which offer scholarships to young people affiliated with the church. Qualifying considerations often relate to historical missionary work of the church among American Indians and African - Americans, as well as work in China and other foreign missions. There are special programs for both American Indians and African - Americans interested in training for the ministry.
Like the other churches of the Anglican Communion, the Episcopal Church has entered into full communion with the Old Catholic Churches of the Union of Utrecht, the Philippine Independent Church, and the Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar. The Episcopal Church is also in a relationship of full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Northern and Southern Provinces of the Moravian Church in America. The Episcopal Church entered into a full communion agreement with the Church of Sweden at its General Convention in Salt Lake City on June 28, 2015.
The Episcopal Church maintains ecumenical dialogs with the United Methodist Church and the Moravian Church in America, and participates in pan-Anglican dialogs with the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the World Alliance of Reformed Churches, and the Roman Catholic Church. In 2006 a relation of interim Eucharistic sharing was inaugurated with the United Methodist Church, a step that may ultimately lead to full communion.
Historically Anglican churches have had strong ecumenical ties with the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Episcopal Church particularly with the Russian Orthodox Church, but relations in more recent years have been strained by the ordination of women and the ordination of Gene Robinson to the episcopate. A former relation of full communion with the Polish National Catholic Church (once a part of the Union of Utrecht) was broken off by the PNCC in 1976 over the ordination of women.
The Episcopal Church was a founding member of the Consultation on Church Union and participates in its successor, Churches Uniting in Christ. The Episcopal Church is a founding member of the National Council of Churches, the World Council of Churches, and the new Christian Churches Together in the USA. Dioceses and parishes are frequently members of local ecumenical councils as well.
There are two historical societies of American Episcopalianism: Historical Society of the Episcopal Church or National Episcopal Historians and Archivists (NEHA).
Church Publishing Incorporated (Church Publishing Inc., CPI) began as the Church Hymnal Corporation in 1918, dedicated initially to publishing a single work, The Hymnal 1918, which still remains in print. It is the official publisher for the General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States.
Imprints include Church Publishing, Morehouse Publishing (independently founded in 1884) and Seabury Books (the "trade '' imprint).
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what geographic features do canada and the usa share | Geography of the United States - wikipedia
The term "United States '', when used in the geographical sense, is the contiguous United States, the state of Alaska, the island state of Hawaii, the five insular territories of Puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa, and minor outlying possessions. The United States shares land borders with Canada and Mexico and maritime borders with Russia, Cuba, and the Bahamas in addition to Canada and Mexico. The United States 's northern border with Canada is the world 's longest bi-national land border.
From 1989 through 1996, the total area of the US was listed as 9,372,610 km (3,618,780 sq mi) (land + inland water only). The listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (Great Lakes area and coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km (3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to 9,826,630 km (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added). Currently, the CIA World Factbook gives 9,826,675 km (3,794,100 sq mi), the United Nations Statistics Division gives 9,629,091 km (3,717,813 sq mi), and the Encyclopædia Britannica gives 9,522,055 km (3,676,486 sq mi) (Great Lakes area included but not coastal waters). These sources consider only the 50 states and the Federal District, and exclude overseas territories.
By total area (water as well as land), the United States is either slightly larger or smaller than the People 's Republic of China, making it the world 's third or fourth largest country. China and the United States are smaller than Russia and Canada in total area, but are larger than Brazil. By land area only (exclusive of waters), the United States is the world 's third largest country, after Russia and China, with Canada in fourth. Whether the US or China is the third largest country by total area depends on two factors: (1) The validity of China 's claim on Aksai Chin and Trans - Karakoram Tract. Both these territories are also claimed by India, so are not counted; and (2) How US calculates its own surface area. Since the initial publishing of the World Factbook, the CIA has updated the total area of United States a number of times.
The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and a territorial water border with Russia in the northwest, and two territorial water borders in the southeast between Florida and Cuba, and Florida and the Bahamas. The contiguous forty - eight states are otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the west, the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast. Alaska borders the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, the Bering Strait to the west, and the Arctic Ocean to the north, while Hawaii lies far to the southwest of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.
Forty - eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada.
The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia, is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia had also donated land, but it was returned in 1849.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization: in the Caribbean the territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and in the Pacific the inhabited territories of Guam, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands, along with a number of uninhabited island territories.
The eastern United States has a varied topography. A broad, flat coastal plain lines the Atlantic and Gulf shores from the Texas - Mexico border to New York City, and includes the Florida peninsula. Areas further inland feature rolling hills, mountains, and a diverse collection of temperate and subtropical moist and wet forests. The Appalachian Mountains form a line of low mountains separating the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Basin.
The five Great Lakes are located in the north - central portion of the country, four of them forming part of the border with Canada, only Lake Michigan situated entirely within United States. The southeast United States, generally stretching from the Ohio River on south, includes a variety of warm temperate and subtropical moist and wet forests, as well as warm temperate and subtropical dry forests nearer the Great Plains in the west of the region. West of the Appalachians lies the lush Mississippi River basin and two large eastern tributaries, the Ohio River and the Tennessee River. The Ohio and Tennessee Valleys and the Midwest consist largely of rolling hills, interior highlands and small mountains, jungly marsh and swampland near the Ohio River, and productive farmland, stretching south to the Gulf Coast. The Midwest also has a vast amount of cave systems.
The Great Plains lie west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains. A large portion of the country 's agricultural products are grown in the Great Plains. Before their general conversion to farmland, the Great Plains were noted for their extensive grasslands, from tallgrass prairie in the eastern plains to shortgrass steppe in the western High Plains. Elevation rises gradually from less than a few hundred feet near the Mississippi River to more than a mile high in the High Plains. The generally low relief of the plains is broken in several places, most notably in the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains, which form the U.S. Interior Highlands, the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains.
The Great Plains come to an abrupt end at the Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountains form a large portion of the Western U.S., entering from Canada and stretching nearly to Mexico. The Rocky Mountain region is the highest region of the United States by average elevation. The Rocky Mountains generally contain fairly mild slopes and wider peaks compared to some of the other great mountain ranges, with a few exceptions (such as the Teton Mountains in Wyoming and the Sawatch Range in Colorado). The highest peaks of the Rockies are found in Colorado, the tallest peak being Mount Elbert at 14,440 ft (4,400 m). The Rocky Mountains contain some of the most spectacular, and well known scenery in the world. In addition, instead of being one generally continuous and solid mountain range, it is broken up into a number of smaller, intermittent mountain ranges, forming a large series of basins and valleys.
West of the Rocky Mountains lies the Intermontane Plateaus (also known as the Intermountain West), a large, arid desert lying between the Rockies and the Cascades and Sierra Nevada ranges. The large southern portion, known as the Great Basin, consists of salt flats, drainage basins, and many small north - south mountain ranges. The Southwest is predominantly a low - lying desert region. A portion known as the Colorado Plateau, centered around the Four Corners region, is considered to have some of the most spectacular scenery in the world. It is accentuated in such national parks as Grand Canyon, Arches, Mesa Verde National Park and Bryce Canyon, among others. Other smaller Intermontane areas include the Columbia Plateau covering eastern Washington, western Idaho and northeast Oregon and the Snake River Plain in Southern Idaho.
The Intermontane Plateaus come to an end at the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada. The Cascades consist of largely intermittent, volcanic mountains, many rising prominently from the surrounding landscape. The Sierra Nevada, further south, is a high, rugged, and dense mountain range. It contains the highest point in the contiguous 48 states, Mount Whitney (14,505 ft or 4,421 m). It is located at the boundary between California 's Inyo and Tulare counties, just 84.6 mi or 136.2 km west - northwest of the lowest point in North America at the Badwater Basin in Death Valley National Park at 279 ft or 85 m below sea level.
These areas contain some spectacular scenery as well, as evidenced by such national parks as Yosemite and Mount Rainier. West of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada is a series of valleys, such as the Central Valley in California and the Willamette Valley in Oregon. Along the coast is a series of low mountain ranges known as the Pacific Coast Ranges. Much of the Pacific Northwest coast is inhabited by some of the densest vegetation outside of the Tropics, and also the tallest trees in the world (the Redwoods).
Alaska contains some of the most dramatic and untapped scenery in the country. Tall, prominent mountain ranges rise up sharply from broad, flat tundra plains. On the islands off the south and southwest coast are many volcanoes. Hawaii, far to the south of Alaska in the Pacific Ocean, is a chain of tropical, volcanic islands, popular as a tourist destination for many from East Asia and the mainland United States.
The territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands encompass a number of tropical isles in the northeastern Caribbean Sea. In the Pacific Ocean the territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands occupy the limestone and volcanic isles of the Mariana archipelago, and American Samoa (the only populated US territory in the southern hemisphere) encompasses volcanic peaks and coral atolls in the eastern part of the Samoan Islands chain.
The geography of the United States varies across their immense area. Within the continental U.S., eight distinct physiographic divisions exist, though each is composed of several smaller physiographic subdivisions. These major divisions are:
The Atlantic coast of the United States is low, with minor exceptions. The Appalachian Highland owes its oblique northeast - southwest trend to crustal deformations which in very early geological time gave a beginning to what later came to be the Appalachian mountain system. This system had its climax of deformation so long ago (probably in Permian time) that it has since then been very generally reduced to moderate or low relief. It owes its present - day altitude either to renewed elevations along the earlier lines or to the survival of the most resistant rocks as residual mountains. The oblique trend of this coast would be even more pronounced but for a comparatively modern crustal movement, causing a depression in the northeast resulting in an encroachment of the sea upon the land. Additionally, the southeastern section has undergone an elevation resulting in the advance of the land upon the sea.
While the Atlantic coast is relatively low, the Pacific coast is, with few exceptions, hilly or mountainous. This coast has been defined chiefly by geologically recent crustal deformations, and hence still preserves a greater relief than that of the Atlantic. The low Atlantic coast and the hilly or mountainous Pacific coast foreshadow the leading features in the distribution of mountains within the United States.
The east coast Appalachian system, originally forest covered, is relatively low and narrow and is bordered on the southeast and south by an important coastal plain. The Cordilleran system on the western side of the continent is lofty, broad and complicated having two branches, the Rocky Mountain System and the Pacific Mountain System. In between these mountain systems lie the Intermontaine Plateaus. Both the Columbia River and Colorado River rise far inland near the easternmost members of the Cordilleran system, and flow through plateaus and intermontaine basins to the ocean. Heavy forests cover the northwest coast, but elsewhere trees are found only on the higher ranges below the Alpine region. The intermontane valleys, plateaus and basins range from treeless to desert with the most arid region being in the southwest.
The Laurentian Highlands, the Interior Plains and the Interior Highlands lie between the two coasts, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico northward, far beyond the national boundary, to the Arctic Ocean. The central plains are divided by a hardly perceptible height of land into a Canadian and a United States portion. It is from the United States side, that the great Mississippi system discharges southward to the Gulf of Mexico. The upper Mississippi and some of the Ohio basin is the semi-arid prairie region, with trees originally only along the watercourses. The uplands towards the Appalachians were included in the great eastern forested area, while the western part of the plains has so dry a climate that its native plant life is scanty, and in the south it is practically barren.
Elevation extremes:
Due to its large size and wide range of geographic features, the United States contains examples of nearly every global climate. The climate is subtropical in the Southern United States, tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida, polar in Alaska, semiarid in the Great Plains west of the 100th meridian, Mediterranean in coastal California and arid in the Great Basin and the Southwest. Its comparatively favorable agricultural climate contributed (in part) to the country 's rise as a world power, with infrequent severe drought in the major agricultural regions, a general lack of widespread flooding, and a mainly temperate climate that receives adequate precipitation.
The main influence on U.S. weather is the polar jet stream which migrates northward into Canada in the summer months, and then southward into the USA in the winter months. The jet stream brings in large low pressure systems from the northern Pacific Ocean that enter the US mainland over the Pacific Northwest. The Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada, and Rocky Mountains pick up most of the moisture from these systems as they move eastward. Greatly diminished by the time they reach the High Plains, much of the moisture has been sapped by the orographic effect as it is forced over several mountain ranges.
Once it moves over the Great Plains, uninterrupted flat land allows it to reorganize and can lead to major clashes of air masses. In addition, moisture from the Gulf of Mexico is often drawn northward. When combined with a powerful jet stream, this can lead to violent thunderstorms, especially during spring and summer. Sometimes during winter these storms can combine with another low pressure system as they move up the East Coast and into the Atlantic Ocean, where they intensify rapidly. These storms are known as Nor'easters and often bring widespread, heavy rain, wind, and snowfall to New England. The uninterrupted grasslands of the Great Plains also lead to some of the most extreme climate swings in the world. Temperatures can rise or drop rapidly and winds can be extreme, and the flow of heat waves or Arctic air masses often advance uninterrupted through the plains.
The Great Basin and Columbia Plateau (the Intermontane Plateaus) are arid or semiarid regions that lie in the rain shadow of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada. Precipitation averages less than 15 inches (38 cm). The Southwest is a hot desert, with temperatures exceeding 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) for several weeks at a time in summer. The Southwest and the Great Basin are also affected by the monsoon from the Gulf of California from July to September, which brings localized but often severe thunderstorms to the region.
Much of California consists of a Mediterranean climate, with sometimes excessive rainfall from October -- April and nearly no rain the rest of the year. In the Pacific Northwest rain falls year - round, but is much heavier during winter and spring. The mountains of the west receive abundant precipitation and very heavy snowfall. The Cascades are one of the snowiest places in the world, with some places averaging over 600 inches (1,524 cm) of snow annually, but the lower elevations closer to the coast receive very little snow.
Florida has a subtropical climate in the northern part of the state and a tropical climate in the southern part of the state. Summers are wet and winters are dry in Florida. Annually much of Florida, as well as the deep southern states, are frost - free. The mild winters of Florida allow a massive tropical fruit industry to thrive in the central part of the state, making the US second to only Brazil in citrus production in the world.
Another significant (but localized) weather effect is lake - effect snow that falls south and east of the Great Lakes, especially in the hilly portions of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and on the Tug Hill Plateau in New York. The lake effect dumped well over 5 feet (1.52 m) of snow in the area of Buffalo, New York throughout the 2006 - 2007 winter. The Wasatch Front and Wasatch Range in Utah can also receive significant lake effect accumulations from the Great Salt Lake.
In northern Alaska, tundra and arctic conditions predominate, and the temperature has fallen as low as − 80 ° F (− 62.2 ° C). On the other end of the spectrum, Death Valley, California once reached 134 ° F (56.7 ° C), the highest temperature ever recorded on Earth.
On average, the mountains of the western states receive the highest levels of snowfall on Earth. The greatest annual snowfall level is at Mount Rainier in Washington, at 692 inches (1,758 cm); the record there was 1,122 inches (2,850 cm) in the winter of 1971 -- 72. This record was broken by the Mt. Baker Ski Area in northwestern Washington which reported 1,140 inches (2,896 cm) of snowfall for the 1998 - 99 snowfall season. Other places with significant snowfall outside the Cascade Range are the Wasatch Mountains, near the Great Salt Lake, the San Juan Mountains in Colorado, and the Sierra Nevada, near Lake Tahoe.
In the east, while snowfall does not approach western levels, the region near the Great Lakes and the mountains of the Northeast receive the most. Along the northwestern Pacific coast, rainfall is greater than anywhere else in the continental U.S., with Quinault Rainforest in Washington having an average of 137 inches (348 cm). Hawaii receives even more, with 460 inches (1,168 cm) measured annually on Mount Waialeale, in Kauai. The Mojave Desert, in the southwest, is home to the driest locale in the U.S. Yuma, Arizona, has an average of 2.63 inches (6.7 cm) of precipitation each year.
In central portions of the U.S., tornadoes are more common than anywhere else on Earth and touch down most commonly in the spring and summer. Deadly and destructive hurricanes occur almost every year along the Atlantic seaboard and the Gulf of Mexico. The Appalachian region and the Midwest experience the worst floods, though virtually no area in the U.S. is immune to flooding. The Southwest has the worst droughts; one is thought to have lasted over 500 years and to have hurt Ancestral Pueblo peoples. The West is affected by large wildfires each year.
The United States is affected by a variety of natural disasters yearly. Although drought is rare, it has occasionally caused major disruption, such as during the Dust Bowl (1931 -- 1942). Farmland failed throughout the Plains, entire regions were virtually depopulated, and dust storms ravaged the land.
The Great Plains and Midwest, due to the contrasting air masses, sees frequent severe thunderstorms and tornado outbreaks during spring and summer with around 1,000 tornadoes occurring each year. The strip of land from north Texas north to Kansas and Nebraska and east into Tennessee is known as Tornado Alley, where many houses have tornado shelters and many towns have tornado sirens.
Hurricanes are another natural disaster found in the US, which can hit anywhere along the Gulf Coast or the Atlantic Coast as well as Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. Particularly at risk are the central and southern Texas coasts, the area from southeastern Louisiana east to the Florida Panhandle, peninsular Florida, and the Outer Banks of North Carolina, although any portion of the coast could be struck.
Hurricane season runs from June 1 to November 30, with a peak from mid-August through early October. Some of the more devastating hurricanes have included the Galveston Hurricane of 1900, Hurricane Andrew in 1992, and Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The remnants of tropical cyclones from the Eastern Pacific also occasionally impact the western United States, bringing moderate to heavy rainfall.
Occasional severe flooding is experienced. There was the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Great Flood of 1993, and widespread flooding and mudslides caused by the 1982 -- 83 El Niño event in the western United States. Localized flooding can, however, occur anywhere, and mudslides from heavy rain can cause problems in any mountainous area, particularly the Southwest. Large stretches of desert shrub in the west can fuel the spread of wildfires. The narrow canyons of many mountain areas in the west and severe thunderstorm activity during the summer lead to sometimes devastating flash floods as well, while nor'easter snowstorms can bring activity to a halt throughout the Northeast (although heavy snowstorms can occur almost anywhere).
The West Coast of the continental United States and areas of Alaska (including the Aleutian Islands, the Alaskan Peninsula and southern Alaskan coast) make up part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area of heavy tectonic and volcanic activity that is the source of 90 % of the world 's earthquakes. The American Northwest sees the highest concentration of active volcanoes in the United States, in Washington, Oregon and northern California along the Cascade Mountains. There are several active volcanoes located in the islands of Hawaii, including Kilauea in ongoing eruption since 1983, but they do not typically adversely affect the inhabitants of the islands. There has not been a major life - threatening eruption on the Hawaiian islands since the 17th century. Volcanic eruptions can occasionally be devastating, such as in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington.
The Ring of Fire makes California and southern Alaska particularly vulnerable to earthquakes. Earthquakes can cause extensive damage, such as the 1906 San Francisco earthquake or the 1964 Good Friday earthquake near Anchorage, Alaska. California is well known for seismic activity, and requires large structures to be earthquake resistant to minimize loss of life and property. Outside of devastating earthquakes, California experiences minor earthquakes on a regular basis.
There have been about 100 significant earthquakes annually from 2010 to 2012. Past averages were 21 a year. This is believed to be due to the deep disposal of wastewater from fracking. None has exceeded a magnitude of 5.6, and no one has been killed.
Other natural disasters include: tsunamis around Pacific Basin, mud slides in California, and forest fires in the western half of the contiguous U.S. Although drought is relatively rare, it has occasionally caused major economic and social disruption, such as during the Dust Bowl (1931 -- 1942), which resulted in widespread crop failures and duststorms, beginning in the southern Great Plains and reaching to the Atlantic Ocean.
The United States holds many areas for the use and enjoyment of the public. These include National Parks, National Monuments, National Forests, Wilderness areas, and other areas. For lists of areas, see the following articles:
Coordinates: 38 ° 00 ′ 00 '' N 97 ° 00 ′ 00 '' W / 38.000 ° N 97.000 ° W / 38.000; - 97.000
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when did how the grinch stole christmas first air | How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (TV special) - wikipedia
How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (full title: Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas!) is a 1966 Christmas animated television special directed and co-produced by Chuck Jones. It is based on the eponymous children 's book by Dr. Seuss, the story of the Grinch trying to take away Christmas from the townsfolk of Whoville below his mountain hideaway. Originally telecast in the United States on CBS on December 18, 1966, it went on to become a perennial holiday special. The special also features the voice of Boris Karloff as the Grinch and the narrator.
The Grinch (voiced by Boris Karloff) is the film 's main character. He lives in a cave atop Mt. Crumpit, located above the village of Whoville. The Grinch is a surly character with a heart "two sizes too small '' who has especially hated Christmas for 53 years. On Christmas Eve, he finally becomes fed up with seeing the decorations and hearing all the music and caroling in the village and wishes he could stop Christmas Day from coming to Whoville. When he sees his dog, Max, with snow all over his face in the shape of a beard, he decides to disguise himself as Santa Claus and steal Christmas.
The Grinch makes himself a Santa coat and hat and disguises the innocent Max as a reindeer. He loads empty bags onto a sleigh and travels to Whoville with some difficulty. In the first house he is almost caught by Cindy Lou Who (voiced by an uncredited June Foray), a small Who girl who wakes up and sees him taking the Christmas tree. Pretending to be Santa, the Grinch tells Cindy Lou that he is merely taking the tree to his workshop for repairs, and then gets her a drink before sending her back to bed. He empties the first house of all the food and Christmas - related items, namely presents, trees, mistletoes, and even the stockings on the chimney, then repeats the process at the other houses in Whoville, while also taking the village decorations.
With the Whos ' stolen Christmas goods, the Grinch and Max travel back up Mt. Crumpit. Before dropping the loaded sleigh off the mountain, the Grinch waits to hear a sad cry from the Whos. However, down in the village, the Whos joyously begin to sing Christmas carols, proving that the spirit of Christmas does not depend on material things. The Grinch begins to understand the true meaning of Christmas, though he barely does so in time to prevent the stolen treats from going over the cliff and while he tries to stop the sleigh from falling off, his heart grows three sizes -- granting him "the strength of ten Grinches, plus two! '', which he needs to lift up the sleigh. He brings everything back to the Whos and participates in the holiday feast. He is given the honor of carving the roast beast, while Max gets the first slice for himself for all his troubles.
Director Chuck Jones and children 's - book author Ted Geisel (Dr. Seuss) had worked together on the Private Snafu training cartoons at Warner Bros. Cartoons during World War II. How the Grinch Stole Christmas! was produced by The Cat in the Hat Productions in association with the television and animation divisions of Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer Studios.
The half - hour (with commercials) short was originally telecast in the United States on CBS on December 18, 1966. CBS repeated it annually during the Christmas season until 1988. It was then aired on various other networks multiple times a season. In the 1990s and 2000s, it was primarily seen on Turner - owned properties (TBS, TNT, and Cartoon Network), and later ABC and ABC Family. On August 13, 2015, NBC announced that the special would move to that network, which would air it twice during the Christmas season under a three - year licensing deal with Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution.
The special was released in the midst of a wave of animated holiday specials, many of which (such as 1964 's Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer and 1965 's A Charlie Brown Christmas) went on to become regarded as classics. It received modestly positive reviews at the time it was released. Critic Rick Du Brow said it was "probably as good as most of the other holiday cartoons. '' It has since been recognized as a classic, with Rotten Tomatoes giving it a 100 % "fresh '' rating on its website; the critical consensus reads, "How the Grinch Stole Christmas brings an impressive array of talent to bear on an adaptation that honors a classic holiday story -- and has rightfully become a yuletide tradition of its own. '' The special continues to be popular in Nielsen Ratings, with its 2010 airing (the last of many times it had aired that year) winning its time slot among persons 18 to 49 and finishing second in overall viewers. TV Guide ranked the special No. 1 on its 10 Best Family Holiday Specials list.
How the Grinch Stole Christmas! was released to VHS and Betamax by MGM / UA Home Video in 1986, and was reissued several times. The special was first released to the VHS and DVD formats in 1999 and 2000 by Warner Home Video, which acquired the rights to the MGM library in the late 1990s. The DVD release featured another Seuss - based special, Horton Hears a Who!, and contained an audio commentary by Phil Roman and June Foray, interviews with Albert Hague and Thurl Ravenscroft, and the "Special Edition '' documentary which aired alongside the special on TNT in 1994. The DVD was well - received for these bonus features, but also criticized for its sub-par picture quality; many critics pointed out that the Grinch looked yellow, not green, in this release.
The special was re-released on DVD in 2006 and labeled as a "50th Birthday Deluxe Edition ''. That labeling refers to the 1957 date of the book 's publication rather than to the date of the 1966 TV special. This DVD release featured a new retrospective featurette and contained all the bonus features from the previous release, except for the audio commentary, and the Grinch was restored to his original green color. This edition is also available as part of the four - disc Classic Christmas Favorites box set. The special was again re-released on DVD with Phil Roman 's and June Foray 's audio commentary replacing the Horton Hears a Who! bonus special. The special was released on high definition Blu - ray Disc in 2009 with the title changed to Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas! It contained all the bonus features from the 2000 DVD, except for Horton Hears a Who!, and also included a DVD of the special and a Digital Copy.
The special includes, nearly verbatim, the entire text of the original book, with a few embellishments. To pad the special to a full time slot, several animated sequences and musical numbers were added. As all the major networks had flipped to full color schedules by 1966, the special was likewise produced in color, establishing the Grinch 's color (white in the two - tone illustrations of the original book) as green, a convention used in later television specials as well as the 2000 live - action film The Grinch. Three songs with lyrics were among the additions: "Welcome Christmas, '' "Trim up the Tree '' and "You 're a Mean One, Mr. Grinch. '' The last of these was performed by Thurl Ravenscroft; the other two were performed by a chorus representing the voices of the Whos. None of the vocalists were credited at the time.
On December 18, 1966, MGM released a soundtrack LP in conjunction with the television special. CD releases include albums produced by Island (1995) and Mercury Records. In the recorded version, Boris Karloff does all voices including Cindy Lou Who. The song "You 're a Mean One, Mr. Grinch '', which comically describes the level of the Grinch 's despicable nature, includes all verses with their original rhyming lyrics and the isolated song tracks have different durations due to being re-recorded.
On October 5, 1999, Rhino Entertainment released a new CD soundtrack (which included the soundtrack for another Dr. Seuss cartoon, Horton Hears a Who). Both story collections contain selected dialogue and music numbers. The "isolated music tracks '' in this edition are taken directly from the television soundtrack and are not the re-recorded tracks from earlier versions. The dialogues are the originals, being voiced by Boris Karloff for "Grinch '' and Hans Conried for "Horton. ''
Because Thurl Ravenscroft was not credited in the closing credits of the 1966 television special as singing the song "You 're a Mean One, Mr. Grinch '', it is sometimes attributed to Boris Karloff. After becoming aware of this oversight, Seuss himself called Ravenscroft and apologized profusely and later wrote letters to columnists nationwide telling them that it was Ravenscroft who provided vocals for the musical number. Karloff received a Grammy Award in the Spoken Word category -- the only major performing award of his career -- for the album.
A television special called Halloween Is Grinch Night, created by DePatie - Freleng Enterprises, aired on ABC in 1977, eleven years after the Christmas special. This special involved a tale of the Grinch coming down to scare the Whos every Halloween. Though less successful than the original, it was awarded an Emmy. A later cartoon, The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat (alternately titled The Cat in the Hat Gets Grinched), aired on ABC in 1982. Though credited to DePatie - Freleng, it was produced by Marvel Productions, which had taken over DePatie - Freleng in 1981.
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the shot heard round the world was fired from the north bridge of which city | Shot heard round the World - wikipedia
"The shot heard round the world '' is a phrase referring to several historical incidents, particularly the opening of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914.
The phrase comes from the opening stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson 's "Concord Hymn '' (1837) and refers to the first shot of the American Revolution. According to Emerson 's poem, this pivotal shot occurred at the Old North Bridge in Concord, Massachusetts, where the first British soldiers fell in the battles of Lexington and Concord.
Historically, no single shot can be cited as the first shot of the battle or the war. Shots were fired earlier at Lexington, Massachusetts where eight Americans were killed and a British soldier was slightly wounded, but accounts of that event are confused and contradictory, and it has been characterized as a massacre rather than a battle. The North Bridge skirmish did see the first shots by Americans acting under orders, the first organized volley by Americans, the first British fatalities, and the first British retreat.
The towns of Lexington and Concord and their partisans have debated over the point of origin for the Revolutionary War since 1824, when the Marquis de Lafayette visited the towns. He was welcomed to Lexington hearing it described as the "birthplace of American liberty '', but he was then informed in Concord that the "first forcible resistance '' was made there. President Grant considered not attending the 1875 centennial celebrations in the area to evade the issue. In 1894, Lexington petitioned the state legislature to proclaim April 19 as "Lexington Day '', to which Concord objected; the current name for the holiday is Patriots ' Day.
Emerson lived in a house known as the Old Manse at the time when he was composing the "Concord Hymn, '' from which his grandfather and father (then a young child) had witnessed the skirmish. The house is located approximately 300 feet (91 m) from the North Bridge.
The phrase "shot heard round the world '' has taken on a different meaning in Europe and in the Commonwealth of Nations, countries that were part of the British Empire and formerly known as the British Commonwealth. It has become associated with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, an event considered to be one of the immediate causes of World War I. Serbian Gavrilo Princip fired two shots, the first hitting Franz Ferdinand 's wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, and the second hitting the Archduke himself. The death of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro - Hungarian throne, propelled Austria - Hungary and the rest of Europe into World War I.
"Shot heard round the world '' continues to be a stock phrase in the 21st century, widely used to refer to unusual events in general, and has been applied to numerous dramatic moments in sports. For example, it refers to the winning goal of Paul Henderson in the final seconds of the 8th and final match to secure Team Canada 's victory in the 1972 Canada - USSR Summit - series. The goal was made famous by a Frank Lennon photograph.
In American baseball, the "Shot Heard ' Round the World '' (usually spelled with an apostrophe) denotes the game - winning walk - off home run by New York Giants outfielder Bobby Thomson off Brooklyn Dodgers pitcher Ralph Branca at the Polo Grounds to win the National League pennant on October 3, 1951. The Giants won the game 5 - 4 as a result of the home run, defeating their traditional rivals in their pennant playoff series, though they eventually lost the World Series to the Yankees.
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where was the location of the yalta conference in 1945 | Yalta Conference - wikipedia
The Yalta Conference, also known as the Crimea Conference and code named the Argonaut Conference, held from 4 to 11 February, 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union for the purpose of discussing Germany and Europe 's postwar reorganization. The three states were represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively. The conference convened near Yalta in Crimea, Soviet Union within the Livadia, Yusupov, and Vorontsov Palaces.
The aim of the conference was to shape a post-war peace that represented not just a collective security order but a plan to give self - determination to the liberated peoples of post-Nazi Europe.
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war - torn Europe. However within a few short years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy.
Yalta was the second of three major wartime conferences among the Big Three. It was preceded by the Tehran Conference in November 1943, and was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945. It was also preceded by a conference in Moscow in October 1944 (Moscow Conference (1944)), not attended by President Roosevelt, in which Churchill and Stalin had carved up Europe into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. The Potsdam Conference was attended by Stalin, Churchill (who was replaced halfway through by the newly elected British Prime Minister Clement Attlee) and Harry S. Truman, Roosevelt 's successor after his death.
By the time of the Yalta Conference, the Western forces consisting of the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and the governments - in - exile of France and Belgium, led by British general Bernard Montgomery and American generals Dwight D. Eisenhower and Omar Bradley, had liberated all of France and Belgium and were advancing into Germany, leading to the Battle of the Bulge. In the east, Red Army Marshal Georgy Zhukov 's forces were 65 km (40 mi) from Berlin, having already pushed back the Nazis from Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and most of Yugoslavia. By February, Germany only had loose control over the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Austria, Germany, Northern Italy, and Northern Yugoslavia.
Stalin, insisting that his doctors opposed any long trips, rejected Roosevelt 's suggestion to meet at the Mediterranean. He offered instead to meet at the Black Sea resort of Yalta, in the Crimea. Stalin 's fear of flying also was a contributing factor in this decision.
Each of the three leaders had their own agenda for post-war Germany and liberated Europe. Roosevelt wanted Soviet support in the U.S. Pacific War against Japan, specifically for the planned invasion of Japan (Operation August Storm), as well as Soviet participation in the United Nations; Churchill pressed for free elections and democratic governments in Eastern and Central Europe (specifically Poland); and Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern and Central Europe as an essential aspect of the USSR 's national security strategy. Stalin 's position at the conference was one which he felt was so strong that he could dictate terms. According to U.S. delegation member and future Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, "it was not a question of what we would let the Russians do, but what we could get the Russians to do. ''
Poland was the first item on the Soviet agenda. Stalin stated that "For the Soviet government, the question of Poland was one of honor '' and security because Poland had served as a historical corridor for forces attempting to invade Russia. In addition, Stalin stated regarding history that "because the Russians had greatly sinned against Poland '', "the Soviet government was trying to atone for those sins. '' Stalin concluded that "Poland must be strong '' and that "the Soviet Union is interested in the creation of a mighty, free and independent Poland. '' Accordingly, Stalin stipulated that Polish government - in - exile demands were not negotiable: the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already annexed in 1939, and Poland was to be compensated for that by extending its western borders at the expense of Germany. Contrasting with his prior statement, Stalin promised free elections in Poland despite the Soviet sponsored provisional government recently installed by him in Polish territories occupied by the Red Army.
Roosevelt wanted the USSR to enter the Pacific War with the Allies. One Soviet precondition for a declaration of war against Japan was an American official recognition of Mongolian independence from China (the Mongolian People 's Republic had already been the Soviet satellite state from its own beginnings in 1924, through World War II), and a recognition of Soviet interests in the Manchurian railways and Port Arthur (but not asking the Chinese to lease), as well as deprivation of Japanese soil (such as Sakhalin and Kuril Islands) to return to Russian custody since the Treaty of Portsmouth; these were agreed without Chinese representation, consultation or consent, with the American desire to end war early thereby reducing American casualties. Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the Pacific War three months after the defeat of Germany. Stalin pledged to Truman to keep the nationality of the Korean Peninsula intact as Soviet Union entered the war against Japan.
Furthermore, the Soviets had agreed to join the United Nations, given the secret understanding of a voting formula with a veto power for permanent members of the Security Council, thus ensuring that each country could block unwanted decisions.
At the time, the Red Army had occupied Poland completely and held much of Eastern Europe with a military power three times greater than Allied forces in the West. The Declaration of Liberated Europe did little to dispel the sphere of influence agreements that had been incorporated into armistice agreements.
All three leaders ratified previous agreements about the post-war occupation zones for Germany: three zones of occupation, one for each of the three principal Allies: The Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. They also agreed to give France a zone of occupation, carved out of the U.S. and UK zones.
Also, the Big Three agreed that all original governments would be restored to the invaded countries (with the exception of France, whose government was regarded as collaborationist; Romania and Bulgaria, where the Soviets had already liquidated most of the governments; and Poland whose government - in - exile was also excluded by Stalin) and that all civilians would be repatriated.
The Declaration of Liberated Europe is a declaration that was created by Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin during the Yalta Conference. It was a promise that allowed the people of Europe "to create democratic institutions of their own choice ''. The declaration pledged, "the earliest possible establishment through free elections governments responsive to the will of the people. '' This is similar to the statements of the Atlantic Charter, which says, "the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they will live. '' Stalin broke the pledge by encouraging Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and many more countries to construct a Communist government, instead of letting the people construct their own. The countries later became known as Stalin 's Satellite Nations.
The key points of the meeting are as follows:
The Big Three further agreed that democracies would be established, all liberated European and former Axis satellite countries would hold free elections and that order would be restored. In that regard, they promised to rebuild occupied countries by processes that will allow them "to create democratic institutions of their own choice. This is a principle of the Atlantic Charter -- the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live ''. The resulting report stated that the three would assist occupied countries to form interim government that "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections of the Governments responsive to the will of the people '' and to "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections. ''
The agreement called on signatories to "consult together on the measures necessary to discharge the joint responsibilities set forth in this declaration. '' During the Yalta discussions, Molotov inserted language that weakened the implication of enforcement of the declaration.
Regarding Poland, the Yalta report further stated that the provisional government should "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot. '' The agreement could not conceal the importance of acceding to pro-Soviet short - term Lublin government control and of eliminating language calling for supervised elections.
According to President Roosevelt, "if we attempt to evade the fact that we placed somewhat more emphasis on the Lublin Poles than on the other two groups from which the new government is to be drawn I feel we will expose ourselves to the charges that we are attempting to go back on the Crimea decision. '' Roosevelt conceded that, in the words of Admiral William D. Leahy, the language of Yalta was so vague that the Soviets would be able to "stretch it all the way from Yalta to Washington without ever technically breaking it. ''
The final agreement stipulated that "the Provisional Government which is now functioning in Poland should therefore be reorganized on a broader democratic basis with the inclusion of democratic leaders from Poland and from Poles abroad. '' The language of Yalta conceded predominance of the pro-Soviet Lublin Government in a provisional government, albeit a reorganized one.
Because of Stalin 's strong promises and admission of guilt over Poland, Churchill believed that he would keep his word regarding Poland, remarking "Poor Neville Chamberlain believed he could trust Hitler. He was wrong. But I do n't think I am wrong about Stalin. ''
At that time, over 200,000 soldiers of the Polish Armed Forces in the West were serving under the high command of the British Army. Many of these men and women were originally from the Kresy region of eastern Poland including cities such as Lwów and Vilnius. They had been deported from Kresy to the eastern regions of Russia, or sent to Gulags when the USSR occupied this region of Poland in 1939. Two years later, when Churchill and Stalin formed an alliance against Hitler, the Kresy Poles were released from the Gulags in Siberia, formed the Anders Army and marched to Persia to create the II Corps (Poland) under British high command.
These Polish troops were instrumental to the Allied defeat of the Germans in North Africa and Italy, and hoped to return to their homes in Kresy in an independent and democratic Poland at the end of the War. But at Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill largely acceded to Stalin 's demands to annex the territory which in the Nazi - Soviet Pact he and Hitler had agreed to the Soviet Union controlling, including Kresy, and to carry out Polish population transfers (1944 -- 1946). Consequently, they in effect agreed that tens of thousands of veteran Polish troops under British command should lose their Kresy homes to the Soviet Union. In reaction, thirty officers and men from the II Corps (Poland) committed suicide.
Churchill defended his actions at Yalta in a three - day Parliament army debate starting on February 27, which ended in a vote of confidence. During the debate many MPs criticised Churchill and expressed deep reservations about Yalta and support for Poland, with 25 drafting an amendment protesting the agreement. These members included: Arthur Greenwood; Sir Archibald Southby, 1st Baronet; Sir Alec Douglas - Home; James Heathcote - Drummond - Willoughby, 3rd Earl of Ancaster and Victor Raikes. After the failure of the amendment, Henry Strauss, 1st Baron Conesford, the Member of Parliament for Norwich, resigned his seat in protest at the British treatment of Poland.
When the Second World War ended, a Communist government was installed in Poland. Many Poles felt betrayed by their wartime allies. Many Polish soldiers refused to return to Poland, because of the Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939 -- 1946), the Trial of the Sixteen and other executions of pro-Western Poles, particularly the former members of the AK (Armia Krajowa). The result was the Polish Resettlement Act 1947, Britain 's first mass immigration law.
On March 1, Roosevelt assured Congress that "I come from the Crimea with a firm belief that we have made a start on the road to a world of peace. '' However, the Western Powers soon realized that Stalin would not honour his promise of free elections for Poland. After receiving considerable criticism in London following Yalta regarding the atrocities committed in Poland by Soviet troops, Churchill wrote Roosevelt a desperate letter referencing the wholesale deportations and liquidations of opposition Poles by the Soviets. On March 11, Roosevelt responded to Churchill, writing, "I most certainly agree that we must stand firm on a correct interpretation of the Crimean decision. You are quite correct in assuming that neither the Government nor the people of this country will support participation in a fraud or a mere whitewash of the Lublin government and the solution must be as we envisaged it in Yalta. ''
By March 21, Roosevelt 's Ambassador to the USSR Averell Harriman cabled Roosevelt that "we must come clearly to realize that the Soviet program is the establishment of totalitarianism, ending personal liberty and democracy as we know it. '' Two days later, Roosevelt began to admit that his view of Stalin had been excessively optimistic and that "Averell is right. ''
Four days later, on March 27, the Soviet Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) arrested 16 Polish opposition political leaders that had been invited to participate in provisional government negotiations. The arrests were part of a trick employed by the NKVD, which flew the leaders to Moscow for a later show trial followed by sentencing to a gulag. Churchill thereafter argued to Roosevelt that it was "as plain as a pike staff '' that Moscow 's tactics were to drag out the period for holding free elections "while the Lublin Committee consolidate their power. '' The Polish elections, held on January 16, 1947, resulted in Poland 's official transformation to a communist state by 1949.
Following Yalta, in Russia, when Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov expressed worry that the Yalta Agreement 's wording might impede Stalin 's plans, Stalin responded "Never mind. We 'll do it our own way later. '' While the Soviet Union had already annexed several occupied countries as (or into) Soviet Socialist Republics, other countries in eastern Europe that it occupied were converted into Soviet - controlled satellite states, such as the People 's Republic of Poland, the People 's Republic of Hungary, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the People 's Republic of Romania, the People 's Republic of Bulgaria, the People 's Republic of Albania, and later East Germany from the Soviet zone of German occupation. Eventually the United States and the United Kingdom made concessions in recognizing the then Communist - dominated regions, sacrificing the substance of the Yalta Declaration, while it remained in form.
At some point of Spring 1945, Churchill had commissioned a contingency military enforcement operation plan (war on the Soviet Union) to obtain "square deal for Poland '' (Operation Unthinkable), which resulted in a May 22 report stating unfavorable success odds. The report 's arguments included geostrategic issues (possible Soviet - Japanese alliance resulting in moving of Japanese troops from continent to Home Islands, threat to Iran / Iraq) and uncertainties concerning land battles in Europe.
The Potsdam Conference was held from July to August 1945, which included the participation of Clement Attlee (who had replaced Churchill as Prime Minister) and President Harry S Truman (representing the United States after Roosevelt 's death). At Potsdam, the Soviets denied claims that they were interfering in the affairs of Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary. The conference resulted in (1) the Potsdam Declaration regarding the surrender of Japan, and (2) the Potsdam Agreement regarding the Soviet annexation of former Polish territory east of the Curzon Line, and, provisions, to be addressed in an eventual Final Treaty ending World War II, for the annexation of parts of Germany east of the Oder - Neisse line into Poland, and northern East Prussia into the Soviet Union.
Four months after the death of Roosevelt, President Truman ordered the dropping of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.
Taken by War Office official photographer, United Kingdom
From left to right: Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. Also present are Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov (far left); Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham, RN, Marshal of the RAF Sir Charles Portal, RAF, (standing behind Churchill); General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff of the United States Army, and Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, USN, (standing behind Roosevelt)
Coordinates: 44 ° 28 ′ 04 '' N 34 ° 08 ′ 36 '' E / 44.46778 ° N 34.14333 ° E / 44.46778; 34.14333
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axis of awesome 4 chords what are they | The Axis of Awesome - Wikipedia
The Axis of Awesome is an Australian musical comedy act with members Jordan Raskopoulos, Lee Naimo and Benny Davis. The trio cover a wide variety of performance styles, and perform a combination of original material and pop parodies.
The Axis of Awesome formed in 2006, their name being a play on the phrase "axis of evil '' used by United States President George W. Bush. The trio were heavily involved in improv theatre at the University of Sydney and decided to try something different. The band played at a few stand up comedy nights and improv events in Sydney and performed a fortnightly segment on FBi Radio, but got their first big break when they released a number of rap parodies lampooning the 2007 Australian Federal Election.
The band gained further success performing in the Melbourne International Comedy Festival and making television and radio appearances. Their 2008 Melbourne International Comedy Festival show, titled "The Axis of Awesome Comeback Spectacular '', received a Moosehead Award. They took the show to the Edinburgh Fringe in 2008 where it was received with critical and audience acclaim.
After the Edinburgh festival, the Axis of Awesome 's song "4 Chords '', a medley of 36 pop songs that all contain the same basic chord structure, received airplay on BBC Radio 1. This airplay drove listeners to the internet and "4 Chords '' went viral, receiving millions of hits on YouTube. The success on YouTube prompted increased interest, both home and abroad, and the Axis performed the song on many radio and television programs, including Nova 96.9, Triple M, The Footy Show, Good News Week and 9am with David & Kim.
In April 2009, the Axis of Awesome performed at The Melbourne International Comedy Festival with a new show, The Axis of Awesome vs Bee. The show wove the band 's songs into a narrative involving a giant bee. The Axis of Awesome vs Bee was also performed at the Sydney Comedy Festival (formerly The Cracker Comedy Festival) in May 2009.
The Axis toured regional Queensland and New South Wales as part of The Melbourne Comedy festival roadshow and performed at the Adelaide Cabaret Festival in May and June. They returned to The Edinburgh fringe in August with a new sell - out show "The Axis of Awesome: Infinity Rock Explosion '' and appeared at the World 's Funniest Island festival in Sydney in October.
In February 2010, the Axis of Awesome released their second album Infinity Rock Explosion! and performed sold out seasons at The Adelaide Fringe Festival, The Melbourne International Comedy Festival, The Sydney Comedy Festival and The Singapore Flipside Festival. They received The Time Out award for best local talent at the Sydney comedy festival and recorded their first DVD, The Axis of Awesome Live which was released in Australia on 6 October 2010 by Punchline and Beyond Entertainment.
They returned to the Edinburgh Festival again in 2014 with their new show "Viva La Vida Loca Las Vegas ''.
In February 2016, Jordan "came out of the closet '' publicly as transgender. She was pleasantly surprised by the "overwhelmingly positive '' public reaction. Their new album features a cover of "Transgender Dysphoria Blues '' by Against Me!.
"Four Chords '' is one of the Axis of Awesome 's best - known works. It is a medley of popular songs, set to the I -- V -- vi -- IV progression. Many of the songs selected do not actually follow this four - chord progression, and some of the ones that do only include it briefly. Since these four chords are played as an ostinato, the band also uses a vi - IV - I-V, usually from the song "Save Tonight '' to the song "Torn ''. The band plays the song in the key of D (E in the live performance on YouTube), so the progression they use is D-A - Bm - G (E, B, C # m, A on the live performances). Most of the songs have been transposed from their original keys.
The band continually vary the songs comprising the medley, often incorporating new releases. The Axis ' song "Birdplane '' (itself a parody of the Five for Fighting song "Superman '') is always included, as well as Australian folk song "Waltzing Matilda '' and "Down Under '' by the Australian band Men at Work. The medley usually starts with Journey 's "Do n't Stop Believin ' ''. The song always concludes with the chorus of "Scar '' (by Missy Higgins), except with the final line changed from "Could you leave me with a scar? '' to "That 's all it takes to be a star '' (referring to the four chords themselves).
On 20 July 2011, the Axis of Awesome released an official music video for "Four Chords '' on their YouTube channel.
Songs in the official music video:
Other songs that have been played in the medley:
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how many episodes of broad city in season 4 | List of Broad City episodes - wikipedia
Broad City is an American comedy series that premiered on January 22, 2014 on Comedy Central. The series was created by and stars Ilana Glazer and Abbi Jacobson as two best friends who navigate everyday life in New York City.
Ilana hunts for the perfect last - minute gift for Lincoln. Male Stacy falls asleep during sex with Abbi. The girls look for an air conditioner to keep cool in the bedroom - and steal one from a college dormitory.
Abbi is surprised when Jeremy expects her to peg him. Ilana and her mother Bobbi (Susie Essman) search the city for handbags and buy several counterfeit designer bags - but are soon arrested by the police, who seize the bags. Ilana and Bobbi attend Bobbi 's mother Esther 's Shiva.
Feeling sucked into a never - ending web of technology, Abbi and Ilana unplug to go rollerblading in Central Park without their cellphones - but Abbi falls into a hole and is injured. Ilana has her rescued and they attend a dog wedding in the park.
While masturbating, Ilana discovers that Abbi 's boss Trey used to be a porn performer named Kirk Steele. Abbi uses this information to blackmail Trey into promoting her from cleaner to trainer. But while leading her first class, Abbi breaks a mirror, forcing her to come up with money to help pay for it. Ilana babysits a little boy.
While working coat check at a party, Abbi accidentally gives away a coat that belongs to Kelly Ripa. Abbi tracks down the coat in hopes that it will lead to her forming a friendship with Kelly. Her plan is successful, but she 's surprised to learn that Kelly is n't as glamorous as she seems on television. Ilana runs into her doppelgänger Adele (Alia Shawkat) during the same night, and they have sex. Abbi points out to Ilana that her new fling looks exactly like her, which she had not realised and now makes her feel uncomfortable. Ilana decides not to see Adele again when she finds out that her counterpart does n't smoke weed.
A mugger disrupts the girls ' celebration of Ilana 's 23rd birthday by leading them on a chase. They follow him to his expensive house, where his mother is hosting a dinner party.
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who plays eric forman on that 70s show | Topher Grace - wikipedia
Christopher John "Topher '' Grace (/ ˈtoʊfər /; born July 12, 1978) is an American actor. He is known for playing Eric Forman in the Fox sitcom That ' 70s Show, Eddie Brock / Venom in Sam Raimi 's film Spider - Man 3, Carter Duryea in the film In Good Company, and Edwin in the 2010 film Predators.
Grace was born in New York City, the son of Pat, an assistant to the schoolmaster of the New Canaan Country School, and John Grace, a Madison Avenue executive. He has a sister, Jenny.
Grace grew up in Darien, Connecticut, where actress Kate Bosworth was a middle - school friend; and actress Chloë Sevigny -- who later appeared with him in high school stage plays -- was sometimes his babysitter.
Grace was cast as Eric Forman on Fox 's That ' 70s Show, which debuted in 1998. He played the role until season 7. His character was written out and replaced with a new character named Randy Pearson (Josh Meyers). Grace made a brief guest appearance in the final episode.
Grace plays a prep school student who uses marijuana and introduces his girlfriend to freebasing in director Steven Soderbergh 's 2000 film Traffic, as well as having uncredited cameos as himself in Soderbergh 's Ocean 's Eleven and its 2004 sequel, Ocean 's Twelve. "The joke is that you 're supposed to play the worst version of yourself and I do n't think too many people are comfortable with that. I never thought for a second that people were really going to think that 's what I was like. I think that people will know that I was faking it in those movies, '' he told Flaunt magazine in 2007.
He planned to cameo in Ocean 's Thirteen. However, due to his role in Spider - Man 3, he had to abandon these plans. As Grace said, "I was doing reshoots on Spider - Man 3. I was bummed. I actually talked to Steven Soderbergh about that and we had a thing and then I could n't do it. '' He appeared in director Mike Newell 's 2003 film Mona Lisa Smile.
In 2004, Grace played the leading roles in Win a Date with Tad Hamilton! and In Good Company. That same year, he starred in P.S., which received only a limited theatrical release. Grace won the National Board of Review 's 2004 award for Breakthrough Performance Actor for his work in In Good Company and P.S.
On January 15, 2005, Grace hosted Saturday Night Live.
In 2007, Grace portrayed Eddie Brock / Venom in Spider - Man 3, directed by Sam Raimi. Grace himself was a fan of the comics and read the Venom stories as a kid. In 2009, Grace became the subject of a recurring column on the entertainment / pop culture site Videogum, entitled "What 's Up With Topher Grace? ''.
In 2010, Grace appeared in the ensemble comedy Valentine 's Day and played the character of Edwin in Predators, the newest installment of the science fiction franchise.
In 2011, Grace appeared in the 1980s retro comedy Take Me Home Tonight. He co-wrote the script and co-produced the film. Grace also starred opposite Richard Gere in the spy thriller The Double.
In 2012, Grace starred alongside Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Matthew Gray Gubler in the social film ' "The Beauty Inside, which won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding New Approach to an Original Daytime Program or Series in 2013. The film was directed by Drake Doremus and written by Richard Greenberg.
In 2014, Grace starred in the indie thriller The Calling, alongside Susan Sarandon, and appeared in Christopher Nolan 's sci - fi adventure Interstellar, in a supporting role.
In October 2013, Grace joined HBO comedy pilot People In New Jersey with Sarah Silverman, but in January 2014, the pilot was passed on.
Grace co-starred in the comedy film American Ultra (2015), alongside Jesse Eisenberg and Kristen Stewart, playing a CIA agent. That same year, he co-starred in Truth, with Robert Redford and Cate Blanchett, and based on the story of CBS 's 60 Minutes report that George W. Bush had received preferential treatment to keep him out of the Vietnam War. Grace played Mike Smith, a researcher on the story.
In January 2014, Grace joined the upcoming supernatural - thriller Delirium, which centers on a man recently released from a mental institute who inherits a mansion after his parents die. After a series of disturbing events, he comes to believe it is haunted.
Grace started dating actress Ashley Hinshaw in January 2014, and the two were engaged in January 2015. On May 29, 2016, Grace and Hinshaw married near Santa Barbara, California. On August 1, 2017, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace are expecting their first child.
Grace is a supporter of FINCA International, a microfinance organization.
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what is the premise of far cry 5 | Far Cry 5 - wikipedia
Far Cry 5 is an upcoming first - person shooter action - adventure video game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It is the eleventh installment and the fifth main title in the Far Cry series. It is scheduled to be released on February 27, 2018.
Similar to its predecessors, Far Cry 5 is an action - adventure first - person shooter set in an open world environment which players can explore freely on foot or through various vehicles. Unlike previous titles in the series where players take on the role of a set character, the game features a new character creator, which players can use to customize their character 's appearances, gender and skin tone. Players have a variety of ranged and explosive weapons to fight against enemies, while the game will place a renewed emphasis on close - quarters combat compared to previous Far Cry titles by introducing a wider range of melee weapons. The game will also feature a recruitment system, in which players can recruit locals in the county to fight alongside them similar to the "Buddy '' system used in Far Cry 2. In this "Guns for Hire '' system, players need to convince other locals to join their cause, and every companion fighter has their own unique skills and personalities. Players can also tame wild animals through the "Fang for Hire '' system, previously introduced in Far Cry Primal. The tamed wildlife will assist the player in combat and follow the players ' orders. Different wildlife will have different combat patterns. A fishing mechanic will also be introduced. The campaign can be played individually or with a partner through the game 's cooperative multiplayer mode. The game will also feature a map editor, whose features have been expanded from previous titles.
The game is set in the fictional Hope County, Montana, where a preacher named Joseph Seed has risen to prominence. Seed believes that he has been chosen to protect the people of Hope County from an "inevitable collapse '' and has established a congregation called Eden 's Gate. Ostensibly, this is to fulfill his mission of leading the people to salvation; in reality, Seed is a radical preacher and Eden 's Gate is a militaristic doomsday cult. Under his rule, Eden 's Gate has used both coercion and violence to forcibly convert the residents of Hope County, and intimidation to keep them from contacting the outside world for help. When an attempt to arrest Seed ends with the deaths of several lawmen, the player is swept into the armed conflict between Eden 's Gate and the remaining Hope County residents who are organizing themselves into a resistance movement.
The player takes on the role of a sheriff 's deputy who is part of the task force sent to Hope County to arrest Seed. Seed has assumed the title of "the Father '' and maintains control over Hope County with the aid of his siblings, known as "the Heralds '': Jacob, a former military officer that oversees their armed soldiers; John, a lawyer that has been able to acquire much of the land in Hope County for Eden 's Gate; and Faith, who acts as a pacifist to bring the people to believe and trust in her older brother. The residents of Hope County opposed to Seed include Pastor Jeffries, a local church leader that has seen his congregation taken by Eden 's Gate; Mary May, a bartender whose father was driven to suicide by the cult; and Nick Rye, a cropduster pilot who wants to eliminate the influence of the cult in order to build a better future for his children.
The game is being developed by Ubisoft Montreal, with Ubisoft Toronto, Ubisoft Kiev, Ubisoft Shanghai, and Ubisoft Reflections offering assistance. Dan Hay, who was lead producer for Far Cry 3, was the lead director, with writing led by Drew Holmes, who had previously worked on BioShock Infinite and its downloadable content. The game will continue to use the Dunia Engine, a modified version of the CryEngine which the Far Cry series has used for several titles. The team chose Montana as the game 's setting, as the state lies on the frontier of the United States. To create a realistic environment, the development team visited Montana for fourteen days to collect information regarding its biomes, environment, and the "self - reliant '' nature of the locals, who do not want any authority or outsider to intervene in their life. The development team had previously carried out a similar research excursion to Nepal during development of Far Cry 4. As the development team was no longer satisfied with having one core antagonist in each game, the cast of antagonists was significantly expanded.
The setting and the tone of the game originated from separatism. According to Hay, when he was young, he often felt unsafe because of the conflicts between the two superpowers during the Cold War. This manifested in the twenty - first century in the form of frequent terrorist attacks such as the September 11 attacks, and financial problems such as the subprime mortgage crisis and in turn caused people to become increasingly protective as they questioned the government. Ultimately the concept of the "global village '' began to collapse, which sets the theme of the game and prompted the team to write a story that features a doomsday cult as the game 's main antagonist. Hay started writing the story in late 2014; in February 2016, he investigated the details of the occupation and standoff of a wildlife refuge in Oregon, as he wanted to look for evidence that can show the rise of separatism. To create a memorable story, the characters in the game were designed to have different views and opinions on important events, and different ideologies. Despite the dark theme, the team wanted to ensure that the game is still fun and entertaining to play. Therefore, the team implemented a large arsenal of weapons and open - ended gameplay possibilities for players to use.
After the release of Far Cry Primal in 2016, Ubisoft stated that the next Far Cry title will take more development time and will not be released in 2017. Far Cry 5 was announced by Ubisoft during the company 's financial call, alongside two other major titles, The Crew 2 and Assassin 's Creed Origins, which are scheduled to be released in fiscal year 2018. Ubisoft released several teaser trailers and the game 's cover art ahead of the game 's official reveal on May 26, 2017. The game is set to be released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on February 27, 2018 with support for PlayStation 4 Pro and Xbox One X. Free skin packs will be available for PlayStation 4 players at launch due to a marketing deal between Sony Interactive Entertainment and Ubisoft.
Far Cry 5 's announcement in May 2017 came at a time of heightened political and ideological conflict around the world due to recent geopolitical events, such as election of Donald Trump as President of the United States and the onset of the United Kingdom 's withdrawal from the European Union. Many journalists opined that Far Cry 5 's setting and narrative concept, involving themes of religious fanaticism and the rise of the far - right within the borders of the United States -- as opposed to the more exotic locales depicted in other Far Cry titles -- would likely make the game highly controversial in the current climate. These journalists noted that due to the long development cycle, it was unlikely that Ubisoft intentionally designed the game 's narrative around the political climate at the time of the announcement, adding that Ubisoft had been careful to downplay any perceived connections to then - current real world events. Responding to the criticism, game director Dan Hay revealed that the story was written to discuss the consequences of beliefs and ideologies being taken to their most extreme form rather than as a response to a particular political event.
Following its announcement, Far Cry 5 was the subject of an online petition lodged at Change.org by individuals objecting to what they called the portrayal of American Christians as villains and calling for either the game 's antagonists to be recast as Muslim or other non-white villains or changing the game 's setting to Canada. The petition itself was criticised by industry commentators who highlighted the game 's exploration of its themes as being necessary in the contemporary social and political climate, and pointed to video gaming as a medium for social commentary. Some publications questioned the authenticity of the petition, suggesting that it may have been intended as satire.
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which literary movement at the end of the nineteenth century helped shape american theater modernism | Nineteenth - century theatre - wikipedia
Nineteenth - century theatre describes a wide range of movements in the theatrical culture of Europe and the United States in the 19th century. In the West, they include Romanticism, melodrama, the well - made plays of Scribe and Sardou, the farces of Feydeau, the problem plays of Naturalism and Realism, Wagner 's operatic Gesamtkunstwerk, Gilbert and Sullivan 's plays and operas, Wilde 's drawing - room comedies, Symbolism, and proto - Expressionism in the late works of August Strindberg and Henrik Ibsen.
Several important technical innovations were introduced between 1875 and 1914. First gas lighting and then electric lights, introduced in London 's Savoy Theatre in 1881, replaced candlelight. The elevator stage was first installed in the Budapest Opera House in 1884. This allowed entire sections of the stage to be raised, lowered, or tilted to give depth and levels to the scene. The revolving stage was introduced to Europe by Karl Lautenschläger at the Residenz Theatre, Munich in 1896.
Beginning in France after the theatre monopolies were abolished during the French Revolution, melodrama became the most popular theatrical form of the century. Melodrama itself can be traced back to classical Greece, but the term mélodrame did not appear until 1766 and only entered popular usage sometime after 1800. The plays of August von Kotzebue and René Charles Guilbert de Pixérécourt established melodrama as the dominant dramatic form of the early 19th century. Kotzebue in particular was the most popular playwright of his time, writing more than 215 plays that were produced all around the world. His play The Stranger (1789) is often considered the classic melodramatic play. Although monopolies and subsidies were reinstated under Napoleon, theatrical melodrama continued to be more popular and brought in larger audiences than the state - sponsored drama and operas.
Melodrama involved a plethora of scenic effects, an intensely emotional but codified acting style, and a developing stage technology that advanced the arts of theatre towards grandly spectacular staging. It was also a highly reactive form of theatre which was constantly changing and adapting to new social contexts, new audiences and new cultural influences. This, in part, helps to explains its popularity throughout the 19th century. David Grimsted, in his book Melodrama Unveiled (1968), argues that:
Its conventions were false, its language stilted and commonplace, its characters stereotypes, and its morality and theology gross simplifications. Yet its appeal was great and understandable. It took the lives of common people seriously and paid much respect to their superior purity and wisdom. (...) And its moral parable struggled to reconcile social fears and life 's awesomeness with the period 's confidence in absolute moral standards, man 's upward progress, and a benevolent providence that insured the triumph of the pure.
In Paris, the 19th century saw a flourishing of melodrama in the many theatres that were located on the popular Boulevard du Crime, especially in the Gaîté. All this was to come to an end, however, when most of these theatres were demolished during the rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann in 1862.
By the end of the 19th century, the term melodrama had nearly exclusively narrowed down to a specific genre of salon entertainment: more or less rhythmically spoken words (often poetry) -- not sung, sometimes more or less enacted, at least with some dramatic structure or plot -- synchronized to an accompaniment of music (usually piano). It was looked down on as a genre for authors and composers of lesser stature (probably also the reason why virtually no realisations of the genre are still remembered).
In Germany, there was a trend toward historical accuracy in costumes and settings, a revolution in theatre architecture, and the introduction of the theatrical form of German Romanticism. Influenced by trends in 19th - century philosophy and the visual arts, German writers were increasingly fascinated with their Teutonic past and had a growing sense of nationalism. The plays of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, and other Sturm und Drang playwrights, inspired a growing faith in feeling and instinct as guides to moral behavior. Romantics borrowed from the philosophy of Immanuel Kant to formulate the theoretical basis of "Romantic '' art. According to Romantics, art is of enormous significance because it gives eternal truths a concrete, material form that the limited human sensory apparatus may apprehend. Among those who called themselves Romantics during this period, August Wilhelm Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck were the most deeply concerned with theatre. After a time, Romanticism was adopted in France with the plays of Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Alfred de Musset, and George Sand.
Through the 1830s in France, the theatre struggled against the Comédie Française, which maintained a strong neo-classical hold over the repertory and encouraged traditional modes of tragic writing in new playwrights. This clash culminated in the premiere of Hernani by Victor Hugo in 1830. The large crowd that attended the premiere was full of conservatives and censors who booed the show for disobeying the classical norms and who wanted to stop the performance from going forward. But Hugo organized a Romantic Army of bohemians and radical writers to ensure that the opening would have to go ahead. The resulting riot represented the rejection in France of the classical traditions and the triumph of Romanticism.
By the 1840s, however, enthusiasm for Romantic drama had faded in France and a new "Theatre of Common Sense '' replaced it.
In France, the "well - made play '' of Eugene Scribe (1791 - 1861) became popular with playwrights and audiences. First developed by Scribe in 1825, the form has a strong Neoclassical flavour, involving a tight plot and a climax that takes place close to the end of the play. The story depends upon a key piece of information kept from some characters, but known to others (and to the audience). A recurrent device that the well - made play employs is the use of letters or papers falling into unintended hands, in order to bring about plot twists and climaxes. The suspense and pace builds towards a climactic scene, in which the hero triumphs in an unforeseen reversal of fortune.
Scribe himself wrote over 400 plays of this type, utilizing what essentially amounted to a literary factory with writers who supplied the story, another the dialogue, a third the jokes and so on. Although he was highly prolific and popular, he was not without detractors: Théophile Gautier questioned how it could be that, "an author without poetry, lyricism, style, philosophy, truth or naturalism could be the most successful writer of his epoch, despite the opposition of literature and the critics? ''
Its structure was employed by realist playwrights Alexandre Dumas, fils, Emile Augier, and Victorien Sardou. Sardou in particular was one of the world 's most popular playwrights between 1860 and 1900. He adapted the well - made play to every dramatic type, from comedies to historical spectacles. In Britain, playwrights like Wilkie Collins, Henry Arthur Jones and Arthur Pinero took up the genre, with Collins describing the well - made play as: "Make ' em laugh; make ' em weep; make ' em wait. '' George Bernard Shaw thought that Sardou 's plays epitomized the decadence and mindlessness into which the late 19th - century theatre had descended, a state that he labeled "Sardoodledom ''.
In the early years of the 19th century, the Licensing Act allowed plays to be shown at only two theatres in London during the winter: Drury Lane and Covent Garden. These two huge theatres contained two royal boxes, huge galleries, and a pit with benches where people could come and go during performances. Perhaps the most telling episode of the popularity of theatre in the early 19th century is the theatrical old price riots of 1809. After Convent Garden burned down, John Philip Kemble, the theatre 's manager, decided to raise prices in the pit, the boxes and the third tier. Audience members hated the new pricing which they thought denied them access to a national meeting place and led to three months of rioting until finally Kemble was forced to publicly apologize and lower prices again. To escape the restrictions, non-patent theatres along the Strand, like the Sans Pareil, interspersed dramatic scenes with musical interludes and comic skits after the Lord Chamberlain 's Office allowed them to stage burlettas -- leading to the formation of the modern West End. Outside of the metropolitan area of London, theatres like Astley 's Amphitheatre and the Coburg were also able to operate outside of the rules. The exploding popularity of these forms began to make the patent system unworkable and the boundaries between the two began to blur through the 1830s until finally the Licensing Act was dropped in 1843 with the Theatres Act. Parliament hoped that this would civilize the audiences and lead to more literate playwrighting -- instead, it created an explosion of music halls, comedies and sensationalist melodramas.
Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron were the most important literary dramatists of their time (although Shelley 's plays were not performed until later in the century). Shakespeare was enormously popular, and began to be performed with texts closer to the original, as the drastic rewriting of 17th and 18th century performing versions for the theatre were gradually removed over the first half of the century. Kotzebue 's plays were translated into English and Thomas Holcroft 's A Tale of Mystery was the first of many English melodramas. Pierce Egan, Douglas William Jerrold, Edward Fitzball, James Roland MacLaren and John Baldwin Buckstone initiated a trend towards more contemporary and rural stories in preference to the usual historical or fantastical melodramas. James Sheridan Knowles and Edward Bulwer - Lytton established a "gentlemanly '' drama that began to re-establish the former prestige of the theatre with the aristocracy.
Theatres throughout the century were dominated by actor - managers who managed the establishments and often acted in the lead roles. Henry Irving, Charles Kean and Herbert Beerbohm Tree are all examples of managers who created productions in which they were the star performer. Irving especially dominated the Lyceum Theatre for almost 30 years from 1871 - 1899 and was hero - worshipped by his audiences. When he died in 1905, King Edward VII and Theodore Roosevelt send their condolences. Among these actor - managers, Shakespeare was often the most popular writer as his plays afforded them great dramatic opportunity and name recognition. The stage spectacle of these productions was often more important than the play and texts were often cut to give maximum exposure to the leading roles. However, they also introduced significant reforms into the theatrical process. For example, William Charles Macready was the first to introduce proper rehearsals to the process. Before this lead actors would rarely rehearse their parts with the rest of the cast: Edmund Kean 's most famous direction to his fellow actors being, "stand upstage of me and do your worst. ''
Melodramas, light comedies, operas, Shakespeare and classic English drama, pantomimes, translations of French farces and, from the 1860s, French operettas, continued to be popular, together with Victorian burlesque. The most successful dramatists were James Planché and Dion Boucicault, whose penchant for making the latest scientific inventions important elements in his plots exerted considerable influence on theatrical production. His first big success, London Assurance (1841) was a comedy in the style of Sheridan, but he wrote in various styles, including melodrama. T.W. Robertson wrote popular domestic comedies and introduced a more naturalistic style of acting and stagecraft to the British stage in the 1860s.
In 1871, the producer John Hollingshead brought together the librettist W.S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan to create a Christmas entertainment, unwittingly spawning one of the great duos of theatrical history. So successful were the 14 comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan, such as H.M.S. Pinafore (1878) and The Mikado (1885), that they had a huge influence over the development of musical theatre in the 20th century. This, together with much improved street lighting and transportation in London and New York led to a late Victorian and Edwardian theatre building boom in the West End and on Broadway. At the end of the century, Edwardian musical comedy came to dominate the musical stage.
In the 1890s, the comedies of Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw offered sophisticated social comment and were very popular.
In the United States, Philadelphia was the dominant theatrical centre until the 1820s. There, Thomas Wignell established the Chestnut Street Theatre and gathered a group of actors and playwrights that included William Warren, Susanna Rowson, and Thomas Abthorpe Cooper, who later was considered the leading actor in North America. In its infancy after the American Revolution, many Americans lamented the lack of a ' native drama ', even while playwrights such as Royall Tyler, William Dunlap, James Nelson Barker, John Howard Payne, and Samuel Woodworth laid the foundations for an American drama separate from Britain. Part of the reason for the dearth of original plays in this period may be that playwrights were rarely paid for their work and it was much cheaper for managers to adapt or translate foreign work. Tradition held that remuneration was mainly in the form of a benefit performance for the writer on the third night of a run, but many managers would skirt this custom by simply closing the show before the third performance.
Known as the "Father of the American Drama '', Dunlap grew up watching plays given by British officers and was heavily immersed in theatrical culture while living in London just after the Revolution. As the manager of the John Street Theatre and Park Theatre in New York, he brought back to his country the plays and theatrical values that he had seen. Like many playwright - managers of his day, Dunlap adapted or translated melodramatic works by French of German playwrights, but he also wrote some 29 original works including The Father (1789), André (1798), and The Italian Father (1799).
From 1820 - 30, improvements in the material conditions of American life and the growing demand of a rising middle class for entertainment led to the construction of new theatres in New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Washington, including Catham Garden, Federal Street, the Tremont, Niblo 's Garden and the Bowery. During the early part of this period, Philadelphia continued to be the major theatrical centre: plays would often open in Baltimore in September or October before transferring to larger theatres in Philadelphia until April or May, followed by a summer season in Washington or Alexandria. However, rivalries and larger economic forces led to a string of bankruptcies for five major theatre companies in just eight months between October 1, 1828 and May 27, 1829. Due to this and the import of star system performers like Clara Fisher, New York took over as the dominant city in American theatre.
In the 1830s, Romanticism flourished in Europe and America with writers like Robert Montgomery Bird rising to the forefront. Since Romanticism emphasized eternal truths and nationalistic themes, it fit perfectly with the emerging national identity of the United States. Bird 's The Gladiator was well - received when it premiered in 1831 and was performed at Drury Lane in London in 1836 with Edwin Forrest as Spartacus, with The Courier proclaiming that "America has at length vindicated her capability of producing a dramatist of the highest order. '' Dealing with slave insurgency in Ancient Rome, The Gladiator implicitly attacks the institution of Slavery in the United States by "transforming the Antebellum into neoclassical rebels ''. Forrest would continue to play the role for over one thousand performances around the world until 1872. Following the success of their early collaboration, Bird and Forrest would work together on further premieres of Oralloosa, Son of the Incas and The Broker of Bogota. But the success of The Gladiator led to contract disagreements, with Bird arguing that Forrest, who had made tens of thousands from Bird 's plays, owed him more than the $2,000 he had been paid.
Minstrel shows emerged as brief burlesques and comic entr'actes in the early 1830s. They were developed into full - fledged form in the next decade. By 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national art form, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performances that mocked people specifically of African descent. The shows were performed by Caucasians in make - up or blackface for the purpose of playing the role of black people. Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench, and the black soldier. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated.
Star actors amassed an immensely loyal following, comparable to modern celebrities or sports stars. At the same time, audiences had always treated theaters as places to make their feelings known, not just towards the actors, but towards their fellow theatergoers of different classes or political persuasions, and theatre riots were a regular occurrence in New York. An example of the power of these stars is the Astor Place Riot in 1849, which was caused by a conflict between the American star Edwin Forrest and the English actor William Charles Macready. The riot pitted immigrants and nativists against each other, leaving at least 25 dead and more than 120 injured.
In the pre-Civil War era, there were also many types of more political drama staged across the United States. As America pushed west in the 1830s and 40s, theatres began to stage plays that romanticized and masked treatment of Native Americans like Pocahontas, The Pawnee Chief, De Soto and Metamora or the Last of the Wampanoags. Some fifty of these plays were produced between 1825 and 1860, including burlesque performances of the "noble savage '' by John Brougham. Reacting off of current events, many playwrights wrote short comedies that dealt with the major issues of the day. For example, Removing the Deposits was a farce produced in 1835 at the Bowery in reaction to Andrew Jackson 's battle with the banks and Whigs and Democrats, or Love of No Politics was a play that dealt with the struggle between America 's two political parties.
In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published the anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin and, without any strong copyright laws, was immediately dramatized on stages across the country. At the National Theatre in New York, it was a huge success and ran for over two hundred performances up to twelve times per week until 1854. The adaptation by George Aiken was a six - act production that stood on its own, without an other entertainments or afterpiece. Minstrelsy 's reaction to Uncle Tom 's Cabin is indicative of plantation content at the time. Tom acts largely came to replace other plantation narratives, particularly in the third act. These sketches sometimes supported Stowe 's novel, but just as often they turned it on its head or attacked the author. Whatever the intended message, it was usually lost in the joyous, slapstick atmosphere of the piece. Characters such as Simon Legree sometimes disappeared, and the title was frequently changed to something more cheerful like "Happy Uncle Tom '' or "Uncle Dad 's Cabin ''. Uncle Tom himself was frequently portrayed as a harmless bootlicker to be ridiculed. Troupes known as Tommercompanies specialized in such burlesques, and theatrical Tom shows integrated elements of the minstrel show and competed with it for a time.
New York City 's importance as a theatrical center grew until it became the primary theatre center during the century, and the Theater District slowly moved north from lower Manhattan until it finally arrived in midtown at the end of the century. On the musical stage, Harrigan and Hart innovated with comic musical plays from the 1870s, but London imports came to dominate, beginning with Victorian burlesque, then Gilbert and Sullivan from 1880, and finally Edwardian musical comedies at the end of the century.
In Germany, drama entered a state of decline from which it did not recover until the 1890s. The major playwrights of the period were Otto Ludwig and Gustav Freytag. The lack of new dramatists was not keenly felt because the plays of Shakespeare, Lessing, Goethe, and Schiller were prominent in the repertory. The most important theatrical force in later 19th - century Germany was that of Georg II, Duke of Saxe - Meiningen and his Meiningen Ensemble, under the direction of Ludwig Chronegk. The Ensemble 's productions are often considered the most historically accurate of the 19th century, although his primary goal was to serve the interests of the playwright. The Ensemble 's productions utilised detailed, historically accurate costumes and furniture, something that was unprecedented in Europe at the time. The Meiningen Ensemble stands at the beginning of the new movement toward unified production (or what Richard Wagner would call the Gesamtkunstwerk) and the rise of the director (at the expense of the actor) as the dominant artist in theatre - making.
The Meiningen Ensemble traveled throughout Europe from 1874 -- 1890 and met with unparalleled success wherever they went. Audiences had grown tired with regular, shallow entertainment theatre and were beginning to demand a more creatively and intellectually stimulating form of expression that the Ensemble was able to provide. Therefore, the Meiningen Ensemble can be seen as the forerunners of the art - theatre movement which appeared in Europe at the end of the 1880s.
Richard Wagner (1813 -- 1883) rejected the contemporary trend toward realism and argued that the dramatist should be a myth maker who portrays an ideal world through the expression of inner impulses and aspirations of a people. Wagner used music to defeat performers ' personal whims. The melody and tempo of music allowed him to have greater personal control over performance than he would with spoken drama. As with the Meininger Ensemble, Wagner believed that the author - composer should supervise every aspect of production to unify all the elements into a "master art work. '' Wagner also introduced a new type of auditorium that abolished the side boxes, pits, and galleries that were a prominent feature of most European theatres and replaced them with a 1,745 seat fan - shaped auditorium that was 50 feet (15 m) wide at the proscenium and 115 feet (35 m) at the rear. This allowed every seat in the auditorium to enjoy a full view of the stage and meant that there were no "good '' seats.
In Russia, Aleksandr Griboyedov, Alexander Pushkin, and Nikolai Polevoy were the most accomplished playwrights. As elsewhere, Russia was dominated by melodrama and musical theatre. More realistic drama began to emerge with the plays of Nikolai Gogol and the acting of Mikhail Shchepkin. Under close government supervision, the Russian theatre expanded considerably. Prince Alexander Shakhovskoy opened state theatres and training schools, attempted to raise the level of Russian production after a trip to Paris, and put in place regulations for governing troupes that remained in effect until 1917.
Realism began earlier in the 19th century in Russia than elsewhere in Europe and took a more uncompromising form. Beginning with the plays of Ivan Turgenev (who used "domestic detail to reveal inner turmoil ''), Aleksandr Ostrovsky (who was Russia 's first professional playwright), Aleksey Pisemsky (whose A Bitter Fate (1859) anticipated Naturalism), and Leo Tolstoy (whose The Power of Darkness (1886) is "one of the most effective of naturalistic plays ''), a tradition of psychological realism in Russia culminated with the establishment of the Moscow Art Theatre by Konstantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich - Danchenko.
Ostrovsky is often credited with creating a peculiarly Russian drama. His plays Enough Stupidity in Every Wise Man (1868) and The Storm (1859) draw on the life that he knew best, that of the middle class. Other important Russian playwrights of the 19th century include Alexander Sukhovo - Kobylin and Mikhail Saltikov - Shchedrin.
Naturalism, a theatrical movement born out of Charles Darwin 's The Origin of Species (1859) and contemporary political and economic conditions, found its main proponent in Émile Zola. His essay "Naturalism in the Theatre '' (1881) argued that poetry is everywhere instead of in the past or abstraction: "There is more poetry in the little apartment of a bourgeois than in all the empty worm - eaten palaces of history. ''
The realisation of Zola 's ideas was hindered by a lack of capable dramatists writing naturalist drama. André Antoine emerged in the 1880s with his Théâtre Libre that was only open to members and therefore was exempt from censorship. He quickly won the approval of Zola and began to stage Naturalistic works and other foreign realistic pieces. Antoine was unique in his set design as he built sets with the "fourth wall '' intact, only deciding which wall to remove later. The most important French playwrights of this period were given first hearing by Antoine including Georges Porto - Riche, François de Curel, and Eugène Brieux.
The work of Henry Arthur Jones and Arthur Wing Pinero initiated a new direction on the English stage. While their work paved the way, the development of more significant drama owes itself most to the playwright Henrik Ibsen.
Ibsen was born in Norway in 1828. He wrote 25 plays, the most famous of which are A Doll 's House (1879), Ghosts (1881), The Wild Duck (1884), and Hedda Gabler (1890). A Doll 's House and Ghosts shocked conservatives: Nora 's departure in A Doll 's House was viewed as an attack on family and home, while the allusions to venereal disease and sexual misconduct in Ghosts were considered deeply offensive to standards of public decency. Ibsen refined Scribe 's well - made play formula to make it more fitting to the realistic style. He provided a model for writers of the realistic school. In addition, his works Rosmersholm (1886) and When We Dead Awaken (1899) evoke a sense of mysterious forces at work in human destiny, which was to be a major theme of symbolism and the so - called "Theatre of the Absurd ''.
After Ibsen, British theatre experienced revitalization with the work of George Bernard Shaw, Oscar Wilde, and (in fact from 1900) John Galsworthy. Unlike most of the gloomy and intensely serious work of their contemporaries, Shaw and Wilde wrote primarily in the comic form.
The eighteenth century theatre had been lit by candles and oil - lamps which were mainly provided for illumination so that the audience could see the performance, with no further purpose. This changed in the early 19th century with the introduction of gas lighting which was slowly adopted by the major theatres throughout the 1810s and 1820s to provide illumination for the house and the stage. The introduction of gas lighting revolutionized stage lighting. It provided a somewhat more natural and adequate light for the playing and the scenic space upstage of the proscenium arch. While there was no way to control the gas lights, this was soon to change as well. In Britain, theatres in London developed limelight for the stage in the late 1830s. In Paris, the electric carbon arc lamp first came into use in the 1840s. Both of these types of lighting were able to be hand - operated and could be focused by means of an attached lens, thus giving the theatre an ability to focus light on particular performers for the first time.
From the 1880s onwards, theatres began to be gradually electrified with the Savoy Theatre becoming the first theatre in the world to introduce a fully electrified theatrical lighting system in 1881. Richard D'Oyly Carte, who built the Savoy, explained why he had introduced electric light: "The greatest drawbacks to the enjoyment of the theatrical performances are, undoubtedly, the foul air and heat which pervade all theatres. As everyone knows, each gas - burner consumes as much oxygen as many people, and causes great heat beside. The incandescent lamps consume no oxygen, and cause no perceptible heat. '' Notably, the introduction of electric light coincided with the rise of realism: the new forms of lighting encouraged more realistic scenic detail and a subtler, more realistic acting style.
One of the most important scenic transition into the century was from the often - used two - dimensional scenic backdrop to three - dimensional sets. Previously, as a two - dimensional environment, scenery did not provide an embracing, physical environment for the dramatic action happening on stage. This changed when three - dimensional sets were introduced in the first half of the century. This, coupled with change in audience and stage dynamic as well as advancement in theatre architecture that allowed for hidden scene changes, the theatre became more representational instead of presentational, and invited audience to be transported to a conceived ' other ' world. The early 19th century also saw the innovation of the moving panorama: a setting painted on a long cloth, which could be unrolled across the stage by turning spools, created an illusion of movement and changing locales.
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what is the purpose of sovereign wealth fund | Sovereign wealth Fund - wikipedia
A sovereign wealth fund (SWF) or sovereign investment fund is a state - owned investment fund that invests in real and financial assets such as stocks, bonds, real estate, precious metals, or in alternative investments such as private equity fund or hedge funds. Sovereign wealth funds invest globally. Most SWFs are funded by revenues from commodity exports or from foreign - exchange reserves held by the central bank. By historic convention, the United States ' Social Security Trust Fund, with US $ 2.8 trillion of assets in 2014, and similar vehicles like Japan Post Bank 's JP ¥ 200 trillion of holdings, are not considered sovereign wealth funds.
Some sovereign wealth funds may be held by a central bank, which accumulates the funds in the course of its management of a nation 's banking system; this type of fund is usually of major economic and fiscal importance. Other sovereign wealth funds are simply the state savings that are invested by various entities for the purposes of investment return, and that may not have a significant role in fiscal management.
The accumulated funds may have their origin in, or may represent, foreign currency deposits, gold, special drawing rights (SDRs) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) reserve positions held by central banks and monetary authorities, along with other national assets such as pension investments, oil funds, or other industrial and financial holdings. These are assets of the sovereign nations that are typically held in domestic and different reserve currencies (such as the dollar, euro, pound, and yen). Such investment management entities may be set up as official investment companies, state pension funds, or sovereign funds, among others.
There have been attempts to distinguish funds held by sovereign entities from foreign - exchange reserves held by central banks. Sovereign wealth funds can be characterized as maximizing long - term return, with foreign exchange reserves serving short - term "currency stabilization '', and liquidity management. Many central banks in recent years possess reserves massively in excess of needs for liquidity or foreign exchange management. Moreover, it is widely believed most have diversified hugely into assets other than short - term, highly liquid monetary ones, though almost no data is publicly available to back up this assertion. Some central banks have even begun buying equities, or derivatives of differing ilk (even if fairly safe ones, like overnight interest rate swaps).
The term "sovereign wealth fund '' was first used in 2005 by Andrew Rozanov in an article entitled, "Who holds the wealth of nations? '' in the Central Banking Journal. The previous edition of the journal described the shift from traditional reserve management to sovereign wealth management; subsequently the term gained widespread use as the spending power of global officialdom has rocketed upward.
Some of them have grabbed attention making bad investments in several Wall Street financial firms such as Citigroup, Morgan Stanley, and Merrill Lynch. These firms needed a cash infusion due to losses resulting from mismanagement and the subprime mortgage crisis.
SWFs invest in a variety of asset classes such as stocks, bonds, real estate, private equity and hedge funds. Many sovereign funds are directly investing in institutional real estate. According to the Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute 's transaction database around US $9.26 billion in direct sovereign wealth fund transactions were recorded in institutional real estate for the last half of 2012. In the first half of 2014, global sovereign wealth fund direct deals amounted to $50.02 billion according to the SWFI.
Sovereign wealth funds have existed for more than a century, but since 2000, the number of sovereign wealth funds has increased dramatically. The first SWFs were non-federal U.S. state funds established in the mid-19th century to fund specific public services. The U.S. state of Texas was thus the first to establish such a scheme, to fund public education. The Permanent School Fund (PSF) was created in 1854 to benefit primary and secondary schools, with the Permanent University Fund (PUF) following in 1876 to benefit universities. The PUF was endowed with public lands, the ownership of which the state retained by terms of the 1845 annexation treaty between the Republic of Texas and the United States. While the PSF was first funded by an appropriation from the state legislature, it also received public lands at the same time that the PUF was created. The first SWF established for a sovereign state is the Kuwait Investment Authority, a commodity SWF created in 1953 from oil revenues before Kuwait gained independence from the United Kingdom. According to many estimates, Kuwait 's fund is now worth approximately US $600 billion.
Another early registered SWFs is the Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund of Kiribati. Created in 1956, when the British administration of the Gilbert Islands in Micronesia put a levy on the export of phosphates used in fertilizer, the fund has since then grown to $520 million.
SWFs are typically created when governments have budgetary surpluses and have little or no international debt. It is not always possible or desirable to hold this excess liquidity as money or to channel it into immediate consumption. This is especially the case when a nation depends on raw material exports like oil, copper or diamonds. In such countries, the main reason for creating a SWF is because of the properties of resource revenue: high volatility of resource prices, unpredictability of extraction, and exhaustibility of resources.
There are two types of funds: saving funds and stabilization funds. Stabilization SWFs are created to reduce the volatility of government revenues, to counter the boom - bust cycles ' adverse effect on government spending and the national economy. Savings SWFs build up savings for future generations. One such fund is the Government Pension Fund of Norway. It is believed that SWFs in resource - rich countries can help avoid resource curse, but the literature on this question is controversial. Governments may be able to spend the money immediately, but risk causing the economy to overheat, e.g., in Hugo Chávez 's Venezuela or Shah - era Iran. In such circumstances, saving the money to spend during a period of low inflation is often desirable.
Other reasons for creating SWFs may be economic, or strategic, such as war chests for uncertain times. For example, the Kuwait Investment Authority during the Gulf War managed excess reserves above the level needed for currency reserves (although many central banks do that now). The Government of Singapore Investment Corporation and Temasek Holdings are partially the expression of a desire to bolster Singapore 's standing as an international financial centre. The Korea Investment Corporation has since been similarly managed. Sovereign wealth funds invest in all types of companies and assets, including startups like Xiaomi and renewable energy companies like Bloom Energy.
The growth of sovereign wealth funds is attracting close attention because:
The governments of SWF 's commit to follow certain rules:
There were a number of transparency indices springing out before the Santiago Principles, some more stringent than others. To address these concerns some of the world 's main SWFs come together in a summit in Chile on 2 - 3 September 2008, under the leadership of the IMF, they formed a temporary International Working Group of Sovereign Wealth Funds. This working group then drafted the 24 Santiago Principles, to set out a common global set of international standards regarding transparency, independence, and accountability in the way that SWFs operate. These were published after being presented to the IMF International Monetary Financial Committee on 11 October 2008. They also considered a standing committee to represent them and so a new organisation, the International Forum of Sovereign Wealth Funds (IFSWF) was then set up to maintain the new standards going forward and represent them in international policy debates.
As of 2016 30 funds have formally signed up to the Principles representing collectively 80 % of assets managed by sovereign funds globally or USD 5.5 trillion.
New SWFs were established in various developed jurisdictions after 2010 following the rise in energy and commodity prices, e.g., the North Dakota Legacy Fund (2011) and the Western Australian Future Fund (2012). The Israeli Citizens ' Fund should start operating in 2020 after several years of preparatory work involving veteran American as well as local asset management experts.
Assets under management of SWFs increased for the tenth year running in 2018 to a record $8.109 trillion. There was an additional $7.2 trillion held in other sovereign investment vehicles, such as pension reserve funds, development funds and state - owned corporations ' funds and $8.1 trillion in other official foreign exchange reserves. Taken together, governments of SWFs, largely those in emerging economies, have access to a pool of funds totalling $20 trillion. Some of these funds could in future be channelled towards funding development of infrastructure for which there is global demand.
Countries with SWFs funded by oil and gas exports, primarily oil and gas exports, totalled $4.29 trillion as of the end of 2014. Non-oil and gas SWFs totalled $2.82 trillion. Non-commodity SWFs are typically funded by transfer of assets from official foreign exchange reserves, and in some cases from government budget surpluses and privatisation revenue. Asian countries account for the bulk of such funds.
An important point to note is the SWF - to - Foreign Reserve Exchange Ratio, which shows the proportion a government has invested in investments relative to currency reserves. According to the SWF Institute, most oil - producing nations in the Persian Gulf have a higher SWF - to - Foreign Exchange Ratio -- for example, the Qatar Investment Authority (5.89 times) compared to the China Investment Corporation (0.12 times) -- reflecting a more aggressive stance to seek higher returns.
The United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Norway, and Russia all have funds devoted to investing in oil and natural gas exports. Other countries with investment funds are as varied as China, Singapore, Chile, and the Pacific island nation of Kiribati.
* * This number is a best - guess estimation by the Sovereign Wealth Funds Institute.
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when did the maya civilization begin and end | Maya civilization - wikipedia
The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization developed by the Maya peoples, and noted for its hieroglyphic script -- the only known fully developed writing system of the pre-Columbian Americas -- as well as for its art, architecture, mathematics, calendar, and astronomical system. The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. This region consists of the northern lowlands encompassing the Yucatán Peninsula, and the highlands of the Sierra Madre, running from the Mexican state of Chiapas, across southern Guatemala and onwards into El Salvador, and the southern lowlands of the Pacific littoral plain.
The Archaic period, prior to 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture and the earliest villages. The Preclassic period (c. 2000 BC to 250 AD) saw the establishment of the first complex societies in the Maya region, and the cultivation of the staple crops of the Maya diet, including maize, beans, squashes, and chili peppers. The first Maya cities developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate stucco façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC. In the Late Preclassic a number of large cities developed in the Petén Basin, and Kaminaljuyu rose to prominence in the Guatemalan Highlands. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is largely defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with Long Count dates. This period saw the Maya civilization develop a large number of city - states linked by a complex trade network. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, Tikal and Calakmul, became powerful. The Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of Teotihuacan in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a widespread political collapse in the central Maya region, resulting in internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities, and a northward shift of population. The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, and the expansion of the aggressive K'iche ' kingdom in the Guatemalan Highlands. In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonized the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén, the last Maya city, in 1697.
Classic period rule was centred on the concept of the "divine king '', who acted as a mediator between mortals and the supernatural realm. Kingship was patrilineal, and power would normally pass to the eldest son. A prospective king was also expected to be a successful war leader. Maya politics was dominated by a closed system of patronage, although the exact political make - up of a kingdom varied from city - state to city - state. By the Late Classic, the aristocracy had greatly increased, resulting in the corresponding reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king. The Maya civilization developed highly sophisticated artforms, and the Maya created art using both perishable and non-perishable materials, including wood, jade, obsidian, ceramics, sculpted stone monuments, stucco, and finely painted murals.
Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly, and the city centre would be occupied by ceremonial and administrative complexes, surrounded by an irregular sprawl of residential districts. Different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways. The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces, pyramid - temples, ceremonial ballcourts, and structures aligned for astronomical observation. The Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books, of which only three uncontested examples remain, the rest having been destroyed by the Spanish. There are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics. The Maya developed a highly complex series of interlocking ritual calendars, and employed mathematics that included one of the earliest instances of the explicit zero in the world. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised human sacrifice.
The Maya civilization developed within the Mesoamerican cultural area, which covers a region that spreads from northern Mexico southwards into Central America. Mesoamerica was one of six cradles of civilization worldwide. The Mesoamerican area gave rise to a series of cultural developments that included complex societies, agriculture, cities, monumental architecture, writing, and calendrical systems. The set of traits shared by Mesoamerican cultures also included astronomical knowledge, blood and human sacrifice, and a cosmovision that viewed the world as divided into four divisions aligned with the cardinal directions, each with different attributes, and a three - way division of the world into the celestial realm, the earth, and the underworld.
By 6000 BC, the early inhabitants of Mesoamerica were experimenting with the domestication of plants, a process that eventually led to the establishment of sedentary agricultural societies. The diverse climate allowed for wide variation in available crops, but all regions of Mesoamerica cultivated the base crops of maize, beans, and squashes. All Mesoamerican cultures used Stone Age technology; after c. 1000 AD copper, silver and gold were worked. Mesoamerica lacked draft animals, did not use the wheel, and possessed few domesticated animals; the principal means of transport was on foot or by canoe. Mesoamericans viewed the world as hostile and governed by unpredictable deities. The ritual Mesoamerican ballgame was widely played. Mesoamerica is linguistically diverse, with most languages falling within a small number of language families -- the major families are Mayan, Mixe -- Zoquean, Otomanguean, and Uto - Aztecan; there are also a number of smaller families and isolates. The Mesoamerican language area shares a number of important features, including widespread loanwords, and use of a vigesimal number system.
The territory of the Maya covered a third of Mesoamerica, and the Maya were engaged in a dynamic relationship with neighbouring cultures that included the Olmecs, Mixtecs, Teotihuacan, the Aztecs, and others. During the Early Classic period, the Maya cities of Tikal and Kaminaljuyu were key Maya foci in a network that extended beyond the Maya area into the highlands of central Mexico. At around the same time, there was a strong Maya presence at the Tetitla compound of Teotihuacan. Centuries later, during the 9th century AD, murals at Cacaxtla, another site in the central Mexican highlands, were painted in a Maya style. This may have been either an effort to align itself with the still - powerful Maya area after the collapse of Teotihuacan and ensuing political fragmentation in the Mexican Highlands, or an attempt to express a distant Maya origin of the inhabitants. The Maya city of Chichen Itza and the distant Toltec capital of Tula had an especially close relationship.
The Maya civilization occupied a wide territory that included southeastern Mexico and northern Central America. This area included the entire Yucatán Peninsula and all of the territory now incorporated into the modern countries of Guatemala and Belize, as well as the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. Most of the peninsula is formed by a vast plain with few hills or mountains and a generally low coastline.
The Petén region consists of densely forested low - lying limestone plain; a chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén. To the south the plain gradually rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands. Dense forest covers northern Petén and Belize, most of Quintana Roo, southern Campeche, and a portion of the south of Yucatán state. Farther north, the vegetation turns to lower forest consisting of dense scrub.
The littoral zone of Soconusco lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and consists of a narrow coastal plain and the foothills of the Sierra Madre. The Maya highlands extend eastwards from Chiapas into Guatemala, reaching their highest in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes. The major pre-Columbian population centres of the highlands were located in the largest highland valleys, such as the Valley of Guatemala and the Quetzaltenango Valley. In the southern highlands, a belt of volcanic cones runs parallel to the Pacific coast. The highlands extend northwards into Verapaz, and gradually descend to the east.
The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods: the Preclassic, Classic, and Postclassic periods. These were preceded by the Archaic Period, during which the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture emerged. Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of Maya chronology, rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decline. Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century, depending on the author.
The Maya developed their first civilization in the Preclassic period. Scholars continue to discuss when this era of Maya civilization began. Maya occupation at Cuello (modern - day Belize) has been carbon dated to around 2600 BC. Settlements were established around 1800 BC in the Soconusco region of the Pacific coast, and the Maya were already cultivating the staple crops of maize, beans, squash, and chili pepper. This period was characterized by sedentary communities and the introduction of pottery and fired clay figurines.
During the Middle Preclassic Period, small villages began to grow to form cities. Nakbe in the Petén department of Guatemala is the earliest well - documented city in the Maya lowlands, where large structures have been dated to around 750 BC. The northern lowlands of Yucatán were widely settled by the Middle Preclassic. By approximately 400 BC, early Maya rulers were raising stelae. A developed script was already being used in Petén by the 3rd century BC. In the Late Preclassic Period, the enormous city of El Mirador grew to cover approximately 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi). Although not as large, Tikal was already a significant city by around 350 BC.
In the highlands, Kaminaljuyu emerged as a principal centre in the Late Preclassic. Takalik Abaj and Chocolá were two of the most important cities on the Pacific coastal plain, and Komchen grew to become an important site in northern Yucatán. The Late Preclassic cultural florescence collapsed in the 1st century AD and many of the great Maya cities of the epoch were abandoned; the cause of this collapse is unknown.
The Classic period is largely defined as the period during which the lowland Maya raised dated monuments using the Long Count calendar. This period marked the peak of large - scale construction and urbanism, the recording of monumental inscriptions, and demonstrated significant intellectual and artistic development, particularly in the southern lowland regions. The Classic period Maya political landscape has been likened to that of Renaissance Italy or Classical Greece, with multiple city - states engaged in a complex network of alliances and enmities. The largest cities had populations numbering 50,000 to 120,000 and were linked to networks of subsidiary sites.
During the Early Classic, cities throughout the Maya region were influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. In AD 378, Teotihuacan decisively intervened at Tikal and other nearby cities, deposed their rulers, and installed a new Teotihuacan - backed dynasty. This intervention was led by Siyaj K'ak ' ("Born of Fire ''), who arrived at Tikal in early 378. The king of Tikal, Chak Tok Ich'aak I, died on the same day, suggesting a violent takeover. A year later, Siyaj K'ak ' oversaw the installation of a new king, Yax Nuun Ahiin I. The installation of the new dynasty led to a period of political dominance when Tikal became the most powerful city in the central lowlands.
Tikal 's great rival was Calakmul, another powerful city in the Petén Basin. Tikal and Calakmul both developed extensive systems of allies and vassals; lesser cities that entered one of these networks gained prestige from their association with the top - tier city, and maintained peaceful relations with other members of the same network. Tikal and Calakmul engaged in the manoeuvering of their alliance networks against each other. At various points during the Classic period, one or other of these powers would gain a strategic victory over its great rival, resulting in respective periods of florescence and decline.
In 629, B'alaj Chan K'awiil, a son of the Tikal king K'inich Muwaan Jol II, was sent to found a new city at Dos Pilas, in the Petexbatún region, apparently as an outpost to extend Tikal 's power beyond the reach of Calakmul. For the next two decades he fought loyally for his brother and overlord at Tikal. In 648, king Yuknoom Ch'een II of Calakmul captured Balaj Chan K'awiil. Yuknoom Ch'een II then reinstated Balaj Chan K'awiil upon the throne of Dos Pilas as his vassal. He thereafter served as a loyal ally of Calakmul.
In the southeast, Copán was the most important city. Its Classic - period dynasty was founded in 426 by K'inich Yax K'uk ' Mo '. The new king had strong ties with central Petén and Teotihuacan. Copán reached the height of its cultural and artistic development during the rule of Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, who ruled from 695 to 738. His reign ended catastrophically when he was captured by his vassal, king K'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat of Quiriguá. The captured lord of Copán was taken back to Quiriguá and was decapitated in a public ritual. It is likely that this coup was backed by Calakmul, in order to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal. Palenque and Yaxchilan were the most powerful cities in the Usumacinta region. In the highlands, Kaminaljuyu in the Valley of Guatemala was already a sprawling city by 300. In the north of the Maya area, Coba was the most important capital.
During the 9th century AD, the central Maya region suffered major political collapse, marked by the abandonment of cities, the ending of dynasties, and a northward shift in activity. No universally accepted theory explains this collapse, but it likely had a combination of causes, including endemic internecine warfare, overpopulation resulting in severe environmental degradation, and drought. During this period, known as the Terminal Classic, the northern cities of Chichen Itza and Uxmal showed increased activity. Major cities in the northern Yucatán Peninsula continued to be inhabited long after the cities of the southern lowlands ceased to raise monuments.
Classic Maya social organization was based on the ritual authority of the ruler, rather than central control of trade and food distribution. This model of rulership was poorly structured to respond to changes, because the ruler 's actions were limited by tradition to such activities as construction, ritual, and warfare. This only served to exacerbate systemic problems. By the 9th and 10th centuries, this resulted in collapse of this system of rulership. In the northern Yucatán, individual rule was replaced by a ruling council formed from elite lineages. In the southern Yucatán and central Petén, kingdoms declined; in western Petén and some other areas, the changes were catastrophic and resulted in the rapid depopulation of cities. Within a couple of generations, large swathes of the central Maya area were all but abandoned. Both the capitals and their secondary centres were generally abandoned within a period of 50 to 100 years. One by one, cities stopped sculpting dated monuments; the last Long Count date was inscribed at Toniná in 909. Stelae were no longer raised, and squatters moved into abandoned royal palaces. Mesoamerican trade routes shifted and bypassed Petén.
Although much reduced, a significant Maya presence remained into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources. Unlike during previous cycles of contraction in the Maya region, abandoned lands were not quickly resettled in the Postclassic. Activity shifted to the northern lowlands and the Maya Highlands; this may have involved migration from the southern lowlands, because many Postclassic Maya groups had migration myths. Chichen Itza and its Puuc neighbours declined dramatically in the 11th century, and this may represent the final episode of Classic Period collapse. After the decline of Chichen Itza, the Maya region lacked a dominant power until the rise of the city of Mayapan in the 12th century. New cities arose near the Caribbean and Gulf coasts, and new trade networks were formed.
The Postclassic Period was marked by changes from the preceding Classic Period. The once - great city of Kaminaljuyu in the Valley of Guatemala was abandoned after continuous occupation of almost 2,000 years. Across the highlands and neighbouring Pacific coast, long - occupied cities in exposed locations were relocated, apparently due to a proliferation of warfare. Cities came to occupy more - easily defended hilltop locations surrounded by deep ravines, with ditch - and - wall defences sometimes supplementing the protection provided by the natural terrain. One of the most important cities in the Guatemalan Highlands at this time was Q'umarkaj, the capital of the aggressive K'iche ' kingdom. The government of Maya states, from the Yucatán to the Guatemalan highlands, was often organized as joint rule by a council. However, in practice one member of the council could act as a supreme ruler, while the other members served him as advisors.
Mayapan was abandoned around 1448, after a period of political, social and environmental turbulence that in many ways echoed the Classic period collapse in the southern Maya region. The abandonment of the city was followed by a period of prolonged warfare, disease and natural disasters in the Yucatán Peninsula, which ended only shortly before Spanish contact in 1511. Even without a dominant regional capital, the early Spanish explorers reported wealthy coastal cities and thriving marketplaces. During the Late Postclassic, the Yucatán Peninsula was divided into a number of independent provinces that shared a common culture but varied in internal sociopolitical organization. On the eve of the Spanish conquest, the highlands of Guatemala were dominated by several powerful Maya states. The K'iche ' had carved out a small empire covering a large part of the western Guatemalan Highlands and the neighbouring Pacific coastal plain. However, in the decades before the Spanish invasion the Kaqchikel kingdom had been steadily eroding the kingdom of the K'iche '.
In 1511, a Spanish caravel was wrecked in the Caribbean, and about a dozen survivors made landfall on the coast of Yucatán. They were seized by a Maya lord, and most were sacrificed, although two managed to escape. From 1517 to 1519, three separate Spanish expeditions explored the Yucatán coast, and engaged in a number of battles with the Maya inhabitants. After the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish in 1521, Hernán Cortés despatched Pedro de Alvarado to Guatemala with 180 cavalry, 300 infantry, 4 cannons, and thousands of allied warriors from central Mexico; they arrived in Soconusco in 1523. The K'iche ' capital, Q'umarkaj, fell to Alvarado in 1524. Shortly afterwards, the Spanish were invited as allies into Iximche, the capital city of the Kaqchikel Maya. Good relations did not last, due to excessive Spanish demands for gold as tribute, and the city was abandoned a few months later. This was followed by the fall of Zaculeu, the Mam Maya capital, in 1525. Francisco de Montejo and his son, Francisco de Montejo the Younger, launched a long series of campaigns against the polities of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1527, and finally completed the conquest of the northern portion of the peninsula in 1546. This left only the Maya kingdoms of the Petén Basin independent. In 1697, Martín de Ursúa launched an assault on the Itza capital Nojpetén and the last independent Maya city fell to the Spanish.
The Spanish conquest stripped away most of the defining features of Maya civilization. However, many Maya villages remained remote from Spanish colonial authority, and for the most part continued to manage their own affairs. Maya communities and the nuclear family maintained their traditional day - to - day life. The basic Mesoamerican diet of maize and beans continued, although agricultural output was improved by the introduction of steel tools. Traditional crafts such as weaving, ceramics, and basketry continued to be practised. Community markets and trade in local products continued long after the conquest. At times, the colonial administration encouraged the traditional economy in order to extract tribute in the form of ceramics or cotton textiles, although these were usually made to European specifications. Maya beliefs and language proved resistant to change, despite vigorous efforts by Catholic missionaries. The 260 - day tzolk'in ritual calendar continues in use in modern Maya communities in the highlands of Guatemala and Chiapas, and millions of Mayan - language speakers inhabit the territory in which their ancestors developed their civilization.
The agents of the Catholic Church wrote detailed accounts of the Maya, in support of their efforts at evangelization, and absorption of the Maya into the Spanish Empire. This was followed by various Spanish priests and colonial officials who left descriptions of ruins they visited in Yucatán and Central America. In 1839, American traveller and writer John Lloyd Stephens set out to visit a number of Maya sites with English architect and draftsman Frederick Catherwood. Their illustrated accounts of the ruins sparked strong popular interest, and brought the Maya to the attention of the world. The later 19th century saw the recording and recovery of ethnohistoric accounts of the Maya, and the first steps in deciphering Maya hieroglyphs.
The final two decades of the 19th century saw the birth of modern scientific archaeology in the Maya region, with the meticulous work of Alfred Maudslay and Teoberto Maler. By the early 20th century, the Peabody Museum was sponsoring excavations at Copán and in the Yucatán Peninsula. In the first two decades of the 20th century, advances were made in deciphering the Maya calendar, and identifying deities, dates, and religious concepts. Since the 1930s, archaeological exploration increased dramatically, with large - scale excavations across the Maya region.
In the 1960s, the distinguished Mayanist J. Eric S. Thompson promoted the ideas that Maya cities were essentially vacant ceremonial centres serving a dispersed population in the forest, and that the Maya civilization was governed by peaceful astronomer - priests. These ideas began to collapse with major advances in the decipherment of the script in the late 20th century, pioneered by Heinrich Berlin, Tatiana Proskouriakoff, and Yuri Knorozov. With breakthroughs in understanding of Maya script since the 1950s, the texts revealed the warlike activities of the Classic Maya kings, and the view of the Maya as peaceful could no longer be supported. Detailed settlement surveys of Maya cities revealed the evidence of large populations, putting an end to the vacant ceremonial centre model.
Unlike the Aztecs and the Inca, the Maya political system never integrated the entire Maya cultural area into a single state or empire. Rather, throughout its history, the Maya area contained a varying mix of political complexity that included both states and chiefdoms. These polities fluctuated greatly in their relationships with each other and were engaged in a complex web of rivalries, periods of dominance or submission, vassalage, and alliances. At times, different polities achieved regional dominance, such as Calakmul, Caracol, Mayapan, and Tikal. The first reliably evidenced polities formed in the Maya lowlands in the 9th century BC. During the Late Preclassic, the Maya political system coalesced into a theopolitical form, where elite ideology justified the ruler 's authority, and was reinforced by public display, ritual, and religion. The divine king was the centre of political power, exercising ultimate control over the administrative, economic, judicial, and military functions of the polity. The divine authority invested within the ruler was such that the king was able to mobilize both the aristocracy and commoners in executing huge infrastructure projects, apparently with no police force or standing army. Some polities engaged in a strategy of increasing administration, and filling administrative posts with loyal supporters rather than blood relatives. Within a polity, mid-ranking population centres would have played a key role in managing resources and internal conflict.
The Maya political landscape was highly complex and Maya elites engaged in political intrigue to gain economic and social advantage over neighbours. In the Late Classic, some cities established a long period of dominance over other large cities, such as the dominance of Caracol over Naranjo for half a century. In other cases, loose alliance networks were formed around a dominant city. Border settlements, usually located about halfway between neighbouring capitals, often switched allegiance over the course of their history, and at times acted independently. Dominant capitals exacted tribute in the form of luxury items from subjugated population centres. Political power was reinforced by military power, and the capture and humiliation of enemy warriors played an important part in elite culture. An overriding sense of pride and honour among the warrior aristocracy could lead to extended feuds and vendettas, which caused political instability and the fragmentation of polities.
From the Early Preclassic, Maya society was sharply divided between the elite and commoners. As population increased over time, various sectors of society became increasingly specialized, and political organization became increasingly complex. By the Late Classic, when populations had grown enormously and hundreds of cities were connected in a complex web of political hierarchies, the wealthy segment of society multiplied. A middle class may have developed that included artisans, low ranking priests and officials, merchants, and soldiers. Commoners included farmers, servants, labourers, and slaves. According to indigenous histories, land was held communally by noble houses or clans. Such clans held that the land was the property of the clan ancestors, and such ties between the land and the ancestors were reinforced by the burial of the dead within residential compounds.
Classic Maya rule was centred in a royal culture that was displayed in all areas of Classic Maya art. The king was the supreme ruler and held a semi-divine status that made him the mediator between the mortal realm and that of the gods. From very early times, kings were specifically identified with the young maize god, whose gift of maize was the basis of Mesoamerican civilization. Maya royal succession was patrilineal, and royal power only passed to queens when doing otherwise would result in the extinction of the dynasty. Typically, power was passed to the eldest son. A young prince was called a ch'ok ("youth ''), although this word later came to refer to nobility in general. The royal heir was called b'aah ch'ok ("head youth ''). Various points in the young prince 's childhood were marked by ritual; the most important was a bloodletting ceremony at age five or six years. Although being of the royal bloodline was of utmost importance, the heir also had to be a successful war leader, as demonstrated by taking of captives. The enthronement of a new king was a highly elaborate ceremony, involving a series of separate acts that included enthronement upon a jaguar - skin cushion, human sacrifice, and receiving the symbols of royal power, such as a headband bearing a jade representation of the so - called "jester god '', an elaborate headdress adorned with quetzal feathers, and a sceptre representing the god K'awiil.
Maya political administration, based around the royal court, was not bureaucratic in nature. Government was hierarchical, and official posts were sponsored by higher - ranking members of the aristocracy; officials tended to be promoted to higher levels of office during the course of their lives. Officials are referred to as being "owned '' by their sponsor, and this relationship continued even after the death of the sponsor. The Maya royal court was a vibrant and dynamic political institution. There was no universal structure for the Maya royal court, instead each polity formed a royal court that was suited to its own individual context. A number of royal and noble titles have been identified by epigraphers translating Classic Maya inscriptions. Ajaw is usually translated as "lord '' or "king ''. In the Early Classic, an ajaw was the ruler of a city. Later, with increasing social complexity, the ajaw was a member of the ruling class and a major city could have more than one, each ruling over different districts. Paramount rulers distinguished themselves from the extended nobility by prefixing the word k'uhul to their ajaw title. A k'uhul ajaw was "divine lord '', originally confined to the kings of the most prestigious and ancient royal lines. Kalomte was a royal title, whose exact meaning is not yet deciphered, but it was held only by the most powerful kings of the strongest dynasties. It indicated an overlord, or high king, and the title was only in use during the Classic period. By the Late Classic, the absolute power of the k'uhul ajaw had weakened, and the political system had diversified to include a wider aristocracy, that by this time may well have expanded disproportionately.
A sajal was ranked below the ajaw, and indicated a subservient lord. A sajal would be lord of a second - or third - tier site, answering to an ajaw, who may himself have been subservient to a kalomte. A sajal would often be a war captain or regional governor, and inscriptions often link the sajal title to warfare; they are often mentioned as the holders of war captives. Sajal meant "feared one ''. The titles of ah tz'ihb and ah ch'ul hun are both related to scribes. The ah tz'ihb was a royal scribe, usually a member of the royal family; the ah ch'ul hun was the Keeper of the Holy Books, a title that is closely associated with the ajaw title, indicating that an ajaw always held the ah ch'ul hun title simultaneously. Other courtly titles, the functions of which are not well understood, were yajaw k'ahk ' ("Lord of Fire ''), ti'huun and ti'sakhuun. These last two may be variations on the same title, and Mark Zender has suggested that the holder of this title may have been the spokesman for the ruler. Courtly titles are overwhelmingly male - oriented, and in those relatively rare occasions where they are applied to a woman, they appear to be used as honorifics for female royalty. Titled elites were often associated with particular structures in the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Classic period cities, indicating that such office holders either owned that structure, or that the structure was an important focus for their activities. A lakam was possibly the only non-elite post-holder in the royal court. The lakam was only found in larger sites, and they appear to have been responsible for the taxation of local districts.
Different factions may have existed in the royal court. The k'uhul ahaw and his household would have formed the central power - base, but other important groups were the priesthood, the warrior aristocracy, and other aristocratic courtiers. Where ruling councils existed, as at Chichen Itza and Copán, these may have formed an additional faction. Rivalry between different factions would have led to dynamic political institutions as compromises and disagreements were played out. In such a setting, public performance was vital. Such performances included ritual dances, presentation of war captives, offerings of tribute, human sacrifice, and religious ritual.
Commoners are estimated to have comprised over 90 % of the population, but relatively little is known about them. Their houses were generally constructed from perishable materials, and their remains have left little trace in the archaeological record. Some commoner dwellings were raised on low platforms, and these can be identified, but an unknown quantity of commoner houses were not. Such low - status dwellings can only be detected by extensive remote - sensing surveys of apparently empty terrain. The range of commoners was broad; it consisted of everyone not of noble birth, and therefore included everyone from the poorest farmers to wealthy craftsmen and commoners appointed to bureaucratic positions. Commoners engaged in essential production activities, including that of products destined for use by the elite, such as cotton and cacao, as well as subsistence crops for their own use, and utilitarian items such as ceramics and stone tools. Commoners took part in warfare, and could advance socially by proving themselves as outstanding warriors. Commoners paid taxes to the elite in the form of staple goods such as maize flour and game. It is likely that hard - working commoners who displayed exceptional skills and initiative could become influential members of Maya society.
Warfare was prevalent in the Maya world. Military campaigns were launched for a variety of reasons, including the control of trade routes and tribute, raids to take captives, scaling up to the complete destruction of an enemy state. Little is known about Maya military organization, logistics, or training. Warfare is depicted in Maya art from the Classic period, and wars and victories are mentioned in hieroglyphic inscriptions. Unfortunately, the inscriptions do not provide information upon the causes of war, or the form it took. In the 8th -- 9th centuries, intensive warfare resulted in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Petexbatún region of western Petén. The rapid abandonment of Aguateca by its inhabitants has provided a rare opportunity to examine the remains of Maya weaponry in situ. Aguateca was stormed by unknown enemies around 810 AD, who overcame its formidable defences and burned the royal palace. The elite inhabitants of the city either fled or were captured, and never returned to collect their abandoned property. The inhabitants of the periphery abandoned the site soon after. This is an example of intensive warfare carried out by an enemy in order to completely eliminate a Maya state, rather than subjugate it. Research at Aguateca indicated that Classic period warriors were primarily members of the elite.
From as early as the Preclassic period, the ruler of a Maya polity was expected to be a distinguished war leader, and was depicted with trophy heads hanging from his belt. In the Classic period, such trophy heads no longer appeared on the king 's belt, but Classic period kings are frequently depicted standing over humiliated war captives. Right up to the end of the Postclassic period, Maya kings led as war captains. Maya inscriptions from the Classic show that a defeated king could be captured, tortured, and sacrificed. The Spanish recorded that Maya leaders kept track of troop movements in painted books.
The outcome of a successful military campaign could vary in its impact on the defeated polity. In some cases, entire cities were sacked, and never resettled, as at Aguateca. In other instances, the victors would seize the defeated rulers, their families, and patron gods. The captured nobles and their families could be imprisoned, or sacrificed. At the least severe end of the scale, the defeated polity would be obliged to pay tribute to the victor.
During the Contact period, it is known that certain military positions were held by members of the aristocracy, and were passed on by patrilineal succession. It is likely that the specialized knowledge inherent in the particular military role was taught to the successor, including strategy, ritual, and war dances. Maya armies of the Contact period were highly disciplined, and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills; every able - bodied adult male was available for military service. Maya states did not maintain standing armies; warriors were mustered by local officials who reported back to appointed warleaders. There were also units of full - time mercenaries who followed permanent leaders. Most warriors were not full - time, however, and were primarily farmers; the needs of their crops usually came before warfare. Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder.
There is some evidence from the Classic period that women provided supporting roles in war, but they did not act as military officers with the exception of those rare ruling queens. By the Postclassic, the native chronicles suggest that women occasionally fought in battle.
The atlatl (spear - thrower) was introduced to the Maya region by Teotihuacan in the Early Classic. This was a 0.5 - metre - long (1.6 ft) stick with a notched end to hold a dart or javelin. The stick was used to launch the missile with more force and accuracy than could be accomplished by simply hurling it with the arm alone. Evidence in the form of stone blade points recovered from Aguateca indicate that darts and spears were the primary weapons of the Classic Maya warrior. Commoners used blowguns in war, which also served as their hunting weapon. The bow and arrow is another weapon that was used by the ancient Maya for both war and hunting. Although present in the Maya region during the Classic period, its use as a weapon of war was not favoured; it did not become a common weapon until the Postclassic. The Contact period Maya also used two - handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian, similar to the Aztec macuahuitl. Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish when they conquered the region. Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins.
Trade was a key component of Maya society, and in the development of the Maya civilization. The cities that grew to become the most important usually controlled access to vital trade goods, or portage routes. Cities such as Kaminaljuyu and Q'umarkaj in the Guatemalan Highlands, and Chalchuapa in El Salvador, variously controlled access to the sources of obsidian at different points in Maya history. The most important cities in the northern Yucatán Peninsula controlled access to the sources of salt. In the Postclassic, the Maya engaged in a flourishing slave trade with wider Mesoamerica.
The Maya engaged in long distance trade across the Maya region, and across greater Mesoamerica and beyond. Within Mesoamerica beyond the Maya area, trade routes particularly focused on central Mexico and the Gulf coast. In the Early Classic, Chichen Itza was at the hub of an extensive trade network that imported gold discs from Colombia and Panama, and turquoise from Los Cerrillos, New Mexico. Long distance trade of both luxury and utilitarian goods was probably controlled by the royal family. Prestige goods obtained by trade were used both for consumption by the city 's ruler, and as luxury gifts to consolidate the loyalty of vassals and allies. An Early Classic Maya merchant quarter has been identified at the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan, in central Mexico.
Trade routes not only supplied physical goods, they facilitated the movement of people and ideas throughout Mesoamerica. Shifts in trade routes occurred with the rise and fall of important cities in the Maya region, and have been identified in every major reorganization of the Maya civilization, such as the rise of Preclassic Maya civilization, the transition to the Classic, and the Terminal Classic collapse. Even the Spanish Conquest did not immediately terminate all Maya trading activity; for example, the Contact period Manche Ch'ol traded the prestige crops of cacao, annatto and vanilla into colonial Verapaz.
Little is known of Maya merchants, although they are depicted on Maya ceramics in elaborate noble dress. From this, it is known that at least some traders were members of the elite. During the Contact period, it is known that Maya nobility took part in long distance trading expeditions. The majority of traders were middle class, but were largely engaged in local and regional trade rather than the prestigious long distance trading that was the preserve of the elite. The travelling of merchants into dangerous foreign territory was likened to a passage through the underworld; the patron deities of merchants were two underworld gods carrying backpacks. When merchants travelled, they painted themselves black, like their patron gods, and went heavily armed.
The Maya had no pack animals, so all trade goods were carried on the backs of porters when going overland; if the trade route followed a river or the coast, then goods were transported in canoes. A substantial Maya trading canoe was encountered off Honduras on Christopher Columbus 's fourth voyage. It was made from a large hollowed - out tree trunk and had a palm - covered canopy. The canoe was 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) broad and was powered by 25 rowers. Trade goods carried included cacao, obsidian, ceramics, textiles, food and drink for the crew, and copper bells and axes. Cacao was used as currency (although not exclusively), and its value was such that counterfeiting occurred by removing the flesh from the pod, and stuffing it with dirt or avocado rind.
Marketplaces are difficult to identify archaeologically. However, the Spanish reported a thriving market economy when they arrived in the region. At some Classic period cities, archaeologists have tentatively identified formal arcade - style masonry architecture and parallel alignments of scattered stones as the permanent foundations of market stalls. A 2007 study analysed soils from a modern Guatemalan market and compared the results with those obtained from analysis at a proposed ancient market at Chunchucmil. Unusually high levels of zinc and phosphorus at both sites indicated similar food production and vegetable sales activity. The calculated density of market stalls at Chunchucmil strongly suggests that a thriving market economy already existed in the Early Classic. Archaeologists have tentatively identified marketplaces at an increasing number of Maya cities by means of a combination of archaeology and soil analysis. When the Spanish arrived, Postclassic cities in the highlands had markets in permanent plazas, with officials on hand to settle disputes, enforce rules, and collect taxes.
Maya art is essentially the art of the royal court. It is almost exclusively concerned with the Maya elite and their world. Maya art was crafted from both perishable and non-perishable materials, and served to link the Maya to their ancestors. Although surviving Maya art represents only a small proportion of the art that the Maya created, it represents a wider variety of subjects than any other art tradition in the Americas. Maya art has many regional styles, and is unique in the ancient Americas in bearing narrative text. The finest surviving Maya art dates to the Late Classic period.
The Maya exhibited a preference for the colour green or blue - green, and used the same word for the colours blue and green. Correspondingly, they placed high value on apple - green jade, and other greenstones, associating them with the sun - god K'inich Ajau. They sculpted artefacts that included fine tesserae and beads, to carved heads weighing 4.42 kilograms (9.7 lb). The Maya nobility practised dental modification, and some lords wore encrusted jade in their teeth. Mosaic funerary masks could also be fashioned from jade, such as that of K'inich Janaab ' Pakal, king of Palenque.
Maya stone sculpture emerged into the archaeological record as a fully developed tradition, suggesting that it may have evolved from a tradition of sculpting wood. Because of the biodegradability of wood, the corpus of Maya woodwork has almost entirely disappeared. The few wooden artefacts that have survived include three - dimensional sculptures, and hieroglyphic panels. Stone Maya stelae are widespread in city sites, often paired with low, circular stones referred to as altars in the literature. Stone sculpture also took other forms, such as the limestone relief panels at Palenque and Piedras Negras. At Yaxchilan, Dos Pilas, Copán, and other sites, stone stairways were decorated with sculpture. The hieroglyphic stairway at Copán comprises the longest surviving Maya hieroglyphic text, and consists of 2,200 individual glyphs.
The largest Maya sculptures consisted of architectural façades crafted from stucco. The rough form was laid out on a plain plaster base coating on the wall, and the three - dimensional form was built up using small stones. Finally, this was coated with stucco and moulded into the finished form; human body forms were first modelled in stucco, with their costumes added afterwards. The final stucco sculpture was then brightly painted. Giant stucco masks were used to adorn temple façades by the Late Preclassic, and such decoration continued into the Classic period.
The Maya had a long tradition of mural painting; rich polychrome murals have been excavated at San Bartolo, dating to between 300 and 200 BC. Walls were coated with plaster, and polychrome designs were painted onto the smooth finish. The majority of such murals have not survived, but Early Classic tombs painted in cream, red, and black have been excavated at Caracol, Río Azul, and Tikal. Among the best preserved murals are a full - size series of Late Classic paintings at Bonampak.
Flint, chert, and obsidian all served utilitarian purposes in Maya culture, but many pieces were finely crafted into forms that were never intended to be used as tools. Eccentric flints are among the finest lithic artefacts produced by the ancient Maya. They were technically very challenging to produce, requiring considerable skill on the part of the artisan. Large obsidian eccentrics can measure over 30 centimetres (12 in) in length. Their actual form varies considerably but they generally depict human, animal and geometric forms associated with Maya religion. Eccentric flints show a great variety of forms, such as crescents, crosses, snakes, and scorpions. The largest and most elaborate examples display multiple human heads, with minor heads sometimes branching off from larger one.
Maya textiles are very poorly represented in the archaeological record, although by comparison with other pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Aztecs and the Andean region, it is likely that they were high - value items. A few scraps of textile have been recovered by archaeologists, but the best evidence for textile art is where they are represented in other media, such as painted murals or ceramics. Such secondary representations show the elite of the Maya court adorned with sumptuous cloths, generally these would have been cotton, but jaguar pelts and deer hides are also shown.
Ceramics are the most commonly surviving type of Maya art. The Maya had no knowledge of the potter 's wheel, and Maya vessels were built up by coiling rolled strips of clay into the desired form. Maya pottery was not glazed, although it often had a fine finish produced by burnishing. Maya ceramics were painted with clay slips blended with minerals and coloured clays. Ancient Maya firing techniques have yet to be replicated. A quantity of extremely fine ceramic figurines have been excavated from Late Classic tombs on Jaina Island, in northern Yucatán. They stand from 10 to 25 centimetres (3.9 to 9.8 in) high and were hand modelled, with exquisite detail. The Ik - style polychrome ceramic corpus, including finely painted plates and cylindrical vessels, originated in Late Classic Motul de San José. It includes a set of features such as hieroglyphs painted in a pink or pale red colour and scenes with dancers wearing masks. One of the most distinctive features is the realistic representation of subjects as they appeared in life. The subject matter of the vessels includes courtly life from the Petén region in the 8th century AD, such as diplomatic meetings, feasting, bloodletting, scenes of warriors and the sacrifice of prisoners of war.
Bone, both human and animal, was also sculpted; human bones may have been trophies, or relics of ancestors. The Maya valued Spondylus shells, and worked them to remove the white exterior and spines, to reveal the fine orange interior. Around the 10th century AD, metallurgy arrived in Mesoamerica from South America, and the Maya began to make small objects in gold, silver and copper. The Maya generally hammered sheet metal into objects such as beads, bells, and discs. In the last centuries before the Spanish Conquest, the Maya began to use the lost - wax method to cast small metal pieces.
One poorly studied area of Maya folk art is graffiti. Additional graffiti, not part of the planned decoration, was incised into the stucco of interior walls, floors, and benches, in a wide variety of buildings, including temples, residences, and storerooms. Graffiti has been recorded at 51 Maya sites, particularly clustered in the Petén Basin and southern Campeche, and the Chenes region of northwestern Yucatán. At Tikal, where a great quantity of graffiti has been recorded, the subject matter includes drawings of temples, people, deities, animals, banners, litters, and thrones. Graffiti was often inscribed haphazardly, with drawings overlapping each other, and display a mix of crude, untrained art, and examples by artists who were familiar with Classic - period artistic conventions.
The Maya produced a vast array of structures, and have left an extensive architectural legacy that places the Maya civilization as one of the great preindustrial civilizations of the world. Maya architecture also incorporates various art forms and hieroglyphic texts. Masonry architecture built by the Maya evidences craft specialization in Maya society, centralized organization and the political means to mobilize a large workforce. It is estimated that a large elite residence at Copán required an estimated 10,686 man - days to build, which compares to 67 - man - days for a commoner 's hut. It is further estimated that 65 % of the labour required to build the noble residence was used in the quarrying, transporting, and finishing of the stone used in construction, and 24 % of the labour was required for the manufacture and application of limestone - based plaster. Altogether, it is estimated that two to three months were required for the construction of the residence for this single noble at Copán, using between 80 and 130 full - time labourers. A Classic - period city like Tikal was spread over 20 square kilometres (7.7 sq mi), with an urban core covering 6 square kilometres (2.3 sq mi). The labour required to build such a city was immense, running into many millions of man - days. The most massive structures ever erected by the Maya were built during the Preclassic period. Craft specialization would have required dedicated stonemasons and plasterers by the Late Preclassic, and would have required planners and architects.
Maya cities were not formally planned, and were subject to irregular expansion, with the haphazard addition of palaces, temples and other buildings. Most Maya cities tended to grow outwards from the core, and upwards as new structures were superimposed upon preceding architecture. Maya cities usually had a ceremonial and administrative centre surrounded by a vast irregular sprawl of residential complexes. The centres of all Maya cities featured sacred precincts, sometimes separated from nearby residential areas by walls. These precincts contained pyramid temples and other monumental architecture dedicated to elite activities, such as basal platforms that supported administrative or elite residential complexes. Sculpted monuments were raised to record the deeds of the ruling dynasty. City centres also featured plazas, sacred ballcourts and buildings used for marketplaces and schools. Frequently causeways linked the centre to outlying areas of the city. Some of these classes of architecture formed lesser groups in the outlying areas of the city, which served as sacred centres for non-royal lineages. The areas adjacent to these sacred compounds included residential complexes housing wealthy lineages. The largest and richest of these elite compounds sometimes possessed sculpture and art of craftsmanship equal to that of royal art.
The ceremonial centre of the Maya city was where the ruling elite lived, and where the administrative functions of the city were performed, together with religious ceremonies. It was also where the inhabitants of the city gathered for public activities. Elite residential complexes occupied the best land around the city centre, while commoners had their residences dispersed further away from the ceremonial centre. Residential units were built on top of stone platforms to raise them above the level of the rain season floodwaters.
The Maya built their cities with Neolithic technology; they built their structures from both perishable materials and from stone. The exact type of stone used in masonry construction varied according to locally available resources, and this also affected the building style. Across a broad swathe of the Maya area, limestone was immediately available. The local limestone is relatively soft when freshly cut, but hardens with exposure. There was great variety in the quality of limestone, with good - quality stone available in the Usumacinta region; in the northern Yucatán, the limestone used in construction was of relatively poor quality. Volcanic tuff was used at Copán, and nearby Quiriguá employed sandstone. In Comalcalco, where suitable stone was not available locally, fired bricks were employed. Limestone was burned at high temperatures in order to manufacture cement, plaster, and stucco. Lime - based cement was used to seal stonework in place, and stone blocks were fashioned using rope - and - water abrasion, and with obsidian tools. The Maya did not employ a functional wheel, so all loads were transported on litters, barges, or rolled on logs. Heavy loads were lifted with rope, but probably without employing pulleys.
Wood was used for beams, and for lintels, even in masonry structures. Throughout Maya history, common huts and some temples continued to be built from wooden poles and thatch. Adobe was also applied; this consisted of mud strengthened with straw and was applied as a coating over the woven - stick walls of huts. Like wood and thatch, adobe was used throughout Maya history, even after the development of masonry structures. In the southern Maya area, adobe was employed in monumental architecture when no suitable stone was locally available.
The great cities of the Maya civilization were composed of pyramid temples, palaces, ballcourts, sacbeob (causeways), patios and plazas. Some cities also possessed extensive hydraulic systems or defensive walls. The exteriors of most buildings were painted, either in one or multiple colours, or with imagery. Many buildings were adorned with sculpture or painted stucco reliefs.
These complexes were usually located in the site core, beside a principal plaza. Maya palaces consisted of a platform supporting a multiroom range structure. The term acropolis, in a Maya context, refers to a complex of structures built upon platforms of varying height. Palaces and acropoleis were essentially elite residential compounds. They generally extended horizontally as opposed to the towering Maya pyramids, and often had restricted access. Some structures in Maya acropoleis supported roof combs. Rooms often had stone benches, used for sleeping, and holes indicate where curtains once hung. Large palaces, such as at Palenque, could be fitted with a water supply, and sweat baths were often found within the complex, or nearby. During the Early Classic, rulers were sometimes buried underneath the acropolis complex. Some rooms in palaces were true throne rooms; in the royal palace of Palenque there were a number of throne rooms that were used for important events, including the inauguration of new kings.
Palaces are usually arranged around one or more courtyards, with their façades facing inwards; some examples are adorned with sculpture. Some palaces possess associated hieroglyphic descriptions that identify them as the royal residences of named rulers. There is abundant evidence that palaces were far more than simple elite residences, and that a range of courtly activities took place in them, including audiences, formal receptions, and important rituals.
Temples were sometimes referred to in hieroglyphic texts as k'uh nah, meaning "god 's house ''. Temples were raised on platforms, most often upon a pyramid. The earliest temples were probably thatched huts built upon low platforms. By the Late Preclassic period, their walls were of stone, and the development of the corbel arch allowed stone roofs to replace thatch. By the Classic period, temple roofs were being topped with roof combs that extended the height of the temple and served as a foundation for monumental art. The temple shrines contained between one and three rooms, and were dedicated to important deities. Such a deity might be one of the patron gods of the city, or a deified ancestor. In general, freestanding pyramids were shrines honouring powerful ancestors.
The Maya were keen observers of the sun, stars, and planets. E-Groups were a particular arrangement of temples that were relatively common in the Maya region; they take their names from Group E at Uaxactun. They consisted of three small structures facing a fourth structure, and were used to mark the solstices and equinoxes. The earliest examples date to the Preclassic period. The Lost World complex at Tikal started out as an E-Group built towards the end of the Middle Preclassic. Due to its nature, the basic layout of an E-Group was constant. A structure was built on the west side of a plaza; it was usually a radial pyramid with stairways facing the cardinal directions. It faced east across the plaza to three small temples on the far side. From the west pyramid, the sun was seen to rise over these temples on the solstices and equinoxes. E-Groups were raised across the central and southern Maya area for over a millennium; not all were properly aligned as observatories, and their function may have been symbolic.
As well as E-Groups, the Maya built other structures dedicated to observing the movements of celestial bodies. Many Maya buildings were aligned with astronomical bodies, including the planet Venus, and various constellations. The Caracol structure at Chichen Itza was a circular multi-level edifice, with a conical superstructure. It has slit windows that marked the movements of Venus. At Copán, a pair of stelae were raised to mark the position of the setting sun at the equinoxes.
Triadic pyramids first appeared in the Preclassic. They consisted of a dominant structure flanked by two smaller inward - facing buildings, all mounted upon a single basal platform. The largest known triadic pyramid was built at El Mirador in the Petén Basin; it covers an area six times as large as that covered by Temple IV, the largest pyramid at Tikal. The three superstructures all have stairways leading up from the central plaza on top of the basal platform. No securely established forerunners of Triadic Groups are known, but they may have developed from the eastern range building of E-Group complexes. The triadic form was the predominant architectural form in the Petén region during the Late Preclassic. Examples of triadic pyramids are known from as many as 88 archaeological sites. At Nakbe, there are at least a dozen examples of triadic complexes and the four largest structures in the city are triadic in nature. At El Mirador there are probably as many as 36 triadic structures. Examples of the triadic form are even known from Dzibilchaltun in the far north of the Yucatán Peninsula, and Q'umarkaj in the Highlands of Guatemala. The triadic pyramid remained a popular architectural form for centuries after the first examples were built; it continued in use into the Classic Period, with later examples being found at Uaxactun, Caracol, Seibal, Nakum, Tikal and Palenque. The Q'umarkaj example is the only one that has been dated to the Postclassic Period. The triple - temple form of the triadic pyramid appears to be related to Maya mythology.
The ballcourt is a distinctive pan-Mesoamerican form of architecture. Although the majority of Maya ballcourts date to the Classic period, the earliest examples appeared around 1000 BC in northwestern Yucatán, during the Middle Preclassic. By the time of Spanish contact, ballcourts were only in use in the Guatemalan Highlands, at cities such as Q'umarkaj and Iximche. Throughout Maya history, ballcourts maintained a characteristic form consisting of an ɪ shape, with a central playing area terminating in two transverse end zones. The central playing area usually measures between 20 and 30 metres (66 and 98 ft) long, and is flanked by two lateral structures that stood up to 3 or 4 metres (9.8 or 13.1 ft) high. The lateral platforms often supported structures that may have held privileged spectators. The Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza is the largest in Mesoamerica, measuring 83 metres (272 ft) long by 30 metres (98 ft) wide, with walls standing 8.2 metres (27 ft) high.
Although Maya cities shared many common features, there was considerable variation in architectural style. Such styles were influenced by locally available construction materials, climate, topography, and local preferences. In the Late Classic, these local differences developed into distinctive regional architectural styles.
The central Petén style of architecture is modelled after the great city of Tikal. The style is characterized by tall pyramids supporting a summit shrine adorned with a roof comb, and accessed by a single doorway. Additional features are the use of stela - altar pairings, and the decoration of architectural façades, lintels, and roof combs with relief sculptures of rulers and gods. One of the finest examples of Central Petén style architecture is Tikal Temple I. Examples of sites in the Central Petén style include Altun Ha, Calakmul, Holmul, Ixkun, Nakum, Naranjo, and Yaxhá.
The exemplar of Puuc - style architecture is Uxmal. The style developed in the Puuc Hills of northwestern Yucatán; during the Terminal Classic it spread beyond this core region across the northern Yucatán Peninsula. Puuc sites replaced rubble cores with lime cement, resulting in stronger walls, and also strengthened their corbel arches; this allowed Puuc - style cities to build freestanding entrance archways. The upper façades of buildings were decorated with precut stones mosaic - fashion, erected as facing over the core, forming elaborate compositions of long - nosed deities such as the rain god Chaac and the Principal Bird Deity. The motifs also included geometric patterns, lattices and spools, possibly influenced by styles from highland Oaxaca, outside the Maya area. In contrast, the lower façades were left undecorated. Roof combs were relatively uncommon at Puuc sites.
The Chenes style is very similar to the Puuc style, but predates the use of the mosaic façades of the Puuc region. It featured fully adorned façades on both the upper and lower sections of structures. Some doorways were surrounded by mosaic masks of monsters representing mountain or sky deities, identifying the doorways as entrances to the supernatural realm. Some buildings contained interior stairways that accessed different levels. The Chenes style is most commonly encountered in the southern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula, although individual buildings in the style can be found elsewhere in the peninsula. Examples of Chenes sites include Dzibilnocac, Hochob, Santa Rosa Xtampak, and Tabasqueño.
The Río Bec style forms a sub-region of the Chenes style, and also features elements of the Central Petén style, such as prominent roof combs. Its palaces are distinctive for their false - tower decorations, lacking interior rooms, with steep, almost vertical, stairways and false doors. These towers were adorned with deity masks, and were built to impress the viewer, rather than serve any practical function. Such false towers are only found in the Río Bec region. Río Bec sites include Chicanná, Hormiguero, and Xpuhil.
The Usumacinta style developed in the hilly terrain of the Usumacinta drainage. Cities took advantage of the hillsides to support their major architecture, as at Palenque and Yaxchilan. Sites modified corbel vaulting to allow thinner walls and multiple access doors to temples. As in Petén, roof combs adorned principal structures. Palaces had multiple entrances that used post-and - lintel entrances rather than corbel vaulting. Many sites erected stelae, but Palenque instead developed finely sculpted panelling to decorate its buildings.
Before 2000 BC, the Maya spoke a single language, dubbed proto - Mayan by linguists. Linguistic analysis of reconstructed Proto - Mayan vocabulary suggests that the original Proto - Mayan homeland was in the western or northern Guatemalan Highlands, although the evidence is not conclusive. Proto - Mayan diverged during the Preclassic period to form the major Mayan language groups that make up the family, including Huastecan, Greater K'iche'an, Greater Q'anjobalan, Mamean, Tz'eltalan - Ch'olan, and Yucatecan. These groups diverged further during the pre-Columbian era to form over 30 languages that have survived into modern times. The language of almost all Classic Maya texts over the entire Maya area has been identified as Ch'olan; Late Preclassic text from Kaminaljuyu, in the highlands, also appears to be in, or related to, Ch'olan. The use of Ch'olan as the language of Maya text does not necessarily indicate that it was the language commonly used by the local populace -- it may have been equivalent to Medieval Latin as a ritual or prestige language. Classic Ch'olan may have been the prestige language of the Classic Maya elite, used in inter-polity communication such as diplomacy and trade. By the Postclassic period, Yucatec was also being written in Maya codices alongside Ch'olan.
The Maya writing system is one of the outstanding achievements of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas. It was the most sophisticated and highly developed writing system of more than a dozen systems that developed in Mesoamerica. The earliest inscriptions in an identifiably Maya script date back to 300 -- 200 BC, in the Petén Basin. However, this is preceded by several other Mesoamerican writing systems, such as the Epi - Olmec and Zapotec scripts. Early Maya script had appeared on the Pacific coast of Guatemala by the late 1st century AD, or early 2nd century. Similarities between the Isthmian script and Early Maya script of the Pacific coast suggest that the two systems developed in tandem. By about AD 250, the Maya script had become a more formalized and consistent writing system.
The Catholic Church and colonial officials, notably Bishop Diego de Landa, destroyed Maya texts wherever they found them, and with them the knowledge of Maya writing, but by chance three uncontested pre-Columbian books dated to the Postclassic period have been preserved. These are known as the Madrid Codex, the Dresden Codex and the Paris Codex. A few pages survive from a fourth, the Grolier Codex, whose authenticity is disputed. Archaeology conducted at Maya sites often reveals other fragments, rectangular lumps of plaster and paint chips which were codices; these tantalizing remains are, however, too severely damaged for any inscriptions to have survived, most of the organic material having decayed. In reference to the few extant Maya writings, Michael D. Coe, a prominent archaeologist at Yale University, stated:
(O) ur knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and ' Pilgrim 's Progress ').
Most surviving pre-Columbian Maya writing dates to the Classic period and is contained in stone inscriptions from Maya sites, such as stelae, or on ceramics vessels. Other media include the aforementioned codices, stucco façades, frescoes, wooden lintels, cave walls, and portable artefacts crafted from a variety of materials, including bone, shell, obsidian, and jade.
The Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficial resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) is a logosyllabic writing system, combining a syllabary of phonetic signs representing syllables with logogram representing entire words. Among the writing systems of the Pre-Columbian New World, Maya script most closely represents the spoken language. At any one time, no more than around 500 glyphs were in use, some 200 of which (including variations) were phonetic.
The Maya script was in use up to the arrival of the Europeans, its use peaking during the Classic Period. In excess of 10,000 individual texts have been recovered, mostly inscribed on stone monuments, lintels, stelae and ceramics. The Maya also produced texts painted on a form of paper manufactured from processed tree - bark generally now known by its Nahuatl - language name amatl used to produce codices. The skill and knowledge of Maya writing persisted among segments of the population right up to the Spanish conquest. The knowledge was subsequently lost, as a result of the impact of the conquest on Maya society.
The decipherment and recovery of the knowledge of Maya writing has been a long and laborious process. Some elements were first deciphered in the late 19th and early 20th century, mostly the parts having to do with numbers, the Maya calendar, and astronomy. Major breakthroughs were made from the 1950s to 1970s, and accelerated rapidly thereafter. By the end of the 20th century, scholars were able to read the majority of Maya texts, and ongoing work continues to further illuminate the content.
The basic unit of Maya hieroglyphic text is the glyph block, which transcribes a word or phrase. The block is composed of one or more individual glyphs attached to each other to form the glyph block, with individual glyph blocks generally being separated by a space. Glyph blocks are usually arranged in a grid pattern. For ease of reference, epigraphers refer to glyph blocks from left to right alphabetically, and top to bottom numerically. Thus, any glyph block in a piece of text can be identified: C4 would be third block counting from the left, and the fourth block counting downwards. If a monument or artefact has more than one inscription, column labels are not repeated, rather they continue in the alphabetic series; if there are more than 26 columns, the labelling continues as A ', B ', etc. Numeric row labels restart from 1 for each discrete unit of text.
Although hieroglyphic text may be laid out in varying manners, generally text is arranged into double columns of glyph blocks. The reading order of text starts at the top left (block A1), continues to the second block in the double - column (B1), then drops down a row and starts again from the left half of the double column (A2), and thus continues in zig - zag fashion. Once the bottom is reached, the inscription continues from the top left of the next double column. Where an inscription ends in a single (unpaired) column, this final column is usually read straight downwards.
Individual glyph blocks may be composed of a number of elements. These consist of the main sign, and any affixes. Main signs represent the major element of the block, and may be a noun, verb, adverb, adjective, or phonetic sign. Some main signs are abstract, some are pictures of the object they represent, and others are "head variants '', personifications of the word they represent. Affixes are smaller rectangular elements, usually attached to a main sign, although a block may be composed entirely of affixes. Affixes may represent a wide variety of speech elements, including nouns, verbs, verbal suffixes, prepositions, pronouns, and more. Small sections of a main sign could be used to represent the whole main sign, and Maya scribes were highly inventive in their usage and adaptation of glyph elements.
Although the archaeological record does not provide examples of brushes or pens, analysis of ink strokes on the Postclassic codices suggests that it was applied with a brush with a tip fashioned from pliable hair. A Classic period sculpture from Copán, Honduras, depicts a scribe with an inkpot fashioned from a conch shell. Excavations at Aguateca uncovered a number of scribal artefacts from the residences of elite status scribes, including palettes and mortars and pestles.
Commoners were illiterate; scribes were drawn from the elite. It is not known if all members of the aristocracy could read and write, although at least some women could, since there are representations of female scribes in Maya art. Maya scribes were called aj tz'ib, meaning "one who writes or paints ''. There were probably scribal schools where members of the aristocracy were taught to write. Scribal activity is identifiable in the archaeological record; Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, king of Tikal, was interred with his paint pot. Some junior members of the Copán royal dynasty have also been found buried with their writing implements. A palace at Copán has been identified as that of a noble lineage of scribes; it is decorated with sculpture that includes figures holding ink pots.
Although not much is known about Maya scribes, some did sign their work, both on ceramics and on stone sculpture. Usually, only a single scribe signed a ceramic vessel, but multiple sculptors are known to have recorded their names on stone sculpture; eight sculptors signed one stela at Piedras Negras. However, most works remained unsigned by their artists.
In common with the other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya used a base 20 (vigesimal) system. The bar - and - dot counting system that is the base of Maya numerals was in use in Mesoamerica by 1000 BC; the Maya adopted it by the Late Preclassic, and added the symbol for zero. This may have been the earliest known occurrence of the idea of an explicit zero worldwide, although it may have been predated by the Babylonian system. The earliest explicit use of zero occurred on monuments dated to 357 AD. In its earliest uses, the zero served as a place holder, indicating an absence of a particular calendrical count. This later developed into a numeral that was used to perform calculation, and was used in hieroglyphic texts for more than a thousand years, until its use was extinguished by the Spanish.
The basic number system consists of a dot to represent one, and a bar to represent five. By the Postclassic period a shell symbol represented zero; during the Classic period other glyphs were used. The Maya could write any number from 0 to 19 using a combination of these symbols. The precise value of a numeral was determined by its position; as a numeral shifted upwards, its basic value multiplied by twenty. In this way, the lowest symbol would represent units, the next symbol up would represent multiples of twenty, and the symbol above that would represent multiples of 400, and so on. For example, the number 884 would be written with four dots on the lowest level, four dots on the next level up, and two dots on the next level after that, to give 4x1, plus 4x20, plus 2x400. Using this system, the Maya were able to record huge numbers. Simple addition could be performed by summing the dots and bars in two columns to give the result in a third column.
The Maya calendrical system, in common with other Mesoamerican calendars, had its origins in the Preclassic period. However, it was the Maya that developed the calendar to its maximum sophistication, recording lunar and solar cycles, eclipses and movements of planets with great accuracy. In some cases, the Maya calculations were more accurate than equivalent calculations in the Old World; for example, the Maya solar year was calculated to greater accuracy than the Julian year. The Maya calendar was intrinsically tied to Maya ritual, and it was central to Maya religious practices. The calendar combined a non-repeating Long Count with three interlocking cycles, each measuring a progressively larger period. These were the 260 - day tzolk'in, the 365 - day haab ', and the 52 - year Calendar Round, resulting from the combination of the tzolk'in with the haab '. There were also additional calendric cycles, such as an 819 - day cycle associated with the four quadrants of Maya cosmology, governed by four different aspects of the god K'awiil.
The basic unit in the Maya calendar was one day, or k'in, and 20 k'in grouped to form a winal. The next unit, instead of being multiplied by 20, as called for by the vigesimal system, was multiplied by 18 in order to provide a rough approximation of the solar year (hence producing 360 days). This 360 - day year was called a tun. Each succeeding level of multiplication followed the vigesimal system.
The 260 - day tzolk'in provided the basic cycle of Maya ceremony, and the foundations of Maya prophecy. No astronomical basis for this count has been proved, and it may be that the 260 - day count is based on the human gestation period. This is reinforced by the use of the tzolk'in to record dates of birth, and provide corresponding prophecy. The 260 - day cycle repeated a series of 20 - day - names, with a number from 1 to 13 prefixed to indicated where in the cycle a particular day occurred.
The 365 - day haab was produced by a cycle of eighteen named 20 - day winals, completed by the addition of 5 - day period called the wayeb. The wayeb was considered to be a dangerous time, when the barriers between the mortal and supernatural realms were broken, allowing malignant deities to cross over and interfere in human concerns. In a similar way to the tz'olkin, the named winal would be prefixed by a number (from 0 to 19), in the case of the shorter wayeb period, the prefix numbers ran 0 to 4. Since each day in the tz'olkin had a name and number (e.g. 8 Ajaw), this would interlock with the haab, producing an additional number and name, to give any day a more complete designation, for example 8 Ajaw 13 Keh. Such a day name could only recur once every 52 years, and this period is referred to by Mayanists as the Calendar Round. In most Mesoamerican cultures, the Calendar Round was the largest unit for measuring time.
As with any non-repeating calendar, the Maya measured time from a fixed start point. The Maya set the beginning of their calendar as the end of a previous cycle of bak'tuns, equivalent to a day in 3114 BC. This was believed by the Maya to be the day of the creation of the world in its current form. The Maya used the Long Count Calendar to fix any given day of the Calendar Round within their current great Piktun cycle consisting of either 20 bak'tuns. There was some variation in the calendar, specifically texts in Palenque demonstrate that the piktun cycle that ended in 3114 BC had only 13 bak'tuns, and other inscriptions seem to have used an exceptional cycle of 13 + 20 bak'tun in the current piktun. Additionally, there may have been some regional variation in how these exceptional cycles were managed.
A full long count date consisted of an introductory glyph followed by five glyphs counting off the number of bak'tuns, kat'uns, tuns, winals, and k'ins since the start of the current creation. This would be followed by the tz'olkin portion of the Calendar Round date, and after a number of intervening glyphs, the Long Count date would end with the Haab portion of the Calendar Round date.
Although the Calendar Round is still in use today, the Maya started using an abbreviated Short Count during the Late Classic period. The Short Count is a count of 13 k'atuns. For this reason, there is no direct correlation between the Long Count and the European calendar. The most generally accepted correlation is the Goodman - Martínez - Thompson, or GMT, correlation. This equates the Long Count date 11.16. 0.0. 0 13 Ajaw 8 Xul with the Gregorian date of 12 November 1539. Epigraphers Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube argue for a two - day shift from the standard GMT correlation. The Spinden Correlation would shift the Long Count dates back by 260 years; it also accords with the documentary evidence, and is better suited to the archaeology of the Yucatán Peninsula, but presents problems with the rest of the Maya region. The George Vaillant Correlation would shift all Maya dates 260 years later, and would greatly shorten the Postclassic period. Radiocarbon dating of dated wooden lintels at Tikal supports the GMT correlation.
The famous astrologer John Dee used an Aztec obsidian mirror to see into the future. We may look down our noses at his ideas, but one may be sure that in outlook he was far closer to a Maya priest astronomer than is an astronomer of our century.
The Maya made meticulous observations of celestial bodies, patiently recording astronomical data on the movements of the sun, moon, Venus, and the stars. This information was used for divination, so Maya astronomy was essentially for astrological purposes. Maya astronomy did not serve to study the universe for scientific reasons, nor was it used to measure the seasons in order to calculate crop planting. It was rather used by the priesthood to comprehend past cycles of time, and project them into the future to produce prophecy. The priesthood refined observations and recorded eclipses of the sun and moon, and movements of Venus and the stars; these were measured against dated events in the past, on the assumption that similar events would occur in the future when the same astronomical conditions prevailed. Illustrations in the codices show that priests made astronomical observations using the naked eye, assisted by crossed sticks as a sighting device. Analysis of the few remaining Postclassic codices has revealed that, at the time of European contact, the Maya had recorded eclipse tables, calendars, and astronomical knowledge that was more accurate at that time than comparable knowledge in Europe.
The Maya measured the 584 - day Venus cycle with an error of just two hours. Five cycles of Venus equated to eight 365 - day haab calendrical cycles, and this period was recorded in the codices. The Maya also followed the movements of Jupiter, Mars and Mercury. When Venus rose as the Morning Star, this was associated with the rebirth of the Maya Hero Twins. For the Maya, the heliacal rising of Venus was associated with destruction and upheaval. Venus was closely associated with warfare, and the hieroglyph meaning "war '' incorporated the glyph - element symbolizing the planet. Sight - lines through the windows of the Caracol building at Chichen Itza align with the northernmost and southernmost extremes of Venus ' path. Maya rulers launched military campaigns to coincide with the heliacal or cosmical rising of Venus, and would also sacrifice important captives to coincide with such conjunctions.
Solar and lunar eclipses were considered to be especially dangerous events that could bring catastrophe upon the world. In the Dresden Codex, a solar eclipse is represented by a serpent devouring the k'in ("day '') hieroglyph. Eclipses were interpreted as the sun or moon being bitten, and lunar tables were recorded in order that the Maya might be able to predict them, and perform the appropriate ceremonies to ward off disaster.
In common with the rest of Mesoamerica, the Maya believed in a supernatural realm inhabited by an array of powerful deities. These deities needed to be placated with ceremonial offerings and ritual practices. At the core of Maya religious practice was the worship of deceased ancestors, who would act as go - betweens for their living descendants in dealings with the denizens of the supernatural realm. The earliest intermediaries between humans and the supernatural realm were shamans. Maya ritual included the use of hallucinogens for chilan (oracular) priests. Visions for the chilan were likely facilitated by consumption of water lilies, which are hallucinogenic in high doses. As the Maya civilization developed, the ruling elite codified the general concepts held by Maya society, and developed them into religious cults that justified their right to rule. In the Late Preclassic, the pinnacle of this process was the combination of ultimate political and religious power in the divine king, the k'uhul ajaw. Although it is difficult to reconstruct the belief system through archaeology, some indicators of ritual practice do leave physical traces. These include dedicatory caches and other ritual deposits, shrines, and burials and their associated funerary offerings. In addition, Maya art, architecture, and writing all assist in the reconstruction of ancient Maya beliefs; these can be combined with ethnographic sources, including records of Maya religious practices made by the Spanish during the conquest.
The Maya viewed the cosmos as highly structured; there were thirteen levels in the heavens, and nine levels in the underworld; the mortal world occupied a position between the heavens and the underworld. Each level had four cardinal directions associated with a different colour. Major deities had aspects associated with these directions and colours; north was white, east was red, south was yellow, and west was black.
Maya households interred their dead underneath the floors of their houses, with offerings appropriate to the social status of the family. There the dead could act as protective ancestors. Maya lineages were patrilineal, so the worship of a prominent male ancestor would be emphasized, often with a household shrine. As Maya society developed, and the elite became more powerful, Maya royalty developed their household shrines into the great pyramids that held the tombs of their ancestors.
Supernatural forces pervaded Maya life, and influenced every aspect of it from the simplest day - to - day activities such as food preparation, to trade, politics, and elite activities. Maya deities governed all aspects of the world, both visible and invisible. The Maya priesthood was a closed group, drawing its members from the established elite; by the Early Classic they were recording increasingly complex ritual information in their hieroglyphic books, including astronomical observations, calendrical cycles, history and mythology. The priests performed public ceremonies that incorporated feasting, bloodletting, incense burning, music, ritual dance, and, on certain occasions, human sacrifice. During the Classic period, the Maya ruler was the high priest, and the direct conduit between mortals and the gods. It is highly likely that, among commoners, shamanism continued in parallel to state religion. By the Postclassic, religious emphasis had changed; there was an increase in worship of the images of deities, and more frequent recourse to human sacrifice.
Blood was viewed as a potent source of nourishment for the Maya deities, and the sacrifice of a living creature was a powerful blood offering. By extension, the sacrifice of a human life was the ultimate offering of blood to the gods, and the most important Maya rituals culminated in human sacrifice. Generally only high status prisoners of war were sacrificed, with lower status captives being used for labour.
Important rituals such as the dedication of major building projects or the enthronement of a new ruler required a human offering. The sacrifice of an enemy king was the most prized offering, and such a sacrifice involved decapitation of the captive ruler in a ritual reenactment of the decapitation of the Maya maize god by the Maya death gods. In AD 738, the vassal king K'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat of Quiriguá captured his overlord, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil of Copán and a few days later he ritually decapitated him; The decapitation of an enemy king may have been performed as part of a ritual ballgame reenacting the victory of the Maya Hero Twins over the gods of the underworld. Sacrifice by decapitation is depicted in Classic period Maya art, and sometimes took place after the victim was tortured, being variously beaten, scalped, burnt or disembowelled. The Hero Twins myth recounted in the Popol Vuh relates how one of each pair of twins was decapitated by their ballgame opponents.
During the Postclassic period, the most common form of human sacrifice was heart extraction, influenced by the method used by the Aztecs in the Valley of Mexico; this usually took place in the courtyard of a temple, or upon the summit of the pyramid. Depending upon the exact ritual, sometimes the corpse would be skinned by assistant priests, except for the hands and feet. The officiating priest would then remove his ritual attire and dress himself in the skin of the sacrificial victim before performing a ritual dance that symbolized the rebirth of life. Archaeological investigations indicate that heart sacrifice was practised as early as the Classic period.
The Maya world was populated by a great variety of deities, supernatural entities and sacred forces. The Maya had such a broad interpretation of what was sacred that identifying distinct deities with specific functions is inaccurate. The Maya interpretation of deities was intrinsically tied to the calendar, astronomy, and their cosmovision. The importance of a deity, its characteristics, and its associations varied according to the movement of celestial bodies. The priestly interpretation of astronomical records and books was therefore crucial, since the priest would understand which deity required ritual propitiation, when the correct ceremonies should be performed, and what would be an appropriate offering. Each deity had four manifestations, associated with the cardinal directions, each identified with a different colour. They also had a dual day - night / life - death aspect.
Itzamna was the creator god, but he also embodied the cosmos, and was simultaneously a sun god; K'inich Ahau, the day sun, was one of his aspects. Maya kings frequently identified themselves with K'inich Ahau. Itzamna also had a night sun aspect, the Night Jaguar, representing the sun in its journey through the underworld. The four Pawatuns supported the corners of the mortal realm; in the heavens, the Bacabs performed the same function. As well as their four main aspects, the Bakabs had dozens of other aspects that are not well understood. The four Chaacs were storm gods, controlling thunder, lightning, and the rains. The nine lords of the night each governed one of the underworld realms. Other important deities included the moon goddess, the maize god, and the Hero Twins.
The Popol Vuh was written in the Latin script in early colonial times, and was probably transcribed from a hieroglyphic book by an unknown K'iche ' Maya nobleman. It is one of the most outstanding works of indigenous literature in the Americas. The Popul Vuh recounts the mythical creation of the world, the legend of the Hero Twins, and the history of the Postclassic K'iche ' kingdom. Deities recorded in the Popul Vuh include Hun Hunahpu, the K'iche ' maize god, and a triad of deities led by the K'iche ' patron Tohil, and also including the moon goddess Awilix, and the mountain god Jacawitz.
In common with other Mesoamerican cultures, the Maya worshipped feathered serpent deities. Such worship was rare during the Classic period, but by the Postclassic the feathered serpent had spread to both the Yucatán Peninsula and the Guatemalan Highlands. In Yucatán, the feathered serpent deity was Kukulkan, among the K'iche ' it was Q'uq'umatz. Kukulkan had his origins in the Classic period War Serpent, Waxaklahun Ubah Kan, and has also been identified as the Postclassic version of the Vision Serpent of Classic Maya art. Although the cult of Kukulkan had its origins in these earlier Maya traditions, the worship of Kukulkan was heavily influenced by the Quetzalcoatl cult of central Mexico. Likewise, Q'uq'umatz had a composite origin, combining the attributes of Mexican Quetzalcoatl with aspects of the Classic period Itzamna.
The ancient Maya had diverse and sophisticated methods of food production. It was believed that shifting cultivation (swidden) agriculture provided most of their food, but it is now thought that permanent raised fields, terracing, intensive gardening, forest gardens, and managed fallows were also crucial to supporting the large populations of the Classic period in some areas. Indeed, evidence of these different agricultural systems persist today: raised fields connected by canals can be seen on aerial photographs. Contemporary rainforest species composition has significantly higher abundance of species of economic value to ancient Maya in areas that were densely populated in pre-Columbian times, and pollen records in lake sediments suggest that maize, manioc, sunflower seeds, cotton, and other crops have been cultivated in association with deforestation in Mesoamerica since at least 2500 BC.
The basic staples of the Maya diet were maize, beans, and squashes. These were supplemented with a wide variety of other plants either cultivated in gardens or gathered in the forest. At Joya de Cerén, a volcanic eruption preserved a record of foodstuffs stored in Maya homes, among them were chilies and tomatoes. Cotton seeds were in the process of being ground, perhaps to produce cooking oil. In addition to basic foodstuffs, the Maya also cultivated prestige crops such as cotton, cacao and vanilla. Cacao was especially prized by the elite, who consumed chocolate beverages. Cotton was spun, dyed, and woven into valuable textiles in order to be traded.
The Maya had few domestic animals; dogs were domesticated by 3000 BC, and the Muscovy duck by the Late Postclassic. Ocellated turkeys were unsuitable for domestication, but were rounded up in the wild and penned for fattening. All of these were used as food animals; dogs were additionally used for hunting. It is possible that deer were also penned and fattened.
There are hundreds of Maya sites spread across five countries: Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico. The six sites with particularly outstanding architecture or sculpture are Chichen Itza, Palenque, Uxmal, and Yaxchilan in Mexico, Tikal in Guatemala and Copán in Honduras. Other important, but difficult to reach, sites include Calakmul and El Mirador. The principal sites in the Puuc region, after Uxmal, are Kabah, Labna, and Sayil. In the east of the Yucatán Peninsula are Coba and the small site of Tulum. The Río Bec sites of the base of the peninsula include Becan, Chicanná, Kohunlich, and Xpuhil. The most noteworthy sites in Chiapas, other than Palenque and Yaxchilan, are Bonampak and Toniná. In the Guatemalan Highlands are Iximche, Kaminaljuyu, Mixco Viejo, and Q'umarkaj (also known as Utatlán). In the northern Petén lowlands of Guatemala there are many sites, though apart from Tikal access is generally difficult. Some of the Petén sites are Dos Pilas, Seibal, and Uaxactún. Important sites in Belize include Altun Ha, Caracol, and Xunantunich.
There are a great many museums across the world with Maya artefacts in their collections. The Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies lists over 250 museums in its Maya Museum database, and the European Association of Mayanists lists just under 50 museums in Europe alone.
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what type of climate does the sahara desert have | Sahara - wikipedia
The Sahara (UK: / səˈhɑːrə /, / səˈhærə /; Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى , aṣ - ṣaḥrāʼ al - kubrá, ' the Great Desert ') is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic. Its area of 9,200,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi) is comparable to the area of China or the United States. The name ' Sahara ' is derived from dialectal Arabic word for "desert '', ṣaḥra (صحرا / ˈsʕaħra /).
The desert comprises much of North Africa, excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast, the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb, and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan. It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south, it is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna around the Niger River valley and the Sudan Region of Sub-Saharan Africa. The Sahara can be divided into several regions including: the western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Aïr Mountains, the Ténéré desert, and the Libyan Desert.
For several hundred thousand years, the Sahara has alternated between desert and savanna grassland in a 41,000 year cycle caused by changes ("precession '') in the Earth 's axis as it rotates around the sun, which change the location of the North African Monsoon. It is next expected to become green in about 15,000 years (17,000 AD).
The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and Tunisia. It covers 9 million square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi), amounting to 31 % of Africa. If all areas with a mean annual precipitation of less than 250 mm were included, the Sahara would be 11 million square kilometres (4,200,000 sq mi). It is one of three distinct physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division.
The Sahara is mainly rocky hamada (stone plateaus), Ergs (sand seas - large areas covered with sand dunes) form only a minor part, but many of the sand dunes are over 180 metres (590 ft) high. Wind or rare rainfall shape the desert features: sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadi), dry lakes (oued), and salt flats (shatt or chott). Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania.
Several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a shield volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad.
The central Sahara is hyperarid, with sparse vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are many subdivisions of the great desert: Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert, the Nubian Desert and others. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years.
To the north, the Sahara skirts the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Maghreb, the Sahara borders the Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub eco-regions of northern Africa, all of which have a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot summers and cool and rainy winters. According to the botanical criteria of Frank White and geographer Robert Capot - Rey, the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of date palm cultivation and the southern limit of the range of esparto, a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation.
To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry tropical savanna with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha (a drought - tolerant member of the Chenopodiaceae), or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm (5.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation (this is a long - term average, since precipitation varies annually).
Important cities located in the Sahara include Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Béchar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaïa, and El Oued in Algeria; Timbuktu in Mali; Agadez in Niger; Ghat in Libya; and Faya - Largeau in Chad.
The Sahara is the world 's largest low - latitude hot desert. The area is located in the horse latitudes under the subtropical ridge, a significant belt of semi-permanent subtropical warm - core high pressure where the air from upper levels of the troposphere tends to sink towards the ground. This steady descending airflow causes a warming and a drying effect in the upper troposphere. The sinking air prevents evaporating water from rising and, therefore, prevents the adiabatic cooling, which makes cloud formation extremely difficult to nearly impossible.
The permanent dissolution of clouds allows unhindered light and thermal radiation. The stability of the atmosphere above the desert prevents any convective overturning, thus making rainfall virtually non-existent. As a consequence, the weather tends to be sunny, dry and stable with a minimal risk of rainfall. Subsiding, diverging, dry air masses associated with subtropical high - pressure systems are extremely unfavorable for the development of convectional showers. The subtropical ridge is the predominant factor that explains the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) of this vast region. The lowering of air is the strongest and the most effective over the eastern part of the Great Desert, in the Libyan Desert which is the sunniest, driest and the most nearly "rain-less '' place on the planet rivaling the Atacama Desert, lying in Chile and Peru.
The rainfall inhibition and the dissipation of cloud cover are most accentuated over the eastern section of the Sahara rather than the western. The prevailing air mass lying above the Sahara is the continental tropical (cT) air mass, which is hot and dry. Hot, dry air masses primarily form over the North - African desert from the heating of the vast continental land area, and it affects the whole desert during most of the year. Because of this extreme heating process, a thermal low is usually noticed near the surface, and is the strongest and the most developed during the summertime. The Sahara High represents the eastern continental extension of the Azores High, centered over the North Atlantic Ocean. The subsidence of the Sahara High nearly reaches the ground during the coolest part of the year while it is confined to the upper troposphere during the hottest periods.
The effects of local surface low pressure are extremely limited because upper - level subsidence still continues to block any form of air ascent. Also, to be protected against rain - bearing weather systems by the atmospheric circulation itself, the desert is made even drier by his geographical configuration and location. Indeed, the extreme aridity of the Sahara can not be only explained by the subtropical high pressure. The Atlas Mountains, found in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia also help to enhance the aridity of the northern part of the desert. These major mountain ranges act as a barrier causing a strong rain shadow effect on the leeward side by dropping much of the humidity brought by atmospheric disturbances along the polar front which affects the surrounding Mediterranean climates.
The primary source of rain in the Sahara is the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a continuous belt of low - pressure systems near the equator which bring the brief, short and irregular rainy season to the Sahel and southern Sahara. Rainfall in this giant desert has to overcome the physical and atmospheric barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation. The harsh climate of the Sahara is characterized by: extremely low, unreliable, highly erratic rainfall; extremely high sunshine duration values; high temperatures year - round; negligible rates of relative humidity; a significant diurnal temperature variation; and extremely high levels of potential evaporation which are the highest recorded worldwide.
The sky is usually clear above the desert and the sunshine duration is extremely high everywhere in the Sahara. Most of the desert has more than 3,600 h of bright sunshine annually or over 82 % of the time, and a wide area in the eastern part experiences in excess of 4,000 h of bright sunshine a year or over 91 % of the time. The highest values are very close to the theoretical maximum value. A value of 4,300 h or 98 % of the time would be recorded in Upper Egypt (Aswan, Luxor) and in the Nubian Desert (Wadi Halfa). The annual average direct solar irradiation is around 2,800 kWh / (m year) in the Great Desert. The Sahara has a huge potential for solar energy production.
The constantly high position of the sun, the extremely low relative humidity, and the lack of vegetation and rainfall make the Great Desert the hottest continuously large area worldwide, and the hottest place on Earth during summer in some spots. The average high temperature exceeds 38 to 40 ° C or 100.4 to 104.0 ° F during the hottest month nearly everywhere in the desert except at very high altitudes. The highest officially recorded average high temperature was 47 ° C or 116.6 ° F in a remote desert town in the Algerian Desert called Bou Bernous with an elevation of 378 metres (1,240 ft) meters above sea level. It is the world 's highest recorded average high temperature and only Death Valley, California rivals it. Other hot spots in Algeria such as Adrar, Timimoun, In Salah, Ouallene, Aoulef, Reggane with an elevation between 200 and 400 metres (660 and 1,310 ft) above sea level get slightly lower summer average highs around 46 ° C or 114.8 ° F during the hottest months of the year. Salah, well known in Algeria for its extreme heat, has average high temperatures of 43.8 ° C or 110.8 ° F, 46.4 ° C or 115.5 ° F, 45.5 ° C or 113.9 ° F and 41.9 ° C or 107.4 ° F in June, July, August and September respectively. There are even hotter spots in the Sahara, but they are located in extremely remote areas, especially in the Azalai, lying in northern Mali. The major part of the desert experiences around three to five months when the average high strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F. The southern central part of the desert experiences up to six or seven months when the average high temperature strictly exceeds 40 ° C or 104 ° F which shows the constancy and the length of the really hot season in the Sahara. Some examples of this are: Bilma, Niger and Faya - Largeau, Chad. The annual average daily temperature exceeds 20 ° C or 68 ° F everywhere and can approach 30 ° C or 86 ° F in the hottest regions year - round. However, most of the desert has a value in excess of 25 ° C or 77 ° F.
Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high as it can easily reach 80 ° C or 176 ° F or more. A sand temperature of 83.5 ° C (182.3 ° F) has been recorded in Port Sudan. Ground temperatures of 72 ° C or 161.6 ° F have been recorded in the Adrar of Mauritania and a value of 75 ° C (167 ° F) has been measured in Borkou, northern Chad.
Due to lack of cloud cover and very low humidity, the desert usually features high diurnal temperature variations between days and nights. However, it is a myth that the nights are cold after extremely hot days in the Sahara. The average diurnal temperature range is typically between 13 and 20 ° C or 23.4 and 36.0 ° F. The lowest values are found along the coastal regions due to high humidity and are often even lower than 10 ° C or 18 ° F, while the highest values are found in inland desert areas where the humidity is the lowest, mainly in the southern Sahara. Still, it is true that winter nights can be cold as it can drop to the freezing point and even below, especially in high - elevation areas. The frequency of subfreezing winter nights in the Sahara is strongly influenced by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), with warmer winter temperatures during negative NAO events and cooler winters with more frosts when the NAO is positive. This is because the weaker clockwise flow around the eastern side of the subtropical anticyclone during negative NAO winters, although too dry to produce more than negligible precipitation, does reduce the flow of dry, cold air from higher latitudes of Eurasia into the Sahara significantly.
The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of low pressure systems over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Biskra, Algeria and Ouarzazate, Morocco are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and Agadez, Niger are found in this zone. The vast central hyper - arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime, and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 millimetre (0.04 in). In fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 millimetres (0.8 in). Of the 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 square kilometres (1,100,000 sq mi) (about 31 % of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 millimetres (0.4 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi) (about 17 % of the total area) receives an average of 5 millimetres (0.2 in) or less. The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of: Libya, Egypt and Sudan (Tazirbu, Kufra, Dakhla, Kharga, Farafra, Siwa, Asyut, Sohag, Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, Wadi Halfa) where the long - term mean approximates 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) per year. Rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 millimetres (100 in) per year to more than 6,000 millimetres (240 in) per year in the whole desert. Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. However, at least two instances of snowfall have been recorded in Sahara, in February 1979 and December 2016, both in the town of Ain Sefra.
The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years, believed to be caused by long - term changes in the North African climate cycle that alters the path of the North African Monsoon - usually southward. The cycle is caused by a 41000 - year cycle in which the tilt of the earth changes between 22 ° and 24.5 °. At present (2000 AD), we are in a dry period, but it is expected that the Sahara will become green again in 15000 years (17000 AD). When the North African monsoon is at its strongest annual precipitation and subsequent vegetation in the Sahara region increase, resulting in conditions commonly referred to as the "green Sahara ''. For a relatively weak North African monsoon, the opposite is true, with decreased annual precipitation and less vegetation resulting in a phase of the Sahara climate cycle known as the "desert Sahara ''.
The idea that changes in insolation (solar heating) caused by long - term changes in the Earth 's orbit are a controlling factor for the long - term variations in the strength of monsoon patterns across the globe was first suggested by Rudolf Spitaler in the late nineteenth century, The hypothesis was later formally proposed and tested by the meteorologist John Kutzbach in 1981. Kutzbach 's ideas about the impacts of insolation on global monsoonal patterns have become widely accepted today as the underlying driver of long term monsoonal cycles. Kutzbach never formally named his hypothesis and as such it is referred to here as the "Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis '' as suggested by Ruddiman in 2001.
During the last glacial period, the Sahara was much larger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries. The end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps because of low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north. Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern Sahara dried out. In the southern Sahara, the drying trend was initially counteracted by the monsoon, which brought rain further north than it does today. By around 4200 BC, however, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today, leading to the gradual desertification of the Sahara. The Sahara is now as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.
The Sahara pump theory describes this cycle. During periods of a wet or "Green Sahara '', the Sahara becomes a savanna grassland and various flora and fauna become more common. Following inter-pluvial arid periods, the Sahara area then reverts to desert conditions and the flora and fauna are forced to retreat northwards to the Atlas Mountains, southwards into West Africa, or eastwards into the Nile Valley. This separates populations of some of the species in areas with different climates, forcing them to adapt, possibly giving rise to allopatric speciation.
It is also proposed that humans accelerated the drying out period from 6,000 -- 2,500 BC by pastoralists overgrazing available grassland.
The growth of speleothems (which requires rainwater) was detected in Hol - Zakh, Ashalim, Even - Sid, Ma'ale - ha - Meyshar, Ktora Cracks, Nagev Tzavoa Cave, and elsewhere, and has allowing tracking of prehistoric rainfall. The Red Sea coastal route was extremely arid before 140 and after 115 kya. Slightly wetter conditions appear at 90 -- 87 kya, but it still was just one tenth the rainfall around 125 kya. In the southern Negev Desert speleothems did not grow between 185 -- 140 kya (MIS 6), 110 -- 90 (MIS 5.4 -- 5.2), nor after 85 kya nor during most of the interglacial period (MIS 5.1), the glacial period and Holocene. This suggests that the southern Negev was arid to hyper - arid in these periods.
During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the Sahara desert was more extensive than it is now with the extent of the tropical forests being greatly reduced, and the lower temperatures reduced the strength of the Hadley Cell. This is a climate cell which causes rising tropical air of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to bring rain to the tropics, while dry descending air, at about 20 degrees north, flows back to the equator and brings desert conditions to this region. It is associated with high rates of wind - blown mineral dust, and these dust levels are found as expected in marine cores from the north tropical Atlantic. But around 12,500 BC the amount of dust in the cores in the Bølling / Allerød phase suddenly plummets and shows a period of much wetter conditions in the Sahara, indicating a Dansgaard - Oeschger (DO) event (a sudden warming followed by a slower cooling of the climate). The moister Saharan conditions had begun about 12,500 BC, with the extension of the ITCZ northward in the northern hemisphere summer, bringing moist wet conditions and a savanna climate to the Sahara, which (apart from a short dry spell associated with the Younger Dryas) peaked during the Holocene thermal maximum climatic phase at 4000 BC when mid-latitude temperatures seem to have been between 2 and 3 degrees warmer than in the recent past. Analysis of Nile River deposited sediments in the delta also shows this period had a higher proportion of sediments coming from the Blue Nile, suggesting higher rainfall also in the Ethiopian Highlands. This was caused principally by a stronger monsoonal circulation throughout the sub-tropical regions, affecting India, Arabia and the Sahara. Lake Victoria only recently became the source of the White Nile and dried out almost completely around 15 kya.
The sudden subsequent movement of the ITCZ southwards with a Heinrich event (a sudden cooling followed by a slower warming), linked to changes with the El Niño - Southern Oscillation cycle, led to a rapid drying out of the Saharan and Arabian regions, which quickly became desert. This is linked to a marked decline in the scale of the Nile floods between 2700 and 2100 BC.
The Sahara comprises several distinct ecoregions. With their variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soil, these regions harbor distinct communities of plants and animals.
The Atlantic coastal desert is a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers an area of 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 sq mi) in the south of Morocco and Mauritania.
The North Saharan steppe and woodlands is along the northern desert, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper - arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,840 sq mi) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia.
The Sahara Desert ecoregion covers the hyper - arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg, chech, raoui), stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square kilometres (1,791,500 sq mi) of: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.
The South Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion is a narrow band running east and west between the hyper - arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. This ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometres (425,400 sq mi) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.
In the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands, several volcanic highlands provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo - Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometres (99,650 sq mi), mostly in the Tassili n'Ajjer of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the Aïr of Niger, the Dhar Adrar of Mauritania, and the Adrar des Iforas of Mali and Algeria.
The Tibesti - Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion consists of the Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat highlands. Higher and more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures support woodlands and shrublands of Date palm, acacias, myrtle, oleander, tamarix, and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometres (31,700 sq mi) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.
The Saharan halophytics is an area of seasonally flooded saline depressions which is home to halophytic (salt - adapted) plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi) including: the Qattara and Siwa depressions in northern Egypt, the Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and the southern part of Morocco.
The Tanezrouft is one of the harshest regions on Earth as well as one of the hottest and driest parts of the Sahara, with no vegetation and very little life. It is along the borders of Algeria, Niger)) and Mali, west of the Hoggar mountains.
The flora of the Sahara is highly diversified based on the bio-geographical characteristics of this vast desert. Floristically, the Sahara has three zones based on the amount of rainfall received -- the Northern (Mediterranean), Central and Southern Zones. There are two transitional zones -- the Mediterranean - Sahara transition and the Sahel transition zone.
The Saharan flora comprises around 2800 species of vascular plants. Approximately a quarter of these are endemic. About half of these species are common to the flora of the Arabian deserts.
The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture, and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by evapotranspiration. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover.
Several species of fox live in the Sahara including: the fennec fox, pale fox and Rüppell 's fox. The addax, a large white antelope, can go nearly a year in the desert without drinking. The dorcas gazelle is a north African gazelle that can also go for a long time without water. Other notable gazelles include the rhim gazelle and dama gazelle.
The Saharan cheetah (northwest African cheetah) lives in Algeria, Togo, Niger, Mali, Benin, and Burkina Faso. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale. The other cheetah subspecies (northeast African cheetah) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild in Egypt and Libya. There are approximately 2000 mature individuals left in the wild.
Other animals include the monitor lizards, hyrax, sand vipers, and small populations of African wild dog, in perhaps only 14 countries and red - necked ostrich. Other animals exist in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African silverbill and black - faced firefinch, among others. There are also small desert crocodiles in Mauritania and the Ennedi Plateau of Chad.
The deathstalker scorpion can be 10 cm (3.9 in) long. Its venom contains large amounts of agitoxin and scyllatoxin and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. The Saharan silver ant is unique in that due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, and the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day.
Dromedary camels and goats are the domesticated animals most commonly found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favourite animal used by nomads.
Human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to soil degradation and salinization.
Researchers from Hacettepe University (Yücekutlu, N. et al., 2011) have reported that Saharan soil may have bio-available iron and also some essential macro and micro nutrient elements suitable for use as fertilizer for growing wheat.
People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago since the end of the last glacial period. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. It was long believed that the region had been this way since about 1600 BCE, after shifts in the Earth 's axis increased temperatures and decreased precipitation, which led to the abrupt desertification of North Africa about 5,400 years ago. However, this theory has recently been called into dispute, when samples taken from several 7 million year old sand deposits led scientists to reconsider the timeline for desertification.
The Kiffian culture is a prehistoric industry, or domain, that existed between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Sahara, during the Neolithic Subpluvial. Human remains from this culture were found in 2000 at a site known as Gobero, located in Niger in the Ténéré Desert. The site is known as the largest and earliest grave of Stone Age people in the Sahara desert. The Kiffians were skilled hunters. Bones of many large savannah animals that were discovered in the same area suggest that they lived on the shores of a lake that was present during the Holocene Wet Phase, a period when the Sahara was verdant and wet. The Kiffian people were tall, standing over six feet in height. Craniometric analysis indicates that this early Holocene population was closely related to the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians and early Holocene Capsians of the Maghreb, as well as mid-Holocene Mechta groups. Traces of the Kiffian culture do not exist after 8,000 years ago, as the Sahara went through a dry period for the next thousand years. After this time, the Tenerian culture colonized the area.
Gobero was discovered in 2000 during an archaeological expedition led by Paul Sereno, which sought dinosaur remains. Two distinct prehistoric cultures were discovered at the site: the early Holocene Kiffian culture, and the middle Holocene Tenerian culture. The Kiffians were a prehistoric people who preceded the Tenerians and vanished approximately 8000 years ago, when the desert became very dry. The desiccation lasted until around 4600 BC, when the earliest artefacts associated with the Tenerians have been dated to. Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians, early Holocene Capsians, and mid-Holocene Mechta groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups. Graves show that the Tenerians observed spiritual traditions, as they were buried with artifacts such as jewelry made of hippo tusks and clay pots. The most interesting find is a triple burial, dated to 5300 years ago, of an adult female and two children, estimated through their teeth as being five and eight years old, hugging each other. Pollen residue indicates they were buried on a bed of flowers. The three are assumed to have died within 24 hours of each other, but as their skeletons hold no apparent trauma (they did not die violently) and they have been buried so elaborately - unlikely if they had died of a plague - the cause of their deaths is a mystery.
Uan Muhuggiag appears to have been inhabited from at least the 6th millennium BC to about 2700 BC, although not necessarily continuously. The most noteworthy find at Uan Muhuggiag is the well - preserved mummy of a young boy of approximately 2 1 / 2 years old. The child was in a fetal position, then embalmed, then placed in a sack made of antelope skin, which was insulated by a layer of leaves. The boy 's organs were removed, as evidenced by incisions in his stomach and thorax, and an organic preservative was inserted to stop his body from decomposing. An ostrich eggshell necklace was also found around his neck. Radiocarbon dating determined the age of the mummy to be approximately 5600 years old, which makes it about 1000 years older than the earliest previously recorded mummy in ancient Egypt. In 1958 - 1959, an archaeological expedition led by Antonio Ascenzi conducted anthropological, radiological, histological and chemical analyses on the Uan Muhuggiag mummy. The specimen was determined to be that of a 30 - month old child of uncertain sex, who possessed Negroid features. A long incision on the specimen 's abdominal wall also indicated that the body had been initially mummified by evisceration and later underwent natural desiccation. One other individual, an adult, was found at Uan Muhuggiag, buried in a crouched position. However, the body showed no evidence of evisceration or any other method of preservation. The body was estimated to date from about 7500 BP.
During the Neolithic Era, before the onset of desertification around 9500 BCE, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el - Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution '', living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world 's first known archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 2,000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.
By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food - gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and the dead were buried facing due west.
By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in the Earth 's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.
The people of Phoenicia, who flourished from 1200 -- 800 BCE, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the people of ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of people who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara.
The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber - speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara.
Sometime between 633 BCE and 530 BCE, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace.
By 500 BCE, Greeks arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were of constant concern to those living on the edge of the desert.
An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al - Ajal in Fezzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (who were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with them, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes ' capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes ' territory. The Garamantes ' civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.
The Berber people occupied (and still occupy) much of the Sahara. The Garamantes Berbers built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert. The Tuareg nomads continue to inhabit and move across wide Sahara surfaces to the present day.
The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia, specifically the Arabian peninsula, the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries and Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. Trade across the desert intensified, and a significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.
In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present - day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present - day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Traders exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactured goods from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.
European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present - day Algeria, Chad, Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans - Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.
The French Colonial Empire was the dominant presence in the Sahara. It established regular air links from Toulouse (HQ of famed Aéropostale), to Oran and over the Hoggar to Timbuktu and West to Bamako and Dakar, as well as trans - Sahara bus services run by La Companie Transsaharienne (est. 1927). A remarkable film shot by famous aviator Captain René Wauthier documents the first crossing by a large truck convoy from Algiers to Tchad, across the Sahara.
Egypt, under Muhammad Ali and his successors, conquered Nubia in 1820 -- 22, founded Khartoum in 1823, and conquered Darfur in 1874. Egypt, including the Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and Britain lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the Mahdist War. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became an Anglo - Egyptian condominium.
Spain captured present - day Western Sahara after 1874, although Rio del Oro remained largely under Sahrawi influence. In 1912, Italy captured parts of what was to be named Libya from the Ottomans. To promote the Roman Catholic religion in the desert, Pope Pius IX appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan in 1868; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara.
Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the Anglo - Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and to maintain the British - Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954.
Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after World War II: Libya in 1951; Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956; Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960; and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979; Morocco continues to hold the territory.
In the post-World War II era, several mines and communities have developed to utilize the desert 's natural resources. These include large deposits of oil and natural gas in Algeria and Libya, and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.
A number of Trans - African highways have been proposed across the Sahara, including the Cairo -- Dakar Highway along the Atlantic coast, the Trans - Sahara Highway from Algiers on the Mediterranean to Kano in Nigeria, the Tripoli -- Cape Town Highway from Tripoli in Libya to N'Djamena in Chad, and the Cairo -- Cape Town Highway which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections.
The people of the Sahara are of various origins. Among them the Amaziɣ including the Turūq, various Arabized Amaziɣ groups such as the Hassaniya - speaking Sahrawis, whose populations include the Znaga, a tribe whose name is a remnant of the pre-historic Zenaga language. Other major groups of people include the: Toubou, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Hausa, Songhai, Beja, and Fula / Fulani (French: Peul; Fula: Fulɓe).
Arabic dialects are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term Amazigh (which includes the Guanche language spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the Afro - Asiatic or Hamito - Semitic family. Unlike neighboring West Africa and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with Tuareg and Berber leaders and culture. The legacy of the French colonial era administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the Third and Fourth republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was conducted primarily in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation, '' contributing much to preserving the indigenous cultural identities in the region.
Coordinates: 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23 ° N 13 ° E / 23; 13
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how did zeus won the heart of hera | Hera - wikipedia
Hera (/ ˈhɛrə /, / ˈhɪərə /; Greek: Ἥρᾱ Hērā, equivalently Ἥρη Hērē, in Ionic and Homer) is the goddess of women and marriage in Greek mythology and religion. She is the daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. Hera is married to her brother Zeus and is titled as the Queen of Heaven. One of her characteristics is her jealous and vengeful nature against Zeus 's other lovers and offspring and against the mortals who cross her. Hera is commonly seen with the animals she considers sacred including the cow, lion and the peacock. Portrayed as majestic and solemn, often enthroned, and crowned with the polos (a high cylindrical crown worn by several of the Great Goddesses), Hera may hold a pomegranate in her hand, emblem of fertile blood and death and a substitute for the narcotic capsule of the opium poppy. Scholar of Greek mythology Walter Burkert writes in Greek Religion, "Nevertheless, there are memories of an earlier aniconic representation, as a pillar in Argos and as a plank in Samos. ''
Her counterpart in the religion of ancient Rome was Juno.
The name of Hera may have several of mutually exclusive etymologies; one possibility is to connect it with Greek ὥρα hōra, season, and to interpret it as ripe for marriage and according to Plato ἐρατή eratē, "beloved '' as Zeus is said to have married her for love. According to Plutarch, Hera was an allegorical name and an anagram of aēr (ἀήρ, "air ''). So begins the section on Hera in Walter Burkert 's Greek Religion. In a note, he records other scholars ' arguments "for the meaning Mistress as a feminine to Heros, Master. '' John Chadwick, a decipherer of Linear B, remarks "her name may be connected with hērōs, ἥρως, ' hero ', but that is no help, since it too is etymologically obscure. '' A.J. van Windekens, offers "young cow, heifer '', which is consonant with Hera 's common epithet βοῶπις (boōpis, "cow - eyed ''). R.S.P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. Her name is attested in Mycenaean Greek written in the Linear B syllabic script as 𐀁𐀨, e-ra, appearing on tablets found in Pylos and Thebes.
Hera may have been the first deity to whom the Greeks dedicated an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary, at Samos about 800 BCE. It was replaced later by the Heraion, one of the largest of all Greek temples (Greek altars were in front of the temples, under the open sky). There were many temples built on this site so evidence is somewhat confusing and archaeological dates are uncertain.
The temple created by the Rhoecus sculptors and architects was destroyed between 570 - 560 BCE. This was replaced by the Polycratean temple 540 - 530 BCE. In one of these temples we see a forest of 155 columns. There is also no evidence of tiles on this temple suggesting either the temple was never finished or that the temple was open to the sky.
Earlier sanctuaries, whose dedication to Hera is less certain, were of the Mycenaean type called "house sanctuaries ''. Samos excavations have revealed votive offerings, many of them late 8th and 7th centuries BCE, which show that Hera at Samos was not merely a local Greek goddess of the Aegean: the museum there contains figures of gods and suppliants and other votive offerings from Armenia, Babylon, Iran, Assyria, Egypt, testimony to the reputation which this sanctuary of Hera enjoyed and to the large influx of pilgrims. Compared to this mighty goddess, who also possessed the earliest temple at Olympia and two of the great fifth and sixth century temples of Paestum, the termagant of Homer and the myths is an "almost... comic figure '' according to Burkert.
Though greatest and earliest free - standing temple to Hera was the Heraion of Samos, in the Greek mainland Hera was especially worshipped as "Argive Hera '' (Hera Argeia) at her sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city - states of Argos and Mycenae, where the festivals in her honor called Heraia were celebrated. "The three cities I love best, '' the ox - eyed Queen of Heaven declares (Iliad, book iv) "are Argos, Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets. '' There were also temples to Hera in Olympia, Corinth, Tiryns, Perachora and the sacred island of Delos. In Magna Graecia, two Doric temples to Hera were constructed at Paestum, about 550 BCE and about 450 BCE. One of them, long called the Temple of Poseidon was identified in the 1950s as a second temple there of Hera.
In Euboea the festival of the Great Daedala, sacred to Hera, was celebrated on a sixty - year cycle.
Hera 's importance in the early archaic period is attested by the large building projects undertaken in her honor. The temples of Hera in the two main centers of her cult, the Heraion of Samos and the Heraion of Argos in the Argolid, were the very earliest monumental Greek temples constructed, in the 8th century BCE.
According to Walter Burkert, both Hera and Demeter have many characteristic attributes of Pre-Greek Great Goddesses.
According to the Homeric Hymn III to Delian Apollo, Hera detained Eileithyia to already prevent Leto from going into labor with Artemis and Apollo, since the father was Zeus. The other goddesses present at the birthing on Delos sent Iris to bring her. As she stepped upon the island, the divine birth began. In the myth of the birth of Heracles, it is Hera herself who sits at the door instead, delaying the birth of Heracles until her protégé, Eurystheus, had been born first.
The Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo makes the monster Typhaon the offspring of archaic Hera in her Minoan form, produced out of herself, like a monstrous version of Hephaestus, and whelped in a cave in Cilicia. She gave the creature to Python to raise.
In the Temple of Hera at Olympia, Hera 's seated cult figure was older than the warrior figure of Zeus that accompanied it. Homer expressed her relationship with Zeus delicately in the Iliad, in which she declares to Zeus, "I am Cronus ' eldest daughter, and am honourable not on this ground only, but also because I am your wife, and you are king of the gods. '' Though Zeus is often called Zeus Heraios ' Zeus, (consort) of Hera ', Homer 's treatment of Hera is less than respectful, and in late anecdotal versions of the myths (see below) she appeared to spend most of her time plotting revenge on the nymphs seduced by her consort, for Hera upheld all the old right rules of Hellene society and sorority.
There has been considerable scholarship, reaching back to Johann Jakob Bachofen in the mid-nineteenth century, about the possibility that Hera, whose early importance in Greek religion is firmly established, was originally the goddess of a matriarchal people, presumably inhabiting Greece before the Hellenes. In this view, her activity as goddess of marriage established the patriarchal bond of her own subordination: her resistance to the conquests of Zeus is rendered as Hera 's "jealousy '', the main theme of literary anecdotes that undercut her ancient cult.
However, it remains a controversial claim that primitive matriarchy existed in Greece or elsewhere.
Hera is the daughter of the youngest Titan Cronus and his wife, and sister, Rhea. Cronus was fated to be overthrown by one of his children; to prevent this, he swallowed all of his newborn children whole until Rhea tricked him into swallowing a stone instead of her youngest child, Zeus. Zeus grew up in secret and when he grew up he tricked his father into regurgitating his siblings, including Hera. Zeus then led the revolt against the Titans, banished them, and divided the dominion over the world with his brothers Poseidon and Hades.
Hera was most known as the matron goddess, Hera Teleia; but she presided over weddings as well. In myth and cult, fragmentary references and archaic practices remain of the sacred marriage of Hera and Zeus, and at Plataea, there was a sculpture of Hera seated as a bride by Callimachus, as well as the matronly standing Hera.
Hera was also worshipped as a virgin: there was a tradition in Stymphalia in Arcadia that there had been a triple shrine to Hera the Girl (Παις (Pais)), the Adult Woman (Τελεια (Teleia)), and the Separated (Χήρη (Chḗrē) ' Widowed ' or ' Divorced '). In the region around Argos, the temple of Hera in Hermione near Argos was to Hera the Virgin. At the spring of Kanathos, close to Nauplia, Hera renewed her virginity annually, in rites that were not to be spoken of (arrheton). The Female figure, showing her "Moon '' over the lake is also appropriate, as Hebe, Hera, and Hecate; new moon, full moon, and old moon in that order and otherwise personified as the Virgin of spring, The Mother of Summer, and the destroying Crone of Autumn.
In Hellenistic imagery, Hera 's chariot was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander. Alexander 's tutor, Aristotle, refers to it as "the Persian bird. '' The peacock motif was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno, and which European painters focused on. A bird that had been associated with Hera on an archaic level, where most of the Aegean goddesses were associated with "their '' bird, was the cuckoo, which appears in mythic fragments concerning the first wooing of a virginal Hera by Zeus.
Her archaic association was primarily with cattle, as a Cow Goddess, who was especially venerated in "cattle - rich '' Euboea. On Cyprus, very early archaeological sites contain bull skulls that have been adapted for use as masks (see Bull (mythology)). Her familiar Homeric epithet Boôpis, is always translated "cow - eyed ''. In this respect, Hera bears some resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian deity Hathor, a maternal goddess associated with cattle.
Hera bore several epithets in the mythological tradition, including:
Hera is known for her jealousy; even Zeus, who is known to fear nothing, feared her tantrums. Zeus fell in love with Hera but she refused his first marriage proposal. Zeus then preyed on her empathy for animals and other beings, created a thunderstorm and transformed himself into a little cuckoo. As a cuckoo, Zeus pretended to be in distress outside her window. Hera, feeling pity towards the bird brought it inside and held it to her breast to warm it. Zeus then transformed back into himself and took advantage of her. Hera, ashamed of being exploited, agreed to marriage with Zeus. All of nature burst into bloom for their wedding and many gifts were exchanged.
Zeus loved Hera, but he also loved Greece and often snuck down to Earth in disguise to marry and bear children with the mortals. He wanted many children to inherit his greatness and become great heroes and rulers of Greece. Hera 's jealousy towards all of Zeus ' lovers and children caused her to continuously torment them and Zeus was powerless to stop his wife. Hera was always aware of Zeus ' trickery and kept very close watch over him and his excursions to Earth.
Hera "presided over the right arrangements of the marriage and is the archetype of the union in the marriage bed. '' However, she is not notable as a mother.
Hera is the stepmother and enemy of Heracles. The name Heracles means "Glory of Hera ''. When Alcmene was pregnant with Zeus ' child Heracles, Hera tried to prevent the birth from occurring by having Eileithyia tie Alcmene 's legs in knots. Her attempt was foiled when Galanthis frightened Eileithyia while she was tying Alcmene 's legs and Heracles was born. Hera thus punishes Galanthis by turning her into a weasel.
Hera 's wrath against Zeus ' son continues and while Heracles is still an infant, Hera sends two serpents to kill him as he lay in his cot. Heracles throttles the snakes with his bare hands and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were a child 's toy.
When Heracles reached adulthood, Hera drove him mad, which lead him to murder his family and this later led to him undertaking his famous labours.
Later she stirred up the Amazons against him when he was on one of his quests.
One account of the origin of the Milky Way is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles: discovering who he was, she pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day. Unlike any Greeks, the Etruscans instead pictured a full - grown bearded Heracles at Hera 's breast: this may refer to his adoption by her when he became an Immortal. He had previously wounded her severely in the breast.
Hera assigned Heracles to labor for King Eurystheus at Mycenae. She attempted to make almost each of Heracles ' twelve labors more difficult.
When he fought the Lernaean Hydra, she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him. When Heracles took the cattle of Geryon, he shot Hera in the right breast with a triple - barbed arrow: the wound was incurable and left her in constant pain, as Dione tells Aphrodite in the Iliad, Book V. Afterwards, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much that Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle were sacrificed to Hera.
Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice the Cretan Bull to Hera. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull.
Some myths state that in the end, Heracles befriended Hera by saving her from Porphyrion, a giant who tried to rape her during the Gigantomachy, and that she even gave her daughter Hebe as his bride. Whatever myth - making served to account for an archaic representation of Heracles as "Hera 's man '' it was thought suitable for the builders of the Heraion at Paestum to depict the exploits of Heracles in bas - reliefs.
When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she convinced the nature spirits to prevent Leto from giving birth on terra - firma, the mainland, or any island at sea. Poseidon gave pity to Leto and guided her to the floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island where Leto was able to give birth to her children. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars. The island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods bribed Hera with a beautiful necklace nobody could resist and she finally gave in.
Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Some versions say Artemis helped her mother give birth to Apollo for nine days. Another variation states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.
Hera saw a lone thundercloud and raced down in an attempt to catch Zeus with a mistress. Zeus saw her coming and transformed his new bride Io into a little snow - white cow. However, Hera was not fooled and demanded that Zeus give her the heifer as a present. Zeus could not refuse his queen without drawing suspicion so he had to give her the beautiful heifer.
Once Io was given to Hera, she tied her to a tree and sent her servant Argus to keep Io separated from Zeus. Argus was a loyal servant to Hera and he has immense strength and one hundred eyes all over his body. It was not possible to go past Argus since he never closed more than half his eyes at any time. Zeus was afraid of Hera 's wrath could not personally intervene, so to save Io, he commanded Hermes to kill Argus, which he does by lulling all one hundred eyes into eternal sleep. In Ovid 's interpolation, when Hera learned of Argus ' death, she took his eyes and placed them in the plumage of the peacock, her favorite animal, accounting for the eye pattern in its tail and making it the vainest of all animals. Hera, furious about Io being free and the death of Argus, sent a gadfly (Greek oistros, compare oestrus) to sting Io as she wandered the earth. Eventually Io made it to Egypt, the Egyptians worshiped the snow - white heifer and named her the Egyptian goddess Isis. Hera permitted Zeus to change Io back into her human form, under the condition that he never look at her again. Io, the goddess - queen of Egypt, then bore Zeus ' son as the next King.
A prophecy stated that a son of the sea - nymph Thetis, with whom Zeus fell in love after gazing upon her in the oceans off the Greek coast, would become greater than his father. Possibly for this reasons, Thetis was betrothed to an elderly human king, Peleus son of Aeacus, either upon Zeus ' orders, or because she wished to please Hera, who had raised her. All the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles) and brought many gifts. Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited and was stopped at the door by Hermes, on Zeus ' order. She was annoyed at this, so she threw from the door a gift of her own: a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "To the fairest ''). Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.
The goddesses quarreled bitterly over it, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one, for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. They chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, they appeared before Paris to have him choose. The goddesses undressed before him, either at his request or for the sake of winning. Still, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so they resorted to bribes. Hera offered Paris political power and control of all of Asia, while Athena offered wisdom, fame, and glory in battle, and Aphrodite offered the most beautiful mortal woman in the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was Helen, who was, unfortunately for Paris, already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. The other two goddesses were enraged by this and through Helen 's abduction by Paris they brought about the Trojan War.
Hera plays a substantial role in The Iliad, appearing in a number of books throughout the epic poem. In accordance with ancient Greek mythology, Hera 's hatred towards the Trojans, which was started by Paris ' decision that Aphrodite was the most beautiful goddess, is seen as through her support of the Greeks during the war. Throughout the epic Hera makes many attempts to thwart the Trojan army. In books 1 and 2, Hera declares that the Trojans must be destroyed. Hera persuades Athena to aid the Achaeans in battle and she agrees to assist with interfering on their behalf.
In book 5, Hera and Athena plot to harm Ares, who had been seen by Diomedes in assisting the Trojans. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares ' mother, saw Ares ' interference and asked Zeus, Ares ' father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god. Athena drove the spear into Ares ' body, and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back.
In book 8, Hera tries to persuade Poseidon to disobey Zeus and help the Achaean army. He refuses, saying he does n't want to go against Zeus. Determined to intervene in the war, Hera and Athena head to the battlefield. However, seeing the two flee, Zeus sent Iris to intercept them and make them return to Mt. Olympus or face grave consequences. After prolonged fighting, Hera sees Poseidon aiding the Greeks and giving them motivation to keep fighting.
In book 14 Hera devises a plan to deceive Zeus. Zeus set a decree that the gods were not allowed to interfere in the mortal war. Hera is on the side of the Achaeans, so she plans a Deception of Zeus where she seduces him, with help from Aphrodite, and tricks him into a deep sleep, with the help of Hypnos, so that the Gods could interfere without the fear of Zeus.
In book 21, Hera continues her interference with the battle as she tells Hephaestus to prevent the river from harming Achilles. Hephaestus sets the battlefield ablaze, causing the river to plead with Hera, promising her he will not help the Trojans if Hephaestus stops his attack. Hephaestus stops his assault and Hera returns to the battlefield where the gods begin to fight amongst themselves.
Echo
Semele and Dionysus
Lamia
Gerana
Cydippe
Tiresias
Chelone
The Golden Fleece
The Metamorphoses
Ixion
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what is a tall and flat organizational structure | Flat organization - wikipedia
A flat organization (also known as horizontal organization or delayering) has an organizational structure with few or no levels of middle management between staff and executives. An organization 's structure refers to the nature of the distribution of the units and positions within it, also to the nature of the relationships among those units and positions. Tall and flat organizations differ based on how many levels of management are present in the organization, and how much control managers are endowed with.
In flat organizations, the number of people directly supervised by each manager is large, and the number of people in the chain of command above one is small. A manager in a flat organization possesses more responsibility than a manager in a tall organization because there is a greater number of individuals immediately below who are dependent on direction, help, and support. Moreover, managers in a flat organization rely less on guidance from superiors because the number of superiors above the manager is limited.
Empirical evidence from Ghiselli and Johnson suggests that the amount of independence managers in flat organizations possess as a result of the flat organizational structure satisfies many of their needs in terms of autonomy and self - realization. The idea behind flat organizations is that well - trained workers will be more productive when they are more directly involved in the decision making process, rather than closely supervised by many layers of management.
This structure is generally possible only in smaller organizations or individual units within larger organizations. Having reached a critical size, organizations can retain a streamlined structure but can not keep a completely flat manager - to - staff relationship without impacting productivity. Certain financial responsibilities may also require a more conventional structure. A company would not have to give a raise or promotion, based on service length but on greater productivity. Also eliminating certain departments from the payroll means saving money. Some companies theorize that flat organizations become more traditionally hierarchical when they begin to be geared towards productivity.
The flat organization model promotes employee involvement through a decentralized decision - making process. By elevating the level of responsibility of baseline employees and eliminating layers of middle management, comments and feedback reach all personnel involved in decisions more quickly. Expected response to customer feedback becomes more rapid.
A "strong form '' of flat organization is an organization with no middle management at all. Very small businesses may lack middle managers because there are too few staff to justify hiring middle managers; in this type of organization, the business owner or the CEO may perform some of the functions performed by middle managers in larger organizations.
However, some organizations do not take on middle managers even as they become larger, and remain extremely flat.
An organization which has self - managing teams, that organize their own work without the need for a middle manager or supervisor above the team, may meet or closely approximate this model. This can cause conflict with people whose career path expectations include a promotion, which may not be available within the organization due to its flat structure. However, alternative "horizontal '' career paths may be available, such as developing greater expertise in a role or mastery of a craft, and / or receiving pay raises for loyalty.
An absence of middle managers does not preclude the adoption and retention of mandatory work procedures, including quality assurance procedures. However, due to the fact that significant responsibilities are given to the team members themselves, if a team collectively arrives at the view that the procedures it is following are outdated, or could be improved, it may be able to change them. Such changes may, in some cases, require the approval of executive management, and / or customers (consider for example a digital agency producing bespoke websites for corporate clients). If executive management is not involved in the decision, or merely rubber - stamps it, this might be an example of consensus decision - making or workplace democracy at the level of a team - or group of teams, if multiple teams are involved in the decision.
The foremost example of a company with self - managing teams is Valve Corporation, which also has rotating, not permanent, team leaders - which Valve terms "group contributors '', in recognition of the fact that contributing individually and leading at Valve form a spectrum, not a binary dichotomy. Generally the term of a group contributor at Valve is at most one project, after which time they (voluntarily) rotate back to being an individual contributor. Valve also allows team members to work on whatever they find interesting. This is known as open allocation, and means that employees can switch to another team at any time, no questions asked; all desks are on wheels to make this easy. However, because new ideas may require significant resources, someone with a new idea may need to persuade a number of their coworkers to join them in order to create a new team and reach the necessary "critical mass '' for the new idea to come to fruition.
Valve 's cofounder has admitted that it has issues with failing to catch bad decisions early on due to a lack of internal controls, due to its lack of managers. Prof. Cliff Oswick from Cass Business School, who has studied Valve and other examples of "non-leadership '', believes that Valve works because it hires high - calibre people who are a good fit for the leaderless environment, and because it was founded as a flat organization from the outset, so that new hires always knew what they were getting into. However, he warns that the peer - review - based stack ranking system Valve uses for determining employee remuneration, might become problematic if in the future Valve becomes short of cash.
Other examples of companies with self - managing teams include:
In technology, agile development involves teams self - managing to a large extent (though agile development is commonly still practised within a hierarchical organization, which means that certain types of decisions such as hiring, firing, and pay rises remain the prerogative of managers). In scrum, an agile framework, team members assign work to be done among themselves, either by free choice or by consensus. The scrum master role in scrum is not a management role as such, but is a role that involves helping to remove obstacles to forward progress, and ensuring that the basic scrum framework is adhered to by all parties, inside and outside the team - both aspects of the role being more akin to facilitation than to top - down micromanagement. Agile frameworks such as scrum have also begun being used in non-technology companies and organizations.
Drawing on Jo Freeman 's famous essay The Tyranny of Structurelessness, Klint Finley has argued that "bossless '' companies like Valve might suffer from problems related to the appropriate handling of grievances, the formation of informal cliques, the "soft power '' of popular employees, un professional and sexist attitudes, and lack of workplace diversity. However, some of these topics are the responsibility of human - resources departments in larger organisations, so it is possible that an effective HR department could resolve these issues within a flat organization.
Suzanne Baker argues that new power dynamics can emerge that undermine the equality afforded by a non-hierarchical context. When an organization decides to no longer place value on a person 's position, Baker suggests that new hierarchies based on personality type, skill set, and communication style can emerge. If these hierarchies do n't get acknowledged, it is much more difficult to address the emergence of a new hierarchy because they remain implicit or undetected.
Mark Henricks, a business journalist and a critic of flat organization, argues that "when you have too little hierarchy, decisions do n't get made or are made wrongly by employees who lack experience, accountability, or motivation to do the work of the missing managers ''
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who gives the state of the union address | State of the Union - wikipedia
The State of the Union address is a speech presented by the President of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress, except in the first year of a new president 's term. The address not only reports on the condition of the nation but also allows the President to outline his legislative agenda (for which he needs the cooperation of Congress) and national priorities. The address fulfills rules in Article II, Section 3 of the U.S. Constitution, requiring the President to periodically give Congress information on the "state of the union '' and recommend any measures that he believes are necessary and expedient. During most of the country 's first century, the President primarily only submitted a written report to Congress. With the advent of radio and television, the address is now broadcast live across the country on most networks.
The practice arises from a duty given to the president in the Constitution of the United States:
He shall from time to time give to Congress information of the State of the Union and recommend to their Consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.
Although the language of this Section of the Constitution is not specific, by tradition, the President makes this report annually in late January or early February. Between 1934 and 2013 the date has been as early as January 3, and as late as February 12.
While not required to deliver a speech, every president since Woodrow Wilson, with the notable exception of Herbert Hoover, has made at least one State of the Union report as a speech delivered before a joint session of Congress. Before that time, most presidents delivered the State of the Union as a written report.
Since Franklin Roosevelt, the State of the Union is given typically each January before a joint session of the United States Congress and is held in the House of Representatives chamber of the United States Capitol. When a presidential inauguration occurs in January, the date may be delayed until February.
What began as a communication between president and Congress has become a communication between the president and the people of the United States. Since the advent of radio, and then television, the speech has been broadcast live on most networks, preempting scheduled programming. To reach the largest audience, the speech, once given during the day, is now typically given in the evening, after 9pm ET (UTC - 5).
Also, in recent decades, newly inaugurated presidents have chosen to deliver speeches to joint sessions of Congress in the early months of their presidencies, but have not officially considered them State of the Union addresses.
George Washington delivered the first regular annual message before a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1790, in New York City, then the provisional U.S. capital. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson discontinued the practice of delivering the address in person, regarding it as too monarchical (similar to the Speech from the Throne). Instead, the address was written and then sent to Congress to be read by a clerk until 1913 when Woodrow Wilson re-established the practice despite some initial controversy. However, there have been exceptions to this rule. Presidents during the latter half of the 20th century have sent written State of the Union addresses. The last President to do this was Jimmy Carter in 1981.
For many years, the speech was referred to as "the President 's Annual Message to Congress ''. The actual term "State of the Union '' first emerged in 1934 when Franklin D. Roosevelt used the phrase, becoming its generally accepted name since 1947.
Prior to 1934, the annual message was delivered at the end of the calendar year, in December. The ratification of the 20th Amendment on January 23, 1933 changed the opening of Congress from early March to early January, affecting the delivery of the annual message. Since 1934, the message or address has been delivered to Congress in January or February.
The Twentieth Amendment also established January 20 as the beginning of the presidential term. In years when a new president is inaugurated, the outgoing president may deliver a final State of the Union message, but none has done so since Jimmy Carter sent a written message in 1981. In 1953 and 1961, Congress received both a written State of the Union message from the outgoing president and a separate State of the Union speech by the incoming president. Since 1989, in recognition that the responsibility of reporting the State of the Union formally belongs to the president who held office during the past year, newly inaugurated Presidents have not officially called their first speech before Congress a "State of the Union '' message.
In 1936, President Roosevelt set a precedent when he delivered the address at night. Only once before -- when Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to order the U.S. into World War I -- had a sitting president addressed Congress at night.
Calvin Coolidge 's 1923 speech was the first to be broadcast on radio. Harry S. Truman 's 1947 address was the first to be broadcast on television. Lyndon B. Johnson 's address in 1965 was the first delivered in the evening. Three years later, in 1968, television networks in the United States, for the first time, imposed no time limit for their coverage of a State of the Union address. Delivered by Lyndon B. Johnson, this address was followed by extensive televised commentary by, among others, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Milton Friedman. Ronald Reagan 's 1986 State of the Union Address is the only one to have been postponed. He had planned to deliver it on January 28, 1986 but postponed it for a week after learning of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and instead addressed the nation on the day 's events. Bill Clinton 's 1997 address was the first broadcast available live on the World Wide Web. George W. Bush was the first president to address the speaker as "Madam Speaker ''.
A formal invitation is made by the Speaker of the House to the President several weeks before each State of the Union Address.
Every member of Congress can bring one guest to the State of the Union address. The President may invite up to 24 guests with the First Lady in her box. The Speaker of the House may invite up to 24 guests in the Speakers box. Seating for Congress on the main floor is by a first - in, first - served basis with no reservations. The Cabinet, Supreme Court justices, members of the Diplomatic Corps, and Joint Chiefs have reserved seating.
By approximately 8: 30 pm on the night of the address, the members of the House have gathered in their seats for the joint session. Then, the Deputy Sergeant at Arms addresses the Speaker and loudly announces the Vice President and members of the Senate, who enter and take the seats assigned for them.
The Speaker, and then the Vice President, specify the members of the House and Senate, respectively, who will escort the President into the House chamber. The Deputy Sergeant at Arms addresses the Speaker again and loudly announces, in order, the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps, the Chief Justice of the United States and the Associate Justices, and the Cabinet, each of whom enters and takes their seats when called. The justices take the seats nearest to the Speaker 's rostrum and adjacent to the sections reserved for the Cabinet and the members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Just after 9 pm, as the President reaches the door to the chamber, the House Sergeant at Arms stands just inside the doors, faces the Speaker, and waits until the President is ready to enter the chamber. When the President is ready, the Sergeant at Arms always announces his entrance, loudly stating the phrase: "Mister Speaker (if the speaker is male) / Madam Speaker (if the speaker is female), the President of the United States! ''
As applause and cheering begins, the President slowly walks toward the Speaker 's rostrum, followed by members of his Congressional escort committee. The President 's approach is slowed by pausing to shake hands, hug, kiss, and autograph copies of his speech for Members of Congress. After he takes his place at the House Clerk 's desk, he hands two manila envelopes, previously placed on the desk and containing copies of the speech, to the Speaker and Vice President.
After continuing applause from the attendees has diminished, the Speaker introduces the President to the Representatives and Senators, stating: "Members of Congress, I have the high privilege and distinct honor of presenting to you the President of the United States. '' This leads to a further round of applause and, eventually, the beginning of the address by the President.
At close of the ceremony, attendees leave on their own accord. The Sergeants at Arms guides the President out of the Chamber. Some politicians stay to shake, congratulate the President on his way out.
Customarily, one cabinet member (the designated survivor) does not attend, in order to provide continuity in the line of succession in the event that a catastrophe disables the President, the Vice President, and other succeeding officers gathered in the House chamber. Additionally, since the September 11 attacks in 2001, a few members of Congress have been asked to relocate to undisclosed locations for the duration of the speech to form a rump Congress in the event of a disaster.
Both the Speaker and the Vice President sit at the Speaker 's desk, behind the President for the duration of the speech. If either is unavailable, the next highest - ranking member of the respective house substitutes. Once the chamber settles down from the President 's arrival, the Speaker officially presents the President to the joint session of Congress. The President then delivers the speech from the podium at the front of the House Chamber.
In the State of the Union the President traditionally outlines the administration 's accomplishments over the previous year, as well as the agenda for the coming year, often in upbeat and optimistic terms. Since the 1982 address, it has also become common for the President to honor special guests sitting in the gallery, such as everyday Americans or visiting heads of state. During that 1982 address, President Ronald Reagan acknowledged Lenny Skutnik for his act of heroism following the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. Since then, the term "Lenny Skutniks '' has been used to refer to individuals invited to sit in the gallery, and then cited by the President, during the State of the Union.
State of the Union speeches usually last a little over an hour, partly because of the large amounts of applause that occur from the audience throughout. The applause is often political in tone, with many portions of the speech being applauded only by members of the President 's own party. As non-political officeholders, members of the Supreme Court or the Joint Chiefs of Staff rarely applaud in order to retain the appearance of political impartiality. In recent years, the presiding officers of the House and the Senate, the Speaker and the Vice President, respectively, have departed from the neutrality expected of presiding officers of deliberative bodies, as they, too, stand and applaud in response to the remarks of the President with which they agree.
For the 2011 address, Senator Mark Udall of Colorado proposed a break in tradition wherein all members of Congress sit together regardless of party, as well as the avoiding of standing; this was in response to the 2011 Tucson Shooting in which Representative Gabrielle Giffords was shot and wounded in an assassination attempt. This practice was also repeated during the 2012 address and every address after.
Since 1966, the speech has been followed on television by a response or rebuttal by a member of the major political party opposing the President 's party. The response is typically broadcast from a studio with no audience. In 1970, the Democratic Party put together a TV program with their speech to reply to President Nixon, as well as a televised response to Nixon 's written speech in 1973. The same thing was done by Democrats for President Reagan 's speeches in 1982 and 1985. The response is not always produced in a studio; in 1997, the Republicans for the first time delivered the response in front of high school students. In 2004, the Democratic Party 's response was also delivered in Spanish for the first time, by New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson. In 2011, Minnesota Congresswoman Michele Bachmann also gave a televised response for the Tea Party Express, a first for a political movement.
Although much of the pomp and ceremony behind the State of the Union address is governed by tradition rather than law, in modern times, the event is seen as one of the most important in the US political calendar. It is one of the few instances when all three branches of the US government are assembled under one roof: members of both houses of Congress constituting the legislature, the President 's Cabinet constituting the executive, and the Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court constituting the judiciary. In addition, the military is represented by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, while foreign governments are represented by the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps. The address has also been used as an opportunity to honor the achievements of some ordinary Americans, who are typically invited by the President to sit with the First Lady.
Certain states have a similar annual address given by the governor. For most of them, it is called the State of the State address. In Iowa, it is called the Condition of the State Address; in Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, the speech is called the State of the Commonwealth address. The mayor of Washington, D.C. gives a State of the District address. American Samoa has a State of the Territory address given by the governor. Puerto Rico has a State Address given by the governor.
Some cities or counties also have an annual State of the City Address given by the mayor, county commissioner or board chair, including Sonoma County, California; Orlando, Florida; Cincinnati, Ohio; New Haven, Connecticut; Parma, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Seattle, Washington; Birmingham, Alabama; Boston, Massachusetts; Los Angeles, California; Buffalo, New York; Rochester, New York; San Antonio, Texas; McAllen, Texas; and San Diego, California. The Mayor of the Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County in Nashville, Tennessee gives a speech similar called the State of Metro Address. Some university presidents give a State of the University address at the beginning of every academic term. Private companies usually have a "State of the Corporation '' or "State of the Company '' address given by the respective CEO.
The State of the Union model has also been adopted by the European Union, and in France since the presidency of Emmanuel Macron.
Television ratings for recent State of the Union Addresses were:
millions
millions
The 1993, 2001, 2009 and 2017 addresses were not, officially, State of the Union addresses.
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who is the oldest living dog in the world | List of oldest dogs - wikipedia
This is a list of the oldest verified dogs in the world, listed by age, all of whom have attained the minimum age of 20. Aging in dogs depends on breed, size and diet.
The following dogs ' ages were authenticated via Guinness World Records. A document is required by Guinness, such as a birth certificate, to prove his or her age.
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who has been on the cover of vogue the most times | List of Vogue cover models - wikipedia
List of Vogue cover models refer to:
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where do moderates fall on the political spectrum | Moderate - Wikipedia
A political moderate is a person in the center category of the left -- right political spectrum.
Aristotle favoured conciliatory politics dominated by the centre rather than the extremes of great wealth and poverty or the special interests of oligarchs and tyrants.
In recent years, the term "political moderates '' has gained traction as a buzzword. The existence of the ideal moderate is disputed because of a lack of a moderate political ideology. Voters who describe themselves as centrist often mean that they are moderate in their political views, advocating neither extreme left - wing politics nor right - wing politics. Gallup polling has shown American voters identifying themselves as moderate between 35 -- 38 % of the time over the last 20 years. Voters may identify with moderation for a number of reasons: pragmatic, ideological or otherwise. It has even been suggested that individuals vote for centrist parties for purely statistical reasons.
In religion, the moderate position is centered and opposed to liberalism or conservatism. For example in Christianity, moderates in evangelicalism would oppose the ideas of Christian right and Christian fundamentalism, as well as liberal Christians oppose the idea of Christian left. For Islam, moderates oppose the extreme views of Islamic extremism and Islamic fundamentalism.
Moderates are a political party that are neither left or right.
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when was bse first observed in great britain | Bovine spongiform encephalopathy - Wikipedia
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy and fatal neurodegenerative disease in cattle that may be passed to humans who have eaten infected flesh. BSE causes a spongiform degeneration of the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, of 2.5 to 5 years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of four to five years. BSE is caused by a misfolded protein -- a prion. In the United Kingdom, more than 180,000 cattle were infected and 4.4 million slaughtered during the eradication program. In France, the country worst affected overall, over 300,000 cases were identified, although most were not recorded at the time.
The disease may be most frequently transmitted to humans by eating food contaminated with the brain, spinal cord, or digestive tract of infected carcasses. However, the infectious agent, although most highly concentrated in nervous tissue, can be found in virtually all tissues throughout the body, including blood. When it has been transmitted to humans, it is known as new Variant Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease (vCJD or nvCJD), and by June 2014 it had killed 177 people in the United Kingdom, and 52 elsewhere, primarily in western Europe. Between 460,000 and 482,000 BSE - infected animals had entered the human food chain before controls on high - risk offal were introduced in 1989.
A British and Irish inquiry into BSE concluded the epizootic was caused by cattle, which are normally herbivores, being fed the remains of other cattle in the form of meat and bone meal (MBM), a protein supplement in concentrated feeds. Since dairy calves are generally fed concentrated feed after they are weaned, they usually develop this disease more often than beef cattle.
The cause of BSE may be from the contamination of MBM from sheep with scrapie that were processed in the same slaughterhouse. The epidemic was probably accelerated by the recycling of infected bovine tissues prior to the recognition of BSE. The origin of the disease itself remains unknown. The infectious agent is distinctive for the high temperatures at which it remains viable, over 600 ° C (1,112 ° F). A contributory factor was the feeding of infected protein supplements to very young calves.
BSE is a transmissible disease that primarily affects the central nervous system; it is a form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, like Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease and kuru in humans and scrapie in sheep, and chronic wasting disease in cervids.
Symptoms are not seen immediately in cattle due to the diseases ' extremely long incubation period. Some cattle have been observed to have an abnormal gait, changes in behavior, tremors and hyper - responsiveness to certain stimuli. Hindlimb ataxia affects the animal 's gait and occurs when muscle control is lost. This results in poor balance and coordination. Behavioural changes may include aggression, anxiety relating to certain situations, nervousness, frenzy or an overall change in temperament. Some rare but previously observed symptoms also include persistent pacing, rubbing or licking. Additionally, nonspecific symptoms have also been observed which include weight loss, decreased milk production, lameness, ear infections and teeth grinding due to pain. Some animals may show a combination of these symptoms, while others may only be observed demonstrating one of the many reported. Once clinical symptoms arise, they typically get worse over the upcoming weeks and months, eventually leading to recumbency, coma and death.
The infectious agent in BSE is a specific type of misfolded protein called a prion.
Prions can be transmitted to humans by eating food contaminated with them.
Prions are not destroyed even if the beef or material containing them is cooked or heat - treated. Prion proteins carry the disease between individuals and cause deterioration of the brain. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) s like BSE can arise in animals that carry an allele which causes previously normal protein molecules to contort by themselves from an alpha helical arrangement to a beta pleated sheet, which is the disease - causing shape for the particular protein. Transmission can occur when healthy animals come in contact with tainted tissues from others with the disease. In the brain, these proteins cause native cellular prion protein to deform into the infectious state, which then goes on to deform further prion protein in an exponential cascade. This results in protein aggregates, which then form dense plaque fibers leading to the microscopic appearance of "holes '' in the brain, degeneration of physical and mental abilities, and ultimately death.
Different hypotheses exist for the origin of prion proteins in cattle. Two leading hypotheses suggest it may have jumped species from the disease scrapie in sheep, or that it evolved from a spontaneous form of "mad cow disease '' that has been seen occasionally in cattle for many centuries. In the 5th century BC, Hippocrates described a similar illness in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in man. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus recorded cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. The British Government enquiry took the view the cause was not scrapie, as had originally been postulated, but was some event in the 1970s that was not possible to identify.
Other theories state that the agent is a virus, virino, Spiroplasma species, or Acinetobacter species.
The pathogenesis of BSE is not well understood or documented like other diseases of this nature. Even though BSE is a disease that results in neurological defects, its pathogenesis occurs in areas that reside outside of the nervous system. There was a strong deposition of PrP initially located in the Ileal Peyer 's patches of the small intestine. The lymphatic system has been identified in the pathogenesis of scrapies, it has not, however, been determined to be an essential part of the pathogenesis of BSE. The Ileal Peyer 's patches have been the only organ from this system that has been found to play a major role in the pathogenesis. Infectivity of the Ileal Peyer 's patches has been observed as early as 4 months after inoculation. PrP accumulation was found to occur mostly in tangible body macrophages of the Ileal Peyer 's patches. Tangible body macrophages involved in PrP clearance are thought to play a role in PrP accumulation in the Peyer 's patches. Accumulation of PrP was also found in follicular dendritic cells; however, it was of a lesser degree. Six months after inoculation, there was no infectivity in any tissues, only that of the ileum. This led researchers to believe that the disease agent replicates here. In naturally confirmed cases, there have been no reports of infectivity in the Ileal Peyer 's patches. Generally, in clinical experiments, high doses of the disease are administered. In natural cases, it was hypothesized that low doses of the agent were present, and therefore, infectivity could not be observed.
Diagnosis of BSE continues to be a practical problem. It has an incubation period of months to years, during which no symptoms are noticed, though the pathway of converting the normal brain prion protein (PrP) into the toxic, disease - related PrP form has started. At present, virtually no way is known to detect PrP reliably except by examining post mortem brain tissue using neuropathological and immunohistochemical methods. Accumulation of the abnormally folded PrP form of PrP is a characteristic of the disease, but it is present at very low levels in easily accessible body fluids such as blood or urine. Researchers have tried to develop methods to measure PrP, but no methods for use in materials such as blood have been accepted fully.
The traditional method of diagnosis relies on histopathological examination of the medulla oblongata of the brain, and other tissues, post mortem. Immunohistochemistry can be used to demonstrate prion protein accumulation.
In 2010, a team from New York described detection of PrP even when initially present at only one part in a hundred billion (10) in brain tissue. The method combines amplification with a novel technology called surround optical fiber immunoassay and some specific antibodies against PrP. After amplifying and then concentrating any PrP, the samples are labelled with a fluorescent dye using an antibody for specificity and then finally loaded into a microcapillary tube. This tube is placed in a specially constructed apparatus so it is totally surrounded by optical fibres to capture all light emitted once the dye is excited using a laser. The technique allowed detection of PrP after many fewer cycles of conversion than others have achieved, substantially reducing the possibility of artifacts, as well as speeding up the assay. The researchers also tested their method on blood samples from apparently healthy sheep that went on to develop scrapie. The animals ' brains were analysed once any symptoms became apparent. The researchers could, therefore, compare results from brain tissue and blood taken once the animals exhibited symptoms of the diseases, with blood obtained earlier in the animals ' lives, and from uninfected animals. The results showed very clearly that PrP could be detected in the blood of animals long before the symptoms appeared. After further development and testing, this method could be of great value in surveillance as a blood - or urine - based screening test for BSE.
A ban on feeding meat and bone meal to cattle has resulted in a strong reduction in cases in countries where the disease was present. In disease - free countries, control relies on import control, feeding regulations, and surveillance measures.
In UK and US slaughterhouses, the brain, spinal cord, trigeminal ganglia, intestines, eyes, and tonsils from cattle are classified as specified risk materials, and must be disposed of appropriately.
An enhanced BSE - related feed ban is in effect in both the United States and Canada to help improve prevention and elimination of BSE.
As of 2015 there was no cure for BSE; some of the symptoms like twitching can be managed but otherwise treatment is palliative care.
The table to the right summarizes reported cases of BSE and of vCJD by country. (The vCJD column is by country of residence of patient at time of diagnosis and not suspected origin of beef.) BSE is the disease in cattle, while vCJD is the disease in people.
The tests used for detecting BSE vary considerably, as do the regulations in various jurisdictions for when, and which cattle, must be tested. For instance in the EU, the cattle tested are older (30 months or older), while many cattle are slaughtered younger than that. At the opposite end of the scale, Japan tests all cattle at the time of slaughter. Tests are also difficult, as the altered prion protein has very low levels in blood or urine, and no other signal has been found. Newer tests are faster, more sensitive, and cheaper, so future figures possibly may be more comprehensive. Even so, currently the only reliable test is examination of tissues during a necropsy.
As for vCJD in humans, autopsy tests are not always done, so those figures, too, are likely to be too low, but probably by a lesser fraction. In the United Kingdom, anyone with possible vCJD symptoms must be reported to the Creutzfeldt -- Jakob Disease Surveillance Unit. In the United States, the CDC has refused to impose a national requirement that physicians and hospitals report cases of the disease. Instead, the agency relies on other methods, including death certificates and urging physicians to send suspicious cases to the National Prion Disease Pathology Surveillance Center (NPDPSC) at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, which is funded by the CDC.
To control potential transmission of vCJD within the United States, the American Red Cross has established strict restrictions on individuals ' eligibility to donate blood. Individuals who have spent a cumulative time of 3 months or more in the United Kingdom between 1980 and 1996, or a cumulative time of 5 years or more from 1980 to present in any combination of countries in Europe, are prohibited from donating blood.
The first reported case in North America was in December 1993 from Alberta, Canada. Another Canadian case was reported in May 2003. The first known U.S. occurrence came in December of the same year, though it was later confirmed to be a cow of Canadian origin imported to the U.S. Canada announced two additional cases of BSE from Alberta in early 2005. In June 2005, John R. Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the United States Department of Agriculture animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in Texas.
Soybean meal is cheap and plentiful in the United States. Cottonseed meal, 1.5 million tons of which are produced in the U.S. every year, none of which is suitable for humans or any other simple - stomach animals, is even cheaper than soybean meal. Historically, meat and bone meal, blood meal, and meat scraps have almost always commanded a higher price as a feed additive than oilseed meals in the U.S., so not much incentive existed to use animal products to feed ruminants. As a result, the use of animal byproduct feeds was never common, as it was in Europe. However, U.S. regulations only partially prohibited the use of animal byproducts in feed. In 1997, regulations prohibited the feeding of mammalian byproducts to ruminants such as cattle and goats. However, the byproducts of ruminants can still be legally fed to pets or other livestock, including pigs and poultry. In addition, it is legal for ruminants to be fed byproducts from some of these animals. Because of this, some authors have suggested that under certain conditions, it is still possible for BSE incidence to increase in U.S. cattle. A proposal to end the use of cattle blood, restaurant scraps, and poultry litter (fecal matter, feathers, bedding material) in January 2004 has yet to be implemented.
In February 2001, the US Government Accountability Office reported the FDA, which is responsible for regulating feed, had not adequately enforced the various bans. Compliance with the regulations was shown to be extremely poor before the discovery of a cow in Washington infected with BSE in 2003, but industry representatives report that compliance is now total. Even so, critics call the partial prohibitions insufficient. Indeed, US meat producer Creekstone Farms was forcibly prevented from conducting BSE testing by the USDA, which under an obscure 1913 law had the authority to restrict sales of BSE testing kits, allegedly to protect other producers from being forced to conduct the same tests to stay competitive.
The USDA has issued recalls of beef supplies that involved introduction of downer cows into the food supply. Hallmark / Westland Meat Packing Company was found to have used electric shocks to prod downer cows into the slaughtering system in 2007. Possibly due to pressure from large agribusiness, the United States has drastically cut back on the number of cows inspected for BSE.
Japan was the top importer of US beef, buying 240,000 tons valued at $1.4 billion in 2003. After the discovery of the first case of BSE in the US on 23 December 2003, Japan halted US beef imports. In December 2005, Japan once again allowed imports of US beef, but reinstated its ban in January 2006 after a violation of the US - Japan beef import agreement: a vertebral column, which should have been removed prior to shipment, was included in a shipment of veal.
Tokyo yielded to US pressure to resume imports, ignoring consumer worries about the safety of US beef, said Japanese consumer groups. Michiko Kamiyama from Food Safety Citizen Watch and Yoko Tomiyama from Consumers Union of Japan said about this: "The government has put priority on the political schedule between the two countries, not on food safety or human health. ''
Sixty - five nations implemented full or partial restrictions on importing US beef products because of concerns that US testing lacked sufficient rigor. As a result, exports of US beef declined from 1,300,000 metric tons in 2003, (before the first mad cow was detected in the US) to 322,000 metric tons in 2004. This has increased since then to 771,000 metric tons in 2007.
On 31 December 2006, Hematech, Inc, a biotechnology company based in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, announced it had used genetic engineering and cloning technology to produce cattle that lacked a necessary gene for prion production -- thus theoretically making them immune to BSE.
In April 2012, some South Korean retailers ceased importing beef from the United States after a case of BSE was reported. Indonesia also suspended imports of beef from the US after a dairy cow with mad cow disease was discovered in California.
With 36 confirmed cases, Japan experienced one of the largest number of cases of BSE outside Europe. It was the only country outside Europe and the Americas to report non-imported cases. Reformation of food safety in light of the BSE cases resulted in the establishment of a governmental Food Safety Commission in 2003.
Cattle are naturally herbivores, eating grasses. In modern industrial cattle - farming, though, various commercial feeds are used, which may contain ingredients including antibiotics, hormones, pesticides, fertilizers, and protein supplements. The use of meat and bone meal, produced from the ground and cooked leftovers of the slaughtering process, as well as from the carcasses of sick and injured animals such as cattle or sheep, as a protein supplement in cattle feed was widespread in Europe prior to about 1987. Worldwide, soybean meal is the primary plant - based protein supplement fed to cattle. However, soybeans do not grow well in Europe, so cattle raisers throughout Europe turned to the cheaper animal byproduct feeds as an alternative. The British Inquiry dismissed suggestions that changes to processing might have increased the infectious agents in cattle feed, saying, "changes in process could not have been solely responsible for the emergence of BSE, and changes in regulation were not a factor at all. '' (The prion causing BSE is not destroyed by heat treatment.)
The first confirmed instance in which an animal fell ill with the disease occurred in 1986 in the United Kingdom, and lab tests the following year indicated the presence of BSE; by November 1987, the British Ministry of Agriculture accepted it had a new disease on its hands. Subsequently, 177 people (as of June 2014) contracted and died of a disease with similar neurological symptoms subsequently called (new) variant Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease (vCJD). This is a separate disease from ' classical ' Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease, which is not related to BSE and has been known about since the early 1900s. Three cases of vCJD occurred in people who had lived in or visited the UK -- one each in the Republic of Ireland, Canada, and the United States of America. Also, some concern existed about those who work with (and therefore inhale) cattle meat and bone meal, such as horticulturists, who use it as fertilizer. Up - to - date statistics on all types of CJD are published by the National Creutzfeldt -- Jakob Disease Surveillance Unit in Edinburgh, Scotland.
For many of the vCJD patients, direct evidence exists that they had consumed tainted beef, and this is assumed to be the mechanism by which all affected individuals contracted it. Disease incidence also appears to correlate with slaughtering practices that led to the mixture of nervous system tissue with ground meat (mince) and other beef. An estimated 400,000 cattle infected with BSE entered the human food chain in the 1980s. Although the BSE epizootic was eventually brought under control by culling all suspect cattle populations, people are still being diagnosed with vCJD each year (though the number of new cases currently has dropped to fewer than five per year). This is attributed to the long incubation period for prion diseases, which is typically measured in years or decades. As a result, the full extent of the human vCJD outbreak is still not known.
The scientific consensus is that infectious BSE prion material is not destroyed through cooking procedures, meaning that even contaminated beef foodstuffs prepared "well done '' may remain infectious. In fact the infectious agent remains viable over 600 ° C (1,112 ° F).
Alan Colchester, a professor of neurology at the University of Kent, and Nancy Colchester, writing in the 3 September 2005 issue of the medical journal The Lancet, proposed a theory that the most likely initial origin of BSE in the United Kingdom was the importation from the Indian Subcontinent of bone meal which contained CJD - infected human remains. The government of India vehemently responded to the research, calling it "misleading, highly mischievous; a figment of imagination; absurd, '' further adding that India maintained constant surveillance and had not had a single case of either BSE or vCJD. The authors responded in the 22 January 2006 issue of The Lancet that their theory is unprovable only in the same sense as all other BSE origin theories are and that the theory warrants further investigation.
During the course of the investigation into the BSE epizootic, an enquiry was also made into the activities of the Department of Health Medicines Control Agency (MCA). On 7 May 1999, David Osborne Hagger, a retired civil servant who worked in the Medicines Division of the Department of Health between 1984 and 1994, produced a written statement to the BSE Inquiry in which he gave an account of his professional experience of BSE.
In February 1989, the MCA had been asked to "identify relevant manufacturers and obtain information about the bovine material contained in children 's vaccines, the stocks of these vaccines and how long it would take to switch to other products. '' In July, "(the) use of bovine insulin in a small group of mainly elderly patients was noted and it was recognised that alternative products for this group were not considered satisfactory. '' In September, the BSE Working Party of the Committee on the Safety of Medicines (CSM) recommended that "no licensing action is required at present in regard to products produced from bovine material or using prepared bovine brain in nutrient media and sourced from outside the United Kingdom, the Channel Isles and the Republic of Ireland provided that the country of origin is known to be free of BSE, has competent veterinary advisers and is known to practise good animal husbandry. ''
In 1990, the British Diabetic Association became concerned regarding the safety of bovine insulin. The CSM assured them "(that) there was no insulin sourced from cattle in the UK or Ireland and that the situation in other countries was being monitored. ''
In 1991, the European Commission "(expressed) concerns about the possible transmission of the BSE / scrapie agent to man through use of certain cosmetic treatments. ''
Although most of the publicity accrued to the British epidemic, the highest number of confirmed cases was actually in France. In 1992, sources in France reported to the MCA "that BSE had now been reported in France and there were some licensed surgical sutures derived from French bovine material. '' Concerns were also raised at a CSM meeting "regarding a possible risk of transmission of the BSE agent in gelatin products. '' For many years the French government and agricultural industry downplayed the extent of the epidemic, claiming just 923 confirmed cases. In 2004 this figure was challenged in an article in The Review of Veterinary Research which put the figure at 300,000. The scientists behind this study later heavily criticised the surveillance system, indicating they believed there had been an official cover - up. Epidemiologist Jean - Louis Thillier eventually concluded that between 1996 and 2006, over 300,000 cases of BSE had infected the national herd and that nine French people had died unnecessarily from the epidemic through the failure to report cases, a finding accepted by the judge who ordered the report.
For this failure, France was heavily criticised internationally. Thillier himself queried why there had never been a ban on French beef or basic safety precautions to stop the food chain becoming contaminated, suggesting "Perhaps because the French government forgot its role in guaranteeing the safety of food products, and this neglect cost the lives of nine people. '' The Sydney Morning Herald added, "while blustering French politicians blamed Britain for the emergence of the disease - and tried to quarantine the country by banning imports of British beef - they failed to adopt measures to prevent a hidden epidemic at home. ''
In 2016 France confirmed a further case of BSE.
A number of other countries had isolated outbreaks of BSE confirmed, including Spain, Portugal, Belgium and Germany. However, in all cases, including Britain and France, it is thought the full number of cases is far less than the number reported, so true incidences could be much higher.
The BSE crisis led to the European Union banning exports of British beef with effect from March 1996; the ban lasted for 10 years before it was finally lifted on 1 May 2006 despite attempts in May 1996 by British prime minister John Major to get the ban lifted. The ban resulted in trade controversies between the UK and other EU states, dubbed "beef war '' by media. Restrictions remained for beef containing "vertebral material '' and for beef sold on the bone. France continued to impose a ban on British beef illegally long after the European Court of Justice had ordered it to lift its blockade, although it has never paid any fine for doing so.
Russia was proceeding to lift the ban sometime after November 2012 after 16 years; the announcement was made during a visit by the UK 's chief veterinary officer Nigel Gibbens.
It was successfully negotiated that beef from Wales was allowed to be exported to the Dutch market, which had formerly been an important market for Northern Irish beef. Of two approved export establishments in the United Kingdom in 1999, one was in Scotland -- an establishment to which live beef was supplied from Northern Ireland. As the incidence of BSE was very low in Northern Ireland -- only six cases of BSE by 1999 -- partly due to the early adoption of an advanced herd tagging and computerization system in the region, calls were made to remove the EU ban on exports with regard to Northern Irish beef.
Similar wildcat bans from countries known to have BSE were imposed in various European countries, although these were mostly subsequently ruled illegal. The Economist magazine noted, "Unfortunately, much of the crisis in Europe can be blamed on politicians and bureaucrats. Even while some European countries were clamouring for bans on British beef, they were ignoring warnings from the European Commission about how to avoid the spread of BSE in their own herds. ''
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the ratio of the chicken to pigs to horses | Feed conversion ratio - wikipedia
In animal husbandry, feed conversion ratio (FCR) or feed conversion rate is a ratio or rate measuring of the efficiency with which the bodies of livestock convert animal feed into the desired output. For dairy cows, for example, the output is milk, whereas in animals raised for meat (such as beef cows, pigs, chickens, and fish) the output is the flesh, that is, the body mass gained by the animal, represented either in the final mass of the animal or the mass of the dressed output. FCR is the mass of the input divided by the output (thus mass of feed per mass of milk or meat). In some sectors, feed efficiency, which is the output divided by the input (i.e. the inverse of FCR), is used. These concepts are also closely related to efficiency of conversion of ingested foods (ECI).
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) is the ratio of inputs to outputs; it is the inverse of "feed efficiency '' which is the ratio of outputs to inputs. FCR is widely used in hog and poultry production, while FE is used more commonly with cattle. Being a ratio the FCR is dimensionless, that is, it is not affected by the units of measurement used to determine the FCR.
FCR a function of the animal 's genetics and age, the quality and ingredients of the feed, and the conditions in which the animal is kept, and storage and use of the feed by the farmworkers.
As a rule of thumb, the daily FCR is low for young animals (when relative growth is large) and increases for older animals (when relative growth tends to level out). However FCR is a poor basis to use for selecting animals to improve genetics, as that results in larger animals that costs more to feed; instead Residual Feed Intake (RFI) is used which is independent of size. RFI uses for output the difference between actual intake and predicted intake based on an animal 's body weight, weight gain, and composition.
The outputs portion may be calculated based on weight gained, on the whole animal at sale, or on the dressed product; with milk it may be normalized for fat and protein content.
As for the inputs portion, although FCR is commonly calculated using feed dry mass, it is sometimes calculated on an as - fed wet mass basis, (or in the case of grains and oilseeds, sometimes on a wet mass basis at standard moisture content), with feed moisture resulting in higher ratios.
Animals that have a low FCR are considered efficient users of feed. However, comparisons of FCR among different species may be of little significance unless the feeds involved are of similar quality and suitability.
As of 2013 in the US, a FCR calculated on live weight gain of 4.5 -- 7.5 was in the normal range with an FCR above 6 being typical. As of 2013 FCRs had not changed much compared to other fields in the prior 30 years, especially compared to poultry which had improved feed efficiency by about 250 % since the late 1800s.
The dairy industry traditionally did n't use FCR but in response to increasing concentration in the dairy industry and other livestock operations, the EPA updated its regulations in 2003 controlling manure and other waste releases produced by livestock operators. In response the USDA began issuing guidance to dairy farmers about how to control inputs to better minimize manure output and to minimize harmful contents, as well as optimizing milk output.
In the US, the price of milk is based on the protein and fat content, so the FCR is often calculated to take that into account. Using an FCR calculated just on the weight of protein and fat, as of 2011 an FCR of 13 was poor, and an FCR of 8 was very good.
Another method for dealing with pricing based on protein and fat, is using energy - corrected milk (ECM), which adds a factor to normalize assuming certain amounts of fat and protein in a final milk product; that formula is (0.327 x milk mass) + (12.95 x fat mass) + (7.2 x protein mass).
In the dairy industry, feed efficiency (ECM / intake) is often used instead of FCR (intake / ECM); an FE less than 1.3 is considered problematic.
FE based simply on the weight of milk is also used; an FE between 1.30 and 1.70 is normal.
As of 2011, pigs used commercially in the UK and Europe had an FCR, calculated using weight gain, of about 1 as piglets and ending about 3 at time of slaughter. As of 2012 in Australia and using dressed weight for the output, a FCR calculated using weight of dressed meat of 4.5 was fair, 4.0 was considered "good '', and 3.8, "very good ''. In the US as of 2012, commercial pigs had FCR calculated using weight gain, of 3.46 for while they weighed between 240 and 250 pounds, 3.65 between 250 and 260 pounds, 3.87 between 260 and 270 lbs, and 4.09 between 280 and 270 lbs.
Because FCR calculated on the basis of weight gained gets worse after pigs mature, as it takes more and more feed to drive growth, countries that have a culture of slaughtering pigs at very high weights, like Japan and Korea, have poor FCRs.
Some data for sheep illustrate variations in FCR. A FCR (kg feed dry matter intake per kg live mass gain) for lambs is often in the range of about 4 to 5 on high - concentrate rations, 5 to 6 on some forages of good quality, and more than 6 on feeds of lesser quality. On a diet of straw, which has a low metabolizable energy concentration, FCR of lambs may be as high as 40. Other things being equal, FCR tends to be higher for older lambs (e.g. 8 months) than younger lambs (e.g. 4 months).
As of 2011 in the US, broiler chickens has an FCR of 1.6 based on body weight gain, and mature in 39 days. At around the same time the FCR based on weight gain for broilers in Brazil was 1.8.
For hens used in egg production in the US, as of 2011 the FCR was about 2, with each hen laying about 330 eggs per year.
From the early 1960s to 2011 in the US broiler growth rates doubled and their FCRs halved, mostly due to improvements in genetics and rapid dissemination of the improved chickens. The improvement in genetics for growing meat created challenges for farmers who breed the chickens that are raised by the broiler industry, as the genetics that cause fast growth decreased reproductive abilities.
Crickets have a low feed conversion ratio of only 1.7.
The FIFO ratio (or Fish In -- Fish Out ratio) is the feed conversion ratio applied to aquaculture, where the first number is the mass of harvested fish used to feed farmed fish, and the second number is the mass of the resulting farmed fish. A ratio of 3: 1 would mean that for every kg of fish farmed, 3 kg fish (generally of another, cheaper to produce or capture fish species) is used to farm it.
As of 2015 farm raised Atlantic salmon had a commodified feed supply with four main suppliers, and an FCR of around 1. Tilapia is about 1.5, and as of 2013 farmed catfish had a FCR of about 1.
In India, rabbits raised for meat had an FCR of 2.5 to 3.0 on high grain diet and 3.5 to 4.0 on natural forage diet, without animal - feed grain.
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when did the last time the eagles won the superbowl | Philadelphia Eagles - Wikipedia
National Football League (1933 -- present)
Midnight green, Silver, Black, White
League championships (4)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (13)
The Philadelphia Eagles are a professional American football franchise based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Eagles compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) East division. They are Super Bowl champions, having won Super Bowl LII, their fourth NFL title, after winning in 1948, 1949, and 1960.
The franchise was established in 1933 as a replacement for the bankrupt Frankford Yellow Jackets, when a group led by Bert Bell secured the rights to an NFL franchise in Philadelphia. Bell, Chuck Bednarik, Bob Brown, Brian Dawkins, Reggie White, Steve Van Buren, Tommy McDonald, Greasy Neale, Pete Pihos, Sonny Jurgensen, and Norm Van Brocklin have been inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The team has an intense rivalry with the New York Giants. This rivalry is the oldest in the NFC East and is among the oldest in the NFL. It was ranked by NFL Network as the number one rivalry of all - time and Sports Illustrated ranks it amongst the Top 10 NFL rivalries of all - time at number four, and according to ESPN, it is one of the fiercest and most well - known rivalries in the American football community. They also have a bitter rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys, which has become more high - profile since the 1960s, as well as a historic rivalry with the Washington Redskins. Their rivalry with the Pittsburgh Steelers is another bitter rivalry, roughly dating back to 1933, that mostly arises from the two teams ' statuses as being from opposite ends of the same state.
The team consistently ranks in the top three in attendance and has sold out every game since the 1999 season. In a Sports Illustrated poll of 321 NFL players, Eagles fans were selected the most intimidating fans in the NFL.
Midway through the 1931 season, the Frankford Yellow Jackets went bankrupt and ceased operations. After more than a year of searching for a suitable replacement, the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by Bert Bell and Lud Wray and awarded them the franchise rights of the failed Yellow Jackets organization. The Bell - Wray group had to pay an entry fee of $3,500 (equal to $40,230 today) and assumed a total debt of $11,000 that was owed to three other NFL franchises. Drawing inspiration from the Blue Eagle insignia of the National Recovery Administration -- the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal -- Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles. Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same, citing the aforementioned period of dormancy. Furthermore, almost no Yellow Jackets players were on the Eagles ' first roster. The Eagles, along with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the now - defunct Cincinnati Reds, joined the NFL as expansion teams.
In 1937, the Eagles moved to Shibe Park (renamed Connie Mack Stadium in 1954) and played their home games at the stadium through 1957, except for the 1941 season, which was played at Municipal Stadium, where they had played from 1936 to 1939.
To accommodate football at Shibe Park during the winter, management set up stands in right field, parallel to 20th Street. Some 20 feet high, these "east stands '' had 22 rows of seats. The goalposts stood along the first base line and in left field. The uncovered east stands enlarged capacity of Shibe Park to over 39,000, but the Eagles rarely drew more than 25 to 30,000.
The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade, enduring repeated losing seasons. In December 1940, Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney sold his franchise to Alexis Thompson for $160,000 and then used half of the proceeds to buy a half interest in the Eagles from Bell, his longtime friend. Soon after, Bell and Rooney traded the Eagles franchise to Thompson and moved it to Pittsburgh (as the "Steelers ''), while Thompson moved the Steelers franchise to Philadelphia (as the "Eagles '').
In 1943, when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster, the team merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers forming the "Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the "Steagles. '' (The merger, never intended as a permanent arrangement, was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season.) By the late 1940s, head coach Earle "Greasy '' Neale and running back Steve Van Buren led the team to three consecutive NFL Championship Games, winning two of them in 1948 and 1949. Those two championships mark the Eagles as the only NFL team ever to win back - to - back championships by shutouts, defeating the Chicago Cardinals, 7 -- 0, in 1948 -- in a blizzard -- and the Los Angeles Rams, 14 -- 0, in 1949.
After the 1957 season, the Eagles moved from Connie Mack Stadium to Franklin Field at the University of Pennsylvania. Franklin Field would seat over 60,000 for the Eagles, whereas Connie Mack had a capacity of 39,000. The stadium switched from grass to AstroTurf in 1969. It was the first NFL stadium to use artificial turf.
In 1960, the Eagles won their third NFL championship, under the leadership of future Pro Football Hall of Famers Norm Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik; the head coach was Buck Shaw. The 1960 Eagles, by a score of 17 -- 13, became the only team to defeat Vince Lombardi and his Green Bay Packers in the playoffs.
The Eagles had a decent 1961 season and then fell on hard times in 1962. Jerry Wolman, after consulting his longtime friend Brandon Sturrock, bought the franchise in 1963 from the "Happy Hundred '', a group of investors who owned the team from 1949 -- 1963, for $5,505,000 (equal to $44,004,098 today).
In 1969, Leonard Tose bought the Eagles from Wolman for $16,155,000 (equal to $107,807,505 today), then a record for a professional sports franchise. Tose 's first official act was to fire Coach Joe Kuharich after a disappointing 24 -- 41 -- 1 record during his five - year reign. He followed this by naming former Eagles receiving great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager and Jerry Williams as coach.
With the merger of the NFL and AFL in 1970, the Eagles were placed in the NFC East Division with their archrivals the New York Giants, the Washington Redskins, and the Dallas Cowboys. Their heated rivalry with the Giants is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries, dating all the way back to 1933 and is often named as one of the best rivalries in the NFL.
In 1976, Dick Vermeil was hired from UCLA to coach the Eagles, who had only one winning season from 1962 -- 1975. Starting in 1978, head coach Dick Vermeil and quarterback Ron Jaworski led the team to four consecutive playoff appearances.
Vermeil 's 1980 team won their first NFC East title. They were matched up against their hated rival the Dallas Cowboys in the NFC Championship game, which they won 20 -- 7. However, the Eagles lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV in 1981. The following year, the Eagles were eliminated in the wildcard round at home against the New York Giants. In the aftermath of the disappointing and strike - shortened season of 1982, head coach Dick Vermeil resigned, claiming that he was "burned out ''. Vermeil was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell.
In January 1983, Tose announced that his daughter, Susan Fletcher, the Eagles ' vice president and legal counsel, would eventually succeed him as primary owner of the Eagles. Then in 1984, rumors were circulating that Leonard Tose was thinking about moving the team to Phoenix, Arizona due to financial reasons.
In 1985, Tose was forced to sell the Eagles to Norman Braman and Ed Leibowitz, highly successful automobile dealers from Florida, for a reported $65 million (equal to $147,899,134 today) to pay off his more than $25 million (equal to $56,884,282 today) in gambling debts at Atlantic City casinos.
Philadelphia football struggled through the Marion Campbell years of the mid-1980s and was marked by a malaise in fan participation. However, in the 1985 Supplemental draft, the Eagles acquired the rights to Memphis Showboats ' elite pass rusher Reggie White. In 1986, the arrival of head coach Buddy Ryan and his fiery attitude rejuvenated team performance and ignited the fan base, but the Eagles failed to win a playoff game during Ryan 's tenure. Possibly the worst of these losses was the so - called Fog Bowl in 1988 against the Chicago Bears, which happened to be Ryan 's former team that he helped lead to a Super Bowl XX victory as defensive coordinator. Ryan was fired on January 7, 1991, after an upset home playoff loss to the Redskins. Offensive coordinator Rich Kotite was promoted to head coach three days later.
After All Pro defensive tackle Jerome Brown was killed in an automobile accident, the team and fanbase became dedicated to "bring it home for Jerome '' in the 1992 season. Kotite did lead the Eagles to a playoff victory against the New Orleans Saints during the 1992 season, but they lost all - time sacks leader Reggie White to free agency in the offseason. Kotie 's contract was not renewed after a disappointing 1994 season in which the Eagles went 7 -- 9, losing their last seven games after starting the season 7 -- 2. From 1988 to 1996, the Eagles qualified for the playoffs during six out of those nine seasons, but they won the NFC East only once, in 1988. Among the team 's offensive stars during that period were quarterback Randall Cunningham, tight end Keith Jackson, and running back Herschel Walker. But the "Gang Green '' defense is possibly what defined the team, led by Reggie White, Jerome Brown, Clyde Simmons, Seth Joyner, Wes Hopkins, Mike Golic, Byron Evans, Eric Allen, Andre Waters and Mark McMillian.
Jeffrey Lurie bought the Eagles on May 6, 1994 from then - owner Norman Braman for an estimated $185 million. The club is now estimated to be the 17th most valuable sports team, worth $1.314 billion, as valuated in 2014 by Forbes.
In Lurie 's first season as owner, the team only had 7 wins, but that was followed by a 10 win season in 1995. Besides the 10 wins and a playoff berth, 1996 was an eventful year. The uniforms changed from the classic shade of Kelly Green to a darker midnight green, quarterback Randall Cunningham left after 11 seasons, and future fan favorite 13 - year starter Brian Dawkins was drafted in the 2nd round. After slipping to 6 -- 9 -- 1, and then to 3 -- 13, head coach Ray Rhodes was fired after four seasons.
In 1999, the Eagles hired head coach Andy Reid and drafted quarterback Donovan McNabb. From 1999 until 2004, the team continually improved, going from 5 -- 11 in 1999, returning to the playoffs in with an 11 -- 5 record in 2000, surpassing the Buccaneers in the Wild Card round before losing in the divisional. Moreover, the Eagles played in four straight NFC Championship Games between 2001 and 2004. In 2001, the Eagles stayed at 11 -- 5, beating the Buccaneers and Bears to advance to the NFC championship, where they lost to the St. Louis Rams. In 2002, the Eagles drafted running back Brian Westbrook, got the 1st round bye with the 2nd seed in the NFC with a 12 -- 4 record, but the Tampa Bay Buccaneers got their revenge in the Championship and eliminated the Eagles. In 2003, they won the NFC first seed, but Westbrook went down in Week 17, culminating in a loss to the Carolina Panthers in their 3rd straight NFC Championship.
In 2004, the Philadelphia Eagles had their best season since 1960, going 13 -- 1 before resting their starters and losing their next 2, clinching the 1st seed for the second year in a row. McNabb set career highs, completing 64 % of his passes for 3,875 yards, though he did n't play all 16 games. McNabb became the first quarterback ever to throw more than 30 touchdowns and fewer than 10 interceptions in a season. His success could be attributed to the fact that he had a reliable receiver, Terrell Owens, who got 1,200 yards and 14 touchdowns in 14 games. After beating the Vikings and Falcons the Eagles advanced to Super Bowl XXXIX, where they dueled the New England Patriots. Although McNabb threw 3 touchdown passes and 357 yards in the game, and the score was tied 14 -- 14 going into the fourth quarter, the Patriots outscored the Eagles and scored ten straight points. McNabb completed a 30 - yard touchdown pass, and the Eagles defense held the Patriots to a 3 and out, but a crucial interception with 46 seconds left on the clock secured their fate.
The team took a step back in 2005 with a 6 -- 10 record. McNabb had played with a sports hernia and a broken thumb, starting 4 -- 2 but losing three in a row, before McNabb finally succumbs to injury and is out for the rest of the season. For obnoxious behavior and a feud with McNabb, Owens was suspended after 7 games, eventually being cut. In 2006, the team lost McNabb 10 games in and went into turmoil, but Westbrook stepped up, and the Eagles earned their fifth NFC East title under Coach Reid, with a 10 -- 6 record and a win in the wild card round, but they had an 8 -- 8 2007 season. In 2008, the team won their 500th game, and they also drafted DeSean Jackson, a receiving threat when paired with McNabb.
On January 11, 2009, the team defeated the defending Super Bowl champion and 1st seed New York Giants 23 -- 11 en route to their 5th NFC Championship Game in 8 years and 5th in the 10 years the Eagles have been coached by Andy Reid. In the 2008 NFC Championship Game, the Eagles made a rally, going from 24 -- 6 at halftime to 25 -- 24 with three minutes left in the 4th, but they lost to the Arizona Cardinals by a score of 32 -- 25 after quarterback Kurt Warner scored a last minute touchdown. As of the conclusion of the 2016 season, during the Lurie era, the Eagles are 1 -- 4 in conference championship games and 0 -- 1 in Super Bowls.
On August 13, 2009, the Eagles signed quarterback Michael Vick. On December 6, 2009, Andy Reid became only the 5th coach in NFL history to win 100 or more games with a single team in a single decade. The other four are Tom Landry, Don Shula, Tony Dungy, and Bill Belichick, all Super Bowl winners. McNabb finally had a complete receiving corps, between first round draft pick Jeremy Maclin, DeSean Jackson 's 1,000 yard season, and Brent Celek ranking among the top 5 tight ends in the league. Without Brian Dawkins, defensive end Trent Cole stepped up and became the dominant force on defense with 12 sacks, earning him his second trip to the Pro Bowl and All - Pro honors. In 2009, the Eagles started 5 -- 4, but moved up to 11 -- 4, and could clinch the NFC 2nd seed if they won their next game. After a shutout at the hands of the Dallas Cowboys in week 17, the Eagles missed the 1st round bye. but with a record of 11 -- 5, but they were the NFC 6th seed and they narrowly made the playoffs. In the 2009 NFC Wild Card Game, the Eagles played against the Cowboys for the second consecutive week and lost 34 -- 14. Despite many errors from many players, and a great season before the breakdown in Dallas, McNabb took the brunt of the blow and was heavily criticized. Coach Andy Reid said up until April 1, 2010, that McNabb would remain the starter.
On March 5, 2010, Brian Westbrook was cut from the Eagles after eight seasons with the team. On April 4, 2010, the team traded long - time starting quarterback Donovan McNabb to the Washington Redskins in exchange for a second round draft pick. Kevin Kolb was immediately named the starter, but after suffering a concussion in week 1 against the Packers, Vick took over as the starter. Vick led the Eagles to its sixth NFC East division title in ten seasons. With a record of 10 -- 6 the Eagles clinched the 3rd seed and had to play a Wild Card Playoff Game. During the 2010 NFC Wild Card Game, the Eagles faced off against the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers and lost 21 -- 16.
The 2011 season for the Eagles was a major disappointment, as they only managed to finish 8 -- 8 and did not qualify for the playoffs, although they did win the last 4 games of the season. Because of several free agent acquisitions, Vince Young, a back up quarterback, stated that the Eagles were a Dream Team. The Philadelphia fan base and faithful never did concur with the comment as some national outlets may comment. Many Eagles fans believe that Vince Young saying that the Eagles were a ' Dream Team ' is the reason that the Eagles had such a horrible season.
Eagles fans had high expectations going into the 2012 season. The Eagles started off winning three out of their four first games, but that changed when they lost the next eight games, and were eliminated from the playoff hunt. They only won one out of their last four games. After a loss to the New York Giants on December 30, 2012, longtime head coach Andy Reid was fired after fourteen seasons with the team.
On January 16, 2013, the Eagles brought in University of Oregon head coach Chip Kelly to succeed Reid as head coach after a 4 -- 12 season. The Philadelphia Eagles named Michael Vick starting quarterback going into the 2013 season with much promise running Chip Kelly 's fast - paced spread offense.
The 2013 season proved to be more successful for the Eagles. A hamstring injury took Michael Vick out after a 1 -- 3 start, but his backup, Nick Foles, led the team to a 10 -- 6 regular season record, and its seventh NFC East title in 13 seasons. Before throwing his first interception in Week 14, Foles threw 19 touchdowns, which was just one shy of the all - time NFL record of consecutive touchdowns without an interception to start a season, set earlier in the season by Peyton Manning. Foles also tied Manning for most touchdown passes in a single - game with seven against the Oakland Raiders which also made him the youngest player in NFL history to throw that many touchdowns in a game. Foles finished the regular season with 27 touchdown passes and only 2 interceptions, giving him the then - best TD - INT ratio in NFL history. (That record was later broken by Tom Brady, in the 2016 season.) He also finished with a 119.0 passer rating, third highest in league history behind only Aaron Rodgers in 2011 and Peyton Manning in 2004. He was also only the second quarterback in NFL history to have a game in which he topped 400 passing yards and a perfect passer rating. LeSean McCoy finished his Pro Bowl season as the league 's top rusher with 1,607 rushing yards (also a franchise record) and 2,146 total yards from scrimmage, also best in the NFL. As a whole, the Eagles offense scored 51 touchdowns, most in franchise history passing the previous season high set back in 1948.
The Eagles opened the 2014 season winning their first three games and making NFL history as the only team ever to trail by ten or more points in their first three games and come back to win. Nick Foles struggled with turnovers, but ultimately did well and led the Eagles to a 6 -- 2 record, before breaking his collarbone, resulting in his job getting taken over by Mark Sanchez, who outplayed Foles despite facing more playoff teams. The Eagles held the divisional title from week one to week 15 against the Cowboys. After going 9 -- 3 with their crucial win over the Cowboys, the Eagles lost their next 3, and a week after losing the NFC East title, they lost an upset against the 3 -- 11 Redskins and were eliminated from playoff contention with the Cowboys ' win over the Colts.
Following the 2014 season, Chip Kelly was given total control and made some controversial moves. He traded LeSean McCoy, who had become the team 's all - time leading rusher after the 2014 season, for linebacker Kiko Alonso, a player Kelly coached at Oregon who had missed the entire 2014 season. He also cut ten - year veteran and starter, Trent Cole, who was still a consistent threat on defense and was second only to legend Reggie White on the Eagles all - time sack list. He also made a trade where the highly successful Nick Foles was traded for Sam Bradford, who had missed the entire 2014 season with an ACL tear. Kelly tried to re-sign Jeremy Maclin, who had stepped up as the team 's leading wide receiver, but he signed with the Kansas City Chiefs instead. However, the Eagles also acquired league leading rusher DeMarco Murray, which not only helped the Eagles, but hurt their rivals, the Dallas Cowboys. They also obtained Super Bowl champion Byron Maxwell, who left the Seattle Seahawks in free agency to sign a six - year, $63 million contract. The first two games of the season were disastrous, as they started 0 -- 2. Bradford had a 2 -- 4 TD - INT ratio, Maxwell was constantly beaten by Falcons receiver Julio Jones, and Murray was held to 11 yards on 21 carries. After Murray was injured, Ryan Mathews rushed for over 100 yards in a Week 3 win against the New York Jets. Kelly made Murray the unquestioned starter and although Murray 's play improved over the season, he never regained his dominant form and was held to a career low 3.6 yards per carry average.
On December 29, 2015, with one game left in the season, head coach Chip Kelly was released by the Eagles. Offensive Coordinator Pat Shurmur was named Interim Coach for the final game against the rival New York Giants, which Shurmur won 35 -- 30. Former player and current running backs coach Duce Staley was the first coach to be interviewed for the opening head coaching job on January 2, 2016.
The Eagles hired Chiefs offensive coordinator Doug Pederson as their next head coach. The team made the official announcement on January 18, 2016. Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie said in a statement:
"Doug is a strategic thinker, a compelling leader and communicator, and someone who truly knows how to get the best out of his players. All of these factors were what initially attracted us to Doug and we believe that he is the right man to help us achieve our ultimate goal. ''
Pederson had been with the Chiefs for the preceding three years after spending the four seasons previous to those with the Eagles. He served as a quality control assistant for the Eagles in 2009 and 2010 before being promoted to quarterbacks coach for the 2011 and 2012 seasons. He was praised for his work with Chiefs quarterback Alex Smith over the preceding few seasons, particularly 2015, as the Chiefs moved into the top 10 in scoring offense.
At the end of the 2015 season, the Eagles had the 13th pick in the 2016 NFL Draft. They traded Byron Maxwell, Kiko Alonso, and their pick to the Miami Dolphins for the # 8 pick. Later, they traded the # 8 pick, their third - round pick, their fourth - round pick, a 2017 first - round pick, and a 2018 second - round pick to the Cleveland Browns for the # 2 pick and a 2017 fourth - round pick. They used the # 2 pick to draft North Dakota State quarterback Carson Wentz. On September 3, 2016, the Eagles traded starting quarterback Sam Bradford to the Minnesota Vikings, who had lost Teddy Bridgewater for the season, for a 2017 first - round pick and a 2018 fourth - round pick. Following the trade, the Eagles named Wentz the starting quarterback for Week 1 of the 2016 season. First - time head coach Pederson led the Eagles to a 3 -- 0 start to the season. His rookie quarterback started with 5 touchdowns, no interceptions and over 255 yards per game. The Week 4 bye took a toll on the Eagles, and they lost four out of the next five games, including a loss to every rival team in their division. They also lost right tackle Lane Johnson to a 10 - game suspension following the Week 5 loss againist the Lions which damaged Carson Wentz 's hot start. In those four games, their average margin of loss was just under 5 points. Pederson and the Eagles won just 3 of their last 7 games. Those included gruesome road losses against the Seattle Seahawks, the Cincinnati Bengals, and the Baltimore Ravens. Although Wentz started off the season well, the 6 -- 5 quarterback finished with a TD -- INT ratio of 16: 14. The rookie head coach and rookie quarterback tandem led the Eagles to a disappointing year, finishing with a 7 -- 9 record and coming in last in the division.
During the following offseason, the team made several acquisitions on the offensive side of the ball. The Eagles either traded or released notable players from the Chip Kelly era like Ryan Mathews, Matt Tobin, Allen Barbre, Jordan Matthews and Marcus Smith II. They signed more notable players to improve its wide receiver corps that have struggled the last two seasons like Alshon Jeffery, and Torrey Smith as well as 2016 Super Bowl champion, Legarrette Blount. They also added veterans on defense such as Patrick Robinson, Chris Long, Corey Graham, Tim Jernigan and Ronald Darby. The team addressed its defense mostly in the draft, using its top three picks on defensive players. The Eagles drafted Derek Barnett with the 14th overall pick. The Eagles had completely revamped their offense and strengthened their defense heading into the 2017 season. They opened the season on the road versus the Washington Redskins and won the game 30 -- 17. The team lost to the Kansas City Chiefs the following week, 27 -- 20, in Pederson 's return to face Andy Reid. The Eagles then won six consecutive games, including signature wins at the Carolina Panthers, 28 -- 23, and versus the Washington Redskins, 34 -- 24, in a Monday Night contest. On the morning of October 31, 2017, just before the NFL trade deadline, the Eagles made a blockbuster move sending a fourth - round pick to the Miami Dolphins for star running back Jay Ajayi. The move immediately paid dividends for the Eagles heading into their next game versus the Denver Broncos as Ajayi rushed for 77 yards on just eight attempts including a 46 - yard TD near the end of the second quarter. Ajayi and Wentz led the Eagles to a 51 -- 23 rout of the top defense in the NFL.
The Eagles headed into their bye week with the best record in the NFL (8 -- 1), and with Wentz leading the NFL MVP discussion with an NFL - leading 23 touchdowns to 5 interceptions. During their bye, the Eagles signed former Giants offensive tackle Will Beatty and former Saints linebacker Dannell Ellerbe to not only add depth but also players with Super Bowl experiences. Coming off of the bye week, the Philadelphia Eagles entered a Sunday night showdown with the defending NFC East champion Dallas Cowboys. The Eagles came out sluggish and trailed 9 -- 7 at the half. The team exploded in the second half though, rattling off 30 unanswered points to soundly defeat their rival by a final score of 37 -- 9. The Eagles were rolling on a nine - game winning streak after a huge blowout win over the Chicago Bears. The Eagles traveled to Seattle in Week 13 in a huge Sunday Night showdown against Russell Wilson and the Seattle Seahawks. The Eagles struggled throughout the whole game, blowing many scoring opportunities and allowing Wilson to throw 3 touchdowns. The Eagles lost 24 -- 10, ending their win streak. However, the Eagles bounced back in Week 14 win over the Los Angeles Rams in a tough 43 -- 35 win. However, Carson Wentz left the game in the third quarter with a knee injury. It was later found out that Wentz tore his ACL, ending his MVP caliber season. Backup Nick Foles would once again take over as starting quarterback. In Foles 's first start against the New York Giants, he would lead them back from a 20 -- 7 deficit and score 4 touchdowns and win the game 34 -- 29. Foles struggled in the last two games of the season against the Oakland Raiders and the Dallas Cowboys, and threw a touchdown and 2 interceptions in that span. Despite this, the Eagles finished 13 -- 3 and secured the top seed in the NFC. The Eagles opened as the underdogs, the first time in history that a No. 1 seed has opened up the postseason as an underdog. Despite this, Foles would lead the Eagles past the Atlanta Falcons in the Divisional Round 15 -- 10. In the next game Foles and the Eagles annihilated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship nicknamed the Minneapolis Massacre, mocking the Minneapolis Miracle from their previous playoff victory. Foles had his best game since week 15 and threw for 352 passing yards and 3 touchdowns including an impressive flea flicker touchdown pass. This win marked the franchise 's third Super Bowl appearance and a berth in Super Bowl LII for a 2005 rematch against Tom Brady and the New England Patriots.
With Foles at the helm, the Eagles started off the game strong, leading the Patriots 22 -- 12 at halftime. In the second half the Patriots gained momentum and for the first time took the lead in the 4th quarter 33 -- 32. The Eagles rallied back and scored an 11 - yard Touchdown to tight end Zach Ertz. Later the Eagles converted on a 46 - yard field goal by Jake Elliott to lead 41 -- 33. On the final play of the game with 9 seconds left, Brady threw a hail - mary pass directed toward tight end Rob Gronkowski which was bobbled by Patrick Robinson before being dropped in the end - zone as time expired, securing the win for the Eagles 41 -- 33, and ending the 58 - year long championship drought. This would be Philadelphia 's first Super Bowl win and their fourth league championship (their first championship since 1960). Foles won Super Bowl MVP going 28 -- 43 with 373 passing yards, 3 touchdowns, and an interception. Nick Foles became the first backup quarterback to start and win a Super Bowl since his opponent Tom Brady won as the backup for Drew Bledsoe in 2001.
One of the NFL 's oldest, this rivalry began on October 15, 1933 when the Giants defeated the newly founded Eagles 56 -- 0. The Giants lead the all - time series 84 -- 82 -- 2. Three of the best known comebacks against the Giants are labeled as "Miracle In The Meadowlands -- Herm Edwards '', "Miracle In The Meadowlands II -- Brian Westbrook '' and "Miracle In The New Meadowlands -- DeSean Jackson ''.
The Cowboys have been one of the Eagles ' biggest rivals. The Eagles won the first game in this rivalry 27 -- 25 on September 30, 1960. Dallas leads the all - time series 63 -- 51 -- 0. They have been close in recent years, with Dallas winning 12 games from 2006 to the present while the Eagles have also won 12. There is much hostility between the two teams ' fan bases, with incidents such as the 1989 Bounty Bowl.
Not as big as the rivalries between the Giants and Cowboys, that with division rivals Washington Redskins is still fierce. It started in 1934 when the Washington Redskins were first known as the Boston Redskin; the Redskins defeated the Eagles 6 -- 0, and lead the all - time series 85 -- 76 -- 6. The rivalry has been very even since 2010 overall. However, the Eagles swept the Redskins during the 2017 season for the first time since the 2013 season.
The Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers are both located in Pennsylvania and began play in 1933. From that season, through 1966, this was a major rivalry for both teams as both were part of the same division. In 1967, they were placed in separate divisions but remained in the same conference for three years. Finally, in 1970, the Steelers (along with the Cleveland Browns and Baltimore Colts) moved to the American Football Conference while the Eagles stayed with the rest of the old - line NFL teams in the National Football Conference. As a result, the Eagles and Steelers no longer played each other every year. Currently they are scheduled to meet once every four years in the regular season, the most recent meeting being in 2016 at Philadelphia, with the Eagles winning 34 - 3. The Steelers have lost nine straight games on the road against the Eagles dating back to 1966, which was also the start of the Super Bowl era. The Eagles lead the all - time series 47 -- 28 -- 3.
For several decades, the Eagles ' colors were kelly green, silver, and white. In 1954, the Eagles, along with the Baltimore Colts, became the second team ever in the NFL to put a logo on their helmets, with silver wings on a kelly green helmet. In 1969, the team wore two helmet versions: Kelly green with white wings in road games, and white with kelly green wings at home. From 1970 to ' 73, they wore the white helmets with Kelly green wings exclusively before switching back to Kelly green helmets with silver wings. By 1974, Joseph A. Scirrotto Jr. designed the silver wings took on a white outline, and this style on a kelly green helmet became standard for over two decades.
From 1948 -- 95, the team logo was an eagle in flight carrying a football in its claws, although from ' 69 -- 72, the eagle took on a more stylized look. As the design was similar to the Apollo 11 emblem, and its moon - landing craft was dubbed Eagle, players wore the flight 's mission patch on their jerseys during 1969.
In 1973, the team 's name was added below the eagle, which returned to its pre - ' 69 look.
However, both the logo and uniforms were radically altered in 1996. The primary kelly green color was changed to a darker shade, officially described as "midnight green. '' Silver was practically abandoned, as uniform pants moved to either white or midnight green. The traditional helmet wings were changed to a primarily white color, with silver and black accents. The team 's logo combination (the eagle and club name lettering) also changed in 1996, with the eagle itself limited to a white (bald eagle) head, drawn in a less realistic, more cartoon - based style, and the lettering changing from calligraphic to block letters.
Since the 1996 alterations, the team has made only minor alterations, mostly relating to jersey / pant combinations worn during specific games. For example, in 1997, against the San Francisco 49ers, the team wore midnight green jerseys and pants for the first of only two occasions in team history. The second occasion was in 2002, during the final regular season game at Veterans Stadium, a win over the division - rival Washington Redskins. A year later, in the first two games of the 2003 season (both home losses to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New England Patriots), the Eagles wore white jerseys with white pants. Since 2003, the white jerseys along with white pants have been worn during preseason games.
The 2003 season also saw the first (though only subtle) change to the 1996 - style uniform. On both white and green jerseys, black shadows and silver trim were added to both the green and white numbering. The stripe on the pants changed from black - green - black to black - silver - green on the white pants, and from a solid black stripe to one stripe of black, another of silver, with one small white stripe in between for the midnight blue pants. The 2003 season also saw the team debut black alternate jerseys, with a green (instead of black) shadow on white numbers, and silver trim. These black jerseys have been worn for two selected home games each season (usually the first home game after bye week and the season finale). In the 2003 and 2004 regular season home finales, the team wore the green road pants with the black alternate jerseys, but lost each game. Since then, the Eagles have only worn the black jerseys with the white pants. However, due to the special 75th anniversary uniforms serving as the "alternates '' for one game in 2007, the Eagles could not wear the alternate black jersey that season per league rules (alternate uniforms are permitted twice per season but only one can be used). The black jerseys with white pants, however, re-appeared for the 2008 Thanksgiving night game against the Arizona Cardinals. The black jerseys were most recently used in a December 21, 2016 game against the New York Giants, in which they won 24 - 19. From 2006 -- 2013, the Eagles have only worn the alternate black jerseys once a season and for the last November home game, but did not use them in 2007, 2010, and 2011. For the 2007 and 2010 seasons, the Eagles used throwback uniforms in place of the black alternates for their anniversary to commemorate past teams. The team also started wearing black shoes exclusively in 2004. Since 2014, the Eagles have worn the black jersey twice per season. In 2016, they wore the black jersey three times.
To celebrate the team 's 75th anniversary, the 2007 uniforms featured a 75th - season logo patch on the left shoulder. In addition, the team wore "throwback '' jerseys in a 2007 game against the Detroit Lions. The yellow and blue jerseys, the same colors found on Philadelphia 's city flag, are based on those worn by the Philadelphia Eagles in the team 's inaugural season, and were the same colors used by the former Frankford Yellow Jackets franchise prior to their suspension of operations in 1931. The Eagles beat Detroit, 56 -- 21.
The Philadelphia Eagles wear their white jerseys at home for preseason games and daytime games in the first half of the regular season from September to mid-October when the temperature is warmer. In night contests in the first half of the regular season, the Eagles do not need to wear white at home since the temperature is cooler. However, there have been exceptions, such as the home opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2003 and the Washington Redskins in 2007 that were played at night. In late October or beginning in November, the Eagles start to wear their colors at home (although they have done it earlier before), be it the midnight green jerseys or a third jersey. On one occasion the Eagles wore white at home after October in a meeting against the Dallas Cowboys on November 4, 2007 to make the Cowboys wear their road blue jerseys. Since moving to Lincoln Financial Field in 2003, the Eagles have worn white at home for at least their home opener, with the exceptions for the 2010 home opener (see next paragraph), the 2011 home opener against the New York Giants, the 2016 home opener against the Cleveland Browns, and the 2017 home opener against the Giants.
In the 2010 season against the Green Bay Packers, on September 12, 2010, the Eagles wore uniforms similar to the ones that were worn by the 1960 championship team in honor the 50th anniversary of that team. In weeks 4 and 6 of the 2010 season, the Eagles wore their white jerseys in a match - up against the Washington Redskins and Atlanta Falcons respectively before reverting to their midnight green jerseys for the rest of their home games. For the 2011 season, the Eagles did not wear white for any of their home games.
For the 2012 season Nike took over from Reebok as the NFL 's official apparel licensee but the Eagles decided that they would not be adopting Nike 's "Elite 51 '' uniform technology. Aside from the Nike logo replacing the Reebok logo, the only other change is the league - wide revision of the NFL shield on the uniform (replacing the NFL Equipment logo), other than that the uniforms essentially remain unchanged. The Eagles also revived their black alternate jersey.
For the 2013 season, the Eagles started to wear white pants, as an alternate to their green pants, with their white jerseys, in the regular season.
For the 2014 season the Eagles have officially adopted the "Elite 51 '' style uniform from Nike. Recently the team has discussed bringing back the "Kelly Green '' uniforms similar to the uniforms worn in the 1960 NFL Championship season and which were last worn in the 2010 season opener vs. Green Bay. Traditionally kelly green, silver and white had been the official team color until 1996 season when it switched to the current "Midnight Green '' uniforms. But due to the NFL rules and restrictions having a team go through a waiting period before any major uniform changes and alterations can be made, it would most likely be quite some time before any uniform changes are officially made.
In Week 6 of 2014 against the New York Giants, the team introduced black pants to complement their black jerseys, giving them a blackout uniform set, the Eagles won the game 27 -- 0. The victory was their first shutout in 18 years. The blackout uniform was most recently worn in a Week 16 victory, 19 - 10, against the Raiders in 2017. The Eagles are 6 -- 3 in their blackout uniforms: winning three times against the Giants and once against each of the Minnesota Vikings, Denver Broncos, and Oakland Raiders, and losing against the Seattle Seahawks, Arizona Cardinals, and Green Bay Packers.
The Eagles previously held their preseason training camp from the end of July through mid-August each year at Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley. With the addition of new head coach Chip Kelly, the Eagles recently moved their training camp to the NovaCare Complex in Philadelphia. Training camps were previously held at Chestnut Hill Academy in 1935, Saint Joseph 's University in 1939 and 1943, Saranac Lake from 1946 -- 1948, Hershey from 1951 -- 1967, Albright College from 1968 -- 1972, Widener University from 1973 -- 1979, and West Chester University from 1980 -- 1995.
This fight song is heard during Eagles ' home games after touchdowns and before the team is introduced prior to kickoff.
Although the method may vary, studies that attempt to rank the 32 fan bases in the NFL consistently place Eagles fans among the best in the league, noting their "unmatched fervor. '' Eagles fans have numerous dedicated web communities, ranking the Eagles just behind the Phillies as the dominant Philadelphia sports presence on the web.
The American City Business Journals, which conducts a regular study to determine the most loyal fans in the NFL, evaluates fans based primarily on attendance - related factors, and ranked Eagles fans third in both 1999 and 2006. The 2006 study called the fans "incredibly loyal '', noting that they filled 99.8 % of the seats in the stadium over the previous decade. Forbes placed the Eagles fans first in its 2008 survey, which was based on the correlation between team performance and fan attendance. ESPN.com placed Eagles fans fourth in the league in its 2008 survey, citing the connection between the team 's performance and the mood of the city. The last home game which was blacked out on television in the Philadelphia market as a result of not being sold out was against the Arizona Cardinals on Sunday, September 12, 1999, which was Andy Reid 's first home game as new head coach of the Eagles.
The studies note that -- win or lose -- Eagles fans can be counted on to pack their stadium. As of August 2008, the team had sold out 71 consecutive games, and 70,000 were on the team 's waiting list for season tickets. Despite finishing with a 6 -- 10 record in the 2005 season, the Eagles ranked second in the NFL in merchandise sales, and single - game tickets for the next season were sold out minutes after phone and Internet lines opened.
Eagles fans have also been known to chant the famous, "E-A-G-L-E-S -- Eagles!! '' at Flyers, Phillies, and 76ers games when the team is getting blown out late in a game and a loss is inevitable, signifying their displeasure with the given team 's performance, and that they are instead putting their hope into the Eagles.
Along with their fierce devotion, Eagles fans have a reputation for bad behavior and sports - related violence, especially when the team plays its rivals. In If Football 's a Religion, Why Do n't We Have a Prayer?, Jereé Longman described the fans of the 700 Level of Veterans Stadium as having a reputation for "hostile taunting, fighting, public urination and general strangeness. '' So many incidents occurred at a 1997 game against the 49ers that at the following home game, Judge Seamus McCaffery began presiding over a temporary courtroom at the stadium; 20 suspects came before him that day. Fan behavior improved after the team 's move to Lincoln Financial Field, and "Eagles Court '' ended in December 2003.
The team also has its own cheerleading squad, which performs a variety of dance moves for the fans and the Eagles on the sideline. The squad also releases a swimsuit calendar each year, and is the first squad in the league to release the calendar on the Android and iOS mobile systems.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated March 24, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 67 Active, Inactive
Notes:
In 1987, the Eagles Honor Roll was established. Every Eagles player who had by then been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame was among the inaugural induction class. By 2012, the Honor Roll had been retitled as the Eagles Hall of Fame. Players are considered for induction three years after their retirement from the NFL, and there have been 41 inductees into the Eagles Hall of Fame as of 2015.
Source: pro-football-reference.com Eagles Franchise Page
+ = min. 500 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, ∗ = minimum 15 attempts,
∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, + = min. 500 attempts
∗ = minimum 4 receptions, # = min. 20 receptions, + = min. 200 receptions
Jake Elliott
2017 - 09 - 24
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
From 2008 through 2010, Eagles games were broadcast on both rock - formatted WYSP and sports - talk Sports Radio 610 WIP, as both stations are owned and operated by CBS Radio. In 2011, CBS dropped the music on WYSP, renaming it WIP - FM and making it a full simulcast of WIP. Later, 610 AM became a CBS Sports Radio national broadcast, and 94 WIP was broadcast on WIP FM. The Eagles extended their broadcasting contract with WIP - FM through 2024.
Merrill Reese, who joined the Eagles in 1976, is the play - by - play announcer, and former Eagles wide receiver Mike Quick, who replaced the offense lineman Stan Walters beginning in 1998, is the color analyst. The post game show, which has consisted of many Philadelphia sports personalities, as of the 2014 season is hosted by Kevin Riley, a former Eagles linebacker and special - teamer, and Rob Ellis. Riley was the former post-game host for the show on 94 WYSP before the WIP change over; Rob Ellis hosts a weekly show nightly from 6 -- 10 on 94.1 WIP - FM. No announcement was made prior to the start of preseason regarding who would be the host (s) for 2015.
In 2015, the preseason games are being televised on WCAU, the local NBC owned and operated station. Television announcers for these preseason games were not announced prior to the start of preseason. During the regular season, games are governed by the NFL 's master broadcasting contract with FOX, CBS, NBC, and ESPN. Most games can be seen on FOX - owned WTXF - TV. When hosting an AFC team, those games can be seen on CBS - owned KYW - TV.
In the book MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, the character Captain Oliver Wendell "Spearchucker '' Jones fictionally played for the Philadelphia Eagles, though in the movie this was changed to San Francisco.
The 1976 draw was the subject of the movie Invincible. The movie stars Mark Wahlberg as Vince Papale, a 30 - year - old bartender and part - time school teacher, and also a diehard Eagles fan who became an Eagles player. The film differs slightly from true events as the selection process was invitation only, and Papale had at least some previous playing experience. The film Silver Linings Playbook highlights the 2008 Philadelphia Eagles season. The film was critically acclaimed and nominated for several awards including 8 Academy Awards.
In the 1978 Academy Award - winning movie The Deer Hunter, the Eagles are referenced when Nick talks to Stan in the bar, saying: "Hey, I got a hundred bucks says the Eagles never cross the fifty in the next half and Oakland wins by 20! '' Stan responds; "And I got an extra twenty says the Eagles ' quarterback wears a dress! ''
The award - winning comedy series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia starring Danny DeVito makes several references to the Philadelphia Eagles, most notably Season 3, Episode 2 -- "The Gang Gets Invincible, '' the title being a reference to the Wahlberg film.
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who did puss in boots grow up in the orphanage with | Puss in Boots (2011 film) - wikipedia
Puss in Boots is a 2011 American 3D computer - animated fantasy action comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It was directed by Chris Miller (who also directed 2007 's Shrek the Third) and written by Brian Lynch and Tom Wheeler. It stars Antonio Banderas, Salma Hayek, Zach Galifianakis, Billy Bob Thornton and Amy Sedaris. The film was released in theaters on October 28, 2011 in Digital 3D and IMAX 3D.
Although the character of Puss in Boots originated in a European fairy tale in 1697, the film is a spin - off prequel to the Shrek franchise. It follows the character Puss in Boots on his adventures before his first appearance in Shrek 2 in 2004. Accompanied by his friends, Humpty Dumpty and Kitty Softpaws, Puss is pitted against Jack and Jill, two murderous outlaws in ownership of legendary magical beans which lead to great fortune.
Puss in Boots grossed $554.9 million at the box office. It was nominated for Best Animated Feature at the 84th Academy Awards. A television series, titled The Adventures of Puss in Boots, premiered on Netflix in 2015. A sequel film, titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves, was scheduled to be released in 2018, but removed from the DreamWorks schedule in early 2015.
Puss in Boots (Antonio Banderas) is a talking cat named for his signature pair of boots. Puss is a fugitive on the run from the law, looking to restore his lost honor. He learns that the outlaw couple Jack (Billy Bob Thornton) and Jill (Amy Sedaris) have the magic beans he 's been looking for most of his life, which can lead him to a giant 's castle holding valuable golden goose eggs. When Puss tries to steal them from the outlaws ' room, a female cat named Kitty Softpaws interrupts, and both fail. Kitty is allied with Humpty Alexander Dumpty, a talking egg and Puss ' long - estranged childhood friend from the orphanage where he was raised. Puss tells Kitty his origin story and of his feelings of betrayal for a youthful misadventure when Humpty tricked Puss into helping commit a bank robbery in his hometown of San Ricardo; Puss has been on the run ever since. Humpty eventually convinces Puss to join them in finding the beans and retrieving the golden eggs.
The trio steal the beans from Jack and Jill and plant them in the desert. Puss and Kitty 's relationship becomes romantic. The trio ride the beanstalk into the clouds to find the castle of the late giant, while avoiding the Great Terror, a giant goose that guards the Golden Goose. When they realize the golden eggs are too heavy to carry, they steal the Goose, which is just a gosling, and escape the castle. While celebrating their victory, the group is ambushed by Jack and Jill, who knock Puss unconscious.
When Puss wakes up, he tracks Jack and Jill to San Ricardo where he learns the entire heist was a plot by Humpty to lure him home to be arrested, as revenge for abandoning him to the authorities when Humpty 's youthful heist went bad. Jack, Jill, and Kitty were involved in the con. After pleas from Imelda, his adoptive mother, Puss turns himself in to the guards while Humpty donates many golden eggs to the town and becomes a hero.
While in prison, Puss meets the original Jack from "Jack and the Beanstalk '' who warns him that the Great Terror is in fact the Goose 's mother, and it will stop at nothing to get its child back. Realizing Humpty intended to destroy the town all along, Puss lets a repentant Kitty help him break out of prison and she also tells him she loves him. Tracking him down just as the Great Terror arrives, Puss convinces Humpty to help him fight off the Great Terror, saying he knows Humpty is a good person at heart. Using the Goose as bait, Puss and Humpty lure the Great Terror out of the town. During the chase, Jack and Jill betray Humpty and try to take the Goose, but get crushed by the Great Terror. Humpty and the Goose are knocked off a bridge with Puss holding onto them. Humpty knows Puss can not hold both of them, so he lets go, sacrificing himself to save the Goose and the town. Humpty 's shell cracks open to reveal he was a golden egg on the inside. The Great Terror then takes the Goose and Humpty back to the giant 's castle.
Puss ' efforts to save San Ricardo make him a hero among the townspeople and Imelda. In the epilogue, Jack and Jill are recovering from their injuries, Humpty is shown once again in his regular egg form, wearing a golden egg suit, as he rides the Great Terror into the clouds, and Puss and Kitty kiss.
The film had been in development since 2004, when Shrek 2 was released. As a Shrek 2 spin - off, it was initially planned for release in 2008 as a direct - to - video film, then titled Puss in Boots: The Story of an Ogre Killer. By October 2006, the film was re-slated as a theatrical release due to market conditions, and due to DreamWorks Animation 's realization that the Puss character deserved more.
In September 2010, Guillermo del Toro signed on as executive producer. Discussing del Toro, Miller stated: "We worked out a system for him to come in once every few months or whenever we had something new to show him. If we needed someone to bounce ideas off of, he was always there, and if we had a problem we were tackling, we 'd get Guillermo on the red phone -- our emergency phone -- and ask him advice on what we should do with a certain character or scene. It was like having our own film school. '' Miller stated that del Toro was particularly involved in Humpty 's character design. "Guillermo loved the dreamy quality of Humpty Dumpty. He suggested we push that further, make him more like da Vinci. '' It was del Toro 's idea to make Humpty "an ingenious freak of nature '' who builds contraptions such as a flying machine. Del Toro rewrote the ending to redeem the character and deepen his relationship with Puss -- an unconventional conclusion for a children 's film. He helped design the fantasy elements of the giant 's castle, as well as the architecture of the town, which he conceived as "an amalgam of Spain and Mexico ''.
Except for Puss, the film features new characters. Citing the co-writer, David H. Steinberg, "It does n't overlap with Shrek at all. Partly that was done to tell an original Puss story, but partly because we did n't know what Shrek 4 were going to do with the characters and we could n't write conflicting storylines. '' The film was teased in Shrek Forever After, when Shrek finally shuts the book titled "Shrek '', and puts it away next to a book titled "Puss in Boots ''.
Puss in Boots is the first DreamWorks Animation feature film that was partly made in India. A Bangalore studio owned by Technicolor, which had mainly worked on TV specials and DVD bonus material, spent six months animating three major scenes in the film. The outsourcing had financial advantages, with 40 % less labor costs than in the US, but the primary reason for outsourcing to India was lack of personnel, due to the studio producing as many as three films a year.
The release date was originally set for November 4, 2011, but was pushed a week earlier to October 28, 2011. Anne Globe, head of worldwide marketing for DreamWorks Animation, said the decision to move the film 's release date a week earlier was to attract parents and their children to see the film before other family - friendly movies were released in November 2011.
The film was renamed Cat in Boots in the United Arab Emirates for officially unknown reasons, but it is suspected for religious and cultural reasons. According to UAE 's The National Media Council, which is responsible for censorship, UAE did n't have any involvement in the rename and that "the decision to change the name had been made by the Hollywood studio and the movie distributors in the UAE. '' Consequently, since the film 's distributor was based in the UAE, the same print was syndicated to all theaters throughout the Middle East. However, the name change was limited to the film 's original theatrical run, as merchandise and later regional home media release retained the film 's original title.
Henry Jackman, the composer for Puss in Boots, utilized folk instruments of traditional Latin music. Inspired by Spanish composer Manuel de Falla, Jackman blended guitars and Latin percussion with an orchestral sound influenced by Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Mexican guitar duo Rodrigo y Gabriela contributed to Jackman 's score, and two of their songs, Diabolo Rojo and Hanuman were included in the soundtrack. Lady Gaga 's song "Americano '' was also featured in the film. The soundtrack for the film, featuring the original score by Jackman, was released on October 24, 2011, by Sony Classical.
Puss in Boots had its world premiere on October 16, 2011, aboard the Royal Caribbean International 's cruise ship Allure of the Seas, docked in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at the time. It was theatrically released in the United States on October 28, 2011. The film was digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, and was released in 268 North American IMAX theaters and at least 47 IMAX theaters outside North America.
Puss in Boots was released on DVD, Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on February 24, 2012. The movie was accompanied by a short animated film called Puss in Boots: The Three Diablos. As of July 2013, 7.2 million home entertainment units were sold worldwide.
Another featured extra short is "Klepto Kitty ''; a three - minute profile of Dusty the Klepto Kitty, a notorious cat in California who steals items from neighbors ' yards, some of it captured on a night vision kitty - cam, hung around Dusty 's neck by the Animal Planet network for their own documentary.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 84 % based on reviews from 142, with an average rating of 6.8 out of 10. The website 's consensus is, "It is n't deep or groundbreaking, but what it lacks in profundity, Puss in Boots more than makes up for with an abundance of wit, visual sparkle, and effervescent charm. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 65 % based on 24 reviews. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was an "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss in Boots is a perfectly diverting romp that happens to showcase some of the best 3D work yet from a mainstream animated feature. Colorful, clever enough, free of cloying showbiz in - jokes, action - packed without being ridiculous about it and even well choreographed. '' Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss ' origin story could easily stand on its own -- a testament to clever writing on the part of its creative team and an irresistible central performance by Antonio Banderas. '' Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film three out of four stars, saying "For quick, lively, family friendly entertainment, "Puss in Boots '' works just fine, even in 3 - D, which is integrated thoughtfully into the narrative and does n't just feel like a gimmick. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "As good as Banderas and Hayek are together, Galifianakis is better, making Humpty - Dumpty, of all people, one of the more intriguing animated characters to come along in a while. He 's a nice surprise. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film three out of four stars, saying "I left dreaming of a world in which cats could tango - and when 's the last time a movie did that? '' Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The seductive interplay of Banderas and Hayek, the barely recognizable vocal contributions of Galifianakis, and the Southern backwoods speech of Thornton and Sedaris all keep us attuned to the events on the screen. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C, saying "In the Shrek films, the joke of Puss in Boots, with his trilled consonants and penchant for chest - puffing sword duels, is that no one this cuddly should try to be this dashing. But in Puss in Boots, that joke wears out its welcome in 15 minutes. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots does n't break any new ground in the storytelling department, and its reliance on go - go - go state - of - the - art action sequences grows wearying by the end, but the movie has a devilish wit that works for parent and child alike. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of five stars, saying "It 's always a pleasure to find a family film that respects its audience all the way up the line. '' Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Remember that toy where you yank a string and hear the sound of a barnyard animal? "Puss in Boots '' has about half as much entertainment value. '' Olly Richards of Empire gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Like most kittens, it 's not always perfectly behaved, but at least this new Puss adventure does n't have you reaching for the cinematic spray bottle. And thank goodness the spin - off does nothing to neuter the charismatic cat 's appeal. '' Stan Hall of The Oregonian gave the film a B, saying "Puss in Boots is n't particularly deep, nor does it take itself seriously -- it just wants to seek glory, win affection and cash in. Done, done and done. ''
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Perhaps the most engaging thing about "Puss in Boots '' is that it never takes itself too seriously. '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "It is a cheerfully chaotic jumble of fairy tale and nursery rhyme characters parachuted into a Spanish storybook setting. '' Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Basically, this toon is a tired riff on Sergio Leone 's spaghetti Westerns, punctuated by more puns and cat jokes than you can shake a litter box at. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three out of four stars, saying "With his impeccable comic timing and lyrical Spanish accent, Banderas ' swashbuckling charmer is an undeniable treat. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots '' proves there is at least one cat with multiple lives. The feature - length animated spinoff - a star turn for the popular "Shrek '' supporting character voiced by Antonio Banderas - is almost shockingly good. And not just because a lot of you will approach it with lowered expectations. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film three out of four stars, saying "An almost purr - fect little film that even a dog owner can enjoy. ''
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss made his debut in "Shrek 2, '' then did time in the two decreasingly funny sequels. Now he 's got a movie of his own, and not a moment too soon. '' Lisa Kennedy of The Denver Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It would overstate matters to say Puss in Boots leaves its cat holding the bag (we had to get that in). But it also leaves its hero awaiting a richer fable, one befitting his charms and his portrayer 's talents. '' Anna Smith of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots is uneven, but when it 's on course, cat fans will be in heaven. '' Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots prances along on three basic truths. One, cats are funny. Two, vain Spanish cats in high - heeled musketeer boots are even funnier. Lastly, booted, vain Spanish cats voiced by a breathy Antonio Banderas are flat - out hilarious. '' Tasha Robinson of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "Puss In Boots makes a great theme - park ride, a thrill - a-minute feast for the eyes and the semicircular canals. But while the settings are impressively multidimensional, the characters are flatter than old - school cel drawings. ''
The film grossed $149,260,504 in North America, and $405,726,973 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $554,987,477. It is the eleventh highest - grossing film of 2011 and is also the third highest - grossing animated film that year behind Kung Fu Panda 2 ($665.7 million) and Cars 2 ($559.9 million).
In North America, the film topped the box office on its opening day with $9.6 million. On its opening weekend, the film made $34,077,439, topping Saw III 's record ($33.6 million) for the highest Halloween weekend opening ever. It retained first place during its second weekend, with $33,054,644, declining only 3 %.
Outside North America, on its opening weekend, it earned second place with $17.2 million. The film opened at # 1 in both the UK with a weekend gross of £ 1.98 million ($3.1 million), and Australia, with $2.98 million. It topped the box office outside North America on its seventh weekend with $47.1 million from 40 countries. It ranks as the ninth highest - grossing film of 2011 outside North America. Its highest - grossing country after North America was Russia and the CIS ($50.6 million), followed by Germany ($33.9 million) and France and the Maghreb region ($33.2 million).
In November 2012, executive producer Guillermo del Toro said that they already did a couple of script drafts for a sequel, and that the director Chris Miller wants to take Puss on an adventure to exotic places. In April 2014, Antonio Banderas, the voice of Puss, said that the work on the sequel had just begun. In June 2014, the movie was titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves and was scheduled to be released on November 2, 2018. Two months later, it was moved back to December 21, 2018. In January 2015, Puss in Boots 2 was removed from the release schedule following corporate restructuring and DreamWorks Animation 's new policy to release two films a year. Two months later, Banderas said in an interview that the script was under restructuring, and that Shrek may appear in the film.
The film also spawned an animated series that premiered on Netflix on January 16, 2015.
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when was annapolis the capital of the united states | Annapolis, Maryland - wikipedia
Annapolis (/ əˈnæpəlɪs /) is the capital of the U.S. state of Maryland, as well as the county seat of Anne Arundel County. Situated on the Chesapeake Bay at the mouth of the Severn River, 25 miles (40 km) south of Baltimore and about 30 miles (50 km) east of Washington, D.C., Annapolis is part of the Baltimore -- Washington metropolitan area. Its population was measured at 38,394 by the 2010 census.
The city served as the seat of the Confederation Congress (former Second Continental Congress) and temporary national capital of the United States in 1783 -- 1784. At that time, General George Washington came before the body convened in the new Maryland State House and resigned his commission as commander of the Continental Army. A month later, the Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris of 1783, ending the American Revolutionary War, with Great Britain recognizing the independence of the United States. The city and state capitol was also the site of the 1786 Annapolis Convention, which issued a call to the states to send delegates for the Constitutional Convention to be held the following year in Philadelphia. Over 220 years later, the Annapolis Peace Conference, was held in 2007. Annapolis is the home of St. John 's College, founded 1696, as well as the United States Naval Academy, established 1845.
A settlement in the Province of Maryland named "Providence '' was founded on the north shore of the Severn River on the middle Western Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in 1649 by Puritan exiles from the Province / Dominion of Virginia led by third Proprietary Governor William Stone (1603 -- 1660). The settlers later moved to a better - protected harbor on the south shore. The settlement on the south shore was initially named "Town at Proctor 's, '' then "Town at the Severn, '' and later "Anne Arundel 's Towne '' (after Lady Ann Arundell (1616 - 1649), the wife of Cecilus Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, who died soon afterwards).
In 1654, after the Third English Civil War, Parliamentary forces assumed control of the Maryland colony and Stone went into exile further south across the Potomac River in Virginia. Per orders from Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore, Stone returned the following spring at the head of a Cavalier royalist force, loyal to the King of England. On March 25, 1655, in what is known as the Battle of the Severn (first colonial naval battle in North America), Stone was defeated, taken prisoner, and replaced by Lt. Gen. Josias Fendall (1628 -- 1687) as fifth Proprietary Governor. Fendall governed Maryland during the latter half of the Commonwealth period in England. In 1660, he was replaced by Phillip Calvert (1626 -- 1682) as fifth / sixth Governor of Maryland, after the restoration of Charles II (1630 -- 1685) as King in England.
In 1694, soon after the overthrow of the Catholic government of second Royal Governor Thomas Lawrence (1645 - 1714), then third Royal Governor Francis Nicholson (1655 - 1727 / 28, served 1694 - 1698), moved the capital of the royal colony, the Province of Maryland to Anne Arundel 's Towne and renamed the town Annapolis after Princess Anne of Denmark and Norway, soon to be the Queen Anne of Great Britain (1665 - 1714, reigned 1702 - 1714). Annapolis was incorporated as a city in 1708.
17th century Annapolis was little more than a village, but it grew rapidly for most of the 18th century until the American Revolutionary War as a political and administrative capital, a port of entry, and a major center of the Atlantic slave trade. The Maryland Gazette, which became an important weekly journal, was founded there by Jonas Green in 1745; in 1769 a theatre was opened; during this period also the commerce was considerable, but declined rapidly after Baltimore, with its deeper harbor, was made a port of entry in 1780. Water trades such as oyster - packing, boatbuilding and sailmaking became the city 's chief industries. Annapolis is home to a large number of recreational boats that have largely replaced the seafood industry in the city.
Dr. Alexander Hamilton (1712 -- 1756) was a Scottish - born doctor and writer who lived and worked in Annapolis. Leo Lemay says his 1744 travel diary Gentleman 's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton is "the best single portrait of men and manners, of rural and urban life, of the wide range of society and scenery in colonial America. ''
Annapolis became the temporary capital of the United States after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Congress was in session in the state house from November 26, 1783 to June 3, 1784, and it was in Annapolis on December 23, 1783, that General Washington resigned his commission as commander - in - chief of the Continental Army.
For the 1783 Congress, the Governor of Maryland commissioned John Shaw, a local cabinet maker, to create an American flag. The flag is slightly different from other designs of the time. The blue field extends over the entire height of the hoist. Shaw created two versions of the flag: one which started with a red stripe and another that started with a white one.
In 1786, delegates from all states of the Union were invited to meet in Annapolis to consider measures for the better regulation of commerce. Delegates from only five states -- New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, New Jersey, and Delaware -- actually attended the convention, known afterward as the "Annapolis Convention. '' Without proceeding to the business for which they had met, the delegates passed a resolution calling for another convention to meet at Philadelphia in the following year to amend the Articles of Confederation. The Philadelphia convention drafted and approved the Constitution of the United States, which is still in force.
During this period, a prisoner of war parole camp, Camp Parole, was set up in Annapolis. As the war continued, the camp expanded to a larger location just west of the city. The area is still referred to as Parole. Wounded Union soldiers and Confederate prisoners were brought by sea to a major hospital in Annapolis.
In 1900, Annapolis had a population of 8,585.
To the north of the state house is a monument to Thurgood Marshall, the first black justice of the US Supreme Court and formerly a Maryland lawyer who won many important civil rights cases.
Close by are the state treasury building, erected late in the 17th century for the House of Delegates; Saint Anne 's Protestant Episcopal church, in later colonial days a state church; a statue of Roger B. Taney (by W.H. Rinehart); and a statue of Baron Johann de Kalb.
On December 21, 1906, Henry Davis was lynched in the city. He was suspected of assaulting a local woman. Nobody was ever tried for the crime.
Annapolis has many 18th - century houses. The names of several of the streets -- King George 's, Prince George 's, Hanover, and Duke of Gloucester, etc. -- date from colonial days.
The United States Naval Academy was founded here in 1845. During World War II, shipyards in Annapolis built a number of PT Boats, and military vessels such as minesweepers and patrol boats were built in Annapolis during the Korean and Vietnam wars. It was at Annapolis in July 1940 that Grand Duchess Charlotte of Luxembourg arrived in exile during World War II.
In the summer of 1984, the Navy Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis hosted soccer games as part of the XXIII Olympiad.
During September 18 -- 19, 2003, Hurricane Isabel created the largest storm surge known in Annapolis 's history, cresting at 7.58 ft (2.31 m). Much of downtown Annapolis was flooded and many businesses and homes in outlying areas were damaged. The previous record was 6.35 feet (1.94 m) during a hurricane in 1933, and 5.5 ft (1.7 m) during Hurricane Hazel in 1954.
The 1998 Comprehensive Plan will soon be replaced with a new document, containing initiatives and directives of the city government on development and infrastructure. This process was mandated by Maryland state law in the Economic Growth, Resource Protection, and Planning Act of 1992. Annapolis Charter 300 and EnVISIONing Annapolis co-sponsored a public lecture series from September 2007 through June 2008 exploring these issues.
From mid-2007 through December 2008, the city celebrated the 300th anniversary of its 1708 Royal Charter, which established democratic self - governance. The many cultural events of this celebration were organized by Annapolis Charter 300.
Annapolis is the only capital city in America east of the Mississippi River without rail transport of any sort. From 1840 to 1968, Annapolis was connected to the outside world by railroad. The Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis Railroad (WB&A) operated two electrified interurban lines that brought passengers into the city from both the South and the North. The southern route ran down King George Street and Main Street, leading directly to the statehouse, while the northern route entered town via Glen Burnie. In 1935, the WB&A went bankrupt due to the effects of the Great Depression and suspended service along its southern route, while the newly created Baltimore and Annapolis Railroad (B&A) retained service on the northern route. Steam trains of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad also occasionally operated over the line to Annapolis, primarily for special Naval Academy movements. Passenger rail service on the B&A was eventually discontinued in 1950; freight service ceased in 1968 after the dilapidated trestle crossing the Severn River was condemned. The tracks were eventually dismantled in 1976.
The Maryland State House is the oldest in continuous legislative use in the United States. Construction started in 1772, and the Maryland legislature first met there in 1779. It is topped by the largest wooden dome built without nails in the country. The Maryland State House housed the workings of the United States government from November 26, 1783, to August 13, 1784, and the Treaty of Paris was ratified there on January 14, 1784, so Annapolis became the first peacetime capital of the U.S.
It was in the Maryland State House that George Washington famously resigned his commission before the Continental Congress on December 23, 1783.
The United States Naval Academy was founded in 1845 on the site of Fort Severn, and now occupies an area of land reclaimed from the Severn River next to the Chesapeake Bay.
Annapolis is the seat of St. John 's College, a non-sectarian private college that was once supported by the state; it was opened in 1789 as the successor of King William 's School, which was founded by an act of the Maryland legislature in 1696 and was opened in 1701. Its principal building, McDowell Hall, was originally to be the governor 's mansion; although £ 4,000 was appropriated to build it in 1742, it was not completed until after the War of Independence.
Annapolis has a thriving community theater scene which includes two venues in the historic district.
On East Street, Colonial Players produces approximately six shows a year it its 180 - seat theater. A Christmas Carol has been a seasonal tradition in Annapolis since it opened at the Colonial Players theater in 1981. Based on the play by Charles Dickens, the 90 - minute production by the Colonial Players is an original musical adaptation, with play and lyrics by Richard Wade and music by Dick Gessner. Colonial Players, Inc. is a nonprofit organization founded in 1949. Its first production, The Male Animal, was performed in 1949 at the Annapolis Recreation Center on Compromise Street. In 1955, the organization moved to its venue in a former automotive repair shop on East Street.
During the warmer months, Annapolis Summer Garden Theatre presents three shows on its outdoor stage, which is visible from the City Dock. A nonprofit organization, Annapolis Summer Garden Theatre has been providing "theatre under the stars '' since 1966, when it performed You Ca n't Take It with You and Brigadoon at Carvel Hall Hotel. It began leasing its site at 143 Compromise Street, the former location of the Shaw Blacksmith Shop, in 1967, and became owner of the property in 1990.
The Naval Academy Masqueraders, a theater group at the United State Naval Academy, produces one "main - stage show '' each fall and student - directed one - act plays in the spring. Founded in 1847, the Masqueraders is the oldest extracurricular activity at the Naval Academy. Its shows, performed in Mahan Hall, are selected to support the Academy 's English curriculum.
The King William Players, a student theater group at St. John 's College, holds two performances each semester in the college 's Francis Scott Key Auditorium. Admission is usually free and open to the public.
The Banneker - Douglass Museum, located in the historic Mount Moriah Church at 87 Franklin Street, documents the history of African Americans in Maryland. Since its opening on February 24, 1984, the museum has provided educational programs, rotating exhibits, and a research facility. Admission is free.
Preble Hall, named for Edward Preble, houses the U.S. Naval Academy Museum, founded in 1845. Its Beverley R. Robinson Collection contains 6,000 prints depicting European and American naval history from 1514 through World War II. It is also home to one of the world 's best ship model collections, donated by Henry Huttleston Rogers. Rogers 's donation was the impetus for the construction of Preble Hall. The museum has approximately 100,000 visitors each year.
The Hammond - Harwood House, located at 19 Maryland Avenue, was built in 1774 for Matthias Hammond, a wealthy Maryland farmer. Its design was adapted by William Buckland (architect) from Andrea Palladio 's Villa Pisani to accommodate American Colonial regional preferences. Since 1940, when the house was purchased from St. John 's College by the Hammond - Harwood House Association, it has served as a museum exhibiting a collection of John Shaw furniture and Charles Willson Peale paintings. Its exterior and interior preserve the original architecture of a mansion from the late Colonial period.
The Kunta Kinte - Alex Haley memorial, located at the head of the city 's harbor, commemorates the arrival point of Alex Haley 's African ancestor, Kunta Kinte, whose story is related in Haley 's book Roots. A sculpture group at the memorial site portrays Alex Haley seated, reading from a book to three children. The final phase of the memorial 's construction was completed in 2002.
The Paca House and Garden encompasses an 18th - century Georgian mansion constructed by William Paca, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The property includes a terraced garden that has been restored to its colonial - era design.
The Annapolis area was the home of a VLF - transmitter called NSS Annapolis, which was used by the United States Navy to communicate with its Atlantic submarine fleet. Annapolis often serves as the end point for the 3,000 - mile annual transcontinental Race Across America bicycle race.
As announced by United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, Annapolis was the venue for a Middle East summit dealing with the Israeli -- Palestinian peace process, with the participation of Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas ("Abu Mazen '') and various other leaders from the region. The conference was held on Monday, November 26, 2007.
Located 25 miles (40 km) south of Baltimore and 30 miles (48 km) east of Washington D.C., Annapolis is the closest state capital to the national capital.
The city is a part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and is relatively flat, with the highest point being only 50 feet (15 m) above sea level.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 8.10 square miles (20.98 km), of which 7.18 square miles (18.60 km) is land and 0.92 square miles (2.38 km) is water.
Annapolis lies within the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen Cfa), with hot, humid summers, cool winters, and generous precipitation year - round. Low elevation and proximity to the Chesapeake Bay give the area more moderate spring and summertime temperatures and slightly less extreme winter lows than locations further inland, such as Washington, D.C.
As of the census of 2010, there were 38,394 people, 16,136 households, and 8,776 families residing in the city. The population density was 5,347.4 inhabitants per square mile (2,064.6 / km). There were 17,845 housing units at an average density of 2,485.4 per square mile (959.6 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 60.1 % White, 26.0 % African American, 0.3 % Native American, 2.1 % Asian, 9.0 % from other races, and 2.6 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.8 % of the population.
There were 16,136 households, of which 26.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.3 % were married couples living together, 14.9 % had a female householder with no husband present, 4.2 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 45.6 % were non-families. 35.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 3.02.
The median age in the city was 36 years. 20.8 % of residents were under the age of 18; 9.9 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 31.1 % were from 25 to 44; 25.3 % were from 45 to 64; and 13 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.8 % male and 52.2 % female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 35,838 people, 15,303 households, and 8,676 families residing in the city. The population density was 5,326.0 people per square mile (2,056.0 / km2). There were 16,165 housing units at an average density of 2,402.3 per square mile (927.4 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 62.66 % White, 31.44 % Black or African American, 0.17 % Native American, 1.81 % Asian, 0.03 % Pacific Islander, 2.22 % from other races, and 1.67 % from two or more races. 8.42 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 15,303 households, out of which 24.5 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.6 % were married couples living together, 16.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.3 % were non-families. 32.9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.93.
In the city, the population was spread out with 21.7 % under the age of 18, 9.3 % from 18 to 24, 33.4 % from 25 to 44, 23.7 % from 45 to 64, and 11.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 90.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over there were 86.8 males age 18 and over.
The median income for a household in the city was $49,243, and the median income for a family was $56,984 (these figures had risen to $70,140 and $84,573 respectively, according to a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $39,548 versus $30,741 for females. The per capita income for the city was $27,180. About 9.5 % of families and 12.7 % of the population were living in poverty, of which 20.8 % were under age 18 and 10.4 % were age 65 or over.
According to the City 's 2009 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city, excluding state and local government, are:
The Annapolis Department of Transportation (ADOT) provides bus service with eight routes, collectively branded Annapolis Transit. The system serves the city with recreational areas, shopping centers, educational and medical facilities, and employment hubs. ADOT also offers transportation for the elderly and persons with disabilities. Several Maryland Transit Administration commuter buses also allow for access to Baltimore or Washington, D.C.
Annapolis is governed via the weak mayor system. The city council consists of eight aldermen who are elected from single member wards. The mayor is elected directly in a citywide vote. Since 2008, several aldermen have introduced unsuccessful charter amendments to institute a council - manager system, a move opposed by both Democratic mayor Joshua J. Cohen and his Republican successor Mike Pantelides.
The state legislature, governor 's office, and appellate courts are located in Annapolis. While Annapolis is the state 's only capital, some administrative offices, including a number of cabinet - level departments, are based in Baltimore.
Annapolis is served by the Anne Arundel County Public Schools system.
Founded in 1896, Annapolis High School has an internationally recognized IB International Program. St. Mary 's High School and Elementary School are located in downtown Annapolis on Spa Creek. St. Anne 's School of Annapolis, Eastport Elementary School, Aleph Bet Jewish Day School, Annapolis Area Christian School, St. Martins Lutheran School, Severn School, and Indian Creek School are also in the Annapolis area. The Key School, located on a converted farm in the neighborhood of Hillsmere, has also served Annapolis for over 50 years. Anne Arundel County 's alternative high school, Mary E. Moss Academy, is also in the Annapolis area.
Public High Schools that serve students in the Annapolis area:
On March 9, 2010, the Chesapeake Bayhawks of Major League Lacrosse moved from Washington D.C. to the Annapolis area, at Navy -- Marine Corps Memorial Stadium. In 2013, the Bayhawks won the league 's championship, the Steinfeld Cup, for the fifth time.
The City boasts over 200 acres (81 ha) of parkland, with the largest park being the 70 - acre Truxtun Heights Park. The city is also home to Quiet Waters Park, a 340 - acre park run by the county.
The Capital covers the news of Annapolis and Anne Arundel County See also: List of newspapers in Maryland in the 18th - century: Annapolis
Annapolis is a sister city of these municipalities:
Nation:
States:
Territories:
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no of seats of bjp in lok sabha | 16th Lok Sabha - Wikipedia
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Members of the 16th Lok Sabha were elected during the 2014 Indian general election. The elections were conducted in 9 phases from 7 April 2014 to 12 May 2014 by the Election Commission of India. The results of the election were declared on 16 May 2014. The Bharatiya Janata Party (of the NDA) achieved an absolute majority with 282 seats out of 543, 166 more than previous 15th Lok Sabha. Its PM candidate Narendra Modi took office on 26 May 2014 as the 14th prime minister of independent India. The first session was scheduled to be convened from June 4 to June 11, 2014. There is no leader of the opposition in the 16th Lok Sabha as the Indian Parliament rules state that a party in the Lok Sabha must have at least 10 % of total seats (545) in order to be considered the opposition party. The Indian National Congress (of the UPA) could only manage 44 seats while the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam party from Tamil Nadu came a close third with 37 seats. Mallikarjun Kharge has been declared the leader of the Indian National Congress in the Lok Sabha. 5 sitting members from Rajya Sabha, the Upper House of Indian Parliament, were elected to 16th Lok Sabha after the Indian general elections, 2014.
Following 37 political parties are represented in 16th Lok Sabha:
Case-wise distribution of the 542 members of the 16th Lok Sabha.
About one - third of all winners had at least one pending criminal case against them, with some having serious criminal cases.
Criteria for "serious '' criminal cases:
Compared to the 15th Lok Sabha, there is an increase of members with criminal cases. In 2009, 158 (30 %) of the 521 members analysed had criminal cases, of which 77 (15 %) had serious criminal cases.
Asset-wise distribution of the 542 members in the 16th Lok Sabha.
Out of the 542 members analysed, 443 (82 %) are having assets of ₹ 1 crore (US $150,000) or more. In the 15th Lok Sabha, out of 521 members analysed, 300 (58 %) members had assets of ₹ 1 crore (US $150,000) or more.
The average assets per member are ₹ 14.7 crore (US $2.3 million) (in 2009, this figure was ₹ 5.35 crore (US $820,000)).
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where is trinidad and tobago located in the caribbean | Trinidad and Tobago - Wikipedia
Trinidad and Tobago (/ ˈtrɪnɪdæd... təˈbeɪɡoʊ / (listen), / toʊ - /), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is a twin island sovereign state that is the southernmost nation of the West Indies in the Caribbean. It is situated 130 kilometres (81 miles) south of Grenada off the northern edge of the South American mainland, 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) off the coast of northeastern Venezuela. It shares maritime boundaries with Barbados to the northeast, Grenada to the northwest, Guyana to the southeast, and Venezuela to the south and west.
The island of Trinidad was a Spanish colony from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1498 until Spanish governor Don José María Chacón surrendered the island to a British fleet under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1797. During the same period, the island of Tobago changed hands among Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers more times than any other island in the Caribbean. Trinidad and Tobago were ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens as separate states and unified in 1889. Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence in 1962 and became a republic in 1976.
As of 2015, Trinidad and Tobago had the third highest GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP) in the Americas after the United States and Canada. It is recognised by the World Bank as a high - income economy. Unlike most of the English - speaking Caribbean, the economy is primarily industrial with an emphasis on petroleum and petrochemicals; much of the nation 's wealth is derived from its large reserves of oil and natural gas.
Trinidad and Tobago is known for its Carnival celebration and as the birthplace of steelpan, the limbo, and music styles such as calypso, soca, parang and chutney.
Historian E.L. Joseph claimed that Trinidad 's Amerindian name was Cairi or "Land of the Humming Bird '', derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, ierèttê or yerettê. However, Boomert claims that neither cairi nor caeri means hummingbird and tukusi or tucuchi does. Others have reported that kairi and iere simply mean island. Christopher Columbus renamed it "La Isla de la Trinidad '' ("The Island of the Trinity ''), fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Tobago 's cigar - like shape may have given it its Spanish name (cabaco, tavaco, tobacco) and possibly its Amerindian names of Aloubaéra (black conch) and Urupaina (big snail), although the English pronunciation is / təˈbeɪɡoʊ /, rhyming with lumbago, sago, and "may go ''.
Trinidad and Tobago are islands situated between 10 ° 2 ' and 11 ° 12 ' N latitude and 60 ° 30 ' and 61 ° 56 ' W longitude. At the closest point, Trinidad is just 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from Venezuelan territory. Covering an area of 5,128 km (1,980 sq mi), the country consists of the two main islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous smaller landforms, including Chacachacare, Monos, Huevos, Gaspar Grande (or Gasparee), Little Tobago, and St. Giles Island.
Trinidad is 4,768 km (1,841 sq mi) in area (comprising 93.0 % of the country 's total area) with an average length of 80 kilometres (50 mi) and an average width of 59 kilometres (37 mi). Tobago has an area of about 300 km (120 sq mi), or 5.8 % of the country 's area, is 41 km (25 mi) long and 12 km (7.5 mi) at its greatest width. Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and are thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America.
The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains. The highest point in the country is found on the Northern Range at El Cerro del Aripo, which is 940 metres (3,080 ft) above sea level.
As the majority of the population live in the island of Trinidad, this is the location of most major towns and cities. There are four major municipalities in Trinidad: Port of Spain, the capital, San Fernando, Arima and Chaguanas. The main town in Tobago is Scarborough. Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of the East -- West Corridor are the most fertile.
The Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands (East -- West Corridor and Caroni Plains) consist of younger shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, with Miocene formations along the southern and eastern flanks. The Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift.
The Southern Lowlands consist of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels. These overlie oil and natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range forms the third anticlinal uplift. It consists of several chains of hills, most famous being the Trinity Hills. The rocks consist of sandstones, shales, siltstones and clays formed in the Miocene and uplifted in the Pleistocene. Oil sands and mud volcanoes are especially common in this area.
The climate is tropical. There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first five months of the year, and the rainy season in the remaining seven of the year. Winds are predominantly from the northeast and are dominated by the northeast trade winds. Unlike most of the other Caribbean islands, both Trinidad and Tobago have frequently escaped the wrath of major devastating hurricanes, including Hurricane Ivan, the most powerful storm to have passed close to the islands in recent history, in September 2004. In the Northern Range, the climate is often different in contrast to the sweltering heat of the plains below. With constant cloud and mist cover, and heavy rains in the mountains, the temperature is much cooler.
Record temperatures for Trinidad and Tobago are 39 ° C (102 ° F) for the high in Port of Spain, and a low of 12 ° C (54 ° F).
Because Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, their biological diversity is unlike that of most other Caribbean islands, and has much in common with that of Venezuela. The main ecosystems are: coastal and marine (coral reefs, mangrove swamps, open ocean and seagrass beds); forest; freshwater (rivers and streams); karst; man - made ecosystems (agricultural land, freshwater dams, secondary forest); and savanna. On 1 August 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the 1992 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, and it has produced a biodiversity action plan and four reports describing the country 's contribution to biodiversity conservation. The reports formally acknowledged the importance of biodiversity to the well - being of the country 's people through provision of ecosystem services.
Information about vertebrates is good, with 472 bird species (2 endemics), about 100 mammals, about 90 reptiles (a few endemics), about 30 amphibians (a few endemics), 50 freshwater fish and at least 950 marine fish. Information about invertebrates is dispersed and very incomplete. About 650 butterflies, at least 672 beetles (from Tobago alone) and 40 corals have been recorded.
Although the list is far from complete, 1647 species of fungi, including lichens, have been recorded. The true total number of fungi is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 % of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered. A first effort to estimate the number of endemic fungi tentatively listed 407 species.
Information about micro-organisms is dispersed and very incomplete. Nearly 200 species of marine algae have been recorded. The true total number of micro-organism species must be much higher.
Thanks to a recently published checklist, plant diversity in Trinidad and Tobago is well documented with about 3,300 species (59 endemic) recorded.
Both Trinidad and Tobago were originally settled by Amerindians of South American origin. Trinidad was first settled by pre-agricultural Archaic people at least 7,000 years ago, making it the earliest settled part of the Caribbean. Ceramic - using agriculturalists settled Trinidad around 250 BC, and then moved further up the Lesser Antillean chain. It was known as ' Land of the Humming Bird ' by the indigenous peoples. At the time of European contact, Trinidad was occupied by various Arawakan - speaking groups including the Nepoya and Suppoya, and Cariban - speaking groups such as the Yao, while Tobago was occupied by the Island Caribs and Galibi.
Columbus reported seeing Tobago on the distant horizon in 1498, naming it Bellaforma, but did not land on the island. The present name of Tobago is thought to be a corruption of its old name, "Tobaco ''.
The Dutch and the Courlanders (people from the small Duchy of Courland and Semigallia belonging to Polish Commonwealth -- modern - day Latvia) established themselves in Tobago in the 16th and 17th centuries and produced tobacco and cotton. Over the centuries, Tobago changed hands between Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers. Britain consolidated its hold on both islands during the Napoleonic Wars, and they were combined into the colony of Trinidad and Tobago in 1889.
As a result of these colonial struggles, Amerindian, Spanish, French and English place names are all common in the country. African slaves and Chinese, Indian, Tamil and free African indentured labourers, as well as Portuguese from Madeira, arrived to supply labour in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Emigration from Barbados and the other Lesser Antilles, Venezuela, Syria and Lebanon also impacted on the ethnic make - up of the country.
Christopher Columbus encountered the island of Trinidad on 31 July 1498. In the 1530s, Antonio de Sedeño, a Spanish soldier intent on conquering the island of Trinidad, landed on its southwest coast with a small army of men. He intended to subdue the Orinoco and the Warao, the two major Amerindian peoples of the island, and rule over them in the name of the Spanish king. Sedeño and his men fought the native Carib Indians on many occasions, and subsequently built a fort. The next few decades were generally spent in warfare with the natives, until in 1592, the ' Cacique ' (native chief) Wannawanare (also known as Guanaguanare) granted the area later known as "St. Josephs '' to Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen, and withdrew to another part of the island. The settlement of San José de Oruña (St. Joseph) was established by Antonio de Berrío on this land. Only a couple of years later, Sir Walter Raleigh arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595. He was in search of the long - rumoured "City of Gold '' supposedly located in South America. He soon attacked San José, captured and interrogated Antonio de Berrío, and obtained much information from him and from the Cacique Topiawari. Raleigh then went on his way, and the Spanish authority was restored.
The next century (the 1600s) passed without major incident but sustained attempts by the Spaniards to control and rule over the Amerindians, and especially the exertions of the missionaries, were preparing grounds for an outburst. In 1687, the Catholic Catalan Capuchin friars were given responsibility for the conversions of the indigenous people of Trinidad and the Guianas. After 1687, they founded several missions in Trinidad, supported and richly funded by the state, which also granted encomienda over the native people to them. One such mission was Santa Rosa de Arima, established in 1789, when Amerindians from the former encomiendas of Tacarigua and Arauca (Arouca) were relocated further west.
The missions aimed at conversion and cultural deracination, which were naturally unwelcome to the target population. Escalating tensions between the Spaniards and Amerindians culminated in the Arena Massacre which took place in 1699. Amerindians bound to the Church 's encomienda at the mission at Arena / Arima revolted, killing the priests and desecrating the church. They then ambushed the governor and his party, who were on their way to visit the church. The uprising resulted in the death of several hundred Amerindians, of the Roman Catholic priests connected with the mission of San Francisco de los Arenales, of the Spanish Governor José de León y Echales and of all but one member of his party. Among those killed in the governor 's party was Juan Mazien de Sotomayor, missionary priest to the Nepuyo villages of Cuara, Tacarigua and Arauca.
Order was eventually restored and the Spanish authority was re-established. Another century passed, and during the 1700s, Trinidad was an island province belonging to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, together with Central America, present - day Mexico and the Southwestern United States. However, Trinidad in this period was still mostly forest, populated by a few Spaniards with their handful of slaves and a few thousand Amerindians. Indeed, the population in 1777 was only 1400, and Spanish colonisation in Trinidad remained tenuous.
Since Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada, was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from the Spanish king Charles III on 4 November 1783. A Cédula de Población had previously been granted in 1776 by the king, but had not shown results, and therefore the new Cédula was more generous. It granted free land and tax exemption for 10 years to Roman Catholic foreign settlers who were willing to swear allegiance to the King of Spain. The land grant was 30 fanegas (13 hectares / 32 acres) for each free man, woman and child and half of that for each slave that they brought with them.
It was fortuitous that the Cédula was issued only a few years before the French Revolution. During that period of upheaval, French planters with their slaves, free coloureds and mulattos from the neighbouring islands of Martinique, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Dominica migrated to Trinidad, where they established an agriculture - based economy (sugar and cocoa). These new immigrants established local communities in Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin, Cascade, Carenage and Laventille.
Trinidad 's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, from just under 1,400 in 1777. By 1797, the population of Port of Spain had increased from under 3,000 to 10,422 in five years, and consisted of people of mixed race, Spaniards, Africans, French republican soldiers, retired pirates and French nobility. The total population of Trinidad was 17,718, of which 2,151 were of European ancestry, 4,476 were "free blacks and people of colour '', 10,009 were slaves and 1,082 Amerindians. The sparse settlement and slow rate of population - increase during Spanish rule (and even during British rule) made Trinidad one of the less populated colonies of the West Indies, with the least developed plantation infrastructure.
In 1797, a British force led by General Sir Ralph Abercromby launched the invasion of Trinidad. His squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of Chaguaramas. The Spanish Governor Chacón decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad thus became a British crown colony, with a French - speaking population and Spanish laws. British rule was formalized under the Treaty of Amiens (1802).
British rule led to an influx of settlers from the United Kingdom and the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. English, Scots, Irish, German and Italian families arrived. Under British rule, new estates were created and the import of slaves did increase, but this was the period of abolitionism in England and the slave trade was under attack. Slavery was abolished in 1833, after which former slaves served an "apprenticeship '' period which ended on 1 August 1838 with full emancipation. An overview of the populations statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80 % of slave owners having fewer than 10 slaves each. In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.
After slaves were emancipated, plantation owners were in severe need of labour. The British authorities filled this need by instituting a system of indentureship. Various nationalities were contracted under this system, including East Indians, Chinese and Portuguese. Of these, the East Indians were imported in the largest numbers, starting from 1 May 1845, when 225 Indians were brought in the first shipment to Trinidad on the Fatel Razack, a Muslim - owned vessel. Indentureship of the East Indians lasted from 1845 to 1917, during which more than 147,000 Indians were brought to Trinidad to work on sugarcane plantations. They added what was initially the second - largest population grouping to the young nation, and their labour developed previously underdeveloped plantation lands.
The indentureship contract was exploitative, such that historians including Hugh Tinker were to call it "a new system of slavery ''. People were contracted for a period of five years, with a daily wage as low as 25 cents in the early 20th century, and they were guaranteed return passage to India at the end of their contract period. However, coercive means were often used to retain labourers, and the indentureship contracts were soon extended to 10 years after the planters complained that they were losing their labour too early. In lieu of the return passage, the British authorities soon began offering portions of land to encourage settlement; however, the numbers of people who did receive land grants is unclear. East Indians entering the colony were also subject to particular crown laws which segregated them from the rest of Trinidad 's population, such as the requirement that they carry a pass with them once off the plantations, and that if freed, they carry their "Free Papers '' or certificate indicating completion of the indenture period. The ex-Indentureds came to constitute a vital and significant section of the population, as did the ex-slaves.
Alongside sugarcane, the cacao (cocoa) crop also contributed greatly to economic earnings in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the 1920 -- 1930 period, the collapse of the sugarcane industry concomitant with the failure of the cocoa industry resulted in widespread depression among the rural and agricultural workers in Trinidad, and encouraged the rise of the Labour movement. This movement was led by Arthur Cipriani and Tubal Uriah "Buzz '' Butler, who, in combination with his Indian partners (notably Adrian Cola Rienzi), aimed to unite the working class and agricultural labour class to achieve a better standard of living for them, as well as to hasten the departure of the British. This effort was severely undermined by the British Home Office and by the British - educated Trinidadian elite, many of whom were descended from the plantocracy themselves. They instigated a vicious race politicking in Trinidad aimed at dividing the class - based movement on race - based lines, and they succeeded, especially since Butler 's support had collapsed from the top down.
Petroleum had been discovered in 1857, but became economically significant only in the 1930s and afterwards, as a result of the collapse of sugarcane and cocoa, and increasing industrialization. By the 1950s, petroleum had become a staple in Trinidad 's export market, and was responsible for a growing middle class among all sections of the Trinidad population. The collapse of Trinidad 's major agricultural commodities, followed by the Depression, and the rise of the oil economy, led to major changes in the country 's social structure.
Trinidad started to gain rights in the early 1900s. They achieved the right to vote in 1924. In the 1940s the citizens pushed for a self run internal government.
Trinidad and Tobago gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 31 August 1962. Elizabeth II remained head of state as Queen of Trinidad and Tobago. Eric Williams, a noted Caribbean historian, widely regarded as The Father of The Nation, was the first Prime Minister; he served from 1956 to 1959, before independence as Chief Minister, from 1959 to 1962, before independence as Premier, from 1962 to 1976, after independence as Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, then from 1976 to his death in 1981 as Prime Minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Rudranath Capildeo was the first Leader of the Opposition post-independence; he served from 1962 to 1967.
The presence of American military bases in Chaguaramas and Cumuto in Trinidad during World War II profoundly changed the character of society. In the post-war period, the wave of decolonisation that swept the British Empire led to the formation of the West Indies Federation in 1958 as a vehicle for independence. Chaguaramas was the proposed site for the federal capital. The Federation dissolved after the Jamaican Federation of the West Indies membership referendum of 1961, and the resulting withdrawal of the Province of Jamaica. The government of Trinidad and Tobago then also chose to seek independence from the United Kingdom on its own.
In 1976, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, though it retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as its final appellate court. Between the years 1972 and 1983, the republic profited greatly from the rising price of oil, as the oil - rich country increased its living standards greatly. In 1990, 114 members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen, led by Yasin Abu Bakr, formerly known as Lennox Phillip, stormed the Red House (the seat of Parliament), and Trinidad and Tobago Television, the only television station in the country at the time, and held the country 's government hostage for six days before surrendering.
Since 2003, the country has entered a second oil boom, a driving force which the government hopes to use to turn the country 's main export back to sugar and agriculture. Great concern was raised in August 2007 when it was predicted that this boom would last only until 2018. Petroleum, petrochemicals and natural gas continue to be the backbone of the economy. Tourism and the public service are the mainstay of the economy of Tobago, though authorities have begun to diversify the island. The bulk of tourist arrivals on the islands are from the United States.
The country is also a recognised transhipment point for illegal narcotics, with the cocaine distribution from the South American continent to the United States Eastern seaboard. With the most recent seizure of $100 million US dollar shipment by United States Authorities on 17 January 2014.
Trinidad and Tobago is a republic with a two - party system and a bicameral parliamentary system based on the Westminster System. The head of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the President, currently Paula Mae Weekes. The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Keith Rowley. The President is elected by an Electoral college consisting of the full membership of both houses of Parliament.
The Prime Minister is elected from the results of a general election which takes place every five years. The President is required to appoint the leader of the party who in his opinion has the most support of the members of the House of Representatives to this post; this has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the previous election (except in the case of the 2001 General Elections). Tobago also has its own elections, separate from the general elections. In these elections, members are elected and serve in the Tobago House of Assembly.
Parliament consists of the Senate (31 seats) and the House of Representatives (41 seats). The members of the Senate are appointed by the president. Sixteen Government Senators are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, six Opposition Senators are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and nine Independent Senators are appointed by the President to represent other sectors of civil society. The 41 members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for a maximum term of five years in a "first past the post '' system.
From 24 December 2001 to 24 May 2010, the governing party has been the People 's National Movement (PNM) led by Patrick Manning; the Opposition party was the United National Congress (UNC) led by Basdeo Panday. Another recent party was the Congress of the People, or COP, led by Winston Dookeran. Support for these parties appears to fall along ethnic lines with the PNM consistently obtaining a majority of Afro - Trinidadian vote, and the UNC gaining a majority of Indo - Trinidadian support. COP gained 23 % of the votes in the 2007 general elections but failed to win a seat. Prior to 24 May 2010, the PNM held 26 seats in the House of Representatives and the UNC Alliance (UNC - A) held 15 seats, following elections held on 5 November 2007.
After two and a half years, Prime Minister Patrick Manning dissolved Parliament in April 2010, and called a general election on 24 May 2010. After these general elections, the new governing coalition is the People 's Partnership led by Kamla Persad - Bissessar. Persad - Bissessar and "the People 's Partnership '' wrested power from the Patrick Manning - led PNM, taking home 29 seats to the PNM 's 12 seats, based on preliminary results.
It is estimated that the hidden economy represents 20 -- 30 % of measured GDP. Within the Trinidadian and Tobagonian business structure illicit activities and licit activities work side by side, with many business and political organisations being funded by institutionalised drug smugglers. Within Trinidad and Tobago there are two main drug cartels, the Syrian / Lebanese drug cartels and the Indo Trinidadian drug cartels. The Syrian Lebanese drug cartels are the longest tenured drug cartel on the islands, having ridden the wave of cocaine exportation from the 1970s to the current day. The Syrian Drug Cartels control the vast sway of financing and business interest on the island and exhibit monopolistic tendencies which limit free market policies in insurance, health, finance, heavy and light manufacturing, and land distribution.
Modern Trinidad and Tobago maintains close relations with its Caribbean neighbours and major North American and European trading partners. As the most industrialised and second - largest country in the English - speaking Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago has taken a leading role in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and strongly supports CARICOM economic integration efforts. It also is active in the Summit of the Americas process and supports the establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, lobbying other nations for seating the Secretariat in Port of Spain.
As a member of CARICOM, Trinidad and Tobago strongly backed efforts by the United States to bring political stability to Haiti, contributing personnel to the Multinational Force in 1994. After its 1962 independence, Trinidad and Tobago joined the United Nations and Commonwealth of Nations. In 1967, it became the first Commonwealth country to join the Organization of American States (OAS). In 1995, Trinidad played host to the inaugural meeting of the Association of Caribbean States and has become the seat of this 35 - member grouping, which seeks to further economic progress and integration among its states.
In international forums, Trinidad and Tobago has defined itself as having an independent voting record, but often supports US and EU positions.
The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It consists of the Regiment, the Coast Guard, the Air Guard and the Defence Force Reserves. Established in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago 's independence from the United Kingdom, the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force is one of the largest military forces in the English - speaking Caribbean.
Its mission statement is to "defend the sovereign good of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, contribute to the development of the national community and support the State in the fulfillment of its national and international objectives ''. The Defence Force has been engaged in domestic incidents, such as the 1990 Coup Attempt, and international missions, such as the United Nations Mission in Haiti between 1993 and 1996.
Trinidad is split into 14 regional corporations and municipalities, consisting of 9 regions and 5 municipalities, which have a limited level of autonomy. The various councils are made up of a mixture of elected and appointed members. Elections are due to be held every three years, but have not been held since 2003, four extensions having been sought by the government. The island of Tobago is governed by the Tobago House of Assembly:
Trinidad and Tobago is one of the 35 states which has ratified the OAS charter and is a member of the Organisation. The Charter of the Organisation of American States was signed in Bogota in 1948 and was amended by several protocols which were agreed to in different countries. The naming convention which is used with respect to the naming of the protocols is to include in the name of the Protocol the name of the city and the year in which the Protocol was signed, such as Cartagena de Indias in 1985, Managua 1993.
Trinidad and Tobago entered into the Inter-American system in 1967.
Trinidad and Tobago is the most developed nation and one of the wealthiest in the Caribbean and is listed in the top 40 (2010 information) of the 70 high - income countries in the world. Its gross national income per capita of US $20,070 (2014 gross national income at Atlas Method) is one of the highest in the Caribbean. In November 2011, the OECD removed Trinidad and Tobago from its list of developing countries. Trinidad 's economy is strongly influenced by the petroleum industry. Tourism and manufacturing are also important to the local economy. Tourism is a growing sector, although not as proportionately important as in many other Caribbean islands. Agricultural products include citrus and cocoa.
Recent growth has been fuelled by investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical, aluminium, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning. Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources but it also supplies manufactured goods, notably food, beverages, and cement, to the Caribbean region.
Oil and gas account for about 40 % of GDP and 80 % of exports, but only 5 % of employment. The country is also a regional financial centre, and the economy has a growing trade surplus. The expansion of Atlantic LNG over the past six years created the largest single - sustained phase of economic growth in Trinidad and Tobago. It has become the leading exporter of LNG to the United States, and now supplies some 70 % of US LNG imports.
Trinidad and Tobago has transitioned from an oil - based economy to a natural gas based economy. In 2007, natural gas production averaged 4 billion cubic feet per day (110,000,000 m / d), compared with 3.2 × 10 ^ cu ft / d (91,000 m / d) in 2005. In December 2005, the Atlantic LNG 's fourth production module or "train '' for liquefied natural gas (LNG) began production. Train 4 has increased Atlantic LNG 's overall output capacity by almost 50 % and is the largest LNG train in the world at 5.2 million tons / year of LNG.
Trinidad and Tobago, in an effort to undergo economic transformation though diversification formed InvesTT in 2012 to serve as the country 's sole investment promotion agency. This agency is aligned to the Ministry of Trade and Industry and is to be the key agent in growing the country 's non-oil and gas sectors significantly and sustainably.
Trinidad and Tobago 's infrastructure is good by regional standards. The international airport in Trinidad was expanded in 2001. There is an extensive network of paved roads with several good four and six lane highways including one controlled access expressway. The Ministry of Works estimates that an average Trinidadian spends about four hours in traffic per day. Emergency services are reliable, but may suffer delays in rural districts. Private hospitals are available and reliable. Utilities are fairly reliable in the cities. Some areas, however, especially rural districts, still suffer from water shortages.
Trinidad and Tobago has a well developed communications sector. The telecommunications and broadcasting sectors generated an estimated TT $5.63 billion (US $0.88 billion) in 2014, which as a percentage of GDP equates to 3.1 percent. This represented a 1.9 percent increase in total revenues generated by this industry compared to last year. Of total telecommunications and broadcasting revenues, mobile voice services accounted for the majority of revenues with TT $2.20 billion (39.2 percent). This was followed by Internet services which contributed TT $1.18 billion or 21.1 percent. The next highest revenue earners for the industry were Fixed Voice services and Pay TV services whose contributions totalled TT $0.76 billion and TT $0.70 billion respectively (13.4 percent and 12.4 percent). International voice services was next in line, generating TT $0.27 billion (4.7 percent) in revenues. Free - to Air radio and television services contributed TT $0.18 billion and TT $0.13 billion respectively (3.2 percent and 2.4 percent). Finally, other contributors included "other revenues '' and "leased line services '' with earnings of TT $0.16 billion and TT $0.05 billion respectively, with 2.8 percent and 0.9 percent.
There are several providers for each segment of the telecommunications market. Fixed Lines Telephone service is provided by TSTT and Cable & Wireless Communications operating as FLOW; cellular service is provided by TSTT (operating as bmobile) and Digicel whilst internet service is provided by TSTT, FLOW, Digicel, Green Dot and Lisa Communications.
The transport system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of a dense network of highways and roads across both major islands, ferries connecting Port of Spain with Scarborough and San Fernando, and international airports on both islands. The Uriah Butler Highway, Churchill Roosevelt Highway and the Sir Solomon Hochoy Highway links the nation together. Public transportation options on land are public buses, private taxis and minibuses. By sea, the options are inter-island ferries and inter-city water taxis.
The island of Trinidad is served by Piarco International Airport located in Piarco. It was opened on 8 January 1931. Elevated at 17.4 metres (57 ft) above sea level it comprises an area of 680 hectares (1,700 acres) and has a runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). The airport consists of two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal. The older South Terminal underwent renovations in 2009 for use as a VIP entrance point during the 5th Summit of the Americas. The North Terminal was completed in 2001, and consists of 14 second - level aircraft gates with jetways for international flights, two ground - level domestic gates and 82 ticket counter positions.
Piarco International Airport was voted the Caribbean 's leading airport for customer satisfaction and operational efficiency at the prestigious World Travel Awards (WTA), held in the Turks and Caicos in 2006. In 2008 the passenger throughput at Piarco International Airport was approximately 2.6 million.
Piarco International Airport is the seventh busiest airport in the Caribbean and the third busiest in the English - speaking Caribbean, after Sangster International Airport and Lynden Pindling International Airport.
As of December 2006, nineteen international airlines operated out of Piarco and offered flights to twenty - seven international destinations. Caribbean Airlines, the national airline, operates its main hub at the Piarco International Airport and services the Caribbean, the United States, Canada and South America. The airline is wholly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. After an additional cash injection of US $50 million, the Trinidad and Tobago government acquired the Jamaican airline Air Jamaica on 1 May 2010, with a 6 -- 12 month transition period to follow.
Caribbean Airlines, the national and state - owned airline of Trinidad and Tobago, is the largest in the Caribbean. After the acquisition of the now defunct Air Jamaica, it became the largest airline and was voted as the Caribbean 's leading airline.
The Island of Tobago is served by the A.N.R. Robinson International Airport in Crown Point. This airport has regular services to North America and Europe. There are regular flights between the two islands, with fares being heavily subsidised by the Government.
The Government of Trinidad and Tobago has recognized the creative industries as a pathway to economic growth and development. It is one of the newest, most dynamic sectors where creativity, knowledge and intangibles serve as the basic productive resource. In 2015, the Trinidad and Tobago Creative Industries Company Limited (CreativeTT) was established as a state agency under the Ministry of Trade and Industry with a mandate to stimulate and facilitate the business development and export activities of the Creative Industries in Trinidad and Tobago to generate national wealth, and, as such, the company is responsible for the strategic and business development of the three (3) niche areas and sub sectors currently under its purview -- Music, Film and Fashion. MusicTT, FilmTT and FashionTT are the subsidiaries established to fulfil this mandate.
The Strategic Plan for the Caribbean Community 2015 -- 2019 was adopted by Trinidad and Tobago and the other members of the Caribbean Common Market (CARICOM) in 2014. The first of its kind, this document reflects a desire among countries to embrace a more profound regionalism, in order to reposition the Caribbean in an increasingly volatile global economy. The plan proposes mobilizing funding from the public and private sectors to foster research and development (R&D) in the business sector. The plan outlines strategies for nurturing creativity, entrepreneurship, digital literacy and for making optimum use of available resources. It focuses on developing creative, manufacturing and service industries, with a special focus on tourism initially, natural resources and value - added products, agriculture and fisheries, to reduce dependence on food imports and foster sustainable fisheries, and energy efficiency.
Trinidad and Tobago is the region 's leading exporter of oil and gas but imports of fossil fuels provided over 90 % of the energy consumed by its CARICOM neighbours in 2008. This vulnerability led CARICOM to develop an Energy Policy which was approved in 2013. This policy is accompanied by the CARICOM Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (C - SERMS). Under the policy, renewable energy sources are to contribute 20 % of the total electricity generation mix in member states by 2017, 28 % by 2022 and 47 % by 2027.
The Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) has produced an implementation plan for 2011 -- 2021 and carried out work to assess and build capacity in climate change mitigation and resilient development strategies. This work has been supported by the region 's specialists, who have produced models for climate change and mitigation processes in Caribbean states. They also play a major advisor role to the divisions in ministries responsible for climate change. The growing frequency and intensity of hurricanes is of concern to all Caribbean nations. In 2012, Trinidad and Tobago had a 9 % chance each year of being struck by a hurricane, according to estimates by the International Monetary Fund.
The two main bodies responsible for science, technology and innovation in Trinidad and Tobago are the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education and the National Commission for Science and Technology.
In 2002, Trinidad and Tobago adopted Vision 2020. Like Jamaica 's Vision 2030 (2009) and the Strategic Plan of Barbados for 2005 -- 2025, Trinidad and Tobago 's Vision 2020 accords central importance to harnessing science, technology and innovation (STI) to raise living standards and strengthen resilience to environmental shocks like hurricanes.
Trinidad and Tobago is one of the more affluent members of CARICOM, thanks to its natural resources. Despite this, it spent just 0.05 % of GDP on R&D in 2012, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Even when the country was enjoying economic growth of 8 % per annum in 2004, it devoted just 0.11 % of GDP to R&D. Calculated in thousands of current Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) dollars, research expenditure actually dropped between 2009 and 2012 from 21 309 to 19 232. This corresponds to research expenditure of $ PPP 65 per capita in 2009 and $ PPP 45 in 2012.
Industrial R&D has declined since 2000, perhaps owing to the drop in research activity in the sugar sector. Whereas industrial R&D accounted for 24 % of domestic research expenditure in 2004 and 29.5 % in 2005, it had become almost non-existent by 2010.
The number of researchers in Trinidad and Tobago grew from 787 to 914 between 2009 and 2012. This corresponds in a rise from 595 to 683 in the number of researchers (head counts) per million inhabitants.
Scientific output grew between 2007 and 2011, according to Thomson Reuters ' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) before contracting over the period 2012 -- 2014. Trinidad and Tobago produced 109 publications per million population in 2014, behind Grenada (1 430), St Kitts and Nevis (730), Barbados (182) and Dominica (138) but ahead of the Bahamas (86), Belize (47) and Jamaica (42).
Between 2008 and 2014, scientists collaborated most with their peers from the United States (251 papers), United Kingdom (183), Canada (95), India (63) and Jamaica (43), according to the copublication record of Thomson Reuters. In turn, Jamaican scientists considered their counterparts from Trinidad and Tobago to be their fourth - closest collaborators (with 43 joint papers) after those from the United States, United Kingdom and Canada.
Between 2008 and 2013, Trinidad and Tobago registered 17 patents with the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). This corresponds to 13 % of the 134 patents registered by CARICOM members over this period. The top contributors were the Bahamas (34 patents) and Jamaica (22).
Trinidad and Tobago led CARICOM members for the value of high - tech exports in 2008 (US $36.2 million) but these exports plummeted to US $3.5 million the following year, according to the Comtrade database of the United Nations Statistics Division.
The Caribbean Industrial Research Institute in Trinidad and Tobago facilitates climate change research and provides industrial support for R&D related to food security. It also carries out equipment testing and calibration for major industries.
The Caribbean Epidemiology Centre in Port of Spain, University of Trinidad and Tobago, Tobago Institute of Health and University of the West Indies (St Augustine campus) also conduct R&D.
The ethnic composition of Trinidad and Tobago reflects a history of conquest and immigration. While the earliest inhabitants were of Amerindian heritage, since the 20th century the two dominant groups in the country were those of South Asian and of African heritage. Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonians make up the country 's largest ethnic group (approximately 37.6 %). They are primarily descendants from indentured workers from India, brought to replace freed African slaves who refused to continue working on the sugar plantations. Through cultural preservation some residents of Indian descent continue to maintain traditions from their ancestral homelands.
Afro - Trinidadians and Tobagonians make up the country 's second largest ethnic group, with approximately 36.3 % of the population identifying as being of African descent. People of African background were brought to the island as slaves as early as the 16th century. 24.4 % of the population identified in the 2011 census as being of "mixed '' ethnic heritage. There are small but significant minorities of people of Amerindian, European, Chinese, and Arab descent.
English is the country 's official language (the local variety of standard English is Trinidadian English or more properly, Trinidad and Tobago Standard English, abbreviated as "TTSE ''), but the main spoken language is either of two English - based creole languages (Trinidadian Creole or Tobagonian Creole), which reflects the Amerindian, European, African, and Asian heritage of the nation. Both creoles contain elements from a variety of African languages; Trinidadian English Creole, however, is also influenced by French and French Creole (Patois). Spanish is estimated to be spoken by around 5 % of the population and has been promoted by recent governments as a "first foreign language '' due to its proximity to Venezuela since March 2005.
A majority of the early Indian immigrants spoke Trinidadian Hindustani, which is a form of the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialect of Hindustani (Hindi - Urdu), which later became the lingua franca of Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonians. Attempts are being made to preserve the Trinidadian Hindustani language in the country, including the promotion of Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonian musical forms called Pichakaree and Chutney, which are typically sung in a mixture of English and Trinidadian Hindustani.
The indigenous languages were Yao on Trinidad and Karina on Tobago, both Cariban, and Shebaya on Trinidad, which was Arawakan.
Many different religions are practised in Trinidad and Tobago. According to the 2011 census, Roman Catholics were the largest religious group in Trinidad and Tobago with 21.60 % of the total population. Hindus were the second largest group with 18.15 %, while the Pentecostal / Evangelical / Full Gospel denominations were the third largest group with 12.02 % of the population. Significantly, respondents who did not state a religious affiliation represented 11.1 % of the population. The remaining population is made of Spiritual Shouter Baptists (5.67 %), Anglicans (5.67 %), Muslims (4.97 %), Seventh - day Adventists (4.09 %), Presbyterians or Congregationalists (2.49 %), Irreligious (2.18 %), Jehovah 's Witnesses (1.47 %), other Baptists (1.21 %), Trinidad Orisha believers (0.9 %), Methodists (0.65 %), Rastafarians (0.27 %) and the Moravian Church (0.27 %).
Two African syncretic faiths, the Shouter or Spiritual Baptists and the Orisha faith (formerly called Shangos, a less than complimentary term) are among the fastest growing religious groups. Similarly, there is a noticeable increase in numbers of Evangelical Protestant and Fundamentalist churches usually lumped as "Pentecostal '' by most Trinidadians, although this designation is often inaccurate. Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Bahá'í, and Buddhism are practiced by a minority of Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonians. Several eastern religions such as Buddhism and Taoism are followed by the Chinese community.
Children generally start pre-school at two and a half years but this is not mandatory. They are however, expected to have basic reading and writing skills when they commence primary school. Students proceed to a primary school at the age of five years. Seven years are spent in primary school. The seven classes of primary school consists of First Year and Second Year, followed by Standard One through Standard Five. During the final year of primary school, students prepare for and sit the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) which determines the secondary school the child will attend.
Students attend secondary school for a minimum of five years, leading to the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) examinations, which is the equivalent of the British GCSE O levels. Children with satisfactory grades may opt to continue high school for a further two - year period, leading to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE), the equivalent of GCE A levels. Both CSEC and CAPE examinations are held by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). Public Primary and Secondary education is free for all, although private and religious schooling is available for a fee.
Tertiary education for tuition costs are provided for via GATE (The Government Assistance for Tuition Expenses), up to the level of the bachelor 's degree, at the University of the West Indies (UWI), the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT), the University of the Southern Caribbean (USC), the College of Science, Technology and Applied Arts of Trinidad and Tobago (COSTAATT) and certain other local accredited institutions. Government also currently subsidizes some Masters programmes. Both the Government and the private sector also provide financial assistance in the form of academic scholarships to gifted or needy students for study at local, regional or international universities.
Women have a key role in Trinidadian demographics. While women account for only 49 % of the population, they constitute nearly 55 % of the workforce in the country.
Trinidad and Tobago claims two Nobel Prize - winning authors, V.S. Naipaul and St Lucian - born Derek Walcott (who founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop, working and raising a family in Trinidad for much of his career). Designer Peter Minshall is renowned not only for his Carnival costumes but also for his role in opening ceremonies of the Barcelona Olympics, the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the 1996 Summer Olympics, and the 2002 Winter Olympics, for which he won an Emmy Award.
Geoffrey Holder (brother of Boscoe Holder) and Heather Headley are two Trinidad - born artists who have won Tony Awards for theatre. Holder also has a distinguished film career, and Headley has won a Grammy Award as well. Recording artists Billy Ocean and Nicki Minaj are also Trinidadian. The famous Bodak Yellow and I Like It Hip Hop and Rap singer Cardi B is of Trinidadian descent. Three actors who appeared on Will Smith 's sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air are of Trinidadian descent: Tatyana Ali and Alfonso Ribeiro were series regulars as Will 's cousins Ashley and Carlton, respectively, while Nia Long played Will 's girlfriend Lisa. Foxy Brown, Dean Marshall, Sommore, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Gabrielle Reece, pop singer Haddaway, Tracy Quan, Mike Bibby, Lauryn Williams, Fresh Kid Ice, and Roy Hibbert are all of Trinidadian descent.
Trinidad and Tobago also has the distinction of being the smallest country to have two Miss Universe titleholders and the first black woman ever to win: Janelle Commissiong in 1977, followed by Wendy Fitzwilliam in 1998; the country has also had one Miss World titleholder, Giselle LaRonde.
Trinidad and Tobago is the birthplace of calypso music and the steelpan. Trinidad is also the birthplace of soca music, chutney music, chutney - soca, parang, and chutney parang. The diverse cultural and religious backgrounds of its citizens has led to many festivities and ceremonies throughout the year, such as Carnival, Diwali, and Eid festivities.
Hasely Crawford won the first Olympic gold medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the men 's 100 metre dash in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Nine different athletes from Trinidad and Tobago have won twelve medals at the Olympics, beginning with a silver medal in weightlifting, won by Rodney Wilkes in 1948, and most recently, a gold medal by Keshorn Walcott in the men 's javelin throw in 2012. Ato Boldon has won the most Olympic and World Championship medals for Trinidad and Tobago in athletics, with eight in total -- four from the Olympics and four from the World Championships. Boldon is the only world champion Trinidad and Tobago has produced to date in athletics. He won the 1997 200 m sprint World Championship in Athens. Swimmer George Bovell III won a bronze medal in the men 's 200 m IM in 2004.
Also in 2012 Lalonde Gordon competed in the XXX Summer Olympics where he won a Bronze Medal in the 400 metres (1,300 feet), being surpassed by Luguelin Santos of the Dominican Republic and Kirani James of Grenada. Keshorn Walcott (as stated above) came first in javelin and earned a gold medal, making him the second Trinidadian in the country 's history to receive one. This also makes him the first Western athlete in 40 years to receive a gold medal in the javelin sport, and the first athlete from Trinidad and Tobago to win a gold medal in a field event in the Olympics. Sprinter Richard Thompson is also from Trinidad and Tobago. He came second place to Usain Bolt in the Beijing Olympics in the 100 metres (330 feet) with a time of 9.89 s.
In 2018 The Court of Arbitration for Sport made its final decision on the failed doping sample from the Jamaican team in the 4 x 100 relay in the 2008 Olympic Games. The team from Trinidad and Tobago will be awarded the Gold medal, because of the second rank during the relay run.
Cricket is a popular sport of Trinidad and Tobago, with intense inter-island rivalry with its Caribbean neighbours. Cricket is the national sport of the country. Trinidad and Tobago is represented at Test cricket, One Day International as well as Twenty20 cricket level as a member of the West Indies team. The national team plays at the first - class level in regional competitions such as the Regional Four Day Competition and Regional Super50. Meanwhile, the Trinbago Knight Riders play in the Caribbean Premier League.
The Queen 's Park Oval located in Port of Spain is the largest cricket ground in the West Indies, having hosted 60 Test matches as of January 2018. Trinidad and Tobago along with other islands from the Caribbean co-hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup.
Brian Lara, world record holder for the most runs scored both in a Test and in a First Class innings and other records, was born in a small town of Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago and is often referred to as the Prince of Port of Spain or simply the Prince. This legendary West Indian batsman is widely regarded (along with Sir Donald Bradman, Sunil Gavaskar and Sachin Tendulkar) as one of the best batsmen ever to have played the game, and is one of the most famous sporting icons in the country.
Association football is also a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago. The men 's national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup for the first time by beating Bahrain in Manama on 16 November 2005, making them the second smallest country ever (in terms of population) to qualify, after Iceland. The team, coached by Dutchman Leo Beenhakker, and led by Tobagonian - born captain Dwight Yorke, drew their first group game -- against Sweden in Dortmund, 0 -- 0, but lost the second game to England on late goals, 0 -- 2. They were eliminated after losing 2 -- 0 to Paraguay in the last game of the Group Stage. Prior to the 2006 World Cup qualification, Trinidad and Tobago came agonizingly close in a controversial qualification campaign for the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Following the match, the referee of their critical game against Haiti was awarded a lifetime ban for his actions. Trinidad and Tobago again fell just short of qualifying for the World Cup in 1990, needing only a draw at home against the United States but losing 1 -- 0. They play their home matches at the Hasely Crawford Stadium. Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship, and hosted the 2010 FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup.
The TT Pro League is the country 's primary football competition and is the top level of the Trinidad and Tobago football league system. The Pro League serves as a league for professional football clubs in Trinidad and Tobago. The league began in 1999 as part of a need for a professional league to strengthen the country 's national team and improve the development of domestic players. The first season took place in the same year beginning with eight teams.
Basketball is commonly played in Trinidad and Tobago in colleges, universities and throughout various urban basketball courts. Its national team is one of the most successful teams in the Caribbean. At the Caribbean Basketball Championship it won four straight gold medals from 1986 -- 1990.
Netball has long been a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago, although it has declined in popularity in recent years. At the Netball World Championships they co-won the event in 1979, were runners up in 1987, and second runners up in 1983.
Rugby is played in Trinidad and Tobago and continues to be a popular sport, and horse racing is regularly followed in the country.
There is also the Trinidad and Tobago national baseball team which is controlled by the Baseball / Softball Association of Trinidad and Tobago, and represents the nation in international competitions. The team is a provisional member of the Pan American Baseball Confederation.
There are a number of 9 and 18 - hole golf courses on Trinidad and Tobago. The most established is the St Andrews Golf Club, Maraval in Trinidad (commonly referred to as Moka), and there is a newer course at Trincity, near Piarco Airport called Millennium Lakes. There are 18 - hole courses at Chaguramas and Point - a-Pierre and 9 - hole courses at Couva and St Madeline. Tobago has two 18 - hole courses. The older of the two is at Mount Irvine, with the Magdalena Hotel & Golf Club (formerly Tobago Plantations) being built more recently.
Although a minor sport, bodybuilding is of growing interest in Trinidad and Tobago. Heavyweight female bodybuilder Kashma Maharaj is of Trinidadian descent.
Dragonboat is also another water - sport that has been rapidly growing over the years. Introduced in 2006 the fraternity made consistent strides in having more members apart of the TTDBF (Trindad and Tobago Dragonboat Federation) as well as performing on an international level such as the 10th IDBF World Nations Dragon Boat Championships in Tampa, USA 2011.
The flag was chosen by the Independence committee in 1962. Red, black and white symbolise the warmth of the people, the richness of the earth and water respectively.
The coat of arms was designed by the Independence committee, and features the scarlet ibis (native to Trinidad), the cocrico (native to Tobago) and hummingbird. The shield bears three ships, representing both the Trinity, and the three ships that Columbus sailed.
There are five categories and thirteen classes of national awards:
The National Anthem of the twin - island state is "Forged From The Love of Liberty ''.
Other national songs include "God Bless Our Nation '' and "Our Nation 's Dawning ''.
The national birds for Trinidad and Tobago are the scarlet ibis and the cocrico. The scarlet ibis is kept safe by the government by living in the Caroni Bird Sanctuary which was set up by the government for the protection of these birds. The Cocrico is more indigenous to the island of Tobago and are more likely to be seen in the forest.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, 157 - 173, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia: Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
Historical Development. Historical Development of the Steel Band.
http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Steelband Retrieved 17 - 12 - 17
Coordinates: 10 ° 36 ′ N 61 ° 6 ′ W / 10.600 ° N 61.100 ° W / 10.600; - 61.100
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who is running for florida governor in 2018 | Florida gubernatorial election, 2018 - wikipedia
Rick Scott Republican
The 2018 Florida gubernatorial election will be held on November 6, 2018, alongside a U.S. Senate election, U.S. House elections, and other state and local elections. Incumbent two - term Republican Governor Rick Scott is term - limited. Florida elects its governor and lieutenant governor on a joint ticket.
The candidate filing deadline for this gubernatorial race was on June 22, 2018, with primary elections being held on August 28, 2018. Florida uses a closed primary process, in which the selection of each party 's candidates for a general election is limited to registered members of that party. Andrew Gillum won the Democratic primary, and Ron DeSantis won the Republican primary.
Hypothetical polling
Hypothetical polling
An earlier debate moderated by Telemundo was supposed to take place on October 16, 2018. Gillum cancelled, saying he needed to focus on recovery efforts post-Hurricane Michael.
The first debate moderated by CNN 's Jake Tapper was hosted on October 21, 2018, at WEDU, Tampa, Florida. It was an hour long debate featuring topics like climate change, minimum wage, health care, gun control, the NRA, De Santis 's "monkey up '' comment and President Trump being a role model for children.
This debate was held a day before early voting started in Florida on October 22, 2018.
The second debate occurred on October 24, 2018 and was hosted at Davie, Florida. It was moderated by Leadership Florida and the Florida Press Association.
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ranking member of the house committee on science space and technology | United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology - wikipedia
The Committee on Science, Space and Technology is a committee of the United States House of Representatives. It has jurisdiction over non-defense federal scientific research and development. Specifically, the committee has partial or complete jurisdiction over the following federal agencies: NASA, the Department of Energy, EPA, ATSDR, NSF, FAA, NOAA, NIST, FEMA, the U.S. Fire Administration, and USGS.
In the wake of the Soviet Sputnik program in the late 1950s, Congress created the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration in 1958, chaired by majority leader John William McCormack. This select committee drafted the National Aeronautics and Space Act that created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). A staff report of the committee, the Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications, provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers.
The committee also chartered the permanent House Committee on Science and Astronautics, which officially began on January 3, 1959, and was the first new standing committee established in the House since 1946. The name was changed in 1974 to the House Committee on Science and Technology. The name was changed again in 1987 to the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology. After the Republican Party gained a majority in Congress in 1994, the name of the committee was changed to the House Committee on Science. With the return of control to the Democrats in 2007, the committee 's name was changed back to the House Committee on Science and Technology.
In the 112th Congress, Committee Chairman Ralph Hall added "Space '' back into the committee 's name: "The Committee on Science, Space, and Technology '' -- a nod to the committee 's history, broad jurisdiction, and the importance of space exploration in maintaining American innovation and competitiveness.
On December 1, 2016, the committee 's Twitter account posted a link to an article on Breitbart which argued that climate change was the result of natural weather processes. The tweet was criticized by members of the scientific community on Twitter for promoting an unscientific and misleading article. The Committee 's Ranking Member Eddie Bernice Johnson also criticized the tweet, writing, "False news & false facts put us all in danger. ''
There are five subcommittees in the 115th Congress.
Chairmen since 1959.
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is a birth registration card the same as a birth certificate | Birth certificate - wikipedia
A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child. The term "birth certificate '' can refer to either the original document certifying the circumstances of the birth or to a certified copy of or representation of the ensuing registration of that birth. Depending on the jurisdiction, a record of birth might or might not contain verification of the event by such as a midwife or doctor.
The documentation of births is a practice widely held throughout human civilization, especially in China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Persia. The original purpose of vital statistics was for tax purposes and for the determination of available military manpower. In England, births were initially registered with churches, who maintained registers of births. This practice continued into the 19th century. The compulsory registration of births with the United Kingdom government is a practice that originated at least as far back as 1853. The entire United States did not get a standardized system until 1902.
Most countries have statutes and laws that regulate the registration of births. In all countries, it is the responsibility of the mother 's physician, midwife, hospital administrator, or the parents of the child to see that the birth is properly registered with the appropriate government agency.
The actual record of birth is stored with a government agency. That agency will issue certified copies or representations of the original birth record upon request, which can be used to apply for government benefits, such as passports. The certification is signed and / or sealed by the registrar or other custodian of birth records, who is commissioned by the government.
The right of every child to a name and nationality, and the responsibility of national governments to achieve this are contained in Articles 7 and 8 in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: "The child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth to a name, the right to acquire a nationality... '' (CRC Article 7) and "States Parties undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations... '' (CRC Article 8).
... it 's a small paper but it actually establishes who you are and gives access to the rights and the privileges, and the obligations, of citizenship.
Despite 191 countries ratifying the Convention, the births of millions of children worldwide go unregistered. By their very nature, data concerning unregistered children are approximate. About 29 % of countries do n't have available or sufficient data to assess global progress towards the SDG goal of universal coverage. However, from the data that is available, UNICEF estimates that more than a quarter of children under 5 worldwide are unregistered. The lowest levels of birth registration are found in sub-Saharan Africa (43 per cent). This phenomenon disproportionately impacts poor households and indigenous populations. Even in many developed countries, it contributes to difficulties in fully accessing civic rights.
Birth registration opens the door to rights to children and adults which many other human beings take for granted: to prove their age; to prove their nationality; to receive healthcare; to go to school; to take exams; to be adopted; to protection from under - age military service or conscription; to marry; to open a bank account; to hold a driving licence; to obtain a passport; to inherit money or property; and to vote or stand for elected office.
There are many reasons why births go unregistered, including social and cultural beliefs and attitudes; alternative documents and naming ceremonies; remote areas, poor infrastructure; economic barriers; lack of office staff, equipment and training; legal and political restrictions; fear of discrimination and persecution; war, conflict and unrest or simply the fact that there is no system in place.
Retrospective registration may be necessary where there is a backlog of children whose births have gone unregistered. In Senegal, the government is facilitating retrospective registration through free local court hearings and the number of unregistered children has fallen considerably as a result. In Sierra Leone, the government gave the National Office of Births and Deaths special permission to issue birth certificates to children over seven. In Bolivia, there was a successful three - year amnesty for the free registration of young people aged between 12 and 18.
Statelessness, or the lack of effective nationality, impacts the daily lives of some 11 - 12 million people around the world. Perhaps those who suffer most are stateless infants, children, and youth. Though born and raised in their parents ' country of habitual residence, they lack formal recognition of their existence.
States and territories of Australia are responsible for the issuance of birth certificates, through agencies generally titled "Registry of Births Deaths and Marriages '' or similar.
Initially registering a birth is done by a hospital through a "Birth Registration Statement '' or similar, signed by appropriately licensed and authorised health professionals, and provided to the state or territory registry. Home births are permitted, but a statement is required from a registered midwife, doctor or 2 other witnesses other than the parents. Unplanned births require in some states that the baby be taken to a hospital within 24 hours. Once registered, a separate application (sometimes it can be done along with the Birth Registration Statement) can be made for a birth certificate, generally at a cost. The person named or a parent can apply for a certificate at any time. Generally, there is no restriction on re-applying for a certificate at a later date, so it could be possible to legally hold multiple original copies.
The Federal government requires that births be also registered through a "Proof of Birth Declaration '' similarly signed as above by a doctor or midwife. This ensures the appropriate benefits can be paid, and the child is enrolled for Medicare.
The state or territory issued birth certificate is a secure A4 paper document, generally listing: Full name at birth, sex at birth, parents and occupation, older siblings, addresses, date and place of birth, name of the registrar, date of registration, date of issue of certificate, a registration number, with the signature of the registrar and seal of the registry printed and or embossed. Most states allow for still births to be issued a birth certificate. Some states issue early pregnancy loss certificates (without legal significance if before 20 weeks). Depending on the state, amendments are allowed to correct the certificate, add parents, recognising same sex relationships, changing the sex of the holder is also permitted in some states.
The full birth certificate in Australia is an officially recognised identity document generally in the highest category. The birth certificate assists in establishing citizenship. Shorter and / or commemorative birth certificates are available, however are not generally acceptable for identification purposes.
Birth certificates in Australia can be verified online by approved agencies through the Attorney - General 's Department Document Verification Service and can be used to validate identity digitally, e.g. online.
In Canada, the issuance of birth certificates is a function of the provinces or territories.
Agencies or various ministers are in charge of issuing birth certificates:
There are three types of birth certificates issued:
The People 's Republic of China issued its first birth certificate on January 1, 1996. Birth certificate used currently is the fifth edition, which was adopted since January 1, 2014. Still, China, the world 's most populous country, is among those with no globally comparable data, presenting challenges to researchers who wish to assess global and regional progress towards universal birth registration.
In England and Wales, the description "birth certificate '' is used to describe a certified copy of an entry in the birth register.
Civil registration of births, marriages and deaths in England and Wales started on 1 July 1837. Registration was not compulsory until 1875, following the Registration of Births and Deaths Act 1874, which made registration of a birth the responsibility of those present at the birth.
When a birth is registered, the details are entered into the register book at the local register office for the district in which the birth took place and is retained permanently in the local register office. A copy of each entry in the birth register is sent to the General Register Office (GRO).
Before the government 's registration system was created, evidence of births and / or baptisms (and also marriages and death or burials) was dependent on the events being recorded in the records of the Church of England or in those of other various churches -- not all of which maintained such records or all types of those records. Copies of such records are not issued by the General Register Office; but can be obtained from these churches, or from the local or national archive, which usually now keeps the records in original or copy form.
There are two types of birth certificates:
A full certificate, titled ' CERTIFIED COPY OF AN ENTRY ' is a copy of the original entry in the birth register, giving all the recorded details. Information includes; name, sex, date and place of birth of the child, father 's name, place of birth and occupation, mother 's name, place of birth, maiden name and occupation. Certificates for births before 1911 do not show the mothers maiden name, before 1969 do not show the details of the parents ' place of birth and registration and before 1984 do not show mothers occupation.
The short certificate, titled ' CERTIFICATE OF BIRTH ', shows the child 's full name, sex, date and place of birth. It does not give any particulars of the parents; therefore it is not proof of parentage. A short birth certificate is issued, free of charge, at the time of registration.
Both versions of certificate can be used in the verification of identity by acting as a support to other information or documentation provided. Where proof of parentage is required only a full certificate will be accepted.
The original registrations are required by law to be issued in the form of certified copies to any person who identifies an index entry and pays the prescribed fee. They can be ordered by registered users from the General Register Office Certificate Ordering Service or by postal or telephone ordering from the General Register Office or by post or in person from local registrars. If the birth was registered within the past 50 years detailed information is required before a certificate will be issued.
Traditionally Births were poorly recorded in India.
For official purposes, other proofs are accepted in India in lieu of the Birth certificate, such as Matriculation certificates. Facilities are available to produce a Birth certificate from a passport.
By law since 1969, Registration of Births is compulsory as per provisions of Registration of Births & Deaths Act. Birth certificates are issued by the Government of India or the municipality concerned. Specific rules vary by state, region and municipality.
In Delhi, for example, births must be registered within 21 days by the hospital or institution, or by a family member if the birth has taken place at home. After registration, a birth certificate can be obtained by applying to the relevant authority. Certificates can also be issued under special provisions to adopted children, and undocumented orphans. Overseas births can also be registered.
Some municipalities, such as Greater Chennai Corporation allow for fully digital Birth certificates to be applied for printed, and verified online.
Earlier testimony was a small book format - bound, now it 's just a page format B5, provided with watermarks. The certificate has a series and number.
Blank insert is made in Russian. In the case of being issued in one of the country 's republics, its national language form liner can be made in Russian and in the official language of the republic on the model, approved by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation.
A birth certificate can be filled with a handwritten way and with the use of technical equipment (typewriters, computers). When filling in the form is carried handwritten way, all records are made legibly in ink or paste blue or black. If you are using a computer or typewriter dye must be black. The quality of paste, ink, dye, used in completing the documents should ensure the preservation of text documents for a set retention period. When filling out the birth certificate is not allowed to have it in patches, blots and erasures, cuts.
Birth certificate is signed by the head of the registrar or other public authority issuing the certificate (e.g., the consulate). Signature of the registrar should have a transcript (initials and surname) and sealed with the official seal.
Currently, information about the nationality of the parents is mentioned in the certificate on request. By default, this column is empty
When making a citizenship, a special insert is issued to the birth certificate. In testimony Stamp.
February 6, 2007 ear of citizenship were canceled, on the reverse side of the Certificate began to put a stamp on the child 's citizenship. This rule applies to newborns or those who change or restores documents.
Old shells are valid for achieving a child 14 years old and to change them is not necessary.
The birth certificate of the child 's parents can get (not deprived of parental rights), itself a child of full age, guardian or caregiver. Issuance of the document is made in the offices of the registrar, ZAGS (Russian: ЗАГС).
With the loss of the certificate, a new document is issued by the registry office (ZAGS) in the place of the original receipt on the basis of a written application.
In the U.S., the issuance of birth certificates is a function of the Vital Records Office of the states, capital district, territories and former territories. Birth in the U.S. establishes automatic eligibility for American citizenship, so a birth certificate from a local authority is commonly provided to the federal government to obtain a U.S. passport. However, the U.S. State Department does issue a Consular Report of Birth Abroad for children born to U.S. citizens (who are also eligible for citizenship), including births on military bases in foreign territory.
The federal and state governments have traditionally cooperated to some extent to improve vital statistics. From 1900 to 1946 the U.S. Census Bureau designed standard birth certificates, collected vital statistics on a national basis, and generally sought to improve the accuracy of vital statistics. In 1946 that responsibility was passed to the U.S. Public Health Service. Unlike the British system of recording all births in "registers '', the states file an individual document for each and every birth.
The U.S. National Center for Health Statistics creates standard forms that are recommended for use by the individual states to document births. However, states are free to create their own forms. As a result, neither the appearance nor the information content of birth certificate forms is uniform across states. These forms are completed by the attendant at birth or a hospital administrator, which are then forwarded to a local or state registrar, who stores the record and issues certified copies upon request.
In 2017, the state of Illinois began an effort to digitize birth certificates using blockchain technology.
According to the Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector General, as of 2000 there were more than 6,000 entities issuing birth certificates. The Inspector General report states that according to staff at the Immigration and Naturalization Service 's Forensics Document Laboratory the number of legitimate birth certificate versions in use exceeded 14,000.
In the case of applying for a U.S. passport, not all legitimate government - issued birth certificates are acceptable:
A certified birth certificate has a registrar 's raised, embossed, impressed or multicolored seal, registrar 's signature, and the date the certificate was filed with the registrar 's office, which must be within 1 year of your birth. Please note, some short (abstract) versions of birth certificates may not be acceptable for passport purposes.
Beginning April 1, 2011, all birth certificates must also include the full names of the applicant 's parent (s).
The U.S. State Department has paid close attention to abstract certificates from both Texas and California. There have been reports of a high incidence of midwife registration fraud along the border region between Texas and Mexico, and the Texas abstract certificate form does not list the name or occupation of the attendant. The California Abstract of Birth did not include an embossed seal, was no longer considered a secure document, and have not been issued in California since 2001.
Most hospitals in the U.S. issue a souvenir birth certificate which may include the footprints of the newborn. However, these birth certificates are not legally accepted as proof of age or citizenship, and are frequently rejected by the Bureau of Consular Affairs during passport applications. Many Americans believe the souvenir records to be their official birth certificates, when in reality they hold little legal value.
In the United States, when an adoption is finalized, the government seals the original birth certificate and will issue a replacement birth certificate substituting the individual 's birth name with the name selected by the adoptive parents, and replacing the birth parents ' names with the adoptive parents. In those cases, adopted individuals are not granted access to their own original birth certificates upon request. Laws vary depending on the state where the birth was originally registered and the adoption was finalized. Some states allow adopted people unrestricted access to their own original birth certificates, while in others the certificate is available only if the biological parents have given their permission or a petition has been granted by the court of jurisdiction. Other jurisdictions do not allow adopted people access to their own original birth certificates under any circumstances.
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what are the licensing laws in the uk | Alcohol Licensing laws of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The alcohol licensing laws of the United Kingdom regulate the sale and consumption of alcohol, with separate legislation for England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland being passed, as necessary, by the UK parliament, the Northern Ireland Assembly, and the Scottish Parliament respectively.
Throughout the United Kingdom, the sale of alcohol is restricted -- pubs, restaurants, shops and other premises must be licensed by the local authority. In England, Wales and Scotland the authority to sell alcohol is divided into two parts -- the Premises Licence, which prescribes the times and conditions under which alcohol can be sold, and a Personal Licence which allows individuals to sell alcohol or authorise its sale by others. Every Premises Licence which authorises the sale of alcohol must also name a Designated Premises Supervisor (Designated Premises Manager in Scotland) ("DPS '' or "DPM '' for short) who must hold a valid Personal Licence -- otherwise alcohol can not be sold at that premises. The DPS has day - to - day responsibility for the sale of alcohol at licensed premises. Premises licences, in as far as they concern the sale of alcohol, can be categorised to include on - licences (allowing consumption of alcohol on the premises) and off - licences. However, these distinctions are not explicitly made in the Licensing Act 2003, and the position in Scotland and Northern Ireland is more complex. Many on - licensed premises also permit off - sales.
The age at which people are legally allowed to purchase alcohol is 18 in most circumstances. Adults purchasing alcohol on behalf of a person under 18 in a pub or from an off - licence are potentially liable to prosecution along with the vendor.
However, legislation does allow for the consumption of alcohol by those under 18 in the following circumstances:
The person making the purchase must themselves be over 18.
The Licensing Act 2003 thoroughly revised and consolidated into one Act all the many separate legislative provisions that previously covered licensed premises in England and Wales. The Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 brought the same reforms to Scotland.
The same reforms have been proposed for Northern Ireland, but have not been enacted; sale of alcohol there remains more strictly regulated than in Great Britain.
In the mid-18th century, gin became extremely popular as it was much cheaper to buy than beer. This was known as the ' gin epidemic '. By 1740, six times more gin than beer was being produced, and of the 15,000 drinking establishments in London, half were gin - shops. The Gin Act 1736 imposed a prohibitively high duty on gin, but this caused rioting, and so the duty was gradually reduced and then abolished in 1742. The Gin Act 1751 was more successful: instead of a tax it restricted gin producers to selling only to licensed premises.
During the 19th century, licensing laws began to restrict the opening hours of premises. The Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881 required the closure of all public houses in Wales on Sundays.
After the outbreak of World War I the Defence of the Realm Act was passed by Parliament in 1914. One section of the Act concerned the hours pubs could sell alcohol, as it was believed that alcohol consumption would interfere with the war effort. It restricted opening hours for licensed premises to luncheon (12: 00 to 14: 40) and supper (18: 30 to 21: 30). In the late 1980s the licensing laws in England and Wales became less restricted and allowed pubs to allow the consumption of alcohol on the premises from 11: 00 until 23: 00, although nightclubs were allowed to stay open much later. Significantly revised rules were introduced in November 2005, when hour limits were scrapped, and pubs were allowed to apply for licences as permissive as "24 hours a day ''. In practice, most pubs chose to apply for more restrictive licences.
Traditionally, the phrase "Last orders! '' is still often used to announce the last opportunity to purchase drinks, typically ten or fifteen minutes in advance and is often announced via a bell. At the point when the bar will no longer serve drinks, the bar staff will announce "Time at the bar! '', or "Time, gentlemen, please! '' (again, either shouted or by use of a bell).
The wartime restrictions in Scotland were repealed in 1976. As a result, Scottish laws were generally less restrictive, with local authorities being allowed to determine opening hours. Most Scottish pubs now open until midnight, though this is not universal.
On - licence describes an establishment where alcohol must be consumed at the point of sale, such as a pub, bar, nightclub or café.
The name derives from the distinction between types of licence which could be granted -- a distinction now repealed in England and Wales, and repealed in Scotland in 2009. In England and Wales, the magistrates would formerly grant either an "off '' licence permitting the sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption only off the premises, or an "on '' licence permitting sale for consumption on the premises -- which permitted, to a limited extent, off sales too: many public houses were permitted off sales, to sell sealed alcoholic drinks (e.g., unopened bottles of wine) for consumption elsewhere. A restaurant licence was an on - licence with a restaurant condition attached. Until 2009, in Scotland the types of licence were Hotel, Public House, Restricted Hotel, Restaurant, Entertainment, Off - Sale, and Refreshment licences. In Northern Ireland, there are numerous types of licence.
Under the Licensing Act 2003 and the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005, there is only one type of premises licence, though the conditions placed on each one will determine whether on sales or off sales (or both) are permitted.
The premises licence is granted to a person, and not to the establishment. Before the Licensing Act 2003 came into effect, there was a legal requirement to display the name of the licensee above the entrance to an on - licence location. The sign would typically say "NAME OF LANDLORD licensed for the sale of alcoholic beverages for consumption on the premises ''. Under the 2003 Act, that requirement has been repealed (though such signs are still often seen). Instead, the premises licence holder must ensure that the official summary of the licence (or a certified copy) is prominently displayed at the premises, as well as the name and position of any person nominated as the custodian of the summary premises licence.
Off - licence (sometimes known as off - sales or informally offie) is a term used in the United Kingdom and Ireland for a shop licensed to sell alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises, as opposed to a bar or public house which is licensed for consumption at the point of sale (on - licence). The term also applies to the licence granted to the establishment itself.
Off - licences typically are specialist shops, convenience stores, parts of supermarkets, or attached to bars and pubs. Prices are usually substantially lower than in bars or pubs.
In the United Kingdom, the "off - licence '' status of a shop could once be used as a device to circumvent restrictive trading laws, particularly those concerning Sunday trading. Depending on local by - laws, shops might be either required to close at 12: 00 once a week, or else not be allowed to trade in the evening. Shops with an off - licence made their hours similar to those of public houses, opening during lunch hours and from early evening to the mandatory closing time, usually 22: 30 or 23: 00. The Sunday Trading Act 1994 altered the situation somewhat.
In Northern Ireland, legislation is more restrictive than in Great Britain -- a reaction to social problems at the beginning of the 20th century. Only a limited number of licences are available for pubs and off - licences; any new pub or off - licence wanting to sell alcohol must wait until an existing one surrenders its licence (known as the surrender principle).
Licences are granted and administered by the courts, not elected local authorities; the courts have no guidance to assist in the practical application of the law. A new licence is granted by the County Court and will only be granted on the surrender principle, and only if the court is satisfied that the existing number of licensed premises is not already adequate (the need principle). The transfer of a licence is a matter for the magistrates ' courts.
There are currently twelve categories of premises that may be licensed to sell alcohol, amongst which are pubs, off - licences, and certain businesses where the sale of alcohol is ancillary to the main business.
Scotland has had separate licensing laws dating back to the 18th century. The current legislation is the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005, which replaced the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1976 on 1 September 2009. The replaced licensing laws provided for seven types of liquor licence, and were administered by licensing boards, made up of councillors elected to the local authority. There were approximately 30 licensing boards in Scotland and each had its own distinct approach; for example, whilst there is a set "permitted hours '' across Scotland, these were frequently extended in order to take account of early morning and late night trading, and each licensing board had its own views on what sort of extra hours a premises should be given.
As of 1 February 2008, Scotland entered a "transitional period '' in the run - up to the commencement of new licensing legislation -- the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005. The 2005 Act is, in many respects, similar to the English Licensing Act 2003: it features the four English licensing objectives, but adds another: "protecting and improving public health ''. The Act creates one class of licence -- the premises licence -- and also introduces personal licences for those working in the trade. The administration continues to be carried out by licensing boards, but the Act has created new "Licensing Forums '' in order to increase community involvement, and "Licensing Standards Officers '' who have an information, mediation, and compliance role.
The legislation in Scotland regarding the sale of alcohol is different from the rest of the UK and England in particular. The Alcohol etc. (Scotland) Act 2010 has amended the core hours during which stores and supermarkets can sell alcohol. Scotland currently restricts the purchase of alcohol to between the hours of 10: 00 and 22: 00.
One major change is that Sunday opening hours can be changed to match the rest of the UK, allowing sales from 10: 00, rather than 12: 30 with the 1976 Act.
On 10 July 2003 the Licensing Act 2003 was granted Royal Assent and replaced the previous licensing laws for England and Wales, regulated under several different Acts, with a single unified system covering a range of "regulated activities ''. Rules as to when establishments can open, for how long, and under what criteria are now not laid down in statute but are individual to the premises and are contained in the conditions on each premises licence. The powers of the 2003 Act came fully into force on 24 November 2005.
Some long - standing traditions (indeed, legal requirements) have disappeared as a consequence. First, "permitted hours '' gained a new meaning. Until the 2003 Act came into force on 24 November 2005, permitted hours were a standard legal constraint: for example, serving alcohol after 23: 00 meant that a licensing extension had to exist -- either permanent (as for nightclubs, for example), or by special application from the licensee concerned for a particular occasion. There was also a customary general derogation permitting a modest extension on particular dates, such as New Year 's Eve and some other Public Holidays. Licensees did not need to apply for these and could take advantage of them if they wished without any formality. Now, permitted hours are theoretically continuous: it is possible for a premises licence to be held which allows 24 - hour opening, and indeed some do exist.
Most licensed premises do not go this far, but many applied for licences in 2005 that allowed them longer opening hours than before. However, as in the past, there is no obligation for licensees to use all the time permitted to them. Premises that still close (for commercial reasons) at 23: 00 during most of the week may well have licences permitting them to remain open longer, perhaps for several hours. Staying open after 23: 00 on the spur of the moment is therefore legal at such premises if the licensee decides to do so -- perhaps because custom happens to be good. Of course, the service of alcohol must still cease when the actual licence closing time arrives. Only the holder of the comparatively rare true "24 - hour '' licence has complete freedom in this respect.
The consumption of alcohol itself is not considered a "licensable activity '' under the new Licensing Act. Therefore, "drinking - up time '' (DUT) has no legal meaning and has disappeared. For many years ten minutes (and later extended to twenty minutes) was the legal dispensation which allowed the consumption of alcohol to continue after the official closing time, which in recent times meant that customers could still drink what they had already bought until 23: 20, subject to the licensee 's discretion. After that time consumption had to also stop.
With the end of standard permitted hours, this concession became irrelevant and there is no mention of DUT in the 2003 Act. Instead, applicants for premises licences can specify the maximum period (their "Opening Hours '') for which they wish to allow their customers to stay after the time at which the sale of alcohol ends ("the terminal hour '') within their Operating Schedule. Some licences do not specify opening hours at all, which allows an unspecified drinking up time, determined only by the licensee 's discretion. In contrast, some licensees call for "last orders '' twenty minutes (or more) before the end of the opening hours specified on their premises ' licence.
Licensing law in Scotland was overhauled by the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005, which came into force in September 2009 following a transition period starting in February 2008. The new system covers alcohol sales only, but otherwise is, in most particulars, identical to the system created in England and Wales by the Licensing Act 2003. There are a number of significant differences, such as a "duty to trade '' and attempts to control the irresponsible sale of alcohol through curbs on price discounting and other promotions which may lead to excessive consumption.
Licensing proposals in Northern Ireland were first announced by the Northern Ireland Office in 2004, leading to a consultation in 2005, again very similar to the Scottish and English Acts. The proposals triggered much initial opposition, even from some parts of the licensed trade. These proposals are not currently proceeding.
Under the proposed rules, all premises where regulated activities are carried out must be authorised by a premises licence. Where alcohol is sold the premises must have a designated premises supervisor, who himself must hold a personal licence. There is a parallel system for the registration of private clubs which sell alcohol to members, and which require a club registration certificate.
Part of the changes since 2005 allow pubs to serve alcohol past 23: 00; this particular part of the legislation was, and remains, very controversial due to the perceived increase in potential for binge drinking and the effects the change will have on social dynamics. However, the new law 's defenders have claimed that the relatively early 23: 00 closing time itself contributed to binge drinking, as patrons hurried to drink before closing time. Labour also claimed that the fixed closing time contributed to social disorder, as drunken pub patrons were forced into the street at the same time. Both the Conservative Party and Liberal Democrats unsuccessfully called for a delay in the implementation of this law.
Each licensing authority must adopt a licensing policy, which gives guidance on when licences will be granted and the conditions and permitted hours likely to be imposed on a premises licence in various circumstances.
The Licensing Act 2003 defines "licensable activities '' as:
In turn, "regulated entertainment '' is defined as:
There are many exemption categories and qualifications to the above definitions, particularly in respect of Regulated Entertainment and Late Night Refreshment. As a result of changes by the Live Music Act 2012, for example, live music in on - licensed premises is no longer a licensable activity between 08: 00 and 23: 00 hours before audiences of up to 200 people. Similarly performances of plays and of dance are not licensable before audiences of up to 500 people and indoor sporting events up to 1000 people. These changes, brought in from 2013, coupled with the Live Music Act in 2012, display a readiness by the Coalition Government to deregulate the prescriptive and sometimes confusing definitions of Regulated Entertainment stated above (although it should be noted that the Live Music Act was a Private Members ' Bill sponsored by Lord Clement - Jones and drafted by Poppleston Allen Solicitors which was subsequently supported by the Government).
"Late night refreshment '' is defined as:
The licensing authority, in considering any application for a licence or for a variation must have regard to "the licensing objectives '':
The licensing authorities are local councils. In two - tier parts of England and Wales, these are the district or borough councils and elsewhere the unitary authority is the licensing authority. In Scotland each council has a Licensing Board to act as licensing authority.
For a premises licence, the licensing authority is the council for the place where the premises are located; where they straddle a boundary, the applicant may choose either one. For a personal licence, it is the licensing authority in whose area the applicant lives.
The Licensing Authority is also responsible for the issue of a Personal Licence.
The Personal Licence allows an individual to sell alcohol or authorise its sale by others. A Personal Licence applicant must, prior to making an application, pass an exam, known as the Award for Personal Licence Holders (APLH) The APLH exam is a 40 - question, multiple - choice paper, in which the applicant must achieve a score of 28 out of 40, or 70 percent. The applicant must also obtain "Basic Disclosure '' which details any unspent convictions.
Upon application and if the applicant has no unspent relevant convictions the licensing authority must grant a Personal Licence, now with no expiry date attached. If relevant convictions are disclosed then the Licensing Authority must send a copy of the application to the local Police, who can object within 14 days. A hearing may then follow.
The applicant must make his application to the licensing authority where he ordinarily resides. Any changes to the Personal Licence thereafter (for example, name or address) must be notified to that original licensing authority, even if the Personal Licence Holder ("PLH '') has subsequently moved out of the area. Failure to do so is a criminal offence.
A PLH, if charged with a relevant criminal offence, must tell the court at the first appearance that he / she is a Holder of a Personal Licence. Failure to do so is a criminal offence. If the PLH is convicted of the original offence the Court can suspend or forfeit the personal licence. A Personal Licence is valid:
A Designated Premises Supervisor (DPS) is required to be a PLH. The DPS (or Designated Premises Manager in Scotland) is responsible for the day - to - day running of the licensed premises.
Local authorities have decided whether or not on a local basis to exercise their power to introduce specific restrictions on outdoor drinking. For example, Reading Borough Council is among authorities to have emulated the conditions of Transport for London that ban drinking in certain locations and the carrying of open alcohol in parts of Reading town centre. The open alcohol container ban and ban on alcohol consumption outright sets a lower threshold than being drunk or drunk and disorderly in a public place.
While the reforms from 2005 were intended to reduce "binge drinking '', reports have variously claimed that the situation in England and Wales has not improved, or that it has become even worse. This has prompted a Parliamentary investigation. The Department of Culture, Media and Sport concludes that the position presents "a mixed picture ''.
Perceived problems in England and Wales shaped a slightly different approach in the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005.
Most licensed premises are now following the Challenge 21 rule, which helps with avoiding selling to under age people. When a shop assistant believes that the person may be under 21, then they will ask the customer to prove that they are over 18. Challenge 25 (or older) was made mandatory in Scotland by the Alcohol etc. (Scotland) Act 2010.
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who sang when a man loves a woman | When a Man Loves a Woman (song) - wikipedia
"When a Man Loves a Woman '' is a song written by Calvin Lewis and Andrew Wright and first recorded by Percy Sledge in 1966 at Norala Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama. It made number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 and R&B singles charts. Singer and actress Bette Midler recorded the song 14 years later and had a Top 40 hit with her version in 1980. In 1991, Michael Bolton recorded the song and his version peaked at number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the Billboard Adult Contemporary Singles chart.
The song was initially recorded by Percy Sledge at Rick Hall 's FAME Studios at Muscle Shoals, before being re-recorded at the nearby Norala Studios owned by Quin Ivy. The sidemen for the recording included Spooner Oldham, Farfisa organ; Marlin Greene, guitar; Albert "Junior '' Lowe, double bass and Roger Hawkins, drums. Andrew Wright and Calvin Lewis did not play on the record. Rick Hall arranged a distribution deal with Atlantic Records, but Jerry Wexler asked that the song be re-recorded because the horns were out of tune. According to musician David Hood, "They went back in the studio and changed the horns, got different horn players to play on it. But then the tapes got mixed up and Atlantic put out their original version. So that 's the hit. ''
Released by Atlantic Records in April 1966, Sledge 's recording reached number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 and R&B singles charts, becoming the first number 1 hit recorded in Muscle Shoals. It is also one of seven number 1 hits to debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 100. The single was also a top ten hit in the UK reaching number four on its initial release and ultimately peaking at number two in 1987 on the UK Singles Chart after it was featured in a Levi 's Jeans commercial. The Percy Sledge version is listed 53rd in Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Also in 1987, it was reissued in the US to promote the soundtrack album for Oliver Stone 's film Platoon.
The precise authorship of the song has been disputed. Calvin Lewis and Andrew Wright were members of the Esquires, a band in Sheffield, Alabama fronted by singer Percy Sledge. According to Wright, "We were set to play a Friday night dance, and we were practicing... I was messing around on the organ when this riff came up out of nowhere. There was no one in the club but us. I told Calvin to go home and write some words. '' The next night, they rehearsed the emerging song with Sledge, changed it around, and soon afterwards auditioned the song for local businessman and radio DJ Quin Ivy. He liked the song, but suggested that some of the words be changed to give a more positive message. Wright said that "we kept some of the phrases, worked on it for several weeks, and spent quite a bit of time in the studio. ''
Although the writing of the song is credited to Lewis and Wright, Sledge later claimed that he should have received a co-writing credit. In one story, Sledge said that one night he was upset over a broken relationship, and asked Lewis and Wright to play a slow blues over which he improvised lyrics describing his emotions; Quin Ivy was at the show and asked the band to refine the lyrics so that it could be recorded. Sledge claimed that he allowed Lewis and Wright to take the writing credits because they gave him the opportunity "to sing his heart out ''.
In another interview, Sledge said:
"When I wrote the song at first, it was called ' Why Did You Leave Me Baby. ' And I changed it from that to ' When a Man Loves a Woman. ' I just reversed it. Quin told me that if I was to write some lyrics around that melody and the expression I 'd put into ' Why Did You Leave Me Baby, ' he believed it would 've been a hit record. He was one of the top disc jockeys at that time. Sure enough, he asked me if I had any lyrics for that. He said, ' That 's it! Write a story around that title! What a song that would be with that feeling you had! ' It was a song that was meant to be. It was n't just what I had done; it was the musicians, the producer, the background singers, the right time. ''
"When a Man Loves a Woman '' was recorded by singer Michael Bolton in 1991 for his album Time, Love & Tenderness. His version of the song reached number one on the U.S. pop and adult contemporary singles charts. Bolton also received a Grammy Award for this song. This version has the distinction of being the last number one song to chart on the old Billboard Hot 100 charting system which relied on sales and airplay reports before switching over to Soundscan.
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when did the body style change on the chevy impala | Chevrolet Impala - wikipedia
The Chevrolet Impala (/ ɪmˈpælə, - ˈpɑːlə /) is a full - size car built by Chevrolet for model years 1958 -- 85, 1994 -- 96 and since 2000 onwards.
The Impala was Chevrolet 's most expensive passenger model through 1965 and had become the best - selling automobile in the United States.
For its debut in 1958, the Impala was distinguished from other models by its symmetrical triple taillights. The Caprice was introduced as a top - line Impala Sport Sedan for model year 1965, later becoming a separate series positioned above the Impala in 1966, which, in turn, remained above the Bel Air and the Biscayne. The Impala continued as Chevrolet 's most popular full - size model through the mid-1980s. Between 1994 -- 96, the Impala was revised as a 5.7 - liter V8 -- powered version of the Caprice Classic sedan.
In 2000, the Impala was reintroduced again as a mainstream front - wheel drive Hi - Mid sedan. As of February 2014, the 2014 Impala ranked # 1 among Affordable Large Cars in U.S. News & World Report 's rankings. When the tenth generation of the Impala was introduced for the 2014 model year, the ninth generation was rebadged as the Impala Limited and sold only to fleet customers through 2016. As of the 2015 model year, both versions are sold in the United States and Canada, with the current - generation Impala also sold in the Middle East, the People 's Republic of China, and South Korea.
The Impala name was first used for the full - sized 1956 General Motors Motorama show car that bore Corvette - like design cues, especially the grille. Painted emerald green metallic, with a white interior, the Impala concept car featured hardtop styling. Clare MacKichan 's design team, along with designers from Pontiac, started to establish basic packaging and dimensions for their shared 1958 General Motors "A '' body in June. The first styling sketch that would directly influence the finished Chevrolet automobile was seen by General Motors Styling vice president Harley Earl in October. Seven months later, the basic design was developed.
For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Roadmaster Riviera, Oldsmobile Holiday 88, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the Chevrolet Bel - Air Impala.
The Impala was introduced for the 1958 model year as top of the line Bel Air hardtops and convertibles. From the windshield pillar rearward, the 1958 Bel Air Impala differed structurally from the lower - priced Chevrolet models. Hardtops had a slightly shorter greenhouse and longer rear deck. The wheelbase of the Impala was longer than the lower priced models, although the overall length was identical. Interiors held a two - spoke steering wheel and color - keyed door panels with brushed aluminum trim. No other series included a convertible.
The 1958 Chevrolet models were longer, lower, and wider than its predecessors. The 1958 model year was the first with dual headlamps. The tailfins of the 1957 were replaced by deeply sculptured rear fenders. Impalas had three taillights each side, while lesser models had two and wagons just one. The Impalas included crossed - flag insignias above the side moldings, as well as bright rocker moldings and dummy rear - fender scoops.
The standard perimeter - type frame was abandoned, replaced by a unit with rails laid out in the form of an elongated "X. '' Chevrolet claimed that the new frame offered increased torsional rigidity and allowed for a lower placement of the passenger compartment. This was a transitional step between traditional construction and the later fully unitized body / chassis, the body structure was strengthened in the rocker panels and firewall. However, this frame was not as effective in protecting the interior structure in a side impact crash, as a traditional perimeter frame.
A coil spring suspension replaced the previous year 's rear leaf springs, and an air ride system was optional. A 283 cu in (4,640 cc) engine was the standard V8, with ratings that ranged from 185 to 290 horsepower. A "W '' block (not to be confused with the big - block) 348 cu in (5,700 cc) Turbo - Thrust V8 was optional, producing 250 hp (190 kW), 280 hp (210 kW), or 315 hp (235 kW). The Ramjet fuel injection was available as an option for the Turbo - Fire 283 V8, not popular in 1958.
A total of 55,989 Impala convertibles and 125,480 coupes were built representing 15 percent of Chevrolet production. The 1958 Chevrolet Bel Air Impala helped Chevrolet regain the number one production spot in this recession year.
1958 Chevrolet Bel Air Impala Sport Coupe
1958 Chevrolet Bel Air Impala Convertible
The 1959 Chevrolet Impala was redesigned. Sharing bodyshells with lower - end Buicks and Oldsmobiles as well as with Pontiac, part of a GM economy move, the Chevrolet 's wheelbase was 1 - 1 / 2 inches longer. Using a new X-frame chassis, the roof line was three inches lower, bodies were two inches wider, and curb weight increased. Its tailfins protruded outward, rather than upward. The taillights were a large "teardrop '' design at each side, and two slim - wide nonfunctional front air intake scoops were added just above the grille,
The Impala became a separate series, adding a four - door hardtop and four - door sedan, to the two - door Sport Coupe and convertible. Sport Coupes featured a shortened roof line and wrap - over back window. The standard engine was an I6, while the base V8 was the carryover 283 cu in (4.6 L), at 185 hp (138 kW). Optional were a 283 cu in with 290 hp (220 kW) and 348 cu in (5.7 L) V8 up to 335 hp (250 kW). Standard were front and rear armrests, an electric clock, dual sliding sun visors, and crank - operated front vent windows. A contoured hooded instrument panel held deep - set gauges. A six - way power seat was a new option, as was "Speedminder '', for the driver to set a needle at a specific speed and a buzzer would sound if the pre-set was exceeded.
The 1960 Impala models reinstated three round taillights on each side, and a white band running along the rear fenders.
The available V8s were reduced to seven, in 283 - cu in or 348 - cu in displacements. The carbureted Turbo - Fire 283 cu in V8 could have either 170 or 230 hp (130 or 170 kW). The 348 cu in was available in 250 to 320 hp (190 to 240 kW) with a 350 hp (260 kW) Special Super Turbo - Thrust with triple two - barrel carburetors, 11.25: 1 compression ratio, and dual exhausts. Fuel injection was no longer an option on full - size Chevrolets. New to the options list was speed and cruise control.
Production was 490,000 units.
Right - hand drive cars were made in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada, for New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa and assembled locally from CKD or SKD kits. The right - hand drive dashboard was a mirror image of the 1959 Chevrolet panel and shared with equivalent right - hand drive Pontiac models. Australian models were assembled by hand on the GMH Holden assembly lines.
1959 Chevrolet Impala 4 - Door Sedan
1959 Chevrolet Impala Sport Coupe
1960 Chevrolet Impala 4 - Door Sedan
1960 Chevrolet Impala Sport Sedan
1960 Chevrolet Impala Convertible
the tail of a second - generation Impala
The Impala was restyled on the GM B platform for the first time for 1961. The new body styling was more trim and boxy than the 1958 -- 1960 models. Sport Coupe models featured a "bubbleback '' roof line style for 1961, and a unique model, the 2 - door pillared sedan, was available for 1961 only. It was rarely ordered. A "Super Sport '' (SS) option debuted for 1961. This was also the last year the top station wagon model would have the Nomad name. Power brakes were $43.
The 1962 model featured new "C '' pillar styling for all models except the 4 - door hardtop. Sport Coupe models now featured the "convertible roof '' styling, shared with other GM "B '' full - size hardtop coupes. This style proved popular. The "overhang '' roof style of the sedans was replaced with a wider "C '' pillar with wraparound rear window. Engine choices for 1962 included the 348 - cubic - inch (5.7 L) V8 discontinued and replaced by the 380 brake horsepower (280 kW) 409 - cubic - inch (6.7 L) or 409 bhp 409 cubic inch engine. These engines could only be ordered with a manual shift transmission. The small - block 283 was offered with a two barrel carburetor. The 283 was also enlarged to 327 cubic inches (5.4 L), offered in two versions, one with 250 brake horse power and one with 300 brake horse power, which added more engine choices for small - block fans. The Beach Boys produced a hit single, "409, '' referring to the Chevrolet, which became an iconic song for these cars. Impalas again featured premium interior appointments, plusher seats could be done by the dealerships on customer request. And more chrome trim outside, including a full - width aluminum - and - chrome panel to house the triple - unit taillight assembly. Super Sport (SS) models featured that panel in a special engine - turned aluminum, which was also used to fill the side moldings, making the SS more distinctive in appearance. The Impala also gained the top trim station wagon body design, in place of the Chevrolet Nomad model. Due to reliability problems, the optional Turboglide automatic transmission was discontinued, leaving Powerglide the only automatic transmission available until 1965. A new radio was optional.
The 1963 Impala featured rectilinear styling with an engine - turned aluminum rear taillight panel surrounded by a chrome border on SS models. Engine choice was similar to 1962, with the small - block 283 - and - 327 - cubic - inch (4.6 and 5.4 L) V8s most popular. The Sport Sedan featured a new, creased roof line. A new "coved '' instrument panel with simple indicator lights for hot and cold engine conditions. An optional factory tachometer was built into the dashboard, just above the steering wheel; it was rarely ordered.
A special 427 - cubic - inch (7.0 L) version of the 409 engine was used in the 1963 Chevrolet Impala Sport Coupe, ordered under Chevrolet Regular Production Option (RPO) Z11. This was a special package created for drag racers, as well as NASCAR, and it consisted of a 427 cubic inch engine with aluminum body parts, and a cowl - induction air intake system. The aluminum body parts were fabricated in Flint, Michigan at the facility now known as GM Flint Metal Center. Unlike the later, second - generation 427, it was based on the W - series 409 engine, but with a longer 3.65 in (93 mm) stroke. A high - rise, two - piece aluminum intake manifold and dual Carter AFB carburetors fed a 13.5: 1 compression ratio to produce an under - rated 430 hp (320 kW) and 575 lb ft (780 N m). 50 RPO Z11 cars were produced at the Flint GM plant.
For 1964, the Impala was restyled to a more rounded, softer look. The signature taillight assembly had an "upside - down U '' shaped aluminum trim strip above the taillights, but the individual lights were surrounded by a body - colored panel. The 409 - cubic - inch (6.7 L) returned as the big - block option, as well as the 2X4 carburetor setup for the 425 horsepower engines. SS models continued to feature the engine - turned aluminum trim. Rooflines were carried over from 1963 unchanged. Back - up lights were standard.
Right hand drive cars were made at GM 's Oshawa plant in Canada and often shipped overseas in kit form for assembly in South Africa and New Zealand. The RHD cars -- Chevrolet or equivalent Pontiac (built on Chevrolet frames and using Chevrolet engines in Canada) -- all used a right hand drive version of the left hand drive 1961 Pontiac dashboard.
Redesigned in 1965, the Impala set an all - time industry annual sales record of more than 1 million units in the United States. All new full - size Chevrolets eschewed the "X '' frame for a full - width perimeter frame, a new body that featured curved, frameless side glass (for pillarless models), sharper angled windshield with newly reshaped vent windows, and redesigned full - coil suspension.
In 1965, Chevrolet introduced the Impala Caprice, exclusively as a four - door hardtop. Caprices received tufted upholstery, wood grained accents on the dashboard and specialty pulls on the insides of the doors. This "halo '' model also featured the "spinner '' wheel covers from the Impala SS, with the "SS '' logo centers replaced by a Chevrolet "bowtie '' emblem. The Super Sport 's blackout rear trim strip below the triple taillights was also used, with the "Impala SS '' emblem replaced by a large "Caprice by Chevrolet '' badge. The Caprice Custom was reintroduced as the Chevrolet Caprice in 1966, taking the top position in the full - size Chevrolet lineup.
Engine choices included the inline six - cylinder as well as the small - block and big - block V8s. A new three - range Turbo Hydra - Matic automatic transmission was optional for 396 cu in (6.5 L) V8. The old 409 cu in (6.7 L) "W '' engine was discontinued early in the 1965 model year, so early - production 1965s got the 409, as well as 1 / 10 of 1 % had the 396 CID big - block. Other later - built cars had the 396 cu in (6.5 L) as the big - block option. Two - speed Powerglide, as well as 3 - and 4 - speed manual transmissions were available. As with previous years, Impalas featured more chrome trim inside and out, with pleated tufted upholstery and door panels. The Impala would be the # 2 - selling convertible in the US in 1966, with 38,000 sold; it was beaten by the Mustang by almost 2: 1. 1966 saw a pair of enlarged big - block V8s featuring 427 cu in (7.0 L). The RPO L36 was rated at 385 horsepower, the L72 at 425. The L72 was only available with a manual transmission.
The 1967 model was redesigned with enhanced Coke bottle styling that featured Corvette - inspired front and rear fender bulges. The curves were the most pronounced with the 1967 -- 1968 models. In keeping with federal regulations, safety features were built into Impalas during the 1967 and 1968 model years, including a fully collapsible energy - absorbing steering column, side marker lights, and shoulder belts for closed models. The L72 engine was not available in 1967, but a L36 Turbo - Jet V8 was optional.
The 1968 model was facelifted with a new front end. The new rear bumper housed triple "horseshoe '' shaped taillights. 1968 also saw a new Impala model, the Custom Coupe. This two - door hardtop featured the same formal roofline as the Caprice Coupe. It was successful and would be continued right through 1976. The L72 "427 Turbo - Jet '' engine was once again returned to the option list, a solid - lifter V8 rated at 425 horsepower. It would continue to be available for both 1968 and 1969, replaced by the Turbo - Jet 454 for 1970.
The 1969 Impala and other full - sized Chevrolets got new slab - sided bodies with a small "upsweep '' at the rear quarter window, giving them a more formal appearance. It retained the 119 - inch wheelbase from previous models. New front bumpers that wrapped around the grille and horizontal taillights were in the rear bumper. The hardtop Sport Coupe got a new notchback roofline, replacing the "fastback '' C - pillar from 1967 to 1968. Ventless front windows were used on all models. Chevrolet had a rudimentary "power vent '' system featuring vents in the instrument panel. The ignition switch was moved from the instrument panel to the steering column, and when the key was removed, the steering wheel and shift lever were locked.
The 1969 model year Impala production topped Caprice production by 611,000 units. Impala station wagons were renamed Kingswood, a name which would continue through 1972. The similar 1970 Impala got a minor facelift featuring a more conventional under the grille bumper replacing the wrap - around unit used in 1969 along with new triple vertical taillights in the rear bumper. Canadian buyers got the choice of a lower priced companion to the Impala Sport Coupe, the Bel Air Sport Coupe, which used the same body but featured Bel Air trim.
Right hand drive cars were manufactured in Canada for export to countries such as Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, etc., until 1969. They used a version of the 1965 Impala dash panel -- without provision for a radio and installed in a dashboard moulding made of fibreglass, not metal -- until 1969. Radios (centrally mounted) and heaters were locally sourced and wipers parked in the center of the windscreen. Australian models were assembled in Australia from kits, as this lessened tax on the cars. The Australian cars had locally sourced amber flashing rear indicators replacing the clear reversing lenses, as red flashers were banned there. For New Zealand assembly, the bodies were supplied from Canada already welded, painted and trimmed.
In 1961, the Impala SS (Super Sport) was introduced to the market. The SS badge was to become Chevrolet 's signature of performance on many models, though it often has been an appearance package only. The Impala 's factory SS package in 1961 was truly a performance package when so equipped from the factory with both the trim and "mandatory '' suspension and engine upgrades, beginning with the 348 cu in (5.7 L) V8 engines available with 305 hp (227 kW; 309 PS), 340 hp (254 kW; 345 PS), and 350 hp (261 kW; 355 PS) or the new 409 cu in (6.7 L) V8, which was available with up to 425 hp (317 kW; 431 PS). Unlike all other years, the 1961 Super Sport package was available on any Impala, including sedans and station wagons (the sales brochure shows a 4 - door hardtop Sport Sedan with the SS package). The package also included upgraded tires on station wagon wheels, springs, shocks and special sintered metallic brake linings. Only 142 1961 Impala Super Sports came from the factory with the 409. In addition to the factory - installed SS package, Chevrolet dealers could add SS trim to any standard Impala without the "mandatory '' performance upgrades, and a number of ' 61s were so equipped.
Starting for the 1962 model year, the Impala SS was an appearance package limited to hardtop coupe and convertible coupe models, available with all engines in the Impala series starting with the base 235 cu in (3.9 L), 135 hp (101 kW; 137 PS) inline - 6 through 1967, though the big - block engines and heavy - duty parts could still be ordered. From 1967 to 1969, an additional model, the SS427, was available.
The Super Sport was known as Regular Production Option (RPO) Z03, from 1962 to 1963, and again in 1968. From 1964 through 1967, the Super Sport was a separate model, with its own VIN prefix (for V8 models, 168 versus the 164 for the regular Impala). Super Sports from 1962 to 1964 came with engine - turned aluminum trim, which was replaced by a "blackout '' trim strip in 1965 which ran under the taillights. 1965 Super Sport exteriors differed only slightly from regular Impalas. Rocker panel trim was deleted. "Super Sport '' scripts replaced the "Impala '' fender badges. The new center console housed a rally - type electric clock, and full instrumentation now included a vacuum gauge. A total of 243,114 Impala SS coupes and convertibles were built for 1965.
The 1966 Impala SS was facelifted with a revised grille and new rectangular taillights that replaced the triple round units. A chrome beltline strip shared with regular Impalas was added in response to complaints about door dings on the clean - lined 1965s. Inside were new "Strato - bucket '' front seats with thinner and higher seat backs, and a center console with an optional gauge package available. Sales of the 1966 Impala SS dropped by more than 50 % to around 117,000 units; this was mainly due to the sport / performance car market switching from full - sized models to intermediates (including Chevrolet 's own Chevelle SS396 and Pontiac GTO), along with the emerging market for the even smaller pony car market created by the Ford Mustang in 1964 that Chevrolet would respond to with the Camaro for 1967.
The 1967 Impala SS was less decorated than other Impalas; Super Sports had black grille accents and black - accented body - side and rear fender moldings. Lesser models leaned more toward brightwork inside and out. Buyers could choose either vinyl bucket seats with a center console, or a Strato - Bench seat with a fold - down center armrest. Standard wheel covers were the same as the optional full covers on other big Chevrolets, but the centers featured the "SS '' logo surrounded by tri-color ring of red, white and blue. "Chevrolet '' and "Impala '' callouts on the body were all replaced by "Impala SS '' badges. Of the 76,055 Impala SS models built, just 2,124 were ordered with RPO Z24, a special performance package that included RPO F41 heavy - duty suspension and other performance features, RPO L36 (385 hp (287 kW; 390 PS)) Turbo - Jet 427 cu in (7.0 L) V8, as well as a special trim package that replaced the "Impala SS '' badges with large "SS427 '' emblems on the front grille and rear trim. None of these cars had the name "Impala '' anywhere on the body or interior, and Chevrolet often marketed them as the "Chevrolet SS427, '' sans the "Impala '' name. The Z24 package also included a special hood with fake chrome - plated intake. Only about 400 Super Sports had a six - cylinder engine from 1967 to 1968, 390 hp (291 kW; 395 PS) in 1969, or L72 (425 hp (317 kW; 431 PS)) from 1968 to 1969. Special SS427 badging, inside and out, was the rule, but few were sold, since muscle car enthusiasts were seeking big - block intermediates, such as the Chevelle SS396 and Plymouth Road Runner.
In 1968 as Caprice sales escalated, those of the Impala Super Sport suffered a decline. Much of this drop in sales was no doubt due to the availability of big - block engines in the mid-sized (and lighter) Chevelle, and even Novas could be special - ordered with the 396 engine with the new - for - 1968 body. No longer a separate series, the Super Sport was a mere $179 option package (Regular Production Option Z03) for the two Impala coupes and the convertible. Only 38,210 Impalas were so - equipped, including 1,778 with the Z24 package, which was carried over from 1967. In 1968 only, SS427s could be ordered without the Z03 SS package, which meant SS427 equipment but no bucket seats, SS door panels, or center console. The Z03 Impala SS could be identified by "Impala Super Sport '' badges on the front grille, rear fenders and trunk lid. Z24 - optioned cars included "SS427 '' emblems to replace the "Impala Super Sport '' badges, a special layered "pancake '' hood, and three "gills '' mounted on the front fender aft of the wheel well à la Corvette Stingray.
In 1969, the Impala SS was available only as the Z24 (SS427), coming exclusively with a 427 cu in (7.0 L) V8 of 335 hp (250 kW; 340 PS), 390 hp (291 kW; 395 PS), or 425 hp (317 kW; 431 PS). This was the final year for the Impala SS until 1994. Unlike the previous two years, the 1969s finally got "Impala '' script on the front fenders and interior. The 1969 Impala SS had no distinctive SS badging inside the car except for an "SS '' logo the steering wheel (again, there was no Z03 offered that year). Like the 1968s, the Z24 could be ordered on the Impala convertible, Sport Coupe, or Custom Coupe. 1969 was the last year that the Impala SS was offered with the Z24 package, but the only year in which front disc brakes and 15 - inch (380 mm) wheels were standard; that made the 1969 SS427 mechanically better than the previous versions in standard form. Although sales of 1969 Z24 - optioned Impalas increased to approximately 2,455 units from the 1,778 Z03 - optioned units of 1968, and high - powered big - block V8 engines continued to be available, there would be no Impala SS for 1970. The 427 was also replaced on the engine offerings list by a new Turbo - Jet 454 producing 390 hp (291 kW; 395 PS)
The 1965 -- 1970 GM B platform is the fourth best selling automobile platform in history after the Volkswagen Beetle, Ford Model T and the Lada Riva.
The Impala remained Chevrolet 's top - selling model with the fifth generation. A high - performance big block V8 was still available in the form of the Turbo - Jet 454, which produced 365 hp in 1971, but power decreased as the years went along. The 1971 redesigned B - body would be the largest car ever offered by Chevrolet. The hardtop Sport Coupe continued to be offered; it was a smoothly sloped semi-fastback reminiscent of the 1961 "bubbletop '' styling. A three - speed manual transmission remained standard at the beginning of the year, but in the spring of 1971 all V8 - equipped full - size GM cars got Turbo Hydra - Matic as standard equipment. Interestingly, Powerglide remained optionally available for six - cylinder cars until the 1973 models. In keeping with their huge size, these new "B '' body Chevrolets were close to Cadillac in luxury features, styling, and ride. Like all GM "B '' bodied cars, Impala got a new power ventilation system that remained on while the ignition was on, and included both large vents in the instrument panel and louvers in the trunk. However, the system proved to be problematic and was disliked by many buyers.
The 1972 model has a grille which extended below the bumper. Powertrains consisted of mostly V8 engines. The 250 inline six was still standard for Sport Coupe and 4 - door sedan models; the 350 2bbl V8 became the standard engine from 1973 -- 1976, with 350 cubic inches (5.7 L), 400 cubic inches (6.6 L), 402 cubic inches (6.6 L) (through 72) or 454 cubic inches (7.4 L) optional. The best - selling body style was the formal - roof Custom Coupe. Beginning in 1972, all engines were designed to run on unleaded gasoline. 1972 saw the last Impala convertible; it sold 6,456 copies, placing fourth with just under 9 percent of the market, right behind the Corvette 6,508, ahead of the Mustang 's 6,401. The power ventilation system was improved, and exit vents were moved from the trunk lid to the door pillars.
1973 Chevrolets featured a larger, shock - absorbing front bumper due to new federal mandates which required 5 - mile - per - hour (8.0 km / h) impact protection. New taillights were mounted in the (still) conventional rear bumper. The convertible was moved upmarket to the Caprice Classic series. Tweaks to the suspension and frame gave better roadability, according to Chevrolet general manager John Z. DeLorean. Steering wheels and instrument panels were color - keyed to interior colors, as opposed to the matte black used in 1971 -- 1972. The steering wheel rim got a soft - feel grip, and replaced the "Impala '' badge with generic "Chevrolet. '' The inline six - cylinder engine was now offered on the Bel Air 4 - door sedan only, and only with the 3 - speed manual transmission. Interiors had repositioned front seats for more legroom. The Impala name returned for the Kingswood station wagon. Suspension and chassis design was modified for better roadability.
1,000 1973 Impalas were built with an "Air Cushion Restraint System '' (ACRS) that used an Oldmobile instrument panel and unique steering wheel that contained both a driver and front passenger air bag. They were all four - door sedans painted in a special green - gold color. The system was not advertised in a big way and many of the cars were used for crash testing by both GM and the Federal government. Over the decades the system proved durable and successfully protected front passengers in front - end collisions. Unfortunately Chevy did not offer ACRS in 1974; however it was offered in Oldsmobile and Cadillac models that year as an option and did save lives. One ACRS - equipped Impala was preserved and remains a witness to the ability of an American automaker to design life saving safety systems into cars without a government mandate. No other examples are known as of this time.
In 1974, the rear bumper was redesigned with shock absorbers to meet the upgraded standards and new tail lights were featured. The front end was also freshened as in previous years, with a new grille and headlight bezels, a new header panel, and a bumper with a drop down center section. The marker lights moved back up beside the headlamps once again. This was the only year of the 1971 -- 1976 models the Impala had a different front end design than the Caprice Classic, as other years used either a grille insert or previous year Caprice front to distinguish the two. The rooflines of the Impala coupes were also revised. For 1974 the Custom Coupe was no longer a hardtop, with large fixed rear quarter glass and a thick B - pillar. The Sport Coupe, still a pillar-less hardtop, now used larger roll - down quarter glass like that of the 1971 -- 1973 Custom Coupe, and had a narrower, fastback style, flat back window. Sedans used carryover body shells from previous years.
A limited - edition Spirit of America package was offered in 1974 on Sport Coupe models; primarily an appearance package, it featured white or blue body paint, a white full vinyl top, white upholstery with red or blue trim, color - keyed seat belts and floormats, special wheel covers, optional white rally wheels, sports - styled dual remote outside rear view mirrors, a vinyl body side molding insert, and red pin - striping. Special fender and dashboard badges announced the package to passers - by and passengers. Chevrolet also offered Nova and Vega Spirit of America versions as well.
The 1975 Impala used a 1974 carried - over Caprice front end, with a grille insert and emblem change. The Caprice model was revised with a new front end with a swept back style header panel with recessed headlight buckets, a new hood, and new fenders. Also in 1975 upholstery, door panels and the dashboard were revised as were the radio and climate control graphics. Speedometers read up to 100 miles per hour (160 km / h), and added kilometers per hour. A High Energy Ignition (HEI) system was officially introduced in 1975, although it was installed on some 1974 cars as a clandestine option. Catalytic converters were also introduced, as were several new options, including an Econominder gauge package (which also included a coolant temperature gauge), intermittent wipers, and a divided 50 / 50 bench seat with passenger - side recliner (with a choice of sport cloth or vinyl trim). This was the final year of the full - size Chevrolet convertible. Four - door models got new rooflines; the hardtop Sport Sedan got a small triangular "opera window '' carved out of the wide roof panel.
A Landau model available for 1975 -- 1976 models featured a landau vinyl roof (with a chrome band across the roof), a choice of special paint colors, sports - styled dual remote outside rearview mirrors, color - keyed wheel covers, a vinyl bodyside molding insert, and pin - striping. Inside were color - keyed seat belts and floormats. Fender and dashboard emblems rounded out the package. The 2 - door hardtop model (dubbed the "Sport Coupe '') was discontinued after 1975, leaving redesigned Custom Coupe, with its wide "B '' pillar and fixed rear window, the only 2 - door Impala available in 1976. This body style had been introduced for the 1974 model year, a precursor to Detroit 's complete abandonment of pillarless body styles before the end of the Seventies. 1976 Impalas used a previous year Caprice nose, with a new "egg crate '' grille insert. The Impala had round headlamps while the Caprice used the new quad rectangular ones.
Inline - Six:
The changes in the automobile marketplace resulted in Chevrolet redesigning the Impala once again in 1976 to meet changing demands. The new downsized Impalas were shorter in length, taller and narrower than before. The new Impala 's frame was a shortened version of the one introduced in 1970 and would be utilized until 1996 when the B - body production line was shut down. Even with its trimmer exterior dimensions, the new Impala featured increased headroom, rear - seat legroom and trunk space. Production of the downsized model increased substantially over 1976, and the Impala regained the number one US sales position. The redesigned 1977 Impala / Caprice was named Motor Trend 's car of the year. The new body was taller and narrower than the 1976 model.
Pillarless hardtops were discontinued, the result of rumors of federal rollover standards looming in the near future. The 1977 -- 1979 coupes sported a double bent tempered rear window similar to the 1987 Chevrolet Monte Carlo Aerocoupe. In 1980, all new sheet - metal was used, although the body style remained similar.
Engine availability was reduced for 1977; the inline - 6 was reintroduced with 110 horsepower (82 kW). Options included 267 - and - 305 - cubic - inch (4.4 and 5.0 L) V8 engines. The 350 - cubic - inch (5.7 L) V8 engine was optional in some years. Oldsmobile 's 350 - cubic - inch (5.7 L) V8 diesel engine also was available. Starting in 1980, the inline 6 was replaced by a generic 229 cubic - inch V6 from Chevrolet which was totally different from the 3.8 liter (231 cubic inch) V6 from Buick that was installed in numerous GM models of different divisions.
The Impala and the upscale Caprice sold well into the early 1980s. The Impala was reduced to the base model full - size Chevrolet and was popular with fleet usage -- including taxi and police - pursuit vehicles, but was discontinued in 1985, while the Caprice continued unchanged until 1990. Upon the demise of the Impala, the base model full - size Chevrolet was re-branded Caprice starting in 1986, with the upper models being called the Caprice Classic and Caprice Classic Brougham.
Marker
Turn Signal
Bumper
No "mouths & teeth '' design, bigger turn signal in front bumper, sunken center part
No dividing lines
Wheel
with word "CHEVROLET '' and wood trim
climate control Panel trim
In January 1990, the GM B platform was redesigned for the 1991 model year, though it retained the same shortened frame design of the 1977 model year redesign. The Impala SS badge was resurrected at the 1992 Detroit Auto Show as a concept car designed by GM designer Jon Moss. The concept car was two inches lower to the ground than the regular Caprice, and was powered by a 8.2 - liter (500 cu in) engine. Eventually, the concept car 's engine was replaced with a 5.7 - liter (350 cu in) engine derived from the Corvette.
The 1994 Impala SS went into production on February 14, 1994, at GM 's plant in Arlington, Texas, and was almost identical cosmetically to the concept car, the only noticeable change being the chromed bowtie logo on the grill (vs a red logo on the concept). The car was, in essence, a high - performance version of the Caprice. It used the Caprice 9C1 police package as its base and as such got most of the equipment formerly available only to law enforcement and government agencies. This included a sport - tuned suspension with reinforced shocks and springs, a high - capacity reverse - flow cooling system (derived from the Corvette 's LT1), four - wheel disc brakes, transmission cooler, dual exhaust, a higher - output electrical system, and other minor mechanical alterations. The Impala SS did not get the external oil - to - air engine oil cooler, nor were all the body mounts secured (the standard Caprice and Impala SS were assembled at the factory with the front three body mounts missing one of the rubber cushions, while the 9C1 was assembled with all rubber cushions in place).
The Impala SS was fitted with a standard 3.08 gear. The limited - slip rear differential was standard (as opposed to the option G80 on Caprices) and the suspension was an inch lower. A retuned LT1 5.7 - liter (350 cu in) small - block V8 was standard on the Impala SS, making 260 hp (194 kW; 264 PS) and 330 lb ⋅ ft (447 N ⋅ m) of torque (retuned from the prototype 's 300 hp (224 kW; 304 PS) rating). The primary difference between the LT1 in the Impala and the LT1 that was in the Corvette and Camaro was that the Impala engine was fitted with cast - iron cylinder heads instead of aluminum ones, and a camshaft that was designed more for low - end torque than high - end horsepower. Another difference was that the block casting for the Impala LT1 had two - bolt main bearing caps while the casting used for the Corvette LT1 had four - bolt main bearing caps. The transmission was the 4L60E, which was an electronically controlled version of the previously hydraulically controlled 4L60. However, the transmission was not beefed up for the power of the LT1, and transmission failures after 100,000 miles (160,000 km) were commonplace.
The Impala SS received body - colored trim, a unique single - bar grille with no hood ornament, and a rear deck spoiler. It was fitted with 17 - inch (430 mm) brushed aluminum wheels with 255 / 50ZR17 all - season Z - rated tires. Inside, the car came with a central console with cup holders (1994 and 1995 models) and a storage compartment, leather seats embroidered with the Impala SS logo, and a standard leather - wrapped steering wheel. For the 1994 model year, it was available only in black with a gray interior. Due to a shortage of the unique five - spoke aluminum wheels, only 6,303 cars were sold. However, the wheel shortage was remedied for the 1995 model year and 21,434 cars were sold.
In 1995, Dark Cherry Metallic and Dark Grey Green were added as exterior color options, and the body paneling on the rear quarter panel was altered to reflect the cosmetic effect formerly achieved by a window insert. Another change from 1994 was the placement of the side mirrors from pods attached to the door to a larger format attached to the ' A ' pillar. 1996 was the last year of production with 41,941 units sold. The 1996 Impala SS was also exported to the Middle East as the Caprice SS with the car being identical to its American counterpart except for the side fonts on the rear quarter panel and the badge on the dashboard saying Caprice SS. The 1996 Impala SS production went late into the model year; the last one being produced on December 13, 1996. It saw minor interior alterations, with the digital speedometer being replaced by an analog one, along with a tachometer. The shifter was moved from the column to the center console, and the engine was given an OBD - II computer control system (the camshaft was reground to adjust for the new computer).
Source:
The entire B - body line, consisting of the Chevrolet Caprice, Impala SS, and Buick Roadmaster, was discontinued, as GM wanted more assembly lines to be able to produce the more profitable SUVs. A ceremony was held at the plant on December 13, 1996, as the last Impala SS was produced.
Six - Passenger
Center console Front bucket seats
The Impala name was revived for the 2000 model year as the "Hi - Mid '' program to rename the Lumina As The Chevy Impala. Based on the Lumina 's W - body platform, it was built at Oshawa Car Assembly in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada. Unlike the earlier Impalas built on a B - body, this one was front - wheel drive and was available with a choice of two engines, the ever - enduring 3.8 L V6 engine, and the slightly smaller 3.4 L V6 engine. A new Impala SS with a supercharged V6 was brought out for the 2004 model year.
The Impala was available in two trim levels from 2000 to 2003. The base model came equipped with cloth bench seats, steel wheels, the 180 horsepower (130 kW) 3.4 liter (204 cu in) LA1 V6, and a 3 - gauge instrument cluster. The LS came factory - equipped with cloth bucket seats upgradeable to leather with center console and floor shift, color - keyed "Impala '' door scripts and trunk badge, anti-lock brakes, traction control system, keyless remote entry, integrated foglamps, aluminum wheels upgradeable to alloy wheels, rear spoiler (optional on the base models), 4 - gauge instrument cluster, and the larger 200 horsepower (150 kW) 3.8 liter (231 cu in) L36 V6. Options available on all models included a sunroof, OnStar system, Driver Information Center with built - in HomeLink system, heated power front seats, and 16 inch 1990s SS - inspired wheels. All models came equipped with power windows, door locks and mirrors. The rear spoiler was an option on base models, and could be deleted from LS models upon buyers request. For the first time since 1959, Chevrolet offered an Impala that did not have or emulate the model 's signature triple taillight feature.
The 2004 to 2005 Impala SS came equipped with the 3.8 liter (231 cu in) supercharged L67 V6 engine. It was rated at 240 horsepower (180 kW) and had been previously used in the Pontiac Grand Prix GTP, Buick Regal GS, Buick Riviera, and H - body Pontiac Bonneville SSEI and Buick Park Avenue "Ultra ''. The lighter front - wheel - drive sedan was actually as quick as the vaunted 1990s Impala SS, with 0 -- 60 - mile - per - hour (0 -- 97 km / h) times pushing 6.5 seconds, compared to the earlier model 's time also showing 6.5 seconds (albeit 7.1 seconds on average). To commemorate Chevrolet 's long relationship with the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and the Indianapolis 500 race, a limited edition (4,088 produced) Impala Indy SS was offered in 2004, featuring black grille with gold Chevrolet bowtie emblem that would be carried over to all Impala models in 2005, various Indy logos on the exterior and interior, 17 - inch chrome wheels, gauge cluster package, and more.
Also released with this version were the Police Package first released in 2000 and Undercover Police Package first released in 2001, named 9C1 and 9C3, respectively. Available only to law enforcement agencies, fire departments, and EMS agencies, it has had more success than its predecessor, the Lumina 9C3. The 9C1 was a base model with a stronger suspension and the 3.8 liter (231 cu in) V6 engine. It was only available in a few basic colors. Another addition was the "SURV MODE '' switch that replaced the fog light switch found on the LS. This enabled the driver to turn off all lights in the vehicle and "hide ''; something not allowed with the civilian models, as automatic headlights were standard. The 9C3 was comparably equipped to the 9C1, but the ability to add other convenience options and more paint and interior choices set the 9C3 apart.
The 2006 Impala was introduced at the 2005 Los Angeles Auto Show in January. Like the Buick LaCrosse, the ninth generation Impala used the updated GM W platform. The base engine was a 3.5 L (214 cu in) V6 producing 211 hp (157 kW) and 214 lb ⋅ ft (290 N ⋅ m) of torque at 4000 rpm. The new Impala featured new taillights, different from the four - circle style of the previous generation. This Impala mostly sold to fleet operators, with private buyers accounting for a quarter of sales.
The SS model used the Generation IV small - block V8, the first to do so in a front - wheel - drive Chevrolet, and the first V8 in a Chevrolet sedan since the 1996 Caprice. The 5.3 L (325 cu in) V8 (with Displacement on Demand, called Active Fuel Management or AFM) produced 303 hp (226 kW). With the use of the 5.3 L LS4 V8, the Impala SS is capable of a 5.6 second 0 -- 60 - mile - per - hour (0 -- 97 km / h) time and a quarter - mile time of 14.2 seconds traveling at 101 miles per hour (163 km / h). The ninth generation Impala was 200.4 in (5,090 mm) long, 58.7 in (1,491 mm) high, and 72.9 in (1,852 mm) wide with a drag coefficient of 0.33.
Available trim levels for the ninth generation were the LS, LT, LTZ, and the SS, respectively. Six - passenger seating was only available as an option on the LS and LT models. Leather upholstery was standard on LTZ models and optional on LT models. The ninth generation Impala featured a wood trim center console with chrome accents on all major control buttons. The dashboard featured a chrome Impala logo embedded in the wood grain trim that runs across the dashboard and onto the doors. The control knobs found throughout the vehicle 's cockpit were similar to those found in Buick models as well as the Cadillac DTS, all of which featured a similar center console. Another interior revision was the location of the cup holders, which were moved beneath the midsection of the vehicle 's center console.
The LS was the base model. It offered steel wheels with wheel covers (later alloy wheels), an AM / FM stereo with single - disc CD player, auxiliary input jack, and six speakers, keyless entry, air conditioning, cloth seating surfaces, and a choice of two front bucket or a single front bench seat. The LT was the mid-range model. It offered alloy wheels, MP3 playback capabilities, and optional front heated seats. The LTZ was the most luxurious model. It offered leather seating surfaces that were heated, an AM / FM stereo with six - disc CD / MP3 changer in the dash and a Bose eight - speaker premium sound system, a power sunroof, security system, and OnStar. The SS was the top - of - the - line model until 2009. It offered a 5.3 L V8 engine, leather - and - suede seating surfaces, eighteen - inch machined - finished alloy wheels, and SS badging (The 2006 -- 09 model was the first Impala with a V8 engine since 1996). Due to its unpopularity, the SS trim was discontinued in 2009, leaving the LTZ as the top - of - the - line model for 2010 to be the most powerful, and for a shorter time in 2012 -- 2013, the LS, LT, and LTZ trims were 300 horsepower, and also on the Impala Limited from 2014 -- 2016.
In 2007, the Impala received the FlexFuel 3.5 - liter V6 and Flex Fuel rear badge for the LS, LT, LTZ, and Touring. A new 3.9 L V6 with Active Fuel Management was available. The SS retained the same drivetrain and did not receive the FlexFuel feature due to the high - performance nature of the powertrain. A tire - pressure - monitoring system, cruise control and a CD player were standard on all models, and a factory spoiler was an available option. The LT had 16 - inch, five - spoke alloy wheels. The generation - 7 OnStar system with turn - by - turn navigation was included when the available directions and connections service was selected. The SS had standard leather - appointed seats and XM Satellite Radio, with XM being optional on LS, LT, and LTZ trims. A new Luxury Edition package featuring leather seating, folding rear seat, and rear spoiler was offered on the LT. There were four new exterior colors -- Precisions Red, Imperial Blue Metallic, Bordeaux Red, and Red Jewel Tintcoat, as well as a Regency - outfitted "Impala RSS ''. The RSS included aggressive wheels, front / rear bumper and rocker panel extensions, a spoiler and various interior upgrades.
To commemorate the Impala 's 50th year, a 50th Anniversary Edition was introduced in Spring 2008. Based on the LT, it added a FE3 Sport Suspension (replacing the FE1 Touring Suspension), four - wheel ABS, eighteen - inch SS - style alloy wheels (replacing the 16 - inch wheels), rear SS style spoiler, "50th Anniversary '' Impala badges on the C - pillars, two - tone, leather - trimmed seats with "50th '' logos embroidered on the front headrests, eight - way power - adjustable driver seat, leather - wrapped steering wheel with accent - color threading including audio controls, ebony carpet, ebony floor mats with accent threading, "50th '' Anniversary emblems on the sill plates and a choice of two premium exterior colors: Black Granite Metallic and Red Jewel Tintcoat A Luxury Edition package was again available on the LT and now also featured leather - wrapped steering wheel, steering wheel mounted audio controls, traction control, and anti-lock brakes.
For the 2009 model year, the Impala received three new exterior colors: Victory Red, Silver Ice Metallic, and Aqua Blue Metallic, while the brushed aluminum dash applique was no longer available. All models used the previous SS style spoiler (actually phased in for the late 2008 model year). The Touring trim level was discontinued for 2009. Leather seating was no longer available in combination with the 40 / 20 / 40 split bench front seat. The Active Fuel Management feature remained on the 5.3 L V8 with a 17 - gallon gas tank for the SS model, but was no longer available on 3.9 L V6 for the LT and LTZ models. A sun and wheel package was available on 1LT models included power sunroof, overhead console with Homelink and 17 - inch aluminum wheels. A Bose Premium Audio System was now part of the Luxury Edition package offered on LT models. Thorax side - impact air bags were standard.
For the 2010 model year, the Impala was the only GM W - body car in production, although the eight - cylinder SS model was discontinued. LT models included fog lights and once again offered an optional Luxury Edition package. The 3.9 L V6 was no longer available for the LT model. Three new exterior colors were available: Summit White, Cyber Gray Metallic, and Aqua Blue Metallic, and four exterior colors were deleted. The (PDG) convenience package, AM / FM stereo with 6 - disc in - dash CD changer, and trunk cargo net were no longer available. The Impala emblems on rear sail panels as well as the rear decklid badge on LS models were deleted. Early 2010 models had the lower front - side GM badges but were also later deleted.
For the 2011 model year, Impala returned in LS, LT, and LTZ trims. Available engines were a 3.5 L V6 (LS or LT) or a 3.9 L V6 (LTZ only). A Luxury Edition package was again an option on the LT and featured leather heated seats, 6 - way power front passenger seat, Bose Premium Audio System, XM radio, auto - dimming rearview mirror, Universal Home Remote, outside heated power mirrors, and rear spoiler. The 2011 Impala had the same wheels as the 2012 -- 2013 Impala, but the 2011 Impala was the last model year where the chrome trim on the trunk lid appeared.
For the 2012 model year, the exterior received a slight refresh and 4 trims: a standard Impala, LS, LT, and LTZ. The 3.5 and 3.9 L engines were dropped in favor of a single, 3.6 L LFX that delivers 302 hp (225 kW) and 262 lb ⋅ ft (355 N ⋅ m) of torque. The four - speed automatic transmission is also deleted in favor of a six - speed automatic. The Impala also received new packages, including the LS Uplevel package, LS OnStar and Bluetooth package, LT Sunroof package, LT OnStar package and the LT OnStar and Bluetooth package.
For the 2013 model year, the Impala was largely a carryover of the 2012 model. Available trims were once again LS, LT, and LTZ. It was the last retail Impala to be offered with optional bench seat and column shift transmission. A Luxury Edition package, last seen on the 2011 model, returned as an option on the LT and featured perforated leather seating surfaces, dual front heated bucket seats with driver 's side 8 - way and passenger 's side 6 - way power adjusters, inside rearview auto - dimming mirror, Universal Home Remote, outside heated power adjustable mirrors, Bose 8 - speaker premium sound system, six - disc in - dash CD changer that played MP3 and WMA files, with Radio Data System, Sirius - XM satellite radio, and well as iPod and USB inputs, as well as an auxiliary input. Due to the early release of the redesigned 2014 model, the 2013 Impala had an abbreviated model year.
The ninth generation model remained in production in LS, LT, and LTZ trim until the 2016 model year as a rental, fleet, and police car under the revised model name "Impala Limited ''. The consolidated plant in Oshawa, Canada continued making the Impala Limited, along with the Chevrolet Equinox. Production ended in May 2016.
The 9C1 and 9C3 models were based on the LS model, yet offered steel wheels or steel wheels with wheel covers, optional rubber flooring, preparation for police equipment such as sirens, radios, and lighting, special badging, and inoperable rear door handles, windows, and door locks. It also came with the option for a rear vinyl bench seat and front cloth bucket or bench seats, both cloth front and rear seats, or vinyl front and rear seats. It also offered preparation for a criminal cage to be installed between the front and rear seats. The foglamps seen on the LT, LTZ, and SS were optional in 2008 & stayed as an option until 2012 which did away with that option. The 9C1 and 9C3 also had the option of having the spoiler seen on the LT and LTZ until being replaced by the spoiler that is on the SS and other models in 2009. The police sedans received the FlexFuel in 2008 feature to compete against the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor, which also received a similar feature allowing it to utilize E85. Also updated were the 9C1 and 9C3 trim levels for the Police Package models, which did not have the civilian SS 's 303 hp (226 kW) V8 engine, but used the 3.9 L (237 cu in) V6. Police Sedans utilized the SS radiator and cooling system as an upgrade from the standard 3.9 L engine (used in the Impala LTZ). GM did not wish to design a specific radiator and cooling system to equip a low - production V8 police vehicle. Also, the heavy - duty steel wheels were not redesigned, and as such, the Police Sedan used the original center caps or the older style wheel covers from the 8th generation model. The 9C1 and 9C3 were equipped with an external trunk lock tumbler starting in 2008. Neither feature was available for the civilian version of the car. The 9C1 and 9C3 police models had the standard wood grain for the 2006 model year until 2007 which was replaced by an aluminized interior trim. For the 2012 model year both the 9C1 and 9C3 have different end caps where the fog lamps are on the LT and LTZ trims on the front end bumper, received 17 - inch wheels with new wheel covers, and the same LFX V6 that powers the civilian Impala. The Caprice PPV succeeded the Impala 9C1 after production ended in 2016. Up to then, the Caprice 9C1 and Impala 9C1 was offered simultaneously.
The tenth - generation Impala was introduced at the 2012 New York Auto Show for the 2014 model year, with sales and production commencing March 4, 2013. The tenth generation Impala was the first North American sedan in 20 years to earn Consumer Reports ' top score, with a score of 95 of a possible 100 points.
This tenth generation Impala was built larger (once again considered full - size) and more upscale than the previous generation (sharing the extended Epsilon II FWD platform with the Cadillac XTS) to reduce price overlap between Impala and Malibu, similar to how the Ford Taurus and Ford Fusion are positioned in Ford 's lineup. The current versions are being assembled in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada, alongside the ninth - generation Impala (now renamed the fleet and rental exclusive - only Impala Limited), and at the Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly in the United States. All trim levels are equipped with a six - speed automatic transmission with sport and manual shifting modes.
The tenth generation models were shipped to dealerships across North America on March 25, 2013, and officially went on sale to the public April 1, 2013. That same day regular production on the Impala (the 2.4 L eAssist and 3.6 L equipped versions / LT2 and LTZ2 trims only) began at their Oshawa plant, while production at GM 's Detroit - Hamtramck plant (the 2.5 L equipped versions / LS, LT1 and LTZ1 trims) started production on April 8 and arrived to dealerships in May. The eAssist versions went on sale in the fourth quarter of 2013.
In 2014, the Impala saw a surge in sales since the tenth - generation 's launch, capturing 14.7 percent of the competitive full - size sedan segment, up from 6.9 percent in 2013, making it one of Chevrolet 's best selling brands due to affordability, promotion, and winning recognition by automotive trades and websites. The Impala also eclipsed its primary competitor, the Toyota Avalon, which fell from 17.8 percent in 2013 to 14.2 percent in 2014, making the Impala the top selling full - size sedan in the United States.
The 2014 Impala came standard with 18 inch wheels (19, and 20 inch offered in higher trims), low profile HID Headlights and LED daytime running lights (On LTZ trim) and offered in three engines; a 2.5 L 4 - Cylinder (the first time the Impala will use this type), a 2.4 L 4 - Cylinder with hybrid - assist technology, and a 3.6 L V6. The interior came equipped with a 4.2 - inch color display featuring Chevrolet MyLink (LT and LTZ trims), HD Radio (all trims) and Pandora Radio (LT and LTZ trims), Active noise cancellation for all 4 - cylinder options, while new safety features included 10 Standard Airbags combined with OnStar. Optional features for the 2014 model included "full - speed - range adaptive cruise control, collision mitigation braking, forward collision alert, lane departure warning, side blind zone alert, rear cross traffic alert, rear camera and rear - park assist. ''
For 2015, 4G LTE was added to OnStar as an optional feature HD Radio was no longer offered starting with the 2015 model year. In addition, the eAssist version was discontinued due to low sales.
For the 2016 model year, the Impala went from five to four level trims: LS, LT1, LT2, and LTZ2. A Midnight appearance package was added as an upgrade for the LT and LTZ level trims, which included unique black - pocket wheels and gloss black badges in addition to the standard black paint. Five new colors were introduced: Siren Red Tintcoat, Citron Green Metallic, Heather Gray Metallic, Mosaic Black Metallic, and Green Envy Metallic; six colors were dropped: Autumn Bronze, Red Rock, Crystal Red Tintcoat, Ashen Gray, Silver Topaz, and Champagne Silver. The Jet Black / Brownstone interior color scheme was dropped. 2016 models also came equipped with a new 800 cold - cranking amps battery, replacing the 900 CCA. Wireless charging for devices, front and rear splash guards, as well as lane change alert were added. The CD player was now only offered as standard equipment on the LTZ, but available as an option on other trims as part of the Technology package. 2016 also saw the addition of Apple CarPlay and Android Auto Capability features; only one phone brand at any one time can be used.
In addition to the "OnStar / Connections Plan '' being rebranded as the "Guidance Plan '', the 2016 Impala 's option packages were rebranded:
The 2017 model year Impala only saw minor changes, with the top of the line LTZ trim rebrand as the Premier trim and Pepperdust Metallic introduced as a new color option. The LS trim, previously available only with the four - cylinder engine, became available with the V6 engine in addition to the four - cylinder engine.
The 2018 model year Impala went from four trims to three: LS, LT, and Premier. The LT level trim added Entertainment, Convenience, and Leather packages options, while the Premier trim received the top of the line Convenience package. Keyless starts, rear camera view, and MyLink became standard on all three levels trims, as the LS trim deletes the 4.2 inch display and AM / FM radio features. Daytime running lights became standard on LT and navigation became standard on Premier. During the Third Quarter of 2018 three new colors, Gray, Cajun Red, and Metallic, will be introduced.
The 2019 model year Impala will see only minor changes. The jet black interior is added to the LT convenience package, while the accessory level wheel locks becomes standard on all trims. The Graphite Metallic color is discontinued.
The 2015 Chevrolet Impala Bi-Fuel runs on CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and Gasoline. Unveiled in October 2013 by General Motors CEO Dan Akerson. The Bi-Fuel Impala would be offered to both fleet customers and retail. It is the only full - size CNG vehicle manufactured in North America. The new Impala will join the Honda Civic as a rare factory made CNG car to come straight from a major automaker and available for retail sales.
The 2015 Chevrolet Impala Bi-Fuel has a 500 - mile driving range. It will allow the driver to switch from Gasoline to CNG or from CNG to Gasoline at the push of a button. The CNG tank is placed in the trunk. The Impala Bi-Fuel was one of the five finalists for the 2015 Green Car of the Year Award during the 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show, but lost to the BMW i3.
On July 31, 2015, Chevrolet announced that the Impala will go on sale in South Korea as an export vehicle for the 2016 model year, marking the first time that Chevrolet has offered an American - built full - size sedan in the Korean market.
The tenth - generation Chevrolet Impala is available in three trim levels: LS, LT, and LTZ (later Premier). Each trim level includes a generous amount of standard equipment:
LS Includes: 2.5 L EcoTec Inline Four - Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine, six - speed automatic transmission, Eighteen - inch (18 ") black - painted steel wheels with full plastic wheel covers, 4.2 - inch (4.2 '') color LCD radio with Bluetooth (2014 - 2017 models), eight - inch (8.0 ") Chevrolet MyLink infotainment system (2018 + models), 100 - watt six - speaker audio system, keyless entry, premium cloth seating surfaces (2014 - 2017 models), premium cloth seating surfaces with leatherette trim (2018 + models), power - adjustable front driver 's bucket seat, OnStar with 4G LTE Wi Fi capabilities (2015 + models), leather - wrapped steering wheel, split - folding rear bench seat, color - keyed exterior door handles, and black side mirrors.
LT Adds to LS: Eighteen - inch (18 ") aluminum - alloy wheels, eight - inch (8.0 '') Chevrolet MyLink infotainment system, security system, remote vehicle start, premium cloth seating surfaces with leatherette trim, dual power - adjustable front bucket seats, color - keyed side mirrors, and wood interior trim.
LTZ (Premier) Adds To LT: 3.6 L VVT V6 gasoline engine with FlexFuel capabilities, nineteen - inch (19 ") aluminum - alloy wheels, keyless access with push - button start, luxury leather - trimmed seating surfaces, dual heated front and rear seats, heated leather - wrapped steering wheel, exterior LED Daytime Running Lamps (DRL 's), rearview backup camera system, chrome - accented color - keyed exterior door handles with touch sensors, and chrome side mirrors.
With the launching of the next generation Buick LaCrosse in 2016 as a 2017 model, Chevrolet will move on to the next generation Impala to the same P2XX platform in 2019 as a 2020 model, with GM 's new LGX 3.6 Engine and 9 Speed Transmission. GM 's 3.0 LGW Twin - Turbo Engine and All - Wheel - Drive may be available for High - Performance variant.
There has also been talk of GM discontinuing the Impala altogether due to sharply declining sales of full - size sedans as well as sedans in general in order to make room for more production of crossover SUVs. GM CEO Mary Barra later clarified that unlike Ford and FCA GM is n't planning to exit the sedan market, but did n't comment specifically on the Impala.
In the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety 's crash tests, the 2000 to 2005 Impala was given a "Good '' rating overall for good structural performance and no chance of any significant injury in a crash of its severity, except for maybe a minor lower - left - leg injury, such as a bruise or sprain. The 2006 to present Impala is given a lesser overall "Acceptable '' score for front impact collisions. and a "Good '' score for side impacts. Side - curtain airbags are standard for front and rear rows; side torso airbags previously unavailable became standard on all trim levels beginning with the 2009 model year. GM made some minor structural enhancements to the Impala, beginning in December 2009; models produced after that received a "Good '' in the IIHS frontal offset crash test.
In September 2009, a local news station 's investigative team in Rhode Island discovered that GM 's fleet customers who purchased the 2006 -- 2009 Impala were able to order them with the side - curtain airbags deleted for a savings of $175 per vehicle. Because these fleets typically sell off their cars after two to three years of use, many of the Impalas that were built without side - curtain airbags became privately owned cars. Current owners may be able to tell if their car has side airbags by checking the VIN and / or by checking to see if "Air bag '' is printed on the roof support between the front and back rows.
Another potential safety hazard, affecting Impalas of model years 2007 and 2008, is premature rear tire wear caused by defective rear suspension components. Police vehicles were upgraded to correct this defect and law enforcement agencies were compensated for expenses incurred for tire replacement, but civilian vehicles were not recalled. As a result, Impala owners launched a class action lawsuit in July 2011 against General Motors. In response, the current General Motors leadership claimed about a month later that they are not responsible to repair the defective vehicles manufactured pre-General Motors Bailout. Subsequently, in late September, a new lawsuit, disputing the GM response, was initiated by three of the estimated 400,000 Impala owners. (GM is also facing a similar legal dispute regarding a pre-bankruptcy upgrade to its OnStar system which left thousands of users without service in violation of their paid - up contracts.)
On April 22, 2014, the NHTSA opened an investigation into 60,000 2014 Chevrolet Impala models over concerns relating to the sedan 's emergency braking system. This followed the NHTSA receiving a complaint from a driver who experienced "inappropriate activation of the emergency braking system, '' adding it "alleges that the driver assist system inappropriately activated emergency braking bringing the vehicle to a complete stop under what the driver considered to be full braking force. '' The driver also went on to say that he heard three to four beeps from the system while driving the rented vehicle, which had only 2500 miles on it. GM is fully co-operating in the investigation.
Motor Trend magazine awarded the full - size Chevrolet including the Impala as its 1977 Car of the Year.
Automotive Fleet and Business Fleet magazines awarded the Impala the 2006, 2007, and 2008 Fleet Car of the Year.
Canadian Automobile Association (CAA) selected the Impala for its 2006 Pyramid Award for Environmental Initiatives for the launch of its new ethanol - powered E-85 model.
In 2007, the Impala began to replace the Monte Carlo on the NASCAR stock car racing circuit; more specifically, on all the scheduled racing events where NASCAR has mandated the use of a car with different (and some) new specifications, better known as the Car of Tomorrow.
The Impala was also used to represent Chevrolet in the Nationwide Series. In 2013, the Impala was replaced by the Camaro in the Nationwide Series.
The 2012 NASCAR season marked the end of use of the Impala nameplate on stock cars. From 2013 to 2017, Chevrolet drivers began driving the Holden VF Commodore SSV based Chevrolet SS in Sprint Cup until the Chevrolet SS was discontinued after 2017.
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what was the first permanent european settlement in what is now the united states | St. Augustine, Florida - wikipedia
St. Augustine (Spanish: San Agustín) is a city in the Southeastern United States, on the Atlantic coast of northeastern Florida. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorers, it is the oldest continuously occupied European - established settlement within the borders of the continental United States.
The county seat of St. Johns County, St. Augustine is part of Florida 's First Coast region and the Jacksonville metropolitan area. According to the 2010 census, the city population was 12,975. The United States Census Bureau 's 2013 estimate of the city 's population was 13,679, while the urban area had a population of 71,379 in 2012.
St. Augustine was founded on September 8, 1565, by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Florida 's first governor. He named the settlement "San Agustín '', as his ships bearing settlers, troops, and supplies from Spain had first sighted land in Florida eleven days earlier on August 28, the feast day of St. Augustine. The city served as the capital of Spanish Florida for over 200 years. It was designated as the capital of British East Florida when the territory briefly changed hands between Spain and Britain.
Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819, and St. Augustine was designated the capital of the Florida Territory upon ratification of the Adams - Onís Treaty in 1821. The Florida National Guard made the city its headquarters that same year. The territorial government moved and made Tallahassee the capital in 1824. Since the late 19th century, St. Augustine 's distinct historical character has made the city a major tourist attraction.
Founded in 1565 by the Spanish conquistador, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the contiguous United States. In 1562, a group of Huguenots led by Jean Ribault arrived in Spanish Florida to establish a colony in the territory claimed by Spain. They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River, calling it la Rivière de Mai (the River May), then sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present - day South Carolina. Spain learned of this French expedition through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. The Huguenot nobleman René de Laudonnière, who had participated in the expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He arrived at the mouth of the River May on June 22, 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline.
Desiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against such incursions, the Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by King Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, and licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida. This contract directed Menéndez to sail for La Florida, reconnoitre it from the Florida Keys to present - day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with a view to establishing a permanent settlement for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown.
On July 28, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600 - ton flagship, the San Pelayo, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers. On the feast day of St. Augustine, August 28, the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel the French called the River of Dolphins. Menéndez then sailed north and confronted Ribault 's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to the site of his first landfall, naming it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies.
Menéndez then marched his soldiers overland for a surprise attack on Fort Caroline, where they killed almost everyone in the fort except for the women and children. Jean Ribault had already put out to sea with his ships for an assault on St. Augustine, but was surprised by a storm that wrecked his ships further south. Informed by his Indian allies that the survivors were walking northward on the coast, Menéndez began to search for the Frenchmen, who had made it as far as the banks of the Matanzas River 's south entrance. There they were confronted by the Spaniard and his men on the opposite side. After several parleys with the Spanish, Jean Ribault and the Frenchmen with him (between 150 -- 350, sources differ) surrendered; almost all of them were executed in the dunes near the inlet, thereafter called Matanzas (Spanish for "slaughters '').
In May 1566, as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea, and built a wooden fort there. In 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Confident that he had fulfilled the primary conditions of his contract with the King, including the building of forts along the coast of La Florida, Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567. After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17, 1574.
Succeeding governors of the province maintained a peaceful coexistence with the local Native Americans, allowing the isolated outpost of St. Augustine some stability for a few years. On May 28 and 29, 1586, soon after the Anglo - Spanish War began between England and Spain, the English privateer Sir Francis Drake sacked and burned St. Augustine. The approach of his large fleet obliged Governor Pedro Menéndez Márquez and the townspeople to flee for their safety. When the English got ashore, they seized some artillery pieces and a royal strongbox containing gold ducats, the garrison payroll. The killing of their sergeant major by the Spanish rearguard caused Drake to order the town burnt.
In 1609 and 1611, expeditions were sent out from St. Augustine against the English colony at Jamestown, Virginia. In the second half of the 17th century, unsettled groups of Indians, forced southward by the expanding English colony in Carolina, made raids into Florida and killed the Franciscan priests who served at the Catholic missions. Requests by successive governors of the province to strengthen the presidio 's garrison and fortifications were ignored by the Crown. The charter of 1663 for the new Province of Carolina, issued by King Charles II of England, was revised in 1665, claiming lands as far southward as 29 degrees north latitude, about 65 miles south of the existing settlement at St. Augustine.
The English buccaneer Robert Searle then sacked St. Augustine in 1668, killing sixty people and pillaging government buildings, churches and houses, after which his pirates ransomed off some of their hostages and sold others into slavery. This raid and the establishment of the English settlement at Charles Town spurred the Spanish monarchy to finally acknowledge the threat represented by the new English colonies to the north and strengthen the city 's defenses. In 1669, Queen Regent Mariana ordered the Viceroy of New Spain to disburse funds for the construction of a permanent masonry fortress, which began in 1672. The Castillo de San Marcos was completed in 1695, not long before an attack by Governor Moore 's forces from Carolina in November, 1702. Failing to take the fort after a siege of 58 days, the British troops burned St. Augustine to the ground as they retreated. In 1740, the town was again besieged, this time by the governor of the British colony of Georgia, General James Oglethorpe, who was also unable to take the fort.
The Treaty of Paris (1763), signed after Great Britain 's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years ' War, ceded Florida to Great Britain and consequently St. Augustine became a Loyalist haven during the American Revolutionary War. The second Treaty of Paris (1783), which recognized the independence of the former British colonies north of Florida, also ceded Florida back to Spain, and as a result many of the town 's Spanish citizens returned to St Augustine. Refugees from Dr. Andrew Turnbull 's troubled colony in New Smyrna had fled to St. Augustine in 1777, and made up the majority of the city 's population during British rule. This group was, and still is, referred to locally as "Menorcans '', even though it also included settlers from Italy, Corsica and the Greek islands as well.
During the Second Spanish period (1784 - 1821) of Florida, Spain was dealing with invasions of the Iberian peninsula by Napoleon 's armies in the Peninsular War, and struggled to maintain a tenuous hold on its territories in the western hemisphere as revolution swept South America. The royal administration of Florida was neglected, as the province had long been regarded as an unprofitable backwater by the Crown. The United States, however, considered Florida vital to its political and military interests as it expanded its territory in North America, and maneuvered by sometimes clandestine means to acquire it. The Adams -- Onís Treaty, negotiated in 1819 and ratified in 1821, ceded Florida and St. Augustine, still its capital at the time, to the United States.
Florida remained an organized territory of the United States until 1845, when it was admitted into the Union as the State of Florida. The Territorial Period (1821 - 1845) was marked by protracted wars with the Creek Indian groups who occupied the peninsula, collectively known as "Seminoles '', during the Second Seminole War (1835 - 1842). The United States Army took command of the Castillo de San Marcos and renamed it Fort Marion after General Francis Marion, who fought in the American Revolutionary War. The capital of the territory was moved to Tallahassee in 1824.
Florida joined the Confederacy after the Civil War began in 1861, and Confederate authorities remained in control of St. Augustine for fourteen months, although it was barely defended. The Union conducted a blockade of shipping. In 1862 Union troops gained control of St. Augustine and controlled it through the rest of the war. With the economy already suffering, many residents fled.
Henry Flagler, a co-founder with John D. Rockefeller of the Standard Oil Company, spent the winter of 1883 in St. Augustine and found the city charming, but considered its hotels and transportation systems inadequate. He had the idea to make St. Augustine a winter resort for wealthy Americans from the north, and to bring them south he bought several short line railroads and combined these in 1885 to form the Florida East Coast Railway. He built a railroad bridge over the St. Johns River in 1888, opening up the Atlantic coast of Florida to development.
Flagler began construction in 1887 on two large ornate hotels in the city, the 540 - room Ponce de Leon Hotel and the 250 - room Hotel Alcazar. The next year, he purchased the Casa Monica Hotel across the street from both the Alcazar and the Ponce de Leon. His chosen architectural firm, Carrère and Hastings, radically altered the appearance of St. Augustine with these hotels, giving it a skyline and beginning an architectural trend in the state characterized by the use of the Moorish Revival style. With the opening of the Ponce de Leon in 1888, St. Augustine became the winter resort of American high society for a few years.
When Flagler 's Florida East Coast Railroad was extended southward to Palm Beach and then Miami in the early 20th Century, the rich mostly abandoned St. Augustine. Wealthy vacationers began to customarily spend their winters in South Florida, where the climate was warmer and freezes were rare. St. Augustine nevertheless still attracted tourists, and eventually became a destination for families traveling in automobiles as new highways were built and Americans took to the road for annual summer vacations. The tourist industry soon became the dominant sector of the local economy.
In late 1963, nearly a decade after the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation of schools was unconstitutional, African Americans were still trying to get St. Augustine to integrate the public schools in the city. They were also trying to integrate public accommodations, such as lunch counters, and were met with arrests and Ku Klux Klan violence. Local college students held non-violent protests throughout the city, including sit - ins at the local Woolworth 's, picket lines, and marches through the downtown. These protests were often met with police violence. Homes of African Americans were firebombed, black leaders were assaulted and threatened with death, and others were fired from their jobs.
In the spring of 1964, St. Augustine civil rights leader Robert Hayling asked the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and its leader Martin Luther King, Jr. for assistance. From May until July 1964, King and Hayling, along with Andrew Young, organized marches, sit - ins, and other forms of peaceful protest in St. Augustine. Hundreds of black and white civil rights supporters were arrested, and the jails were filled to capacity. At the request of Hayling and King, white civil rights supporters from the North, including students, clergy, and well - known public figures, came to St. Augustine and were arrested together with Southern activists.
St. Augustine was the only place in Florida where King was arrested; his arrest there occurred on June 11, 1964, on the steps of the Monson Motor Lodge 's restaurant. The demonstrations came to a climax when a group of black and white protesters jumped into the hotel 's segregated swimming pool. In response to the protest, James Brock, the manager of the hotel and the president of the Florida Hotel & Motel Association, poured what he claimed to be muriatic acid into the pool to burn the protesters. Photographs of this, and of a policeman jumping into the pool to arrest the protesters, were broadcast around the world.
The Ku Klux Klan responded to these protests with violent attacks that were widely reported in national and international media. Popular revulsion against the Klan and police violence in St. Augustine generated national sympathy for the black protesters and became a key factor in Congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, leading eventually to passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, both of which provided federal enforcement of constitutional rights.
In 1965, St. Augustine celebrated the 400th anniversary of its founding, and jointly with the State of Florida, inaugurated a program to restore part of the colonial city. The Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board was formed to reconstruct more than thirty - six buildings to their historical appearance, which was completed within a few years. When the State of Florida abolished the Board in 1997, the City of St. Augustine assumed control of the reconstructed buildings, as well as other historic properties including the Government House. In 2010, the city transferred control of the historic buildings to the University of Florida.
In 2015, St. Augustine celebrated the 450th anniversary of its founding with four - day long festival and a visit from Felipe VI of Spain and Queen Letizia of Spain.
On October 7, 2016 Hurricane Matthew caused widespread flooding in downtown St. Augustine.
St. Augustine is located at 29 ° 53 ′ 41 '' N 81 ° 18 ′ 52 '' W / 29.89472 ° N 81.31444 ° W / 29.89472; - 81.31444 (29.8946910, − 81.3145170). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10.7 square miles (27.8 km), 8.4 square miles (21.7 km) of which is land and 2.4 square miles (6.1 km) (21.99 %) is water. Access to the Atlantic Ocean is via the St. Augustine Inlet of the Matanzas River.
St. Augustine has a humid subtropical climate or Cfa -- typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic states. The low latitude and coastal location give the city a mostly warm and sunny climate. Like much of Florida, St. Augustine enjoys a high number of sunny days, averaging 2,900 hours annually. Unlike much of the contiguous United States, St. Augustine 's driest time of year is winter. The hot and wet season extends from May through October, while the cool and dry season extends November through April.
In the hot season, average daytime highs are in the upper 80s to low 90s ° F (26 ° to 33 ° C) and average night - time lows are in the low 70s ° F (21 ° C). The Bermuda High pumps in hot and unstable tropical air from the Bahamas and Gulf of Mexico, which help create the daily thundershowers that are typical in summer months. Intense but very brief downpours are common in mid-summer in the city. Fall and spring are warm and sunny with highs in the 75 to 80 F (21 to 24 ° C) range and overnight lows in the 50s to low 60s (10 to 17 ° C).
In the dry winter season, St. Augustine has generally mild and sunny weather typical of the Florida peninsula. The coolest months are from December through February, with average daytime highs that range from 65 to 70 ° F (18 to 21 ° C) and nighttime lows in the 46 - 49 F (8 to 10 ° C) range. From November through April, St. Augustine often has long periods of rainless weather. Early spring (April) can see near drought conditions with brush fires and water restrictions in place. St. Augustine averages six frosts per year. Hurricanes occasionally impact the region; however, like most areas prone to such storms, St. Augustine rarely suffers a direct hit by a major hurricane. The last direct hit by a major hurricane to the city was Hurricane Dora in 1964. Extensive flooding occurred in the downtown area of St. Augustine when Hurricane Matthew passed east of the city in October 2016.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 12,975 people, 5,743 households, and 2,679 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,376.2 people per square mile (531 / km2). There were 6,978 housing units at an average density of 549.4 per square mile (211.4 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 84.2 % Caucasian, 11.6 % African American, 0.4 % Native American, 1.2 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 0.8 % from other races, and 1.6 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1 % of the population.
There were 5,743 households out of which 14.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.7 % were married couples living together, 10.9 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.4 % were non-families. 37.8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.03 and the average family size was 2.67.
In the city, the population was spread out with 13.1 % under the age of 18, 15.3 % from 18 to 24, 23.9 % from 25 to 44, 25.2 % from 45 to 64, and 19 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.6 years. For every 100 females there were 88.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $36,424, and the median income for a family was $56,055. Males had a median income of $32,409 versus $30,188 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,485. About 7.6 % of families and 21.1 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.8 % of those under age 18 and 24.4 % of those age 65 or over.
Bus service is operated by the Sunshine Bus Company. Buses operate mainly between shopping centers across town, but a few go to Hastings and Jacksonville, where one can connect to JTA for additional service across Jacksonville.
St. Augustine has one public airport 4 miles (6.4 km) north of the downtown. It has three runways and two seaplane lanes. Frontier Airlines provides seasonal service from the airport to Philadelphia and ViaAir provides seasonal service to Charlotte. Various private jets and tour helicopters also operate from the airport. Northrop Grumman runs a large manufacturing plant on the grounds, where the E-2 Hawkeye is produced. Jacksonville International Airport is 40 miles to the north along I - 95.
Primary and secondary education in St. Augustine is overseen by the St. Johns County School District. There are no county high schools located within St. Augustine 's current city limits, but St. Augustine High School, Pedro Menendez High School, and St. Johns Technical High School are located in the vicinity. The Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, a state - operated boarding school for deaf and blind students, was founded in the city in 1885. The Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine operates the St. Joseph Academy, Florida 's oldest Catholic high school, to the west of the city.
There are several institutions of higher education in and around St. Augustine. Flagler College is a four - year liberal arts college founded in 1968. It is located in the former Ponce de Leon Hotel in downtown St. Augustine. St. Johns River State College, a state college in the Florida College System, has its St. Augustine campus just west of the city. Also in the area are the University of North Florida, Jacksonville University, and Florida State College at Jacksonville in Jacksonville.
The institution now known as Florida Memorial University was located in St. Augustine from 1918 to 1968, when it relocated to its present campus in Miami. Originally known as Florida Baptist Academy, then Florida Normal, and then Florida Memorial College, it was a historically black institution and had a wide impact on St. Augustine while it was located there. During World War II it was chosen as the site for training the first blacks in the U.S. Signal Corps. Among its faculty members was Zora Neale Hurston; a historic marker is placed at the house where she lived while teaching at Florida Memorial (and where she wrote her autobiography Dust Tracks on a Road.)
Bell tower on northeast bastion of the Castillo de San Marcos
North bastions and wall of the Castillo, looking eastward toward Anastasia Island
Seawall south of the Castillo
The city gates of St. Augustine, built in 1808, part of the much older Cubo Line
The Government House. East wing of the building dates to the 18th - century structure built on original site of the colonial governor 's residence.
Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Augustine
Shrine of Our Lady of La Leche at Mission Nombre de Dios
Statue of Ponce de León
Memorial Presbyterian Church
The former Hotel Alcazar now houses the Lightner Museum and City Hall
Flagler College, formerly the Ponce de Leon Hotel
Bridge of Lions, looking eastward to Anastasia Island
Tolomato Cemetery
Government resources
Local news media
Historical
Higher education
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head to head between man utd and liverpool | Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. Rivalry - wikipedia
The Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. rivalry, also known as the North West Derby, is a high - profile inter-city rivalry between English professional association football clubs Liverpool and Manchester United. It is considered to be one of the biggest rivalries in the association football world along with the Old Firm derby in Scotland, Superclásico in Argentina, El Clásico in Spain, and Derby della Madonnina in Italy, and is considered the most famous fixture in English football. Players, fans and the media alike often consider games between the two clubs to be their biggest rivalry, above even their own local derby competitions with Everton and Manchester City, respectively.
The rivalry has been fuelled by the proximity of the two major cities that they represent, their historic economic and industrial rivalry, significant periods of domestic footballing dominance and European success, and their popularity at home and abroad, as two of the biggest - earning and widely supported football clubs in the world.
The two clubs are the most successful English teams in both domestic and European competitions; and between them they have won 38 league titles, 8 European Cups, 4 UEFA Cups, 4 UEFA Super Cups, 19 FA Cups, 13 League Cups, 1 FIFA Club World Cup, 1 Intercontinental Cup and 36 FA Community Shields.
Each club can claim historical supremacy over the other: United for their 20 league titles to Liverpool 's 18 and Liverpool for being European champions five times to United 's three. Manchester United have won more total trophies than Liverpool, and they also lead the Merseysiders in so - called "major '' honours as well.
The cities of Liverpool and Manchester are located in the north west of England, 35 miles (56 km) apart. Since the industrial revolution there has been a consistent theme of rivalry between the two cities based around economic and industrial competition. Manchester through to the 18th century was the far more populous city, and held a position of significance and notability as representative of the north. By the late 18th century, Liverpool had grown as a major sea port -- critical to the growth and success of the northern cotton mills. Over the next century, Liverpool grew to supersede Manchester and throughout the late 19th and early 20th century was often described as the British Empire 's second city. The links between the two cities were strengthened with the construction of the Bridgewater Canal, the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway for the transport of raw materials inland.
The construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, funded by Manchester merchants, was opposed by Liverpool politicians and bred resentment between the two cities. Tension between working class Liverpool dockers and labourers in Manchester was heightened after its completion in 1894, just three months prior to the first meeting between Liverpool and Newton Heath in a play - off match that would see Newton Heath relegated to the Second Division.
Today, the crests of both the city of Manchester and Manchester United include stylised ships representing the Manchester Ship Canal and Manchester 's trade roots. The ship is also included on the crest of many other Mancunian institutions such as Manchester City Council and rivals Manchester City F.C.
Post-war shifts in economic ties, reliance on regional coal, and shifts in transatlantic trade patterns caused by the growth of Asian labour markets caused the gradual decline of British manufacturing. While the city of Liverpool suffered the loss of its primary source of income to southern port cities, Manchester maintained some of its manufacturing heritage. This reversal of fortunes happened against the backdrop of shifting political backgrounds and significant events in British culture and society in the second half of the 20th century.
The two cities continue to be strong regional rivals, vying for influence of surrounding areas. Their continued importance to the UK economy has been reflected with the awarding of the 2002 Commonwealth Games to Manchester, while Liverpool was awarded the title of 2008 European Capital of Culture as part of its ongoing regeneration.
More recent projects by Peel Ports have sought to re-establish the economic links between the Port of Liverpool and Port of Manchester, including re-developing trade links via the Manchester Ship Canal.
Manchester United F.C. was formed in Newton Heath in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR F.C., and played their first competitive match in October 1886, when they entered the First Round of the 1886 -- 87 FA Cup.
Liverpool F.C. was formed in 1892 following a disagreement between the board of Everton and club president John Houlding, who owned the club 's ground, Anfield. The disagreement between the two parties over rent resulted in Everton moving to Goodison Park from Anfield, and Houlding founded Liverpool F.C. to play in the vacated stadium.
Liverpool 's first season was in the Second Division in 1893. The team went undefeated all season, winning the title and being put up for election to the First Division, which would see them play a one - off test match against the bottom side of the First Division for their place. The team that Liverpool were to face was Newton Heath, whom they beat 2 -- 0 to take their place in the first tier.
Liverpool won their first Football League Championship trophy in 1901 and followed it up in 1906, the same season that saw the newly renamed Manchester United promoted to the top flight after finishing as Second Division runners - up behind Bristol City. Two seasons later, by which time Liverpool had fallen into mid-table, Manchester United secured their first league title, winning the 1907 -- 08 Football League by nine points from Aston Villa and Manchester City. They followed this up by winning the first ever FA Charity Shield match when they defeated Queens Park Rangers over two legs in 1908. The following season, they won the 1909 FA Cup Final, and followed this up with another league title and Charity Shield in 1911.
The outbreak of the First World War disrupted domestic football, and following the resumption of competitions in 1919 Liverpool asserted themselves on domestic football with a brace of league Championships while United found themselves in steep decline that saw them relegated in 1923. Between 1923 and the outbreak of the Second World War, neither team won any more competitive trophies outside of local regional trophies, with Manchester United spending three separate periods in the Second Division.
After the Second World War, Liverpool again became English champions in 1947 before the clubs ' roles reversed once more, with the Merseysiders dropping into the second tier as Manchester United found stability under the management of former Liverpool captain Matt Busby, winning the FA Cup in 1948 and then three league titles and Charity Shields apiece in the 1950s. During this time, future Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was approached by then Liverpool chairman Tom Williams and asked, "How would you like to manage the best club in the country? ''. "Why? '' Shankly replied. "Is Matt Busby packing it in? ''.
Following Liverpool 's promotion under Shankly in 1962, the two clubs found themselves in direct competition with each other for the first time, sharing four league titles between 1964 and 1967, as well as the 1965 FA Charity Shield. Following this, though, the two sides began to drift in opposite directions once more. United 's title victory of 1967 would be their last for 26 years, while Liverpool would enjoy nearly 20 years of sustained success, winning 11 league titles, 19 domestic cups and seven European trophies from 1972 to 1992. United 's main reprieves during this time came through cup competitions, such as their triumphs over the Merseysiders in the 1977 FA Cup Final and the 1979 FA Cup semi-final replay at Goodison Park. It was during this period, in the late 70s and early 80s, that the modern day rivalry between the two clubs truly began to get heated. According to football sociologist John Williams, United had developed a "glamour and media profile '' but did n't have the success to match it and Liverpool fans felt the Red Devils were "media darlings who got far too much publicity ''. There was a perception in Liverpool that their hugely successful but ' professional ' and ' workmanlike ' teams were always somehow in the shadow of the stars at Old Trafford. This led to a derisory United nickname in Liverpool; "The Glams ''.
Manchester United 's 26 - year spell without a league title has been mirrored by Liverpool since 1990, when the Reds clinched their last league title. Meanwhile, United 's dominance since 1990 has seen them win 13 league titles, 23 domestic cups and seven European trophies. Once again, cup glories such as the 2003 League Cup and 2006 FA Cup allowed Liverpool some retribution against their rivals. Despite their contrasting fortunes, though, only six times since 1972 have neither Liverpool nor United finished in the top two of the league table -- in 1980 -- 81, 2003 -- 04, 2004 -- 05, 2014 -- 15, 2015 -- 16 and 2016 - 17 -- and even during five of those six campaigns, another piece of silverware was still taken home by one of the two clubs; Liverpool paraded the European Cup and League Cup in 1981, while Manchester United lifted the FA Community Shield and FA Cup in the 2004 season and Liverpool claimed the Champions League in 2005. United brought home the FA Cup again in 2016 and they won a treble of trophies consisting of the Community Shield, League Cup and UEFA Europa League in 2016 - 17.
While Liverpool and Manchester United 's successes are almost identical in number, their systems of achieving these successes vary considerably. Liverpool built their dominance on a dynasty known as the Anfield Boot Room. The boot room itself was where strategy for future matches was planned, however, it became a breeding ground for future Liverpool managers following the arrival of Bill Shankly in 1959. The original members were Shankly himself, Bob Paisley, Joe Fagan and Reuben Bennett, although the likes of Kenny Dalglish joined later on.
Following Shankly 's retirement in 1974, having secured eight trophies in 15 years, Bob Paisley stepped into the vacant manager 's position and amassed 20 trophies in 9 seasons. Following his retirement, Joe Fagan took over and in the first of two seasons at the club, won a treble of trophies. Kenny Dalglish, while not an original member, was accepted into the group as the next in line for the role of manager, and he combined it with his playing duties to win Liverpool 10 trophies. The boot room connection was finally broken in 1991, 32 years after Shankly 's arrival, with the appointment of Graeme Souness, who actually demolished the boot room itself to make way for a press room. It did still manage to produce a final Liverpool manager in Roy Evans, who won the League Cup, but upon his resignation in 1998, the era was over.
In contrast, Manchester United have succeeded thanks to the services of three extraordinary men, all decades apart, without the need for continuity and sustained success beyond each man 's departure. Out of the 66 trophies that United have won, 56 have come thanks to the exploits of Ernest Mangnall, Sir Matt Busby and Sir Alex Ferguson. Mangnall was the first great manager of Manchester United, securing five trophies within a three - year time span of 1908 -- 11. Following his departure to local rivals Manchester City a year later, it would not be until Busby 's arrival 33 years later that the club would be on the trophy trail again.
Busby became United 's second most decorated manager of all time (ironically as an ex-Liverpool player and captain), winning 13 trophies at the club including the 1968 European Cup, which saw an English team secure European football 's top prize for the first time. After Busby 's retirement in 1969 though, Manchester United saw their fortunes slip and the club struggled to stay successful until Alex Ferguson 's arrival 17 years later, during which time United only won three FA Cups and two Charity Shields.
It was only under the Scot that United regained their glory days, winning 38 trophies during his 26 - year tenure to scale the pinnacles of both English and European football. However, since Ferguson 's retirement in 2013, the club has gone on the wane again, finishing in the top four of the league just once in four seasons, although there has been frequent success in cup competitions.
The rivalry has extended to the players as well: Wayne Rooney, a product of Liverpool 's city rivals Everton who played for United from 2004 to 2017, described how he grew up hating the Reds (Liverpool), while Liverpool 's Steven Gerrard took a film crew on tour of his home where he showed off a collection of football shirts he had swapped with opposing players as part of the after match routine; he pointed out that there were no Manchester United shirts in there and he would never have one of them in his house. Former Liverpool goalkeeper David James said: "I could never say I hated any United players just for being United players... But the rivalry became a habit, I suppose; on England trips Liverpool lads would eat at one table, United boys at another. There was tension there and we avoided one other ''. Liverpool defender Neil Ruddock once broke both of United forward Andy Cole 's legs in a reserve match, later saying that "I did n't meant to break both legs, I only meant to break one... I absolutely destroyed him... I know it 's not big and it 's not clever but it was great ''. Manchester United 's Gary Neville has been publicly vocal in the past with regards to his dislike of Liverpool. He notably drew the ire of Liverpool fans during the 2006 match at Old Trafford during which he celebrated Rio Ferdinand 's last - gasp winner by running to the stand where the away fans were seated while kissing the crest on his jersey and appearing to shout angrily towards them; he was fined and given a two - match ban by The Football Association but has stated on multiple occasions that he has never regretted his actions. Following a fixture in which John O'Shea scored a stoppage - time winner in front of the Kop in 2007, Neville described O'Shea's achievement as "a lifelong dream '' for himself. Previously in a Manchester derby during the 2003 -- 04 season, Neville was sent off after attempting to headbutt Manchester City 's ex-Liverpool midfielder Steve McManaman: as Paul Scholes commented, "It 's fair to say the pair of them never got on too well together ''. The animosity amongst players has also extended to the fans on a number of occasions, as in the case of Neville, who regularly became the subject of offensive chants from Liverpool supporters after the 2006 badge - kissing incident. In a retrospective special leading up to the January 2017 match up at Old Trafford, Neville and his fellow Monday Night Football pundit and retired Liverpool one - club man Jamie Carragher both acknowledged that it was actually not uncommon for both United and Liverpool players, particularly locally - born youth academy graduates such as Bury - born Neville and Merseyside natives Gerrard and Robbie Fowler, to celebrate in front of rival fans and that "you just got to take it in the chin ''.
In the 2011 -- 12 season, the rivalry was exacerbated by claims that, in the first League meeting of the season at Anfield, Liverpool striker Luis Suárez racially abused United 's Patrice Evra. After considering the evidence, an FA panel found that Suárez had referred to Evra using the term "negrito '' seven times (Suárez himself admitted to having done so once, but denied racism); he was banned for eight games. This included the FA Cup fourth round tie between the two clubs (again at Anfield), which Liverpool won. On 11 February 2012, however, United and Liverpool met again at Old Trafford, and Suárez played for Liverpool for the first time since his ban. Prior to kick - off, the two teams were expected to shake hands, but Suárez ignored Evra 's offered hand and moved onto the next United player in line, David de Gea. As a result, Rio Ferdinand and Danny Welbeck rejected Suárez 's handshake. United went on to win 2 -- 1 and Evra celebrated in front of the home supporters, with Suárez close by. Sir Alex Ferguson declared Suárez to be a "disgrace '' and suggested that he should not be allowed to play for Liverpool again. Kenny Dalglish vehemently denied having seen the missed handshake. The following day, Suárez, Dalglish and Liverpool all issued statements of apology for the handshake incident, which United accepted. The FA decided against any further action against either club or the players involved.
Since the 1964 transfer of Phil Chisnall from United to Liverpool, no player has been transferred directly between the two clubs. Some players, however, have played for both clubs, but having played elsewhere between each tenure, such as Paul Ince (playing for Internazionale in between) and Peter Beardsley (Vancouver Whitecaps and Newcastle United) and more recently Michael Owen (Real Madrid and Newcastle United), although Beardsley only played once for United, but went on to be a key player during his four years at Liverpool.
In 2007, there was a bid from Liverpool to sign Gabriel Heinze from United, but United refused to allow him to join their biggest rivals due to the ongoing feud. United claimed that it was agreed Heinze would only join a foreign club if he chose to leave. Heinze went public with his request to join Liverpool which was seen as the ultimate betrayal by the Manchester United fans. The Manchester United fans who once chanted "Argentina '' in honour of the player then turned their backs on him. Heinze was eventually sold to Real Madrid instead.
Both Manchester United and Liverpool are among the most popular football clubs (and sporting organisations) globally. Both are in the top 25 in Europe with Manchester United considered to have the largest following of all, as well as having one of the highest average home attendances in Europe and boasting a large travelling support. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club (MUSC), in at least 24 countries. Liverpool states that its worldwide fan base also includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the LFC Official Supporters Clubs in at least 50 countries. Notable groups include Spirit of Shankly and Reclaim The Kop.
The 2005 leveraged takeover of Manchester United by the Glazer family created a schism amongst Manchester fans, directly causing the creation of F.C. United of Manchester, and the "Love United Hate Glazer '' movement, and subsequently the Red Knights who attempted to buy the Glazers out the club. Two years later, Liverpool went through its own controversial takeover when Chairman David Moores sold the club to American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks. Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and the lack of popular support from fans, resulted in the pair looking to sell the club. Martin Broughton was appointed chairman of the club on 16 April 2010 to oversee its sale. Court action finally forced the sale of the club to Fenway Sports Group.
With the rise of football hooliganism across English football during the 1970s and 1980s, matches between the two clubs brought some minor and major incidents of hooliganism. Since then, the modern game has seen a decrease in violence between the rival supporters and incidents are fairly uncommon. This is more likely due to an increase in Police presence and CCTV with huge steps taken to keep the fans separated. To this day, both sets of fans still hold a resentment toward each other. As well as physical violence, sections of the clubs ' fan bases often taunt each other with unsavoury chants about the Munich air disaster and the Hillsborough disaster respectively.
At the 1996 FA Cup Final, an unidentified Liverpool fan spat at Eric Cantona and threw a punch at Alex Ferguson as a victorious Manchester United team walked up the steps at Wembley Stadium to collect the trophy from the Royal Box.
The 2006 FA Cup match at Anfield featured foreign objects thrown at United fans by Liverpool supporters, including human excrement. Liverpool 's FA Cup semi-final game against Chelsea at Old Trafford later that year also resulted in damage to the stadium, including graffiti about serial killer Harold Shipman.
In March 2011, the Daily Mail reported that an FA Youth Cup game between the two clubs was marred because of "sick chants '' about Hillsborough and Heysel coming from the Manchester United fans at Anfield. The article also claims that six Manchester United fans were ejected from the stadium due to bad behaviour. Former Liverpool striker John Aldridge was at the game and told the Liverpool Echo that "the level of abuse was absolutely sickening ''.
In March 2016, before Liverpool 's first leg tie at Anfield against Manchester United, it was reported that a group of Liverpool fans hung a "Manc Bastards '' banner on the M62, as 2,300 Manchester United supporters made the trip to Anfield. It was confiscated by the police, shortly after. Liverpool won the match 2 -- 0.
Before the second leg tie at Old Trafford., Liverpool fans were greeted with a banner on the M62 motorway in Salford that said ' murderers ' and also had the Hillsborough Disaster date on it. UEFA took no disciplinary action against Manchester United. During the same game, there were reported crowd disturbances, coming from the Manchester United end. It was later reported that a Liverpool supporter sneaked a Liverpool banner in the United section, causing to aggravate United supporters in the stand. Liverpool supporters ripped seats, and supporters threw objects at each other, also fighting with United supporters. Liverpool were fined £ 43,577. by UEFA for setting off flares / crowd fireworks & ' illicit chants ', whilst Manchester United were fined £ 44,342 for illicit chants & the throwing of objects. Both clubs ' fines included £ 15,290 suspended for two years. Liverpool drew 1 -- 1, and progressed to the Europa League quarter - finals against Borussia Dortmund.
The first ever meeting between both clubs came in a Football League test match in 1894, a post-season series to determine who will receive First Division membership for 1894 -- 95. As Newton Heath finished bottom of the First Division at the end of 1893 -- 94, they had to play off against the champions of the Second Division, Liverpool. Liverpool won the tie 2 -- 0 at Ewood Park in Blackburn, earning them First Division membership and condemning Newton Heath to the Second Division.
In 1977, the two clubs met in a cup final for the first time, when they reached the final of the FA Cup. The two clubs took to the field at Wembley on 21 May, with Liverpool having just won the league title, knowing that winning this game would put them on course for a unique treble as they had the European Cup final to look forward to four days later. However, United ended Liverpool 's treble dreams with a 2 -- 1 win, with goals from Stuart Pearson and Jimmy Greenhoff, five minutes apart with a Jimmy Case goal for Liverpool in between.
Six years later, on 26 March 1983, the two sides met for the Football League Cup final. Goals from Alan Kennedy and Ronnie Whelan won the game 2 -- 1 for Liverpool, after Norman Whiteside had given United the lead. Liverpool collected the trophy for the third year in succession. It was the last of Liverpool manager Bob Paisley 's nine seasons in charge (during which Liverpool had dominated the English and European scene) before his retirement, and his players allowed him to climb the 39 steps to collect the trophy from the Royal Box.
On 4 April 1988, Liverpool were 11 points ahead at the top of the league and almost certain of winning the First Division title with barely a month of the league season remaining. United, in their first full season under the management of Alex Ferguson, were their nearest rivals. The two sides took to the field for a league encounter at Anfield and with the second half just minutes old the home side had a 3 -- 1 lead with goals from Peter Beardsley, Gary Gillespie and Steve McMahon, with United 's only goal coming from Bryan Robson. Robson then pulled a goal back for United, and with 12 minutes remaining fellow midfielder Gordon Strachan equalised to force a 3 -- 3 draw.
On 4 January 1994, in the second season of the new FA Premier League, United took a 3 -- 0 lead at Anfield in the opening 25 minutes with goals from Steve Bruce, Ryan Giggs and Denis Irwin. Liverpool managed to claw back to draw 3 -- 3 with two goals from Nigel Clough and another from Neil Ruddock. It was one of the last games in charge of Liverpool for manager Graeme Souness, who had resigned by the end of the month.
On 1 October 1995, United 's Eric Cantona made his comeback to the side after serving an eight - month suspension for attacking a spectator in a game against Crystal Palace. His comeback game was against Liverpool in the Premier League at Old Trafford. United took an early lead through Nicky Butt, only for Liverpool 's Robbie Fowler to score twice and give the visitors a 2 -- 1 lead. However, United were awarded a penalty in the 71st minute and Cantona converted it successfully, forcing a 2 -- 2 draw. At the end of the season, the two sides met again at Wembley for the FA Cup Final. The game stayed goalless until the 85th minute, when Liverpool conceded a corner, which David Beckham swung into the box to be cleared by David James, only for Eric Cantona to fire home United 's winner. In March 2003, the two clubs once again met in a cup final, this time in the League Cup, with Liverpool lifting the trophy after goals from Steven Gerrard and Michael Owen gave them a 2 -- 0 win.
On 14 March 2009, the two sides met at Old Trafford in the Premier League. United were ahead at the top of the league and Liverpool were looking to make a late run to the title which had eluded them since 1990. United went ahead in the 23rd minute with a Cristiano Ronaldo penalty, but Fernando Torres equalised five minutes later for Liverpool, and a Steven Gerrard penalty just before half - time put Liverpool in the lead. United had Nemanja Vidić sent off in the 76th minute, and their misery was swiftly compounded by late goals from Fábio Aurélio and finally Andrea Dossena, condemning them to a 4 -- 1 defeat, their heaviest at Old Trafford in any competition for 17 years. Despite the loss, Manchester United were crowned league champions for the third season in succession and equalled Liverpool 's 18 league titles, with Liverpool finishing four points behind in second.
The league fixture on 11 February 2012 was marked by controversy regarding Liverpool striker Luis Suárez refusal to shake hands with Patrice Evra, following an eight - match suspension for racially abusing Evra in the previous meeting between the sides. Following the 2 -- 1 victory for United after a brace from Wayne Rooney, Evra in turn controversially celebrated right in front of Suárez, and was swept aside by opposition players finding the gesture provocative.
The below table demonstrates the competitive results between the two sides (not indicative of titles won).
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when do you need a hearing conservation program | Hearing conservation program - wikipedia
Hearing conservation programs are designed to prevent hearing loss due to noise. Regarding occupational exposures to noise, a written hearing conservation program is required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) "whenever employee noise exposures equal or exceed an 8 - hour time - weighted average sound level (TWA) of 85 decibels (dB) measured on the A scale (slow response) or, equivalently, a dose of fifty percent. '' This 8 - hour time - weighted average is known as an exposure action value. While the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) also requires a hearing conservation program, MSHA does not require a written hearing conservation program. MSHA 's hearing conservation program requirement can be found in 30 CFR § 62.150, and requires has almost the same exact requirements as the OSHA hearing conservation program requirements. Therefore, only the OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.95 will be discussed in detail.
The OSHA standard contains a series of program requirements.
A sound survey is often completed to determine areas of potential high noise exposure. A noise screening is completed initially to determine which areas are higher than 80 dB A. For these areas, an official sound survey will take place. This type of survey is normally completed using a sound level meter (SLM). There are three types of sound level meters. Type 0 is precision instrument normally used in laboratories. Type 1 is for precision measurements taken in the field. Type 2 sound level meters are less precise than type 1 and are often used to take all - purpose sound level measurements. Noise monitoring is generally completed using a noise dosimeter that integrates "all continuous, intermittent and impulsive sound levels '' to determine a person 's noise exposure level.
Surveys must be repeated when there are significant changes in machinery and / or processes that would affect the noise level.
Engineering controls and administrative controls are ranked as the most effective protection from noise in the hierarchy of controls. Engineering controls are measures taken to reduce the intensity of noise at the source or between the source and a person exposed to the noise. Administrative controls are limitations around noise sources that limit length of noise exposure.
If engineering controls fail to maintain an 8 - hour time - weighted average below 85 dBA, then a hearing protection device (HPD) is required. There are two general types of HPDs: earplugs and earmuffs. Each one has its own benefits and drawbacks. The selection of the proper HPD to be worn is commonly done by an industrial hygienist so that the proper amount of noise protection is worn. OSHA requires that HPD be given free of charge.
There are four general classes of earplugs. These include: pre-molded, formable, custom molded and semi-insert.
Earmuffs are another type of HPD. The main difference between earmuffs and earplugs, is that earmuffs are not inserted inside the ear canal. Instead the muffs create a seal around the outside of the ear to prevent noise from reaching the inner ear. Earmuffs are easy to wear and often provide a more consistent fit than an earplug. There are earmuffs available that use the principle of active noise control to help reduce noise exposures. However, the protection earmuffs offer may be mitigated by large sideburns or glasses as the seal of the earmuffs may be broken by these objects.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires that all hearing protection devices be labeled with their associated noise reduction rating (NRR). The NRR provides the estimated attenuation of the hearing protection device. However, it has been found that the "labeled manufacturers ' noise reduction ratings (NRRs) substantially overestimated the actual field attenuation performance. '' To determine the amount of noise reduction afforded by a hearing protection device, OSHA recommends that 7 dB be subtracted from the NRR. The NRR is generally given in a C - weighted format, so to obtain the A-weighted reduction, one must subtract 7 dB. OSHA also recommends a 50 % safety factor, therefore the final OSHA recommended reduction would be (NRR - 7) / 2.
Fit testing for hearing protection
The NRR now has some help. Fit testing devices on the market that will verify a proper fit of an HPD (hearing protection device). The fit of a hearing protector is very important, because if the HPD is not worn properly, the NRR becomes irrelevant. Products that will verify proper fit include: 3M EARFit Validation System, FitCheck, FitCheck Solo, INTEGRAfit, SafetyMeter, and VeriPro. Fit - test systems provide a Personal Attenuation Rating (PAR) that is currently dependent upon the company that manufactures the fit - testing system. Most fit test systems provide an A-weighted PAR, which means that the attenuation can be subtracted from the A-weighted noise exposure assessment of the employee or hearing protector user.
A-weighted Noise
Validation System
Confidence Interval
FitCheck
under headphones
FitCheck Solo
under headphones
INTEGRAFIt
under headphones
Fit - TestSystem
then subtract directly
C - weighted noise levels
VeriPRO
under headphones
Table: Fit - testing systems, PAR measurement method and application to estimate protected exposure level.
Audiometric testing is a part of the hearing conservation program that is used in the identification of significant hearing loss. Audiometric testing can identify those who have permanent hearing loss. This is called noise - induced permanent threshold shift (NIPTS).
Completing baseline audiograms and periodically monitoring threshold levels is one way to track any changes in hearing and identify if there is a need to make improvements to the hearing conservation program. OSHA, which monitors workplaces in the United states to ensure safe and healthful working conditions, specifies that employees should have a baseline audiogram established within 6 months of their first exposure to 85 dBA time - weighted average (TWA). If a worker is unable to obtain a baseline audiogram within 6 months of employment, HPD is required to be worn if the worker is exposed to 85 dBA or above TWA. HPD must be worn until a baseline audiogram is obtained. Under the MSHA, which monitors compliance to standards within the mining industry, an existing audiogram that meets specific standards can be used for the employee 's baseline. Before establishing baseline, it is important that the employee limit excessive noise exposure that could potentially cause a temporary threshold shift and affect results of testing. OSHA stipulates that an employee be noise - free for at least 14 hours prior to testing.
Periodic audiometric monitoring, typically completed annually as recommended by OSHA, can identify changes in hearing. There are specific criteria that the change must meet in order to require action. The criterion most commonly used is the standard threshold shift (STS), defined by a change of 10 dB or greater averaged at 2000, 3000, and 4000 Hz. Age correction factors can be applied to the change in order to compensate for hearing loss that is age - related rather than work - related. If an STS is found, OSHA requires that the employee be notified of this change within 21 days. Furthermore, any employee that is not currently wearing HPD is now required to wear protection. If the employee is already wearing protection, they should be refit with a new device and retrained on appropriate use.
Another determination that is made includes whether an STS is "recordable '' under OSHA standards, meaning the workplace must report the change to OSHA. In order to be recordable the employee 's new thresholds at 2000, 3000, and 4000 Hz must exceed an average of 25 dB HL. MSHA standard differs slightly in terms of calculation and terminology. MSHA considers whether an STS is "reportable '' by determining if the average amount of change that occurs exceeds 25 dB HL. The various measures that are used in occupational audiometric testing allow consistency in standards within workplaces. Completing baseline and follow - up audiograms allows workplaces to detect hearing loss as early as possible and determine whether changes need to be made to provide a safe working environment for their employees.
Proper training and education of those exposed to noise is the key to preventing noise - induced hearing loss. If employees are properly trained on how to follow a hearing conservation program, then the risk of noise - induced hearing loss is reduced. By providing information on the physiological effects of noise exposure, the importance of obtaining baseline and annual audiograms, and use of appropriate hearing protection, the program will provide a thorough knowledge base for employees involved. Providing a refresher training when appropriate will support retention of this information. OSHA requires this training to be completed on an annual basis. Proper training is imperative since "even with a very modest amount of instruction attenuation performance can be significantly improved. ''
To carry out a hearing conservation training, the program may utilize a variety of materials to relay the necessary information. An assortment if written, video, audio, and hands on experience may make the training more interactive and meaningful to employees. It is recommended that materials also be translated into languages other than English so all employees can attend and benefit from the training. Pre - and post-assessments, a safe and secure learning environment, access to training media and equipment, informational handouts / pamphlets, and examples of hearing protection devices are all resources that can contribute to successful HLPP trainings.
Even with training and education, the workers need to be motivated to use hearing protection on a regular basis for the hearing conservation program to be successful. Even if workers are aware that noise can cause hearing loss, that does not guarantee that they will take the necessary actions to preserve their hearing.
There are several reasons why a worker may choose not to adopt the protocols of a hearing conservation program. Employees may not follow protocol because they feel that noise induced hearing loss will not happen to them. They may believe this because they think the level of sound that they are exposed is not loud enough to cause hearing loss or that loud noise just toughens their ears. They might also think hearing loss is not a serious condition and can easily be fixed with hearing aids. Another reason is the worker may believe that hearing protection does not actually work and that he / she may still develop noise - induced hearing loss even with hearing protection. If the employee feels that hearing protection may impinge his / her work, whether it be missing important warning signals or the ability to communicate, he / she is less likely to wear it. Finally, the comfort of the hearing protection offered through the hearing conservation program. If the hearing protection is uncomfortable, it is unlikely that the worker will adhere to the policies.
Motivational techniques can be implemented to promote hearing conservation program compliance and the use of hearing protection. One suggestion is continued education at the workers ' audiometric screening. They should be asked to bring along their current hearing protection device to the screening. If the results are normal and the inspection of the hearing protection device is good, praise can be given for following protocol. If there is a shift in their hearing, instruction can be given again about the proper use of hearing protection and the importance of wearing them. Audiograms can be very useful in showing workers how noise can affect their hearing. One specific way to do this is to perform two hearing test on an employee on two different days. One day the hearing test will be after wearing hearing protection all day and the other will be after not wearing hearing protection for the day. The difference can then be discussed with the worker and he / she has a tangible way to see how noise affects hearing. Another technique is using "internal triggers '' to motivate employees to comply to the hearing conservation program. If the individual already suffers from tinnitus and / or hearing loss they are probably more likely to use hearing protection because he / she does not want that problem to progress with noise exposure. Finally, the hearing protection offered should be comfortable so the worker will wear it. It is suggested that workers have a variety of hearing protection devices available to them, including at least one type of earmuff and two different forms of earplugs, to fit the individual needs and wants of the workers.
OSHA requires that records of exposure measurements and audiometric tests be maintained. Records are also required to have the following:
Noise exposure measurement records must be maintained for at least 2 years. Audiometric test records must be retained for the duration of the affected employee 's employment. Additionally, employees, former employees, representatives designated by the individual employee and the Assistant Secretary all must have access to these records.
Proper program evaluation is important in maintaining the health of hearing conservation program. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has created a checklist to help evaluate the effectiveness of a hearing conservation program. It can be found on their website. NIOSH recommends that fewer than 5 % of exposed employees should have a 15 dB significant threshold shift in the same ear and same frequency.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is pushing a higher emphasis on a hearing loss prevention program rather than a hearing conservation program. While this change may seem superfluous, it is important to note the advancement. Prevention implies a response by the workplace caused by initial signs of employee hearing loss rather than instilling a new set of policies (such as "buy quiet '') and thinking (such as hearing protection training and education) to decrease the possibility of occupational hearing loss from happening in the first place.
The Buy Quiet policy is an easy way to progress towards a safer work environment. Many traditionally noisy tools and machines are now being redesigned in order to manufacture quieter running equipment, so a "buy quiet '' purchase policy should not require new engineering solutions in most cases. As a part of the "buy quiet '' campaign, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection released a products and vendor guidance sheet in order to assist contractors for achieving compliance with the New York City Noise Regulations.
In order to make these plans effective, employees and administration need to be educated in occupational noise - induced hearing loss prevention. It is also necessary to identify and examine sources of noise first before being able to control the damage it may cause to hearing. For example, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has conducted a study and created a database on handheld power tools for the sound power levels they expose their operators to. This Power Tools Database allows contractors in a trade - skill profession to monitor their exposure limits and allow them preparation to prevent permanent hearing damage.
Due to increased worry among both parents and experts regarding Noise - induced hearing loss (NIHL) in children, it has been suggested that hearing conservation programs be implemented in schools as part of their studies regarding health and wellness. The necessity for these programs is supported by the following reasons: 1. Children are not sheltered from loud noises in their daily lives, and 2. Promoting healthy behaviors at a young age is critical to future application. The creation of a hearing conservation program for children will strongly differ from those created for the occupational settings discussed above. While children may not be exposed to factory of industrial noise on a daily basis, they may be exposed to noise sources such as firearms, music, power tools, sports, and noisy toys. All of these encounters with noise cumulatively increases their risk for developing Noise - induced hearing loss. With NIHL being a fully preventable ailment, providing children with this type of education has the potential to reduce future incidence of this condition. There are multiple organizations in existence that provide educators with the appropriate material to teach this topic; teachers simply need to be proactive about accessing them. Below are examples of hearing conservation programs that have been designed specifically for children.
This is the primary goal of most hearing conservation programs at the elementary, middle, and high school levels is to spread knowledge about hearing loss and noise exposure. When an educational program is being created or adapted for use with children, behavior change theories are often employed to increase effectiveness. Behavior theory identifies possible obstacles to change while also highlighting factors that may encourage students to change. The following are elements that are also considered during the implementation of a new program for children:
1. Adaptation of the program for the specific population (age, demographic, etc.)
2. Use of interactive games, lessons, and role - playing
3. Time to apply the skills that are taught
4. Reoccurring lessons on the same topic area
Dangerous Decibels is a program designed to teach concepts related to the prevention of noise - induced hearing loss. Proven to be effective for children in 4th through 7th grade, children are engaged in hands - on activities during this 50 - minute presentation. The class will learn about what sound is, how their ears hear and detect it, and how they can protect their hearing from dangerous decibels. Throughout the program, the class focuses on three strategies: Turn it Down, Walk Away, and Protect your Ears.
Created by the American Speech - Language - Hearing Association, this campaign aims to teach children and their parents about practicing safe listening routines when listening to music through personal devices, such as an iPod. With the help of sponsors, ASHA hosts an educational concert series to promote safe music listening.
Run by the Ear Science Institute of Australia, this school program was created to educate elementary - age children on the risks of high listening levels and the effects of hearing loss. Program has a mascot named Charlie and utilizes sound level meters, computer games, apps, and take - home packets to teach the concepts. Teachers also receive addition activities and worksheets for continued learning opportunities.
Organized by the United States National Institutes of Health, this is a campaign created with the aim to increase parental awareness of both the causes and effects of noise induced hearing loss. By targeting parents instead of children, the goal is for adults to influence the behaviors of their children before bad habits are even created. Resources provided include web - based games and puzzles, downloadable graphics, and tips for school and home environments.
Created by The Hearing Foundation of Canada, the Sound Sense classroom program teaches children how hearing works, how it can stop working, and offers ideas for safe listening. The classroom presentation satisfies the requirements for the science unit on sound taught in either grade 3 or 4, as well as the healthy living curriculum in grades 5 and 6. In addition, the webpage provides resources & games for children, parents, and teachers.
An Australian program initiated by the HEARing Cooperative Research Centre and the National Acoustic Laboratories (NAL), HEARsmart aims to improve the hearing health of all Australians, particularly those at greatest of risk of noise - related tinnitus and hearing loss. The program has a particular focus on promoting healthy hearing habits in musicians, live music venues and patrons. Resources include: Know Your Noise - an online risk calculator and speech - in - noise test, a short video that aims to raise awareness of tinnitus in musicians, and a comprehensive website with detailed information.
Just as program evaluation is necessary in workplace settings, it is also an important component of educational hearing conservation programs to determine if any changes need to be made. This evaluation may consist of two main parts: assessment of students ' knowledge and assessment of their skills and behaviors. To examine the level of knowledge acquired by the students, a questionnaire is often given with the expectation of an 85 % competency level among students. If proficiency is too low, changes should be implemented. If the knowledge level is adequate, assessing behaviors is then necessary to see if the children are using their newfound knowledge. This evaluation can be done through classroom observation of both the students and teachers in noisy classroom environments such as music, gym, technology, etc.
The Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) requires that all feasible engineering and administrative controls be employed to reduce miners ' exposure levels to 90 dBA TWA. The action level for enrollment in a hearing conservation program is 85 dBA 8 - hour TWA, integrating all sound levels between 80 dBA to at least 130 dBA. MSHA uses a 5 - dB exchange rate (the sound level in decibels that would result in halving (if an increase in sound level) or a doubling (if a decrease.in sound level) the allowable exposure time to maintain the same noise dose). At and above exposure levels of 90 dBA TWA, the miner must wear hearing protection. At and above exposure levels above 105 dBA TWA, the miner must wear dual hearing protection. Miners may not be exposed to sounds exceeding 115 dBA with or without hearing protection devices. MSHA defines an STS as an average decrease in auditory sensitivity of 10 dB HL at the frequencies 2000, 3000, and 4000 Hz. (30 CFR Part 62).
The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) encourages, but does not require, railroads to use administrative controls that reduce noise exposure duration when the worker exceeds 90 dBA TWA. The FRA defines the action level for employee enrollment in a hearing conservation program as an 8 - hour TWA of 85 dBA on certain railroads, integrating all sound levels between 80 dBA and 140 dBA. FRA uses a 5 - dB exchange rate. Those employees who are always at or above 90 dBA TWA are required to wear hearing protection such that sound levels are attenuated below 90 dBA TWA. (49 CFR Part 229).
The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) specifies that engineering controls are preferential when reducing the noise levels at the source. The use of hearing protective devices is considered an "interim protective measure '' while engineering controls are developed. The goal of these controls is to reduce ambient steady - state noise levels to 85 dBA regardless of TWA exposure and to reduce impulse noise levels to below 140 dBP. The DOD requires that personnel be entered into a hearing conservation program when continuous and intermittent noise levels ale grs greater than or equal to 85 dBA TWA, when impulse SPL are at or in excess of 140 dBP, or when the personnel is exposed to ultrasonic frequencies. The DOD integrates all sound levels between 80 dBA to a minimum of 130 dBA when determining an individual or representative noise dose. When used, hearing protectors must be capable of attenuating worker noise exposure below 85 dBA TWA. Hearing protection is required to be carried by personnel who work in designated noise areas, such as those exposed to gunfire or ordnance tests and Service musicians. The DOD defines a significant threshold shift as a 10 dB average decrease in hearing thresholds at 2000, 3000, and 4000 Hz in either ear, with no age corrections. It is further specified that a shift in 15 dB at 1000, 2000, 3000, or 4000 Hz is an early warning sign for an STS; follow - up retraining is required in this case. (DOD Instruction 6055.12).
The European Union (EU) requires a hearing conservation program be implemented when the worker exposure levels exceed 80 dBA TWA. Note that this is more strict than hearing conservation regulations in the United States. The EU specifies several different exposure action values: a "lower '' value of 80 dBA at which the employer must make hearing protection devices available to the employee; an "upper '' value of 85 dBA at which the employee is required to wear hearing protection; and an "exposure limit '' value of 87 dBA, under which the individual 's noise exposure shall be limited to preserve hearing. The directive also defines a weekly noise exposure level which is applied to individuals working in circumstances of inconstant noise exposure. Finally, the EU also recommends a variety of noise reduction methods, including administrative controls to reduce worker exposure duration, the provision of quieter equipment, and adequate maintenance of machinery and other noise sources (European Parliament and Council Directive 2003 10 EC).
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why is the sculpture in the picture considered a piece of art | Work of art - wikipedia
A work of art, artwork, art piece, piece of art or art object is an aesthetic physical item or artistic creation. Apart from "work of art '', which may be used of any work regarded as art in its widest sense, including works from literature and music, these terms apply principally to tangible, portable forms of visual art:
Used more broadly, the term is less commonly applied to:
This article is concerned with the terms and concept as used in and applied to the visual arts, although other fields such as aural - music and written word - literature have similar issues and philosophies. The term objet d'art is reserved to describe works of art that are not paintings, prints, drawings or large or medium - sized sculptures, or architecture (e.g. household goods, figurines, etc., some purely aesthetic, some also practical). The term oeuvre is used to describe the complete body of work completed by an artist throughout a career.
A work of art in the visual arts is a physical two - or three - dimensional object that is professionally determined or otherwise considered to fulfill a primarily independent aesthetic function. A singular art object is often seen in the context of a larger art movement or artistic era, such as: a genre, aesthetic convention, culture, or regional - national distinction. It can also be seen as an item within an artist 's "body of work '' or oeuvre. The term is commonly used by: museum and cultural heritage curators, the interested public, the art patron - private art collector community, and art galleries.
Physical objects that document immaterial or conceptual art works, but do not conform to artistic conventions can be redefined and reclassified as art objects. Some Dada and Neo-Dada conceptual and readymade works have received later inclusion. Also, some architectural renderings and models of unbuilt projects, such as by Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Frank Gehry, are other examples.
The products of environmental design, depending on intention and execution, can be "works of art '' and include: land art, site - specific art, architecture, gardens, landscape architecture, installation art, rock art, and megalithic monuments.
Legal definitions of "work of art '' are used in copyright law; see Visual arts § United States of America copyright definition of visual art.
Marcel Duchamp critiqued the idea that the work of art should be a unique product of an artist 's labour, representational of their technical skill or artistic caprice. Theorists have argued that objects and people do not have a constant meaning, but their meanings are fashioned by humans in the context of their culture, as they have the ability to make things mean or signify something.
Artist Michael Craig - Martin, creator of An Oak Tree, said of his work -- "It 's not a symbol. I have changed the physical substance of the glass of water into that of an oak tree. I did n't change its appearance. The actual oak tree is physically present, but in the form of a glass of water. ''
Some art theorists and writers have long made a distinction between the physical qualities of an art object and its identity - status as an artwork. For example, a painting by Rembrandt has a physical existence as an "oil painting on canvas '' that is separate from its identity as a masterpiece "work of art '' or the artist 's magnum opus. Many works of art are initially denied "museum quality '' or artistic merit, and later become accepted and valued in museum and private collections. Works by the Impressionists and non-representational abstract artists are examples. Some, such as the "Readymades '' of Marcel Duchamp including his infamous urinal Fountain, are later reproduced as museum quality replicas.
There is an indefinite distinction, for current or historical aesthetic items: between "fine art '' objects made by "artists ''; and folk art, craft - work, or "applied art '' objects made by "first, second, or third - world '' designers, artisans and craftspeople. Contemporary and archeological indigenous art, industrial design items in limited or mass production, and places created by environmental designers and cultural landscapes, are some examples. The term has been consistently available for debate, reconsideration, and redefinition.
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who is the voice of fisher price toys | Deb Lyons - wikipedia
Deb Lyons is a singer - songwriter from New York City. She is most associated with her work in Broadway, and is well - recognized for her multiple performances in clubs such as The Bitter End and The Bottom Line.
Lyons has recorded with acclaimed composer Yuki Kajiura on the album Fiction, as well as several songs (including the image theme) for the video game Xenosaga Episode II. Through remixes, her voice has appeared in Xenosaga Episode III. She has sung on jingles for Toyota, JetBlue, Milky Way, and is the voice of several Fisher Price toys. In addition, Lyons has recorded with The Chieftains (Further Down the Old Plank Road) and children 's artists Yosi Levin and Mr. Scott the Music Man.
Other people Lyons has performed and recorded with include Donna Summer, The Mamas & the Papas, Lee Ann Womack, Rosanne Cash, Carrie Underwood, Emily Bindiger, Carolee Goodgold, Jim Barbaro, Margaret Dorn, Bingoboys, Gigi on the Beach, and the Ed Palermo Big Band.
Lyons has been in several stage productions, including a national tour of Jekyll & Hyde, and Smokey Joe 's Cafe on Broadway and West End of London and regional productions of Hairspray, Side by Side by Sondheim, and Pump Boys and Dinettes.
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are you being served season 1 episode 2 | List of are You being Served? Episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the British sitcom Are You Being Served? that aired from 1972 to 1985. All episodes were 30 minutes long. There was a film in 1977, also entitled Are You Being Served?. While all episodes were in colour, the pilot had originally survived only in black - and - white as a film transfer from the original colour source; however, it was restored into colour using the chroma dots computer colour restoration technique and was aired on BBC Two on 1 January 2010.
All ten series, including both the black & white and colour versions of the pilot episode and all five Christmas specials from those years, are now available on DVD in the UK (Region 2). Are You Being Served: the Movie was released in 2002. The complete series of Grace & Favour was released in 2016.
All ten series, as well as both series of Grace & Favour (in packaging titled Are You Being Served? Again!) and the film are available on DVD in Region 1 (North America).
All ten series, as well as both series of Grace & Favour (under the original title) and the film have been released in Australia (Region 4).
Are You Being Served? -- Best of The Early Years and Are You Being Served? Christmas Specials DVDs have also been released.
Also see List of Are You Being Served? characters.
A reorganization within the store forces the staff of the Gentlemen 's Ready - To - Wear Department to share their floor space with the Ladies Department. Mrs. Slocombe, head of the Ladies, and Mr. Grainger, head of the Gents, immediately come to loggerheads over control of the centre floor display. Mr. Grainger refuses to take down his trousers and put Mrs. Slocombe 's underwear in its place. Undaunted, she goes over his head to Captain Peacock, and then to Mr. Rumbold. Guest starring Michael Knowles as the customer looking for the ' Gents '.
Filmed: May 1972
Mr. Lucas tries to salvage his bad day at work by sending a love note to Miss Brahms, whom he addresses as "Sexy Knickers, '' asking her to meet him after work. His attempt to deliver the note to Miss Brahms is unsuccessful, and when he tries to retrieve it, he is thwarted by Captain Peacock. Captain Peacock intercepts the note and hands it to Mrs. Slocombe unread, setting off a succession of misunderstandings.
Sales figures for the department are falling, and Mr. Rumbold insists the staff stay behind after the store closes to learn about sales technique. Mr. Rumbold suggests that Mr. Lucas "smile more '' in an effort to help boost his sales figures, but the junior 's half - hearted implementation seems to have the opposite effect.
Owing to a transport strike, the staff are forced to stay in the store overnight. Mr Rumbold arranges for the staff to sleep in tents -- much to the rest of the staff 's displeasure. Invaders in Miss Brahms 's tent, Mr Grainger leaving his flap open and Captain Peacock wanting to share Mr Rumbold 's bed all add to the hilarity of sleeping with colleagues. Guest starring Colin Bean as the leatherette gloves customer and Pamela Manson as the hat customer.
The sales staff are upset when Grace Brothers hires an attractive outside saleswoman, Miss French (Joanna Lumley), to demonstrate a new unisex line of perfume, "His and Hers ''. Sales of the perfume cut into the staff 's commissions, and when they discover that the saleswoman is giving away freebies with every purchase, the staff come together and successfully sabotage the perfume stand. The saleswoman quits, but the staff learn that they have actually bitten the hand that feeds them and must now sell the perfume themselves.
On the day they get their meagre wages, the staff search frantically for a diamond lost in the store by a customer who is offering a £ 100 reward for its return. Though they initially all agree to split the reward between them should any one of them find the diamond, greed washes over everyone and, when each believes they have found the missing stone, plots to cheat one another out of the reward money are hatched. Guest starring Janet Davies and Elizabeth Larner.
As Mr. Grainger celebrates his 65th birthday, all the staff wonder whether he 'll get the traditional cuckoo clock that means he is being retired. In the evening, the staff and Mrs. Grainger have dinner and Mr. Rumbold tells Captain Peacock that Grainger is being given the cuckoo clock. However, Young Mr. Grace makes a late appearance and gives the clock to himself and gives Mr. Grainger another five years. Guest starring John Ringham.
Owing to fuel shortages, Grace Brothers ' central heating is turned off during bitterly cold weather. While Mr. Rumbold secretly uses an electric fire, the floor staff use other methods to keep themselves warm until Captain Peacock finds out and takes all the devices to Mr. Rumbold 's office. In an attempt to hide the electric fire, Mr. Rumbold 's office is set on fire. It is put out by Mr. Lucas.
After being down by £ 600 last week, Mr. Rumbold forms a "think tank '' to come up with ways to increase sales. Captain Peacock suggests a fashion show, for which Mr. Rumbold then takes the credit. When this is performed, with the staff as the models, in front of Young Mr. Grace, he does n't like it and suggests a sale.
Shoplifting is on the increase, so Mr. Rumbold decides to get CCTV installed and recruits Mr. Clegg, formerly of CID, who searches the staff as they leave. Using the CCTV from his office, Rumbold can watch everyone, and he soon catches all the staff doing things they should n't. After being confronted, the staff come up with a plan to make Mr. Rumbold get rid of the cameras.
Young Mr. Grace decides to have the whole store redecorated and will close the shop for two weeks in August. The management hopes the staff will take their holidays during this time and offers them £ 5 "inconvenience money ''. When the staff refuse this, Young Mr. Grace offers them a choice of destinations which he will pay for them to go to. The choices, however, leave a lot to be desired. Guest starring John Clegg.
One of the directors is retiring from the Board due to ill health, and Mr. Rumbold is being considered for the position. If he gets the position, Captain Peacock will take over from him, and Mr. Grainger and Mrs. Slocombe both want to replace Peacock. Meanwhile, Mr. Humphries reveals he can read palms and when he reads Captain Peacock 's it leads the staff to believe he and Rumbold will both be promoted, while Mrs. Slocombe 's palm says she will have a man at her feet.
The staff are called to an early morning meeting to decide on ways to boost Christmas sales figures. However, Young Mr. Grace has already decided that all the floor staff will have to wear novelty costumes, something which none of them are too happy about.
Filmed: November 1975
First appearance of Doremy Vernon as The Canteen Manageress
Grace Brothers decide to open at 8.30 am in order to attract customers on their way to work. The idea is a great success with takings up, but by the afternoon the floor staff decide to make sure takings are the same as the Monday before to avoid having to come to work at 8.30 every day, so they try to put people off buying things. Guest starring Reg Dixon and Gordon Peters.
Young Mr. Grace wants the Ladies ' and Men 's Wear department to form a ballroom dancing team to enter the national Golden Shoes Competition, and when a financial reward is offered all the staff are happy to take part. During rehearsals, Young Mr. Grace watches them to decide whether they are good enough.
Filmed: 9 April 1976
When Mr. Rumbold goes to Swansea for a month - long sales seminar, Mr. Grainger is placed in charge, much to Captain Peacock 's annoyance. Mr. Grainger soon makes himself very unpopular because of the way he runs the department. However, very soon Mr. Rumbold comes back as the hotel in Swansea has flooded and everyone ignores Mr. Grainger.
Young Mr. Grace warns Mr. Rumbold that there will be a fire drill but refuses to tell him at what time. Meanwhile, an Arab Emir arrives in the department wishing to buy a pair of trousers for one of his wives, but no one is allowed to touch her, so measuring her proves difficult. While they are completing the sale, the fire alarm goes off and the staff response means they all have to stay behind that evening and practise what to do if there is a fire.
Mrs. Slocombe reminds everyone that her birthday is approaching, and the rest of the staff work out that she will be 50. They then buy her a present and practise singing "Happy Birthday '', and Mr. Humphries has a special cake made. However, when the cake is revealed and it says "50 '' Mrs. Slocombe is horrified. Mr. Harman also unveils the "If you want to get a head get a hat '' promotional mannequin which only works properly when the "Flexi - Girdle Corporation '' display works. Guest starring Tony Sympson and Mavis Pugh.
Both Captain Peacock and Mr. Rumbold 's secretary Miss Hazelwood are late, and it is rumoured that they are having an affair. It is revealed that the staff have suspected them of having an affair since the Christmas party. Mrs. Peacock (played by Diana King) arrives at the store, as does Miss Hazelwood 's father, and an inquiry has to be held after both Mrs. Slocombe and Mr. Grainger are attacked due to several misunderstandings and Captain Peacock explains what happened between him and Miss Hazelwood.
Grace Brothers decides to have electric Father Christmas models, but this is soon cancelled when they go wrong. Young Mr. Grace then decides to offer £ 50 to a member of the department, including Mr. Rumbold, to dress up as Father Christmas and give gifts to the children. Young Mr. Grace gets a young boy to decide which one of the staff will be Father Christmas. Meanwhile, Mr. Grainger is worried about his annual performance to entertain the residents of an old people 's home.
When the male staff hear Mrs. Slocombe talking to Miss Brahms about a "happy event '', they think that Mrs. Slocombe is pregnant. However, it turns out that it is her cat that is expecting, and Mrs. Slocombe asks Mr. Rumbold if the cat can give birth in the fitting room so she can be near it. When he refuses, Mr. Harman smuggles it in. Meanwhile, Young Mr. Grace tries to show the staff how to improve sales.
The floor staff are summoned to the Board Room, and while they wait for Mr. Rumbold and Young Mr. Grace they look in the file on the table which says they are all to be replaced. In protest they decide to resign and Mr. Grainger does so first. However, they are then told that all the staff are merely changing departments for a week. Mr. Grainger asks for his job back, but Mr. Humphries and Mr. Lucas have already been promoted, so he is made Junior Assistant. Later, the staff are moved to the Toy Department for the week and Mr. Rumbold tries to get Mr. Grainger his old job back.
To celebrate Young Mr. Grace 's 80th birthday, the staff plan a This Is Your Department, a spoof of This Is Your Life, using Young Mr. Grace 's memoirs to show how he has affected all of their lives. Meanwhile, Mrs. Slocombe and Miss Brahms argue when a customer (played by Tim Barrett) wants to buy two fur coats, one for his wife and one for his girlfriend.
After visiting the United States, Young Mr. Grace decides on the new idea of American informality in the hope of increasing sales. This includes all the staff calling each other by their first names, dressing in their own clothes and background music. However, after a week or so Young Mr. Grace returns from China and has a new set of ideas. Guest starring Jeffrey Holland and Bernice Adams.
Having been told a rival store is attempting a take - over of Grace Brothers, the staff soon worry for their jobs. Mr. Rumbold then comes up with a plan to make sure the take - over is voted against at a Shareholders ' Dinner, and when money is offered all the staff volunteer to dress up as sympathetic shareholders who ca n't get to the dinner. Mr. Harman and Mrs. Slocombe dress up as Lord and Lady Stableforth, with Miss Brahms as their daughter Lavinia and Mr. Grainger as Sir Richard Ryan. Meanwhile, when the chef and waiters ca n't get there, Mr. Humphries is forced to stand in as chef with Mr. Lucas and Captain Peacock as the waiters. Guest starring Mavis Pugh.
Mr. Grainger has become increasingly bad - tempered, something which is not helped by his losing the centre display stand to Mrs. Slocombe for "bra week ''. The rest of the staff agree that he has to go, and when Mr. Harman tells Mr. Grainger of their decision he resigns first. However, the following day he comes in and apologises for his bad mood. The reason for the change of mood becomes clear when he tells them he has won the pools. He showers his co-workers with gifts and his resignation letter reaches Mr. Grace 's office, but Mr. Humphries speaks to the pools firm and discovers that Mr. Grainger has not won anything. Surprisingly, Mr. Grainger is not totally disappointed, and he decides to stay on. And then, his unopened resignation letter is revealed, with interesting results.
Grace Brothers decide to make an advert, set in a cocktail bar, to increase sales. This is filmed in the department using the staff as actors and with Mr. Humphries as the director. Meanwhile, Mr. Humphries and Mrs. Slocombe have been chosen to be made into life - size models to represent the average man and woman in the street. Guest starring Ferdy Mayne.
Filmed: 7 April 1977
The staff return from their holidays, and Mr. Tebbs has replaced Mr. Grainger as Head of Men 's Wear. After Captain Peacock returns sounding like Donald Duck and Mr Lucas with burnt feet, the staff are soon told that the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh are making an official visit to the borough, and they might be coming to Grace Brothers. The staff rehearse what to do if the Royal couple visit and on the day they all dress up in their finery and then watch them in the street below from Mr. Rumbold 's office window. Unfortunately, just as it appears the Queen and Prince Philip might be about to enter the store, Mrs. Slocombe accidentally knocks a plant pot off the window ledge which narrowly misses the Royal couple, who get back in their car and speed away from the scene as quickly as possible!
Filmed: 29 October 1978
The staff are offered a room in the basement that they can turn into a social club. Young Mr. Grace says he will spend up to £ 300 on decorating it, but when the decorators give their estimate as £ 500, the staff offer to do the job themselves and pocket £ 50 each. However, the job soon proves more difficult than they first thought. Guest starring Mavis Pugh.
Mrs. Slocombe becomes engaged to a Greek man called Mr. Metaxas, and her wealthy American uncle Wendal P. Clark (played by Norman Mitchell) has offered to pay for the reception and will buy the couple a house as a wedding present. However, on the morning of the wedding, the best man (Gorden Kaye) brings bad news: The groom is already married, and his wife has demanded that he return home to Greece. The staff, hoping to help Mrs. Slocombe, decide to fake the wedding ceremony right in the store, with Mr. Humphries as the "groom '' and Mr. Tebbs playing a Greek Orthodox priest. Guest starring Felix Bowness.
After continuing falling sales, it is decided that one of the floor staff will have to be made redundant and the management decide to let the staff decide which of them it will be. After a secret ballot, which results in everyone except Mr. Humphries getting one vote, the staff gather at the store on the weekend to battle it out. However, Young Mr. Grace announces that the cutbacks have been cancelled and that he is giving himself a three - day week instead.
A stall to sell "Bliss '' perfume has arrived on the floor, but because of the thick fog, the Bliss salesgirl has not arrived. It is then decided that Mr. Humphries should sell the perfume instead so he is then made to staff the stall. This means that the Menswear Department is undermanned, so Mr. Rumbold orders a furious Captain Peacock to work the menswear counter instead of Mr Humphries. Guest starring Jan Holden and Bernice Adams.
It is Young Mr. Grace 's birthday, and the staff sing the traditional birthday song for him and enjoy the traditional free lunch. They later rehearse their cabaret performance for Young Mr. Grace 's birthday party, a ballet called The Ballet of the Toys. A professional cabaret troupe will also be performing at the party, and when the troupe arrives, it turns out they themselves will be performing The Ballet of the Toys, which forces the staff to go to Plan B.
Filmed: December 1978
When Mr. Tebbs retires, Mr. Humphries and Mr. Lucas are both promoted, so Mr. Rumbold and Young Mr. Grace advertise for candidates for the junior position. After an applicant that lives in a packing case in Covent Garden and another that Mr Humphries dislikes the staff decide to go home. Suddenly, Mr Goldberg, a gifted salesman with an endearing personality, immediately makes himself popular with all the staff, except with Captain Peacock, whom Mr. Goldberg says he used to know.
Filmed: 16 September 1979
The staff gets the opportunity to participate in a lucrative group insurance scheme that will land them all sizable pensions upon retirement. Unfortunately, they must first pass through a physical examination. In an effort to shape up without spending too much money, Mr. Humphries enlists his former ballet instructor. After their physicals, they retreat to Young Mr. Grace 's office to learn the results, and what they hear shocks them. Guest starring Amanda Barrie and Joy Allen.
Mrs. Slocombe is rendered temporarily homeless after squatters invade her new flat. After her co-workers fail to provide accommodation, Young Mr. Grace allows her to move into the store 's Furniture Fitting Department on the top floor. Mrs. Slocombe turns the floor into a cosy home - from - home, but her space is soon invaded when a transport strike forces the rest of the staff to move in too. Guest starring Jeffrey Holland.
Mr. Rumbold is taken ill because of food poisoning and Young Mr. Grace appoints Mrs. Slocombe to take his place temporarily. Clearly relishing her new role, Mrs. Slocombe holes up in Mr. Rumbold 's office, descending to the commoners only to flaunt her executive status. However, when sales in the Ladies ' Department begin to skyrocket in her absence, Mrs. Slocombe fears that she 'll be given the boot once Mr. Rumbold gets back. A homemade meringue in Mr. Rumbold 's desk, however, changes everything. Guest starring Avril Angers and Gorden Kaye. One of the longest takes in the series occurs when Mrs Slocombe settles into Rumbold 's office. It is three minutes and twelve seconds long.
Filmed: 6 October 1979
Mr. Franco of the Sports Department uncovers an embarrassing secret about Captain Peacock and spreads gossip among the entire department store. To save face, Captain Peacock 's colleagues urge him to challenge Franco to a boxing match. At the last minute, however, Captain Peacock withdraws and Mr. Humphries steps in to defend Captain Peacock 's honour -- in a hastily improvised wrestling match. After a terrifying match, Mrs Slocombe saves the day. Guest starring Jackie Pallo.
After the staff complain once too often about the food and service in the canteen, the caterers issue an ultimatum: present them with a written apology or staff the canteen themselves. To preserve their dignity, they choose the latter option, but very quickly find the subtle art of cookery quite challenging.
Mr. Goldberg is running a lucrative side business recruiting his colleagues for higher - paid sales positions in competing department stores. When Mr. Humphries and Mrs. Slocombe receive offers for the job of their dreams, Mr. Rumbold and Captain Peacock struggle to find a way to make them stay, without actually giving them rises. Guest starring Jeffrey Segal.
The Gentlemen 's and Ladies ' departments become pariahs when they choose not to take part in a company - wide strike. In an attempt to regain favour, the departments stage a life - sized Punch and Judy show to entertain everyone. Mr. Humphries directs, Mr. Lucas and Miss Brahms play the title roles, Captain Peacock plays The Devil, Mr Goldberg plays the red cheeked butcher and Mrs. Slocombe brings convincing masculinity to the role of policewoman.
Mr. Goldberg and Mr. Lucas are replaced by Mr. Grossman and Mr. Spooner, and Young Mr. Grace steps down, handing over the reins to his older brother, Old Mr. Grace. Meanwhile, Mr. Humphries contracts a rare tropical malady known as "Marine 's Disease '', and the entire staff are quarantined in the basement to prevent the infection from spreading. Guest starring John D. Collins.
Filmed: 3 April 1981
Captain Peacock 's marriage is on the rocks again, but this time, it is Mrs. Peacock who is guilty of philandering. After Mrs Peacock starts work as Mr Rumbold 's new secretary, the cuckolded Captain Peacock suspects his wife 's mysterious lover is none other than Mr. Rumbold, he goes to great lengths to make sure he catches them in the act. Guest starring Jack Haig.
Old Mr. Grace decides to publish an in - store magazine and appoints Mr. Humphries as its editor. Mr. Humphries finds himself up to his neck with the gossip column, but his greatest challenge proves to be ensuring the staff bonuses by orchestrating a beauty contest with Miss Brahms as the ringer. When Miss Brahms refuses, Mrs. Slocombe "sacrifices herself for the sake of the department '' and fills in, but ironically it 's Mr. Humphries (as Miss Do - It - Yourself) who takes first place: he wins a weeks holiday on Old Mr. Grace 's yacht, much to his displeasure.
Sales at Grace Brothers are getting incredibly low, so Old Mr Grace decides to either cut the staff 's wages by 10 %, or move them into the bargain basement. The staff are so annoyed, they come into work late and hold a roof top protest. After failing to write a slogan on the wall of the store, their protest is quickly cut short as a fire breaks out in the store.
Filmed: 24 April 1981
Mr Klein takes over from Mr Grossman as head of the menswear department. After seeing an old photograph of Mr. Humphries 's mother, Old Mr. Grace thinks that Mr. Humphries may be his long lost son and heir to the store, so Mr. Humphries ' mother (played by John Inman) is called in to settle the matter once and for all.
Filmed: 1 May 1981
Grace Brothers decides to advertise on television and while Miss Brahms is the face of the advert, Old Mr. Grace 's nurse is the voice. When the wealthy Lord Hirly, sees the advert, he falls in love with the voice, which means that when he invites Miss Brahms out to dinner, she and the staff have to attempt to make him believe that Miss Brahms has the nurse 's voice. Their plan is short lived after Old Mr Grace and his nurse arrive at the restaurant. Guest starring Gorden Kaye and John D. Collins.
Mrs. Slocombe is repeatedly having erotic dreams about Mr Humphries and becomes increasingly fond of him, and showers him with presents. The obsession soon drives her to alcoholism, and it is decided that to cure her Mr. Humphries must show her attention when they attend a ballet concert that night. Guest starring Jack Haig and Rusty Goffe.
It is Old Mr Grace 's birthday, and the department want to bring a musical tribute to the Grace family. Mr Rumbold 's brother Mycroft (also played by Nicholas Smith in a double role) then sets out to trace the Grace family tree, which leads to Wales, Scotland, Somerset and, ultimately (apparently), deepest Africa.
Note: David Croft did return for the final read through and added additional material to the scripts.
Mrs. Slocombe decides to sell her home - made perfume to increase sales. It has to happen under the counter since Mr. Rumbold would never approve of this, and what is more, the perfume seems to have some quite extraordinary qualities. Unfortunately, one of them involves threatening the Peacocks ' already fragile marriage.
Filmed: 8 April 1983
Mr. Humphries is becoming frequently late for work, and it is soon revealed that an argument with his mother has forced him to move out. When money then goes missing from the till, Mr. Humphries is accused of theft and Grace Brothers put him on trial. With Captain Peacock acting as the prosecutor, Mrs. Slocombe as Mr. Humphries ' defender, and Miss Belfridge being removed from the jury for being "biased '', it 's a trial to remember. Mr. Humphries is found guilty and forced to resign, much to everyone 's dismay. However, the missing money turns up at the back of the till, exonerating Mr. Humphries. To add to his sudden fortune, he makes up with his mother.
After all of his department are ill, Mr Walpole of the sports department is temporarily working on Mr Rumbold 's floor. Mrs. Slocombe loses her memory after being hit on the head with a golf ball. She thinks that she is a little girl and it is indeed hard for the rest of staff, who want to hide her behaviour from Mr. Rumbold at all costs. By day 's end, Mrs. Slocombe regains her memory and gets one of the in - stock fur coats as a peace offering. It turns out that she only lost her memory for a moment, but had faked the rest so that she could get her coat. Guest starring Ballard Berkeley and Jess Conrad.
For Grace Brothers, there may be a market in advertising on CB radio. The staff are asked to perform a radio show but they can not agree on the plot. Mr. Harman 's countryside tale is chosen instead, and the staff get to work on rehearsals. To their horror, the rehearsals accidentally get broadcast across London, prompting censorship threats and the wrong type of people coming to Grace Brothers. Guest starring Nosher Powell and Ron Tarr, with voices of Vicki Michelle and Robbie Coltrane.
The staff had been promised a large pay - rise, but when they hear that they are not going to get it, they decide to go to 10 Downing Street to protest to the Prime Minister. Meanwhile, a monkey has escaped from the Pet Department and is hiding in the lift shaft. Guest starring John D. Collins and Jan Ravens.
Mrs. Slocombe 's pet cat, Tiddles, has gone missing. Knowing how much she cared for the cat and fearing the worst, the staff decide to buy Mrs. Slocombe a kitten. Mr. Humphries is set to make the presentation, but Mrs. Slocombe misinterprets it as a marriage proposal and accepts, to the shock of everyone. Guest starring Norman Mitchell.
Staff above a certain age are to be made redundant, and this applies to Mrs. Slocombe. She refuses to leave Grace Brothers and becomes a cleaner. The staff want to get her back on the floor at all costs, especially when they discover she is to be replaced with the more - than - annoying Miss Featherstone. Fortunately, Mr. Humphries comes to the rescue as only he can, dressing up as an annoying female customer, prompting Miss Featherstone to leave. Mrs. Slocombe is reinstated but new regulations force Captain Peacock and Mr. Rumbold into lower positions.
Captain Peacock has serious marital trouble. Miss Bagnold is completely infatuated with him and when she joins the Grace Brothers Accounts Department and Captain Peacock soon finds his position unbearable. He must choose whether that he will stay with Mrs. Peacock or not, and is prepared to go to extreme measures to solve his problems.
The staff stay in late for stocktaking, but two robbers infiltrate the building and take Miss Brahms hostage. Captain Peacock and Mr. Spooner pretend to be police officers, but the robbers do not believe them. The only thing the robbers are afraid of is the vicious Gumby Gang, so Mr. Harman, Mrs. Slocombe and Mr. Humphries pretend to be Pa Gumby, Mad Ma Gumby and their son, Italian Tony so they can rescue Miss Brahms, Captain Peacock and Mr Spooner.
The staff are finally paid their long - expected bonuses. When Mr. Harman tells them he knows of a horse that absolutely can not lose that afternoon 's race, they all bet their £ 100 bonuses on the horse. They want to watch the race on the television in Mr. Rumbold 's office, but he catches them and throws them out. Mr. Harman tells them that they have lost their bonuses, but they can win them back by betting on another horse.
Mr. Grace gives the staff permission to use the department floor after hours to make more money for the store. It is soon decided to set up a night club with food and music. Mr. Humphries has a friend in the local cinema who will broadcast a promotional commercial for the "Club Rendezvous ''. But when the staff are all at the cinema (which shows films of questionable taste) and the film is about to be broadcast, there are some technical problems and the promotion is reduced to sound - only.
In response to the staff 's complaints about rising transportation costs, Mr. Grace offers the overnight use of some penthouse apartments above the store. However, the staff 's patience with each other is pushed to its limit when they have to live together as well as work together, especially when Captain Peacock tries to bring Miss Belfridge along. Crying babies, a hideaway bed, plastic flowers and a beanbag all add to the misery.
Just when it looks like his career at Grace Brothers is finished, the perennially tardy Mr. Spooner finds the rest of the staff competing for his favour after a record company offers him a contract after a brilliant performance at the Department Store Annual Concert. They are all jockeying for parts as backing singers, but are worried that Mr. Spooner 's voice will not hold out. On the local television show, their fears are confirmed, resulting in a finale filled with lip - synching and faulty sound equipment.
Filmed: 27 July 1984
It 's 1988 and Mr Grace is determined to drag Grace Brothers into, well 1988, but he has a problem on his hands. Mr Humphries, Captain Peacock, Mr Rumbold, Mr Grainger (who has come out of retirement to spend less time with his wife) and Mrs Slocombe all seem to be stuck in another era. A new member of staff, Mr Conway, joins the team - but will he help shake things up or will he just put a pussy among the pigeons?
Filmed: 5 March 2016
First appearance of Mr Conway, Mr Grace and Miss Croft
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the righteous brothers sing you've lost that loving feeling lyrics | You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' - wikipedia
"You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' is a song written by Phil Spector, Barry Mann, and Cynthia Weil. It was first recorded by the Righteous Brothers in 1964, and was produced by Phil Spector. Their recording is considered by some music critics to be the ultimate expression and illustration of Spector 's "Wall of Sound '' recording technique. It has also been described by various music writers as "one of the best records ever made '' and "the ultimate pop record ''.
The original Righteous Brothers version was a critical and commercial success on its release, becoming a number - one hit single in both the United States and the United Kingdom in February 1965. It was the fifth best selling song of 1965 in the US. It also entered the Top 10 in the UK chart on an unprecedented three separate occasions.
"You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' has been covered successfully by numerous artists. A 1965 hit cover by Cilla Black reached number 2 in the UK Singles Chart. Dionne Warwick took her version to number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1969. A 1971 duet version by singers Roberta Flack and Donny Hathaway peaked at number 30 on the Billboard R&B singles chart. Long John Baldry charted at number 2 in Australia with his 1979 remake and a 1980 version by Hall and Oates reached number 12 on the US Hot 100.
In December 1999, the performing - rights organization Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) ranked the song as the most - played song on American radio and television in the 20th century, having accumulated more than 8 million airplays by 1999, and nearly 15 million by 2011. Additionally, the song was chosen as one of the Songs of the Century by RIAA and ranked No. 34 on the list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time by Rolling Stone. In 2015, the single was inducted into the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
In 1964, music producer Phil Spector conducted the band at a show in San Francisco where the Righteous Brothers was also appearing, and he was impressed enough with the duo to want them to record for his own label Philles Records. All the songs previously produced by Spector for Philles Records featured black singers, and the Righteous Brothers would become his first white vocal group. However they had a black vocal style, termed blue - eyed soul, that suited Spector.
Spector commissioned Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil to write a song for the group, bringing them over from New York to Los Angeles to stay at the Chateau Marmont Hotel so they could write the song. Taking a cue from "Baby I Need Your Loving '' by The Four Tops that was then rising in the charts, Mann and Weil decided to write a ballad. Mann wrote the melody first, and came up with the opening line "You never close your eyes anymore when I kiss your lips '', influenced by a line from the song "I Love How You Love Me '' that was co-written by Mann - "I love how your eyes close whenever you kiss me ''. Mann and Weil wrote the first two verses quickly, including the chorus line "you 've lost that lovin ' feelin ' '', and Spector added "gone, gone, gone, whoa, whoa, whoa '' to the end of the chorus, which Weil disliked. The line "you 've lost that lovin ' feelin ' '' was originally only intended to be a dummy line that would be replaced later, but Spector liked it and decided to keep it. The form of the song is of verse - chorus - verse - chorus - bridge - chorus or ABABCB form. Mann and Weil had problems writing the bridge and the ending, and asked Spector for help. Spector experimented on the piano with a "Hang On Sloopy '' riff that they would then use to build on for the bridge.
Weil recalled that, "after Phil, Barry and I finished (writing it), we took it over to the Righteous Brothers. Bill Medley, who has the low voice, seemed to like the song. '' However, Medley initially felt that the song did n't suit their more up - tempo rhythm and blues style, and Mann and Spector had sung the song in a higher key: "And we just thought, "Wow, what a good song for The Everly Brothers. '' But it did n't seem right for us. '' The song, which has a very big range, was originally written at a higher key of F. To accommodate Medley 's baritone voice, this was gradually lowered, eventually down to C ♯, which, together with slowing the song down, changed the "whole vibe of the song '' according to Medley.
Bobby Hatfield reportedly expressed his annoyance to Spector when he learned that Bill Medley would start the first verse alone and he would have to wait until the chorus before joining Medley 's vocals. Previous to this they would have been given equal prominence in a song. When Hatfield asked Spector just what he was supposed to do during Medley 's solo, Spector replied: "You can go directly to the bank! ''
The song was recorded at Studio A of Gold Star Studios in Los Angeles. When Hatfield and Medley went to record the vocals a few weeks after the song was written, all the instrumental tracks had already been recorded and overdubbed. They would repeat recording the vocal many times - Medley would sing the opening verse over and over again until Spector was satisfied, then the process would be repeated with the next verse. The recording took over 39 takes, and around eight hours over a period of two days.
The song would become one of the foremost examples of Spector 's "Wall of Sound '' technique. It features the studio musicians the Wrecking Crew, included for this recording were Don Randi on piano, Tommy Tedesco on guitar, Carol Kaye and Ray Pohlman on bass, and Steve Douglas on sax. They were also joined by Barney Kessel on guitar and Earl Palmer on drums for this session. Jack Nitzsche usually arranged the songs for Spector but he was absent, and the arrangement for this song was done by Gene Page. As with his other songs, Spector started by cutting the instrumental track first, building up layers of sound to create the Wall of Sound effect. The recording was done mono so Spector could fix the sound exactly as he wanted it. According to sound engineer Larry Levine, they started recording four acoustic guitars, when that was ready, they added the pianos, of which there were three, followed by three basses, the horns (two trumpets, two trombones, and three saxophones), then finally the drums. The vocals by Hatfield and Medley were then recorded and the strings overdubbed. The background singers were mainly the vocal group The Blossoms, also joining in the song 's crescendo was a young Cher. Reverb was applied in the recording, and more was added on the lead vocals during the mix. According to music writer Robert Palmer, the effect of the technique used was to create a sound that was "deliberately blurry, atmospheric, and of course huge; Wagnerian rock ' n ' roll with all the trimmings. ''
The song started slowly in the recording, with Medley singing in a basso profondo voice. Right before the second verse started Spector also wanted the tempo to stay the same but the beat would also be just a little behind where they are supposed to land to give the impression of the song slowing down. The recorded song was three ticks slower and a tone and a half lower than what Mann and Weil had written. When Mann heard the finished record over the phone, he thought that it had been mistakenly played at 33 1 / 3 instead of 45 rpm and told Spector, "Phil, you have it on the wrong speed! ''
Even with his interest in the song, Medley had his doubts because of its length that was then unusually long for a pop song. In an interview with Rolling Stone magazine, he recalled, "We had no idea if it would be a hit. It was too slow, too long, and right in the middle of The Beatles and the British Invasion. '' The song ran for nearly four minutes when released. This was too long by contemporary AM radio standards, as the radio stations then rarely played songs longer than three minutes because longer songs meant that fewer ads could be placed between song sets. Spector however refused to cut it shorter. Following a suggestion by Larry Levine, Spector had "3: 05 '' printed on the label, instead of the track 's actual running time of 3: 45. He also added a false ending which made the recording more dramatic, and would also trick radio deejays into thinking it was a shorter song.
The production of the single cost Spector around $35,000, then a considerable amount. Spector himself was deeply concerned about the reception to a song that was unusual for its time, worrying that his vision would not be understood. He canvassed a few opinions - his publisher Don Kirshner suggested that the song should be re-titled "Bring Back That Lovin ' Feelin ' '', while New York DJ Murray the K thought that bass line in the middle section similar to that of a slowed - down "La Bamba '' should be the start of the song. Spector took these as criticisms and later said: "I did n't sleep for a week when that record came out. I was so sick, I got a spastic colon; I had an ulcer. ''
Andrew Oldham, who was then the manager of The Rolling Stones and a fan and friend of Spector, chanced upon Spector listening to a test pressing of the song that had just been delivered to Spector. Oldham later wrote: "The room was filled with this amazing sound, I had no idea what it was, but it was the most incredible thing I 'd ever heard. '' He added: "I 'd never heard a recorded track so emotionally giving or empowering. '' Later, when Cilla Black recorded a rival version of the same song and it was racing up the charts ahead of The Righteous Brothers ' version in Britain, Oldham was appalled, and took it upon himself to run a full - page ad in Melody Maker:
This advert is not for commercial gain, it is taken as something that must be said about the great new PHIL SPECTOR Record, THE RIGHTEOUS BROTHERS singing "YOU 'VE LOST THAT LOVIN ' FEELING ''. Already in the American Top Ten, this is Spector 's greatest production, the last word in Tomorrow 's sound Today, exposing the overall mediocrity of the Music Industry.
Signed, Andrew Oldham
In other ads, Oldham also coined a new term to describe the song, the "Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound '', which Spector would later register as a trademark. Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys heard the song and rang Mann and Weil in January 1965: "Your song is the greatest record ever. I was ready to quit the music business, but this has inspired me to write again. ''
Assessments by music writers were also highly positive. Nick Logan and Bob Woffinden thought that the song might be "the ultimate pop record... here (Spector 's) genius for production truly bloomed to create a single of epic proportion... '' Richard Williams, who wrote the 1972 biography of Phil Spector Out of His Head, considered the song to be one of the best records ever made, while Charlie Gillett in his 1970 book The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll wrote that "the ebb and flow of passion the record achieved had no direct equivalent. '' Mick Brown, author of a biography of Spector Tearing Down the Wall of Sound, considered the song to be "Spector 's defining moment '' and his "most Wagnerian production yet - a funeral march to departed love ''. The opening line was said to be "one of the most familiar opening passages in the history of pop '', and Vanity Fair described the song as "the most erotic duet between men on record ''. However, when it was first presented on the BBC television panel show Juke Box Jury in January 1965 upon its release in the UK, it was voted a miss by all four panelists, with one questioning if it was played at the right speed.
There were initially reservations about the song from the radio industry; a common complaint was that it was too long, and others also questioned the speed of the song, and thought that the singer "keeps yelling ''. Some stations refused to play the song after checking the song 's length, or after it caused them to miss the news. The radio industry trade publication Gavin Report offered the opinion that "blue - eyed soul has gone too far ''. In Britain, Sam Costa, a DJ on the BBC Light Programme, said that The Righteous Brothers ' record was a dirge, adding, "I would n't even play it in my toilet. '' However, despite the initial reservations, the song would become a highly popular song on radio.
Spector himself would later rate the song as the pinnacle of his achievement at Philles Records.
"You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' made its debut in the charts on December 12, 1964. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 on February 6, 1965 and remained at No. 1 for a further week (February 13). Due to its length, it became at that time the longest ever song to top the chart. In addition, the song crossed over to the R&B charts, peaking at number two. Billboard ranked the record as the number 5 song of 1965.
The song was released in January 1965 in the UK. It debuted at No. 35 on the UK Top 40 chart, for the chart week of January 20, 1965. It reached No. 1 in its fourth week (February 10) and remained there the following week. It would become the only single to ever enter the UK Top 10 three times, having been successfully re-releases in 1969 (No. 10), and again in 1990 (No. 3) as a follow - up to the re-release of "Unchained Melody '', which had hit No. 1 after being featured in the film Ghost. "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' also reached No. 42 after a 1977 re-release and in 1988 reached No. 87.
In Ireland, "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin '' charted twice, first in January 1965, when it peaked at No. 2, and second in December 1990, following its reissue, when it peaked at No. 2 again. The original Righteous Brothers recording remains the only version of the song to chart in Ireland. In the Netherlands "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin '' reached No. 8 in March 1965 with three versions ranked together as one entry: the versions by the Righteous Brothers and Cilla Black plus a local cover by Trea Dobbs (NL).
In 1965, the Righteous Brothers recording of "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' was nominated in the Best Rock and Roll Recording category at the 7th Annual Grammy Awards. It was also awarded Best Pop Single To Date 1965 in the Billboard Disc Jockey Poll.
In 2001, this recording was ranked at No. 9 in the list of Songs of the Century released by the Recording Industry Association of America and the National Endowment for the Arts. In 2004, the same recording was ranked at No. 34 by Rolling Stone magazine in their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 2005, "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' was awarded the Songwriters Hall of Fame 's Towering Song Award presented to "the creators of an individual song that has influenced the culture in a unique way over many years ''.
In 2015, the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress, which each year selects from 130 years of sound recordings for special recognition and preservation, chose the Righteous Brothers recording of the song as one of the 25 recordings that has "cultural, artistic and / or historical significance to American society and the nation 's audio legacy ''.
English singer Cilla Black first became a recording star by covering Dionne Warwick 's newly released American hit "Anyone Who Had a Heart '' for the UK market, which gave her a No. 1 song in both the UK Singles Chart and the Irish Singles Chart in February 1964, out - performing Dionne Warwick 's original version, which only peaked at No. 42 in the UK. Black 's producer George Martin repeated this strategy with the Righteous Brothers "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feeling '' that had just been released in the US. Black 's version is shorter with an abbreviated bridge, which she explained by saying: "I do n't want people to get bored ''. The abridgement also removed the necessity of Black 's attempting to match the Righteous Brothers ' climactic vocal trade - off.
Both Cilla Black 's and the Righteous Brothers versions of the song debuted on the UK chart in the same week in January 1965, with Black debuting higher at No. 28. According to Tony Hall of Decca Records who was responsible for promoting the Righteous Brothers record in the UK, Black 's version was preferred by BBC radio where one of its DJs disparaged the Righteous Brothers ' version as a "dirge '' and refused to play it. Hall therefore requested that Spector send the Righteous Brothers over to Britain to promote the song so it may have a chance on the chart. The following week Black remained in ascendancy at No. 12 with the Righteous Brothers at No. 20. The Righteous Brothers came over to Britain, spent a week promoting the song and performed for television shows in Manchester and Birmingham. At the same time, Andrew Oldham placed a full - page ad on Melody Maker promoting the Righteous Brothers version at his own initiative and expense, and urged the readers to watch the Righteous Brothers appearance on the ITV television show Ready Steady Go!. In its third week on the 3 February chart, Black jumped to No. 2, while the Righteous Brothers made an even larger jump to No. 3. Hall recalled meeting at a party Brian Epstein, the manager of Black, who said that Black 's version would be No. 1 and told Hall, "You have n't a hope in hell. ''
However, in its fourth week, Black 's version began its descent, dropping to No. 5, while the Righteous Brothers climbed to No. 1. Cilla Black then reportedly cabled her congratulations to the Righteous Brothers on their No. 1. Black 's version of "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' would prove to be her highest charting UK single apart from her two No. 1 's: "Anyone Who Had a Heart '' and "You 're My World ''. While Black 's version was released in Ireland, it did n't make the official Irish Singles Chart as published by RTÉ, but it reached No. 5 on the unofficial Evening Herald charts. It also reached No. 15 in Australia - where The Righteous Brothers ' version was also a hit at No. 5.
Black would later remake "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' for her 1985 Surprisingly Cilla album.
In 1969, American singer Dionne Warwick recorded a cover version of "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feeling '' for her studio album Soulful. Her version was the only single released from the album and it was aimed to showcase Warwick as more of an R&B singer than was evidenced by her work with Burt Bacharach. Co-produced by Warwick and Chips Moman and recorded at American Sound Studios in Memphis, Tennessee, Soulful was one of Warwick 's most successful albums peaking at number 11 on the Billboard 200 album chart. The single "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feeling '' reached number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and charted at number 13 on the Billboard R&B singles chart. In Australia the Go - Set Top 40 chart ranked Warwick 's version of "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feeling '' with a No. 34 peak in January 1970. In Warwick 's version of the song, she spells the last word of the title out fully as "feeling '' rather than the usual "feelin ' ''.
(* - unofficial stratified ranking)
In 1971, American singers Roberta Flack and Donny Hathaway recorded a cover version of "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' ''. Their version of the song was produced by Joel Dorn and was included on their 1972 self - titled duet album Roberta Flack & Donny Hathaway, issued on the Atlantic Records label. Their version of the song was released as the second single from the album after the Top 30 version of "You 've Got a Friend ''. The Flack / Hathaway take on "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' reached number 30 on the Billboard R&B singles chart and charted at number 71 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart. It also reached number 57 in the Cash Box Top 100 Singles and peaked at number 53 on the Record World 100 Pop Chart.
In 1979, English blues singer Long John Baldry recorded a cover version of "You 've Lost That Loving Feeling ' '' for his album Baldry 's Out, the Jimmy Horowitz - produced disc which was Baldry 's first recording in his newly adopted homeland of Canada. This version of the song is performed as a duet with Kathi McDonald, who in singing the latter half of the first and second verse inverts the usual order. Released as a single, Baldry 's "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' charted at number 45 on the Canadian RPM singles chart, and spilled over into the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 89. The single also reached number 2 in Australia in 1980. Bill Medley of the Righteous Brothers told Baldry that he liked their remake of the song better than his own. Baldry had first recorded the song - as "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' - for his 1966 album Looking at Long John. The Baldry / McDonald duet version of "You 've Lost That Loving Feeling '' also reached No. 37 in New Zealand.
In 1980, the American musical duo Hall & Oates recorded a cover version of "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' for their ninth studio album Voices. Their version of the song was produced by the duo and included a sparse arrangement contrasting with the lavish Righteous Brothers original version. It was the second non-original song Hall & Oates had ever recorded. The track was issued on RCA Records as the album 's second single after the original "How Does It Feel to Be Back '' peaked at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100. The November peak of number 12 on the Hot 100 chart made "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' the first Hall & Oates single to ascend higher than number 20 since the No. 1 hit "Rich Girl '' in the spring of 1977. "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' also reached number 15 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, on the Radio & Records Airplay chart the song debuted at # 30 on the September 26, 1980 issue, after seven weeks it reached and peaked at # 4 staying there for one week, the song stayed on the top 10 of the chart for six weeks and remained on it for thirteen.
It also made number 55 in the UK Singles Chart.
The single version of this song is featured on the album Rock ' n Soul Part 1 (1983).
The song is highly popular on the radio; according to the performing - rights organization Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI), it became the most - played song of all time on American radio in 1997 with over 7 million airplays (all versions), overtaking the Beatles ' "Yesterday ''. At the end of 1999, the song was ranked by the BMI as the most - played song of the 20th century, having been broadcast more than 8 million times on American radio and television, and it remains the most - played song, having accumulated almost 15 million airplays in the US by 2011. The song also received 11 BMI Pop Awards by 1997, the most for any song, and has received 14 in total so far.
The popularity of the song also means that it is one of the highest grossing songs for its copyright holders. It was estimated by the BBC programme The Richest Songs in the World in 2012 to be the third biggest earner of royalties of all songs, behind "White Christmas '' and "Happy Birthday to You ''. The song has been adopted as an anthem by fans of Nottingham Forest FC and is generally sung when Nottingham Forest have scored a goal or won a match by several goals.
One reason for the song 's resurgence during the mid-1980s was the song 's inclusion in the iconic ' 80s film Top Gun. After serenading the eventual love interest with the tune earlier, she returns the favor by selecting it on the jukebox at their old hangout to catch his attention and reunite. As the end credits begin to roll, the main character, "Maverick '', literally flies off into the sunset as the Righteous Brothers harmonic chorus continues in the background.
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when did the air raids started in ww2 | The Blitz - wikipedia
The Blitz was a German bombing offensive against Britain in 1940 and 1941, during the Second World War. The term was first used by the British press as an abbreviation of Blitzkrieg (lightning war). The Germans conducted mass air attacks against industrial targets, towns and cities, beginning with raids on London towards the end of the Battle of Britain in 1940, a battle for daylight air superiority between the Luftwaffe and the Royal Air Force over the United Kingdom. By September 1940, the Luftwaffe had failed and the German air fleets (Luftflotten) were ordered to attack London, to draw RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation. Adolf Hitler and Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, commander - in - chief of the Luftwaffe, ordered the new policy on 6 September 1940. From 7 September 1940, London was systematically bombed by the Luftwaffe for 56 out of the following 57 days and nights. Most notable was a large daylight attack against London on 15 September.
The Luftwaffe gradually decreased daylight operations in favour of night attacks to evade attack by the RAF, and the Blitz became a night bombing campaign after October 1940. The Luftwaffe attacked the main Atlantic sea port of Liverpool in the Liverpool Blitz and the North Sea port of Hull, a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets, suffered the Hull Blitz. Bristol, Cardiff, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Southampton and Swansea were also bombed, as were the industrial cities of Birmingham, Belfast, Coventry, Glasgow, Manchester and Sheffield. More than 40,000 civilians were killed by Luftwaffe bombing during the war, almost half of them in the capital, where more than a million houses were destroyed or damaged.
In early July 1940 the German High Command began planning Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. Bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or do much damage to the war economy; eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British war production which continued to increase. The greatest effect was to force the British to disperse the production of aircraft and spare parts. British wartime studies concluded that cities generally took 10 to 15 days to recover when hit severely but exceptions like Birmingham took three months.
The German air offensive failed because the Luftwaffe High Command (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe, OKL) did not develop a methodical strategy for destroying British war industry. Poor intelligence on British industry and economic efficiency led to OKL concentrating on tactics rather than strategy. The bombing effort was diluted by attacks against several sets of industries instead of constant pressure on the most vital.
In the 1920s and 1930s, air power theorists like Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell claimed that air forces could win wars, obviating the need for land and sea fighting. It was thought that bombers would always get through and could not be resisted, particularly at night. Industry, seats of government, factories and communications could be destroyed, depriving an opponent of the means to make war. Bombing civilians would cause a collapse of morale and a loss of production in the remaining factories. Democracies, where public opinion was allowed, were thought particularly vulnerable. The RAF and the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) adopted much of this apocalyptic thinking. The policy of RAF Bomber Command became an attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will, communications and industry.
The Luftwaffe took a cautious view of strategic bombing and OKL did not oppose the strategic bombardment of industries or cities and believed it could greatly affect the balance of power on the battlefield by disrupting production and damaging civilian morale. OKL did not believe air power alone could be decisive and the Luftwaffe did not have a policy of systematic "terror bombing ''. (The Luftwaffe did not adopt an official policy of the deliberate bombing of civilians until 1942.)
The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets. It could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly, but the breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight. German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law. While direct attacks against civilians were ruled out as "terror bombing '', the concept of attacking vital war industries -- and probable heavy civilian casualties and breakdown of civilian morale -- was ruled as acceptable.
From the beginning of the National Socialist regime until 1939, there was a debate in German military journals over the role of strategic bombardment, with some contributors arguing along the lines of the British and Americans. General Walter Wever (Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff 1 March 1935 -- 3 June 1936) championed strategic bombing and the building of suitable aircraft, although he emphasised the importance of aviation in operational and tactical terms. Wever outlined five points of air strategy:
Wever argued that OKL should not be solely educated in tactical and operational matters but also in grand strategy, war economics, armament production and the mentality of potential opponents (also known as mirror imaging). Wever 's vision was not realised, staff studies in those subjects fell by the wayside and the Air Academies focused on tactics, technology and operational planning, rather than on independent strategic air offensives.
In 1936, Wever was killed in an air crash and the failure to implement his vision for the new Luftwaffe was largely attributable to his successors. Ex-Army personnel and his successors as Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff, Albert Kesselring (3 June 1936 -- 31 May 1937) and Hans - Jürgen Stumpff (1 June 1937 -- 31 January 1939) are usually blamed for abandoning strategic planning for close air support. Two prominent enthusiasts for ground - support operations (direct or indirect) were Hugo Sperrle the commander of Luftflotte 3 (1 February 1939 -- 23 August 1944) and Hans Jeschonnek (Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff from 1 February 1939 -- 19 August 1943). The Luftwaffe was not pressed into ground support operations because of pressure from the army or because it was led by ex-soldiers, the Luftwaffe favoured a model of joint inter-service operations, rather than independent strategic air campaigns.
Hitler paid less attention to the bombing of opponents than air defence, although he promoted the development of a bomber force in the 1930s and understood it was possible to use bombers for strategic purposes. He told OKL in 1939, that ruthless employment of the Luftwaffe against the heart of the British will to resist would follow when the moment was right. Hitler quickly developed scepticism toward strategic bombing, confirmed by the results of the Blitz. He frequently complained of the Luftwaffe 's inability to damage industries sufficiently, saying, "The munitions industry can not be interfered with effectively by air raids... usually the prescribed targets are not hit ''.
While the war was being planned, Hitler never insisted upon the Luftwaffe planning a strategic bombing campaign and did not even give ample warning to the air staff, that war with Britain or even Russia was a possibility. The amount of firm operational and tactical preparation for a bombing campaign was minimal, largely because of the failure by Hitler as supreme commander to insist upon such a commitment.
Ultimately, Hitler was trapped within his own vision of bombing as a terror weapon, formed in the 1930s when he threatened smaller nations into accepting German rule rather than submit to air bombardment. This fact had important implications. It showed the extent to which Hitler personally mistook Allied strategy for one of morale breaking instead of one of economic warfare, with the collapse of morale as an additional bonus. Hitler was much more attracted to the political aspects of bombing. As the mere threat of it had produced diplomatic results in the 1930s, he expected that the threat of German retaliation would persuade the Allies to adopt a policy of moderation and not to begin a policy of unrestricted bombing. His hope was -- for reasons of political prestige within Germany itself -- that the German population would be protected from the Allied bombings. When this proved impossible, he began to fear that popular feeling would turn against his regime, and he redoubled efforts to mount a similar "terror offensive '' against Britain in order to produce a stalemate in which both sides would hesitate to use bombing at all.
A major problem in the managing of the Luftwaffe was Göring; Hitler believed the Luftwaffe was "the most effective strategic weapon '', and in reply to repeated requests from the Kriegsmarine for control over aircraft insisted, "We should never have been able to hold our own in this war if we had not had an undivided Luftwaffe. '' Such principles made it much harder to integrate the air force into the overall strategy and produced in Göring a jealous and damaging defence of his "empire '' while removing Hitler voluntarily from the systematic direction of the Luftwaffe at either the strategic or operational level. When Hitler tried to intervene more in the running of the air force later in the war, he was faced with a political conflict of his own making between himself and Göring, which was not fully resolved until the war was almost over. In 1940 and 1941, Göring 's refusal to co-operate with the Kriegsmarine denied the entire Wehrmacht military forces of the Reich the chance to strangle British sea communications, which might have had strategic or decisive effect in the war against the British Empire.
The deliberate separation of the Luftwaffe from the rest of the military structure encouraged the emergence of a major "communications gap '' between Hitler and the Luftwaffe, which other factors helped to exacerbate. For one thing, Göring 's fear of Hitler led him to falsify or misrepresent what information was available in the direction of an uncritical and over-optimistic interpretation of air strength. When Göring decided against continuing Wever 's original heavy bomber programme in 1937, the Reichsmarschall 's own explanation was that Hitler wanted to know only how many bombers there were, not how many engines each had. In July 1939, Göring arranged a display of the Luftwaffe 's most advanced equipment at Rechlin, to give the impression the air force was more prepared for a strategic air war than was actually the case.
Although not specifically prepared to conduct independent strategic air operations against an opponent, the Luftwaffe was expected to do so over Britain. From July until September 1940 the Luftwaffe attacked Fighter Command to gain air superiority as a prelude to invasion. This involved the bombing of English Channel convoys, ports, and RAF airfields and supporting industries. Destroying RAF Fighter Command would allow the Germans to gain control of the skies over the invasion area. It was supposed Bomber Command, Coastal Command, and the Royal Navy could not operate under conditions of German air superiority.
The Luftwaffe 's poor intelligence meant that their aircraft were not always able to locate their targets, and thus attacks on factories and airfields failed to achieve the desired results. British fighter aircraft production continued at a rate surpassing Germany 's by 2 to 1. The British produced 10,000 aircraft in 1940, in comparison to Germany 's 8,000. The replacement of pilots and aircrew was more difficult. Both the RAF and Luftwaffe struggled to replace manpower losses, though the Germans had larger reserves of trained aircrew. The circumstances affected the Germans more than the British. Operating over home territory, British aircrew could fly again if they survived being shot down. German crews, even if they survived, faced capture. Moreover, bombers had four to five crewmen on board, representing a greater loss of manpower. On 7 September, the Germans shifted away from the destruction of the RAF 's supporting structures. German intelligence suggested Fighter Command was weakening, and an attack on London would force it into a final battle of annihilation while compelling the British Government to surrender.
The decision to change strategy is sometimes claimed as a major mistake by OKL. It is argued that persisting with attacks on RAF airfields might have won air superiority for the Luftwaffe. Others argue that the Luftwaffe made little impression on Fighter Command in the last week of August and first week of September and that the shift in strategy was not decisive. It has also been argued that it was doubtful the Luftwaffe could have won air superiority before the "weather window '' began to deteriorate in October. It was also possible, if RAF losses became severe, that they could pull out to the north, wait for the German invasion, then redeploy southward again. Other historians argue that the outcome of the air battle was irrelevant; the massive numerical superiority of British naval forces and the inherent weakness of the Kriegsmarine would have made the projected German invasion, Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation Sea Lion), a disaster with or without German air superiority.
Regardless of the ability of the Luftwaffe to win air superiority, Hitler was frustrated it was not happening quickly enough. With no sign of the RAF weakening and the Luftflotten suffering many losses, OKL was keen for a change in strategy. To reduce losses further, strategy changed to prefer night raids, giving the bombers greater protection under cover of darkness.
It was decided to focus on bombing Britain 's industrial cities, in daylight to begin with. The main focus was London. The first major raid took place on 7 September. On 15 September, on a date known as Battle of Britain Day, a large - scale raid was launched in daylight, but suffered significant loss for no lasting gain. Although there were a few large air battles fought in daylight later in the month and into October, the Luftwaffe switched its main effort to night attacks. This became official policy on 7 October. The air campaign soon got under way against London and other British cities. However, the Luftwaffe faced limitations. Its aircraft -- Dornier Do 17, Junkers Ju 88, and Heinkel He 111s -- were capable of carrying out strategic missions but were incapable of doing greater damage because of their small bomb - loads. The Luftwaffe 's decision in the interwar period to concentrate on medium bombers can be attributed to several reasons: Hitler did not intend or foresee a war with Britain in 1939; OKL believed a medium bomber could carry out strategic missions just as well as a heavy bomber force; and Germany did not possess the resources or technical ability to produce four - engined bombers before the war.
Although it had equipment capable of doing serious damage, the Luftwaffe had unclear strategy and poor intelligence. OKL had not been informed that Britain was to be considered a potential opponent until early 1938. It had no time to gather reliable intelligence on Britain 's industries. Moreover, OKL could not settle on an appropriate strategy. German planners had to decide whether the Luftwaffe should deliver the weight of its attacks against a specific segment of British industry such as aircraft factories, or against a system of interrelated industries such as Britain 's import and distribution network, or even in a blow aimed at breaking the morale of the British population. The Luftwaffe 's strategy became increasingly aimless over the winter of 1940 -- 1941. Disputes among OKL staff revolved more around tactics than strategy. This method condemned the offensive over Britain to failure before it began.
In an operational capacity, limitations in weapons technology and quick British reactions were making it more difficult to achieve strategic effect. Attacking ports, shipping and imports as well as disrupting rail traffic in the surrounding areas, especially the distribution of coal, an important fuel in all industrial economies of the Second World War, would net a positive result. However, the use of delayed - action bombs, while initially very effective, gradually had less impact, partly because they failed to detonate. The British had anticipated the change in strategy and dispersed its production facilities, making them less vulnerable to a concentrated attack. Regional commissioners were given plenipotentiary powers to restore communications and organise the distribution of supplies to keep the war economy moving.
London had nine million people -- a fifth of the British population -- living in an area of 750 square miles (1,940 square kilometres), which was difficult to defend because of its size. Based on experience with German strategic bombing during World War I against the United Kingdom, the British government estimated after the First World War that 50 casualties -- with about one third killed -- would result for every tonne of bombs dropped on London. The estimate of tonnes of bombs an enemy could drop per day grew as aircraft technology advanced, from 75 in 1922, to 150 in 1934, to 644 in 1937. That year the Committee on Imperial Defence estimated that an attack of 60 days would result in 600,000 dead and 1,200,000 wounded. News reports of the Spanish Civil War, such as the bombing of Barcelona, supported the 50 - casualties - per - tonne estimate. By 1938, experts generally expected that Germany would attempt to drop as much as 3,500 tonnes in the first 24 hours of war and average 700 tonnes a day for several weeks. In addition to high - explosive and incendiary bombs, the enemy would possibly use poison gas and even bacteriological warfare, all with a high degree of accuracy. In 1939 military theorist Basil Liddell - Hart predicted that 250,000 deaths and injuries in Britain could occur in the first week of war.
Civilians were aware of the deadly power of aerial attacks through newsreels of Barcelona, the Bombing of Guernica and the Bombing of Shanghai. Many popular works of fiction during the 1920s and 1930s portrayed aerial bombing, such as H.G. Wells ' novel The Shape of Things to Come and its 1936 film adaptation, and others such as The Air War of 1936 and The Poison War. Harold Macmillan wrote in 1956 that he and others around him "thought of air warfare in 1938 rather as people think of nuclear war today ''.
Based in part on the experience of German bombing in the First World War, politicians feared mass psychological trauma from aerial attack and the collapse of civil society. In 1938, a committee of psychiatrists predicted there would be three times as many mental as physical casualties from aerial bombing, implying three to four million psychiatric patients. Winston Churchill told Parliament in 1934, "We must expect that, under the pressure of continuous attack upon London, at least three or four million people would be driven out into the open country around the metropolis ''. Panic during the Munich crisis, such as the migration by 150,000 people to Wales, contributed to fear of social chaos.
The government planned the evacuation of four million people -- mostly women and children -- from urban areas, including 1.4 million from London. It expected about 90 percent of evacuees to stay in private homes, conducted an extensive survey to determine the amount of space available and made detailed preparations for transporting evacuees. A trial blackout was held on 10 August 1939 and when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September, a blackout began at sunset. Lights were not allowed after dark for almost six years and the blackout became by far the most unpopular aspect of the war for civilians, even more than rationing. The relocation of the government and the civil service was also planned but would only have occurred if necessary so as not to damage civilian morale.
Much civil - defence preparation in the form of shelters was left in the hands of local authorities and many areas such as Birmingham, Coventry, Belfast and the East End of London did not have enough shelters. The unexpected delay to civilian bombing during the Phoney War meant that the shelter programme finished in June 1940, before the Blitz. The programme favoured backyard Anderson shelters and small brick surface shelters; many of the latter were abandoned in 1940 as unsafe. Authorities expected that the raids would be brief and in daylight, rather than attacks by night, which forced Londoners to sleep in shelters.
Deep shelters provided most protection against a direct hit. The government did not build them for large populations before the war because of cost, time to build and fears that their safety would cause occupants to refuse to leave to return to work or that anti-war sentiment would develop in large congregations of civilians. The government saw the leading role taken by the Communist Party in advocating the building deep shelters as an attempt to damage civilian morale, especially after the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939.
The most important existing communal shelters were the London Underground stations. Although many civilians had used them for shelter during the First World War, the government in 1939 refused to allow the stations to be used as shelters so as not to interfere with commuter and troop travel and the fears that occupants might refuse to leave. Underground officials were ordered to lock station entrances during raids but by the second week of heavy bombing, the government relented and ordered the stations to be opened. Each day orderly lines of people queued until 4: 00 pm, when they were allowed to enter the stations. In mid-September 1940, about 150,000 people a night slept in the Underground, although by the winter and spring months the numbers had declined to 100,000 or less. Noises of battle were muffled and sleep was easier in the deepest stations but many people were killed from direct hits on stations. In March 1943, 173 men, women and children were crushed to death at Bethnal Green tube station in a panic after a woman fell down the steps as she entered the station.
Communal shelters never housed more than one seventh of Greater London residents. Peak use of the Underground as shelter was 177,000 on 27 September 1940 and a November 1940 census of London, found that about 4 percent of residents used the Tube and other large shelters, 9 percent in public surface shelters and 27 percent in private home shelters, implying that the remaining 60 percent of the city stayed at home. The government distributed Anderson shelters until 1941 and that year began distributing the Morrison shelter, which could be used inside homes.
Public demand caused the government in October 1940 to build new deep shelters within the Underground to hold 80,000 people but the period of heaviest bombing had passed before they were finished. By the end of 1940 improvements had been made in the Underground and in many other large shelters. Authorities provided stoves and bathrooms and canteen trains provided food. Tickets were issued for bunks in large shelters, to reduce the amount of time spent queuing. Committees quickly formed within shelters as informal governments and organisations such as the British Red Cross and the Salvation Army worked to improve conditions. Entertainment included concerts, films, plays and books from local libraries.
Although only a small number of Londoners used the mass shelters, when journalists, celebrities and foreigners visited they became part of the Beveridge Report, part of a national debate on social and class division. Most residents found that such divisions continued within the shelters and many arguments and fights occurred over noise, space and other matters. Anti-Jewish sentiment was reported, particularly around the East End of London, with anti-Semitic graffiti and anti-Semitic rumours, such as that Jewish people were "hogging '' air raid shelters. Contrary to pre-war fears of antisemitic violence in the East End, one observer found that the "Cockney and the Jew (worked) together, against the Indian ''.
Although the intensity of the bombing was not as great as prewar expectations so an equal comparison is impossible, no psychiatric crisis occurred because of the Blitz even during the period of greatest bombing of September 1940. An American witness wrote "By every test and measure I am able to apply, these people are staunch to the bone and wo n't quit... the British are stronger and in a better position than they were at its beginning ''. People referred to raids as if they were weather, stating that a day was "very blitzy ''.
According to Anna Freud and Edward Glover, London civilians surprisingly did not suffer from widespread shell shock, unlike the soldiers in the Dunkirk evacuation. The psychoanalysts were correct, and the special network of psychiatric clinics opened to receive mental casualties of the attacks closed due to lack of need. Although the stress of the war resulted in many anxiety attacks, eating disorders, fatigue, weeping, miscarriages, and other physical and mental ailments, society did not collapse. The number of suicides and drunkenness declined, and London recorded only about two cases of "bomb neuroses '' per week in the first three months of bombing. Many civilians found that the best way to retain mental stability was to be with family, and after the first few weeks of bombing avoidance of the evacuation programs grew.
The cheerful crowds visiting bomb sites were so large they interfered with rescue work, pub visits increased in number (beer was never rationed), and 13,000 attended cricket at Lord 's. People left shelters when told instead of refusing to leave, although many housewives reportedly enjoyed the break from housework. Some people even told government surveyors that they enjoyed air raids if they occurred occasionally, perhaps once a week. Despite the attacks, defeat in Norway and France, and the threat of invasion, overall morale remained high; a Gallup poll found only 3 percent of Britons expected to lose the war in May 1940, another found an 88 % approval rating for Churchill in July, and a third found 89 percent support for his leadership in October. Support for peace negotiations declined from 29 percent in February. Each setback caused more civilians to volunteer to become unpaid Local Defence Volunteers, workers worked longer shifts and over weekends, contributions rose to the £ 5,000 "Spitfire Funds '' to build fighters and the number of work days lost to strikes in 1940 was the lowest in history.
The civilians of London had an enormous role to play in the protection of their city. Many civilians who were unwilling or unable to join the military joined the Home Guard, the Air Raid Precautions service (ARP), the Auxiliary Fire Service and many other civilian organisations; the AFS had 138,000 personnel by July 1939. Only one year earlier, there had only been 6,600 full - time and 13,800 part - time firemen in the entire country. Before the war, civilians were issued with 50 million respirators (gas masks) in case bombardment with gas began before evacuation. During the Blitz, The Scout Association guided fire engines to where they were most needed and became known as the "Blitz Scouts ''. Many unemployed people were drafted into the Royal Army Pay Corps and with the Pioneer Corps, were charged with the task of salvage and clean - up. The Women 's Voluntary Services for Civil Defence (WVS) was established in 1938 by the Home Secretary, Samuel Hoare, who considered it the female branch of the ARP. The WVS organised the evacuation of children, established centres for those displaced by bombing and operated canteens, salvage and recycling schemes. By the end of 1941, the WVS had one million members.
British air doctrine, since Hugh Trenchard had commanded the Royal Flying Corps (1915 -- 1917), stressed offence as the best means of defence. Defensive strategy was based on offensive tactics, what became known as the cult of the offensive. To prevent German formations from hitting targets in Britain, Bomber Command would destroy Luftwaffe aircraft on their bases, aircraft in their factories and fuel reserves by attacking oil plants. This philosophy proved impractical as Bomber Command lacked the technology and equipment necessary for mass night operations, resources having been diverted to Fighter Command in the mid-1930s and it took until 1943 to catch up. Dowding agreed air defence would require some offensive action and that fighters could not defend Britain alone. Until September 1939, the RAF lacked specialist night - fighting aircraft and relied on anti-aircraft units, which were poorly equipped and lacking in numbers.
The attitude of the Air Ministry was in contrast to the experiences of the First World War when German bombers caused physical and psychological damage out of all proportion to their numbers. Around 280 short tons (250 t) (9,000 bombs) had been dropped, killing 1,413 people and injuring 3,500 more. Many people aged 35 or over remembered the bombing and greeted the threat of more with great trepidation. From 1916 -- 1918, German raids had diminished against countermeasures which demonstrated defence against night air raids was possible. Although night air defence was causing greater concern before the war, it was not at the forefront of RAF planning after 1935, when funds were directed into the new ground - based radar day fighter interception system. The difficulty RAF bombers had in night navigation and target finding, led the British to believe that it would be the same for German bomber crews. There was also a mentality in all air forces that flying by day would obviate the need for night operations and their inherent disadvantages.
Hugh Dowding, Air Officer Commanding Fighter Command, defeated the Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain but preparing day fighter defences, left little for night air defence. When the Luftwaffe struck at British cities for the first time on 7 September 1940, a number of civic and political leaders were worried by Dowding 's apparent lack of reaction to the new crisis. Dowding accepted that as AOC, he was responsible for the day and night defence of Britain but seemed reluctant to act quickly and his critics in the Air Staff felt that this was due to his stubborn nature. Dowding was summoned on 17 October, to explain the poor state of the night defences and the supposed (but ultimately successful) "failure '' of his daytime strategy. The Minister of Aircraft Production, Lord Beaverbrook and Churchill distanced themselves. The failure to prepare adequate night air defences was undeniable but it was not the responsibility of the AOC Fighter Command to dictate the disposal of resources. The general neglect of the RAF until the late spurt in 1938, left few resources for night air defence and the Government, through the Air Ministry and other civil and military institutions was responsible for policy. Before the war, the Chamberlain government stated that night defence from air attack should not take up much of the national effort.
Because of the inaccuracy of celestial navigation for night navigation and target finding in a fast moving aircraft, the Luftwaffe developed radio navigation devices and relied on three systems: Knickebein (Crooked leg), X-Gerät (X-Device), and Y - Gerät (Y - Device). This led the British to develop countermeasures, which became known as the Battle of the Beams. Bomber crews already had some experience with the Lorenz beam, a commercial blind - landing aid for night or bad weather landings. The Germans adapted the short - range Lorenz system into Knickebein, a 30 -- 33 MHz system, which used two Lorenz beams with much stronger signals. Two aerials at ground stations were rotated so that their beams converged over the target. The German bombers would fly along either beam until they picked up the signal from the other beam. When a continuous sound was heard from the second beam the crew knew they were above the target and dropped their bombs.
Knickebein was in general use but the X-Gerät (X apparatus) was reserved for specially - trained pathfinder crews. X-Gerät receivers were mounted in He 111s, with a radio mast on the fuselage. The system worked on 66 -- 77 MHz, a higher frequency than Knickebein. Ground transmitters sent pulses at a rate of 180 per minute. X-Gerät received and analysed the pulses, giving the pilot visual and aural directions. Three cross-beams intersected the beam along which the He 111 was flying. The first cross-beam alerted the bomb - aimer, who activated a bombing clock when the second cross-beam was reached. When the third cross-beam was reached the bomb aimer activated a third trigger, which stopped the first hand of the clock, with the second hand continuing. When the second hand re-aligned with the first, the bombs were released. The clock mechanism was co-ordinated with the distances of the intersecting beams from the target so the target was directly below when the bombs were released.
Y - Gerät an automatic beam - tracking system and the most complex of the three devices, which was operated through the autopilot. The pilot flew along an approach beam, monitored by a ground controller. Signals from the station were retransmitted by the bomber 's equipment, which allowed the distance the bomber had travelled along the beam to precisely be measured. Direction - finding checks also enabled the controller to keep the pilot on course. The crew would be ordered to drop their bombs either by a code word from the ground controller or at the conclusion of the signal transmissions which would stop. The maximum range of Y - Gerät was similar to the other systems and it was accurate enough on occasion for specific buildings to be hit.
In June 1940, a German prisoner of war was overheard boasting that the British would never find the Knickebein, even though it was under their noses. The details of the conversation were passed to an RAF Air Staff technical advisor, Dr. R.V. Jones, who started a search which discovered that Luftwaffe Lorenz receivers were more than blind - landing devices. Jones began a search for German beams; Avro Ansons of the Beam Approach Training Development Unit (BATDU) were flown up and down Britain fitted with a 30 MHz receiver. Soon a beam was traced to Derby (which had been mentioned in Luftwaffe transmissions). The first jamming operations were carried out using requisitioned hospital electrocautery machines. The counter-operations were carried out by British Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) units under Wing Commander Edward Addison, No. 80 Wing RAF. The production of false radio navigation signals by re-transmitting the originals became known as Meaconing using masking beacons (meacons). Up to nine special transmitters directed their signals at the beams in a manner that subtly widened its path, making it harder for bomber crews to locate targets and confidence in the device was diminished by the time the Luftwaffe was ready to conduct big raids.
German beacons operated on the medium - frequency band and the signals involved a two - letter Morse identifier followed by a lengthy time - lapse which enabled the Luftwaffe crews to determine the signal 's bearing. The Meacon system involved separate locations for a receiver with a directional aerial and a transmitter. The receipt of the German signal by the receiver was duly passed to the transmitter, the signal to be repeated. The action did not guarantee automatic success. If the German bomber flew closer to its own beam than the Meacon then the former signal would come through the stronger on the direction finder. The reverse would apply only if the meacon were closer. In general, German bombers were likely to get through to their targets without too much difficulty. It was to be some months before an effective night fighter force would be ready, and anti-aircraft defences only became adequate after the Blitz was over, so ruses were created to lure German bombers away from their targets. Throughout 1940, dummy airfields were prepared, good enough to stand up to skilled observation. An unknown number of bombs fell on these diversionary ("Starfish '') targets.
For industrial areas, fires and lighting were simulated. It was decided to recreate normal residential street lighting, and in non-essential areas, lighting to recreate heavy industrial targets. In those sites, carbon arc lamps were used to simulate the flash of tram cables. Red lamps were used to simulate blast furnaces and locomotive fireboxes. Reflections made by factory skylights were created by placing lights under angled wooden panels. The use of diversionary techniques such as fires had to be made carefully. The fake fires could only begin when the bombing started over an adjacent target and its effects were brought under control. Too early and the chances of success receded; too late and the real conflagration at the target would exceed the diversionary fires. Another innovation was the boiler fire. These units were fed from two adjacent tanks containing oil and water. The oil - fed fires were then injected with water from time to time; the flashes produced were similar to those of the German C - 250 and C - 500 Flammbomben. The hope was that, if it could deceive German bombardiers, it would draw more bombers away from the real target.
The first deliberate air raids on London were mainly aimed at the Port of London, causing severe damage. Late in the afternoon of 7 September 1940, the Germans began Operation London (Unternehmen Loge) (the codename for London) and Seeschlange (Sea Snake), the air offensives against London and other industrial cities. Loge continued for 57 nights. A total of 348 bombers and 617 fighters took part in the attack.
Initially the change in strategy caught the RAF off - guard and caused extensive damage and civilian casualties. Some 107,400 gross tons of shipping was damaged in the Thames Estuary and 1,600 civilians were casualties. Of this total around 400 were killed. The fighting in the air was more intense in daylight. Loge had cost the Luftwaffe 41 aircraft; 14 bombers, 16 Messerschmitt Bf 109s, seven Messerschmitt Bf 110s and four reconnaissance aircraft. Fighter Command lost 23 fighters, with six pilots killed and another seven wounded. Another 247 bombers from Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3) attacked that night. On 8 September the Luftwaffe returned; 412 people were killed and 747 severely wounded.
On 9 September OKL appeared to be backing two strategies. Its round - the - clock bombing of London was an immediate attempt to force the British government to capitulate, but it was also striking at Britain 's vital sea communications to achieve a victory through siege. Although the weather was poor, heavy raids took place that afternoon on the London suburbs and the airfield at Farnborough. The day 's fighting cost Kesselring and Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2) 24 aircraft, including 13 Bf 109s. Fighter Command lost 17 fighters and six pilots. Over the next few days weather was poor and the next main effort would not be made until 15 September 1940.
On 15 September the Luftwaffe made two large daylight attacks on London along the Thames Estuary, targeting the docks and rail communications in the city. Its hope was to destroy its targets and draw the RAF into defending them, allowing the Luftwaffe to destroy their fighters in large numbers, thereby achieving an air superiority. Large air battles broke out, lasting for most of the day. The first attack merely damaged the rail network for three days, and the second attack failed altogether. The air battle was later commemorated by Battle of Britain Day. The Luftwaffe lost 18 percent of the bombers sent on the operations that day, and failed to gain air superiority.
While Göring was optimistic the Luftwaffe could prevail, Hitler was not. On 17 September he postponed Operation Sea Lion (as it turned out, indefinitely) rather than gamble Germany 's newly gained military prestige on a risky cross-Channel operation, particularly in the face of a sceptical Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. In the last days of the battle, the bombers became lures in an attempt to draw the RAF into combat with German fighters. But their operations were to no avail; the worsening weather and unsustainable attrition in daylight gave OKL an excuse to switch to night attacks on 7 October.
On 14 October, the heaviest night attack to date saw 380 German bombers from Luftflotte 3 hit London. Around 200 people were killed and another 2,000 injured. British anti-aircraft defences (General Frederick Alfred Pile) fired 8,326 rounds and shot down only two bombers. On 15 October, the bombers returned and about 900 fires were started by the mix of 415 short tons (376 t) of high explosive and 11 short tons (10.0 t) of incendiaries dropped. Five main rail lines were cut in London and rolling stock damaged.
Loge continued during October. 9,000 short tons (8,200 t) of bombs were dropped that month, about 10 percent in daylight, over 6,000 short tons (5,400 t) on London during the night. Birmingham and Coventry were subject to 500 short tons (450 t) of bombs between them in the last 10 days of October. Liverpool suffered 200 short tons (180 t) of bombs dropped. Hull and Glasgow were attacked but 800 short tons (730 t) of bombs were spread out all over Britain. The Metropolitan - Vickers works in Manchester was hit by 12 short tons (11 t) of bombs. Little tonnage was dropped on Fighter Command airfields; Bomber Command airfields were hit instead.
Luftwaffe policy at this point was primarily to continue progressive attacks on London, chiefly by night attack; second, to interfere with production in the vast industrial arms factories of the West Midlands, again chiefly by night attack; and third to disrupt plants and factories during the day by means of fighter - bombers.
Kesselring, commanding Luftflotte 2, was ordered to send 50 sorties per night against London and attack eastern harbours in daylight. Sperrle, commanding Luftflotte 3, was ordered to dispatch 250 sorties per night including 100 against the West Midlands. Seeschlange would be carried out by Fliegerkorps X (10th Air Corps) which concentrated on mining operations against shipping. It also took part in the bombing over Britain. By 19 / 20 April 1941, it had dropped 3,984 mines, 1⁄3 of the total dropped. The mines ' ability to destroy entire streets earned them respect in Britain, but several fell unexploded into British hands allowing counter-measures to be developed which damaged the German anti-shipping campaign.
By mid-November 1940, when the Germans adopted a changed plan, more than 13,000 short tons (12,000 t) of high explosive and nearly 1,000,000 incendiaries had fallen on London. Outside the capital, there had been widespread harassing activity by single aircraft, as well as fairly strong diversionary attacks on Birmingham, Coventry and Liverpool, but no major raids. The London docks and railways communications had taken a heavy pounding, and much damage had been done to the railway system outside. In September, there had been no less than 667 hits on railways in Great Britain, and at one period, between 5,000 and 6,000 wagons were standing idle from the effect of delayed action bombs. But the great bulk of the traffic went on; and Londoners -- though they glanced apprehensively each morning at the list of closed stretches of line displayed at their local station, or made strange detours round back streets in the buses -- still got to work. For all the destruction of life and property, the observers sent out by the Ministry of Home Security failed to discover the slightest sign of a break in morale. More than 13,000 civilians had been killed, and almost 20,000 injured, in September and October alone, but the death toll was much less than expected. In late 1940, Churchill credited the shelters.
Wartime observers perceived the bombing as indiscriminate. American observer Ralph Ingersoll reported the bombing was inaccurate and did not hit targets of military value, but destroyed the surrounding areas. Ingersol wrote that Battersea Power Station, one of the largest landmarks in London, received only a minor hit. In fact, on 8 September 1940 both Battersea and West Ham Power Station were both shut down after the 7 September daylight attack on London. In the case of Battersea power station, an unused extension was hit and destroyed during November but the station was not put out of action during the night attacks. It is not clear whether the power station or any specific structure was targeted during the German offensive as the Luftwaffe could not accurately bomb select targets during night operations. In the initial operations against London, it did appear as if rail targets and the bridges over the Thames had been singled out: Victoria Station was hit by four bombs and suffered extensive damage. The bombing disrupted rail traffic through London without destroying any of the crossings. On 7 November, St Pancras, Kensal and Bricklayers ' Arms stations were hit and several lines of Southern Rail were cut on 10 November. The British government grew anxious about the delays and disruption of supplies during the month. Reports suggested the attacks blocked the movement of coal to the Greater London regions and urgent repairs were required. Attacks against East End docks were effective and many Thames barges were destroyed. The London Underground rail system was also affected; high explosive bombs damaged the tunnels rendering some unsafe. The London Docklands, in particular the Royal Victoria Dock, received many hits and Port of London trade was disrupted. In some cases, the concentration of the bombing and resulting conflagration created firestorms of 1,000 ° C. The Ministry of Home Security reported that although the damage caused was "serious '' it was not "crippling '' and the quays, basins, railways and equipment remained operational.
British night air defences were in a poor state. Few anti-aircraft guns had fire - control systems, and the underpowered searchlights were usually ineffective against aircraft at altitudes above 12,000 ft (3,700 m). In July 1940, only 1,200 heavy and 549 light guns were deployed in the whole of Britain. Of the "heavies '', some 200 were of the obsolescent 3 in (76 mm) type; the remainder were the effective 4.5 in (110 mm) and 3.7 in (94 mm) guns, with a theoretical "ceiling '' ' of over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) but a practical limit of 25,000 ft (7,600 m) because the predictor in use could not accept greater heights. The light guns, about half of which were of the excellent Bofors 40 mm, dealt with aircraft only up to 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Although the use of the guns improved civilian morale, with the knowledge the German bomber crews were facing the barrage, it is now believed that the anti-aircraft guns achieved little and in fact the falling shell fragments caused more British casualties on the ground.
Few fighter aircraft were able to operate at night. Ground - based radar was limited, airborne radar and RAF night fighters were generally ineffective. RAF day fighters were converting to night operations and the interim Bristol Blenheim night fighter conversion of the light bomber was being replaced by the powerful Beaufighter, but this was only available in very small numbers. By the second month of the Blitz the defences were not performing well. London 's defences were rapidly reorganised by General Pile, the Commander - in - Chief of Anti-Aircraft Command. The difference this made to the effectiveness of air defences is questionable. The British were still one - third below the establishment of heavy anti-aircraft artillery AAA (or ack - ack) in May 1941, with only 2,631 weapons available. Dowding had to rely on night fighters. From 1940 to 1941, the most successful night - fighter was the Boulton Paul Defiant; its four squadrons shot down more enemy aircraft than any other type. AA defences improved by better use of radar and searchlights. Over several months, the 20,000 shells spent per raider shot down in September 1940, was reduced to 4,087 in January 1941 and to 2,963 shells in February 1941.
Airborne Interception radar (AI) was unreliable. The heavy fighting in the Battle of Britain had eaten up most of Fighter Command 's resources, so there was little investment in night fighting. Bombers were flown with airborne search lights out of desperation but to little avail. Of greater potential was the GL (Gunlaying) radar and searchlights with fighter direction from RAF fighter control rooms to begin a GCI system (Ground Control - led Interception) under Group - level control (No. 10 Group RAF, No. 11 Group RAF and No. 12 Group RAF). Whitehall 's disquiet at the failures of the RAF led to the replacement of Dowding (who was already due for retirement) with Sholto Douglas on 25 November. Douglas set about introducing more squadrons and dispersing the few GL sets to create a carpet effect in the southern counties. Still, in February 1941, there remained only seven squadrons with 87 pilots, under half the required strength. The GL carpet was supported by six GCI sets controlling radar - equipped night - fighters. By the height of the Blitz, they were becoming more successful. The number of contacts and combats rose in 1941, from 44 and two in 48 sorties in January 1941, to 204 and 74 in May (643 sorties). But even in May, 67 % of the sorties were visual cat 's - eye missions. Curiously, while 43 % of the contacts in May 1941 were by visual sightings, they accounted for 61 percent of the combats. Yet when compared with Luftwaffe daylight operations, there was a sharp decline in German losses to 1 percent. If a vigilant bomber crew could spot the fighter first, they had a decent chance at evading it.
Nevertheless, it was radar that proved to be critical weapon in the night battles over Britain from this point onward. Dowding had introduced the concept of airborne radar and encouraged its usage. Eventually it would become a success. On the night of 22 / 23 July 1940, Flying Officer Cyril Ashfield (pilot), Pilot Officer Geoffrey Morris (Observer) and Flight Sergeant Reginald Leyland (Air Intercept radar operator) of the Fighter Interception Unit became the first pilot and crew to intercept and destroy an enemy aircraft using onboard radar to guide them to a visual interception, when their AI night fighter brought down a Do 17 off Sussex. On 19 November 1940 the famous RAF night fighter ace John Cunningham shot down a Ju 88 bomber using airborne radar, just as Dowding had predicted. By mid-November, nine squadrons were available, but only one was equipped with Beaufighters (No. 219 Squadron RAF at RAF Kenley). By 16 February 1941, this had grown to 12; with five equipped, or partially equipped with Beaufighters spread over five Groups.
From November 1940 -- February 1941, the Luftwaffe shifted its strategy and attacked other industrial cities. In particular, the West Midlands were targeted. On the night of 13 / 14 November, 77 He 111s of Kampfgeschwader 26 (26th Bomber Wing, or KG 26) bombed London while 63 from KG 55 hit Birmingham. The next night, a large force hit Coventry. "Pathfinders '' from 12 Kampfgruppe 100 (Bomb Group 100 or KGr 100) led 437 bombers from KG 1, KG 3, KG 26, KG 27, KG 55 and Lehrgeschwader 1 (1st Training Wing, or LG 1) which dropped 394 short tons (357 t) of high explosive, 56 short tons (51 t) of incendiaries, and 127 parachute mines. Other sources say 449 bombers and a total of 530 short tons (480 t) of bombs were dropped. The raid against Coventry was particularly devastating, and led to widespread use of the phrase "to conventrate ''. Over 10,000 incendiaries were dropped. Around 21 factories were seriously damaged in Coventry, and loss of public utilities stopped work at nine others, disrupting industrial output for several months. Only one bomber was lost, to anti-aircraft fire, despite the RAF flying 125 night sorties. No follow up raids were made, as OKL underestimated the British power of recovery (as Bomber Command would do over Germany from 1943 -- 1945). The Germans were surprised by the success of the attack. The concentration had been achieved by accident. The strategic effect of the raid was a brief 20 percent dip in aircraft production.
Five nights later, Birmingham was hit by 369 bombers from KG 54, KG 26, and KG 55. By the end of November, 1,100 bombers were available for night raids. An average of 200 were able to strike per night. This weight of attack went on for two months, with the Luftwaffe dropping 13,900 short tons (12,600 t) of bombs. In November 1940, 6,000 sorties and 23 major attacks (more than 100 tons of bombs dropped) were flown. Two heavy (50 short tons (45 t) of bombs) attacks were also flown. In December, only 11 major and five heavy attacks were made.
Probably the most devastating attack occurred on the evening of 29 December, when German aircraft attacked the City of London itself with incendiary and high explosive bombs, causing a firestorm that has been called the Second Great Fire of London. The first group to use these incendiaries was Kampfgruppe 100 which despatched 10 "pathfinder '' He 111s. At 18: 17, it released the first of 10,000 fire bombs, eventually amounting to 300 dropped per minute. Altogether, 130 German bombers destroyed the historical centre of London. Civilian casualties on London throughout the Blitz amounted to 28,556 killed, and 25,578 wounded. The Luftwaffe had dropped 18,291 short tons (16,593 t) of bombs.
Not all of the Luftwaffe effort was made against inland cities. Port cities were also attacked to try to disrupt trade and sea communications. In January, Swansea was bombed four times, very heavily. On 17 January around 100 bombers dropped a high concentration of incendiaries, some 32,000 in all. The main damage was inflicted on the commercial and domestic areas. Four days later 230 tons was dropped including 60,000 incendiaries. In Portsmouth Southsea and Gosport waves of 150 bombers destroyed vast swaths of the city with 40,000 incendiaries. Warehouses, rail lines and houses were destroyed and damaged, but the docks were largely untouched. In January and February 1941, Luftwaffe serviceability rates declined, until just 551 of 1,214 bombers were combat worthy. Seven major and eight heavy attacks were flown, but the weather made it difficult to keep up the pressure. Still, at Southampton, attacks were so effective morale did give way briefly with civilian authorities leading people en masse out of the city.
Although official German air doctrine did target civilian morale, it did not espouse the attacking of civilians directly. It hoped to destroy morale by destroying the enemy 's factories and public utilities as well as its food stocks (by attacking shipping). Nevertheless, its official opposition to attacks on civilians became an increasingly moot point when large - scale raids were conducted in November and December 1940. Although not encouraged by official policy, the use of mines and incendiaries, for tactical expediency, came close to indiscriminate bombing. Locating targets in skies obscured by industrial haze meant the target area needed to be illuminated and hit "without regard for the civilian population ''. Special units, such as KGr 100, became the Beleuchtergruppe (Firelighter Group), which used incendiaries and high explosive to mark the target area. The tactic was expanded into Feuerleitung (Blaze Control) with the creation of Brandbombenfelder (Incendiary Fields) to mark targets. These were marked out by parachute flares. Then bombers carrying SC 1000 (1,000 kg (2,205 lb)), SC 1400 (1,400 kg (3,086 lb)), and SC 1800 (1,800 kg (3,968 lb)) "Satan '' bombs were used to level streets and residential areas. By December, the SC 2500 (2,500 kg (5,512 lb)) "Max '' bomb was used.
These decisions, apparently taken at the Luftflotte or Fliegerkorps level, meant attacks on individual targets were gradually replaced by what was, for all intents and purposes, an unrestricted area attack or Terrorangriff (Terror Attack). Part of the reason for this was inaccuracy of navigation. The effectiveness of British countermeasures against Knickebein, which was designed to avoid area attacks, forced the Luftwaffe to resort to these methods. The shift from precision bombing to area attack is indicated in the tactical methods and weapons dropped. KGr 100 increased its use of incendiaries from 13 -- 28 percent. By December, this had increased to 92 percent. Use of incendiaries, which were inherently inaccurate, indicated much less care was taken to avoid civilian property close to industrial sites. Other units ceased using parachute flares and opted for explosive target markers. Captured German air crews also indicated the homes of industrial workers were deliberately targeted.
In 1941, the Luftwaffe shifted strategy again. Erich Raeder -- commander - in - chief of the Kriegsmarine -- had long argued the Luftwaffe should support the German submarine force (U-Bootwaffe) in the Battle of the Atlantic by attacking shipping in the Atlantic Ocean and attacking British ports. Eventually, he convinced Hitler of the need to attack British port facilities. At Raeder 's prompting, Hitler correctly noted that the greatest damage to the British war economy had been done through the destruction of merchant shipping by submarines and air attacks by small numbers of Focke - Wulf Fw 200 naval aircraft and ordered the German air arm to focus its efforts against British convoys. This meant that British coastal centres and shipping at sea west of Ireland were the prime targets.
Hitler 's interest in this strategy forced Göring and Jeschonnek to review the air war against Britain in January 1941. This led to Göring and Jeschonnek agreeing to Hitler 's Directive 23, Directions for operations against the British War Economy, which was published on 6 February 1941 and gave aerial interdiction of British imports by sea top priority. This strategy had been recognised before the war, but Operation Eagle Attack and the following Battle of Britain had got in the way of striking at Britain 's sea communications and diverted German air strength to the campaign against the RAF and its supporting structures. The OKL had always regarded the interdiction of sea communications of less importance than bombing land - based aircraft industries.
Directive 23 was the only concession made by Göring to the Kriegsmarine over the strategic bombing strategy of the Luftwaffe against Britain. Thereafter, he would refuse to make available any air units to destroy British dockyards, ports, port facilities, or shipping in dock or at sea, lest Kriegsmarine gain control of more Luftwaffe units. Raeder 's successor -- Karl Dönitz -- would -- on the intervention of Hitler -- gain control of one unit (KG 40), but Göring would soon regain it. Göring 's lack of co-operation was detrimental to the one air strategy with potentially decisive strategic effect on Britain. Instead, he wasted aircraft of Fliegerführer Atlantik (Flying Command Atlantic) on bombing mainland Britain instead of attacks against convoys. For Göring, his prestige had been damaged by the defeat in the Battle of Britain, and he wanted to regain it by subduing Britain by air power alone. He was always reluctant to co-operate with Raeder.
Even so, the decision by OKL to support the strategy in Directive 23 was instigated by two considerations, both of which had little to do with wanting to destroy Britain 's sea communications in conjunction with the Kriegsmarine. First, the difficulty in estimating the impact of bombing upon war production was becoming apparent, and second, the conclusion British morale was unlikely to break led OKL to adopt the naval option. The indifference displayed by OKL to Directive 23 was perhaps best demonstrated in operational directives which diluted its effect. They emphasised the core strategic interest was attacking ports but they insisted in maintaining pressure, or diverting strength, onto industries building aircraft, anti-aircraft guns, and explosives. Other targets would be considered if the primary ones could not be attacked because of weather conditions.
A further line in the directive stressed the need to inflict the heaviest losses possible, but also to intensify the air war in order to create the impression an amphibious assault on Britain was planned for 1941. However, meteorological conditions over Britain were not favourable for flying and prevented an escalation in air operations. Airfields became water - logged and the 18 Kampfgruppen (bomber groups) of the Luftwaffe 's Kampfgeschwadern (bomber wings) were relocated to Germany for rest and re-equipment.
From the German point of view, March 1941 saw an improvement. The Luftwaffe flew 4,000 sorties that month, including 12 major and three heavy attacks. The electronic war intensified but the Luftwaffe flew major inland missions only on moonlit nights. Ports were easier to find and made better targets. To confuse the British, radio silence was observed until the bombs fell. X - and Y - Gerät beams were placed over false targets and switched only at the last minute. Rapid frequency changes were introduced for X-Gerät, whose wider band of frequencies and greater tactical flexibility ensured it remained effective at a time when British selective jamming was degrading the effectiveness of Y - Gerät.
By now, the imminent threat of invasion had all but passed as the Luftwaffe had failed to gain the prerequisite air superiority. The aerial bombing was now principally aimed at the destruction of industrial targets, but also continued with the objective of breaking the morale of the civilian population. The attacks were focused against western ports in March. These attacks produced some breaks in morale, with civil leaders fleeing the cities before the offensive reached its height. But the Luftwaffe 's effort eased in the last 10 attacks as seven Kampfgruppen moved to Austria in preparation for the Balkans Campaign in Yugoslavia and Greece. The shortage of bombers caused OKL to improvise. Some 50 Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive - bombers and Jabos (fighter - bombers) were used, officially classed as Leichte Kampfflugzeuge ("light bombers '') and sometimes called Leichte Kesselringe ("Light Kesselrings ''). The defences failed to prevent widespread damage but on some occasions did prevent German bombers concentrating on their targets. On occasion, only one - third of German bombs hit their targets.
The diversion of heavier bombers to the Balkans meant that the crews and units left behind were asked to fly two or three sorties per night. Bombers were noisy, cold, and vibrated badly. Added to the tension of the mission which exhausted and drained crews, tiredness caught up with and killed many. In one incident on 28 / 29 April, Peter Stahl of KG 30 was flying on his 50th mission. He fell asleep at the controls of his Ju 88 and woke up to discover the entire crew asleep. He roused them, ensured they took oxygen and Dextro - Energen tablets, then completed the mission.
The Luftwaffe could still inflict much damage and after the German conquest of Western Europe, the air and submarine offensive against British sea communications became much more dangerous than the German offensive during the First World War. Liverpool and its port became an important destination for convoys heading through the Western Approaches from North America, bringing supplies and materials. The considerable rail network distributed to the rest of the country. Air attacks sank 39,126 long tons (39,754 t) of shipping, with another 111,601 long tons (113,392 t) damaged. Minister of Home Security Herbert Morrison was also worried morale was breaking, noting the defeatism expressed by civilians. Other sources point out that half of the 144 berths in the port were rendered unusable and cargo unloading capability was reduced by 75 percent. Roads and railways were blocked and ships could not leave harbour. On 8 May 1941, 57 ships were destroyed, sunk or damaged, amounting to 80,000 long tons (81,000 t). Around 66,000 houses were destroyed, 77,000 people made homeless; 1,900 people killed and 1,450 seriously hurt on one night. Operations against London up until May 1941 could also have a severe impact on morale. The populace of the port of Hull became ' trekkers ', people who made a mass exodus from cities before, during and after attacks. The Luftwaffe attacks failed to knock out railways or port facilities for long, even in the Port of London, a target of many attacks. The Port of London in particular was an important target, bringing in one - third of overseas trade.
On 13 March, the upper Clyde port of Clydebank near Glasgow was bombed. All but seven of its 12,000 houses were damaged. Many more ports were attacked. Plymouth was attacked five times before the end of the month while Belfast, Hull, and Cardiff were hit. Cardiff was bombed on three nights, Portsmouth centre was devastated by five raids. The rate of civilian housing lost was averaging 40,000 people per week dehoused in September 1940. In March 1941, two raids on Plymouth and London dehoused 148,000 people. Still, while heavily damaged, British ports continued to support war industry and supplies from North America continued to pass through them while the Royal Navy continued to operate in Plymouth, Southampton, and Portsmouth. Plymouth in particular, because of its vulnerable position on the south coast and close proximity to German air bases, was subjected to the heaviest attacks. On 10 / 11 March, 240 bombers dropped 193 tons of high explosives and 46,000 incendiaries. Many houses and commercial centres were heavily damaged, the electrical supply was knocked out, and five oil tanks and two magazines exploded. Nine days later, two waves of 125 and 170 bombers dropped heavy bombs, including 160 tons of high explosive and 32,000 incendiaries. Much of the city centre was destroyed. Damage was inflicted on the port installations, but many bombs fell on the city itself. On 17 April 346 tons of explosives and 46,000 incendiaries were dropped from 250 bombers led by KG 26. The damage was considerable, and the Germans also used aerial mines. Over 2,000 AAA shells were fired, destroying two Ju 88s. By the end of the air campaign over Britain, only eight percent of the German effort against British ports was made using mines.
In the north, substantial efforts were made against Newcastle - upon - Tyne and Sunderland, which were large ports on the English east coast. On 9 April 1941 Luftflotte 2 dropped 150 tons of high explosives and 50,000 incendiaries from 120 bombers in a five - hour attack. Sewer, rail, docklands, and electric installations were damaged. In Sunderland on 25 April, Luftflotte 2 sent 60 bombers which dropped 80 tons of high explosive and 9,000 incendiaries. Much damage was done. A further attack on the Clyde, this time at Greenock, took place on 6 and 7 May. However, as with the attacks in the south, the Germans failed to prevent maritime movements or cripple industry in the regions.
The last major attack on London was on 10 / 11 May 1941, on which the Luftwaffe flew 571 sorties and dropped 800 tonnes of bombs. This caused more than 2,000 fires. 1,436 people were killed and 1,792 seriously injured, which affected morale badly. Another raid was carried out on 11 / 12 May 1941. Westminster Abbey and the Law Courts were damaged, while the Chamber of the House of Commons was destroyed. One - third of London 's streets were impassable. All but one railway station line was blocked for several weeks. This raid was significant, as 63 German fighters were sent with the bombers, indicating the growing effectiveness of RAF night fighter defences.
German air supremacy at night was also now under threat. British night - fighter operations out over the Channel were proving successful. This was not immediately apparent. The Bristol Blenheim F. 1 carried four. 303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns which lacked the firepower easily to shoot down a Do 17, Ju 88 or Heinkel He 111. The Blenheim had only a small speed advantage to overhaul a German bomber in a stern - chase. Added to the fact an interception relied on visual sighting, a kill was most unlikely even in the conditions of a moonlit sky. The Boulton Paul Defiant, despite its poor performance during daylight engagements, was a much better night fighter. It was faster, able to catch the bombers and its configuration of four machine guns in a turret could (much like German night fighters in 1943 -- 1945 with Schräge Musik) engage the German bomber from beneath. Attacks from below offered a larger target, compared to attacking tail - on, as well as a better chance of not being seen by the crew (so less chance of evasion), as well as greater likelihood of detonating its bomb load. In subsequent months a steady number of German bombers would fall to night fighters.
Improved aircraft designs were in the offing with the Bristol Beaufighter, then under development. It would prove formidable but its development was slow. The Beaufighter had a maximum speed of 320 mph (510 km / h), an operational ceiling of 26,000 ft (7,900 m), a climb rate of 2,500 ft (760 m) per minute and its battery of four 20 mm (0.79 in) Hispano cannon and six. 303 in Browning machine guns was much more lethal. On 19 November, John Cunningham of No. 604 Squadron RAF shot down a bomber flying an AI - equipped Beaufighter, the first air victory for the airborne radar. In November and December 1940, the Luftwaffe flew 9,000 sorties against British targets and RAF night fighters claimed only six shot down. In January 1941, Fighter Command flew 486 sorties against 1,965 made by the Germans. Just three and 12 were claimed by the RAF and AA defences respectively. In the bad weather of February 1941, Fighter Command flew 568 sorties to counter the Luftwaffe which flew 1,644 sorties. Night fighters could claim only four bombers for four losses.
By April and May 1941, the Luftwaffe was still getting through to their targets, taking no more than one - to two - percent losses per mission. On 19 / 20 April 1941, in honour of Hitler 's 52nd birthday, 712 bombers hit Plymouth with a record 1,000 tons of bombs. Losses were minimal. In the following month, 22 German bombers were lost with 13 confirmed to have been shot down by night fighters. On 3 / 4 May, nine were shot down in one night. On 10 / 11 May, London suffered severe damage, but 10 German bombers were downed. In May 1941, RAF night fighters shot down 38 German bombers. By the end of May, Kesselring 's Luftflotte 2 had been withdrawn, leaving Hugo Sperrle 's Luftflotte 3 as a token force to maintain the illusion of strategic bombing. Hitler now had his sights set on Operation Barbarossa, and the Blitz came to end.
Between 20 June 1940, when the first German air operations began over Britain, and 31 March 1941, OKL recorded the loss of 2,265 aircraft over the British Isles, a quarter of them fighters and one third bombers. At least 3,363 Luftwaffe aircrew were killed, 2,641 missing and 2,117 wounded. Total losses could have been as high as 600 bombers, just 1.5 percent of the sorties flown. A significant number of the aircraft not shot down after the resort to night bombing were wrecked during landings or crashed in bad weather.
The military effectiveness of bombing varied, the Luftwaffe dropped around 45,000 short tons (41,000 t) of bombs during the Blitz, which disrupted production and transport, reduced food supplies and shook the British morale. The bombing also helped to support the U-boat blockade, by sinking some 58,000 long tons (59,000 t) of shipping and damaging 450,000 long tons (460,000 t) more. Despite the bombing, British production rose steadily throughout this period although there were significant falls during April 1941, probably influenced by the departure of workers of Easter Holidays, according to the British official history. The official history volume British War Production (Postan, 1952) noted that the greatest effect on output of warlike stores, was on the supply of components and dispersal of production rather than complete equipments.
In aircraft production, the British were denied the opportunity to reach the planned target of 2,500 aircraft in a month, arguably the greatest achievement of the bombing, as it forced the dispersal of the industry, at first because of damage to aircraft factories and then by a policy of precautionary dispersal. In April 1941, when the targets were British ports, rifle production fell by 25 percent, filled - shell production by 4.6 percent and in small - arms production 4.5 percent. The strategic impact on industrial cities was varied; most took from 10 -- 15 days to recover from heavy raids, although Belfast and Liverpool took longer. The attacks against Birmingham took war industries some three months to recover fully. The exhausted population took three weeks to overcome the effects of an attack.
The air offensive against the RAF and British industry failed to have the desired effect. More might have been achieved had OKL exploited the vulnerability of British sea communications. The Allies did so later when Bomber Command attacked rail communications and the United States Army Air Forces targeted oil but that would have required an economic - industrial analysis of which the Luftwaffe was incapable. OKL instead sought clusters of targets that suited the latest policy (which changed frequently) and disputes within the leadership were about tactics rather than strategy. Though militarily ineffective, the Blitz cost around 41,000 lives, may have injured another 139,000 people and did enormous damage to British infrastructure and housing stock.
The British began to assess the impact of the Blitz in August 1941 and the RAF Air Staff used the German experience to improve Bomber Command 's offensives. They concluded bombers should strike a single target each night and use more incendiaries, because they had a greater impact on production than high explosives. They also noted regional production was severely disrupted when city centres were devastated through the loss of administrative offices, utilities and transport. They believed the Luftwaffe had failed in precision attack and concluded the German example of area attack using incendiaries was the way forward for operations over Germany.
Some writers claim the Air Staff ignored a critical lesson, that British morale did not break and that attacking German morale was not sufficient to induce a collapse. Aviation strategists dispute that morale was ever a major consideration for Bomber Command. Throughout 1933 -- 39 none of the 16 Western Air Plans drafted mentioned morale as a target. The first three directives in 1940 did not mention civilian populations or morale in any way. Morale was not mentioned until the ninth wartime directive on 21 September 1940. The 10th directive in October 1940 mentioned morale by name but industrial cities were only to be targeted if weather prevented raids on oil targets.
The AOC Bomber Command, Arthur Harris, who did see German morale as an objective, did not believe that the morale - collapse could occur without the destruction of the German economy. The primary goal of Bomber Command was to destroy the German industrial base (economic warfare) and in doing so reduce morale. In late 1943, just before the Battle of Berlin, Harris declared the power of Bomber Command would enable it to achieve "a state of devastation in which surrender is inevitable ''. A summary of Harris ' strategic intentions was clear,
From 1943 to the end of the war, he (Harris) and other proponents of the area offensive represented it (the bomber offensive) less as an attack on morale than as an assault on the housing, utilities, communications, and other services that supported the war production effort.
in comparison to the Allied bombing campaign against Germany, casualties due to the Blitz were relatively low; the bombing of Hamburg alone inflicted about 40,000 civilian casualties.
A converse popular image arose of British people in the Second World War: a collection of people locked in national solidarity. This image entered the historiography of the Second World War in the 1980s and 1990s, especially after the publication of Angus Calder 's book The Myth of the Blitz (1991). It was evoked by both the right and left political factions in Britain during the Falklands War when it was embedded in a nostalgic narrative in which the Second World War represented aggressive British patriotism successfully defending democracy. This imagery of people in the Blitz was and is powerfully portrayed in film, radio, newspapers and magazines. At the time it was a useful propaganda tool for home and foreign consumption. Historians ' critical response to this construction focused on what were seen as over-emphasised claims of righteous nationalism and national unity. In the Myth of the Blitz, Calder exposed some of the counter-evidence of anti-social and divisive behaviours. What he saw as the myth -- serene national unity -- became "historical truth ''. In particular, class division was most evident.
Raids during the Blitz produced the greatest divisions and morale effects in the working - class areas. Lack of sleep, insufficient shelters and inefficiency of warning systems were causes. The loss of sleep was a particular factor, with many not bothering to attend inconvenient shelters. The Communist Party made political capital out of these difficulties. In the wake of the Coventry Blitz, there was widespread agitation from the Communist Party over the need for bomb - proof shelters. Many Londoners, in particular, took to using the Underground railway system, without authority, for shelter and sleeping through the night. So worried were the Government over the sudden campaign of leaflets and posters distributed by the Communist Party in Coventry and London, that the police were sent to seize their production facilities. The Government, up until November 1940, was opposed to the centralised organisation of shelter. Home Secretary Sir John Anderson was replaced by Morrison soon afterwards, in the wake of a Cabinet reshuffle as the dying Neville Chamberlain resigned. Morrison warned that he could not counter the Communist unrest unless provision of shelters were made. He recognised the right of the public to seize tube stations and authorised plans to improve their condition and expand them by tunnelling. Still, many British citizens, who had been members of the Labour Party, itself inert over the issue, turned to the Communist Party. The Communists attempted to blame the damage and casualties of the Coventry raid on the rich factory owners, big business and landowning interests and called for a negotiated peace. Though they failed to make a large gain in influence, the membership of the Party had doubled by June 1941. The "Communist threat '' was deemed important enough for Herbert Morrison to order, with the support of the Cabinet, the stoppage of the Daily Worker and The Week; the Communist newspaper and journal.
The brief success of the Communists also fed into the hands of the British Union of Fascists (BUF). Anti-Semitic attitudes became widespread, particularly in London. Rumours that Jewish support was underpinning the Communist surge were frequent. Rumours that Jews were inflating prices, were responsible for the Black Market, were the first to panic under attack (even the cause of the panic) and secured the best shelters via underhanded methods, were also widespread. There was also racial antagonism between the small Black, Indian and Jewish communities but there were no race riots despite the mixing of different peoples in confined areas.
In other cities, class conflict was more evident. Over a quarter of London 's population had left the city by November 1940. Civilians left for more remote areas of the country. Upsurges in population in south Wales and Gloucester intimated where these displaced people went. Other reasons, including industry dispersal may have been a factor. However, resentment of rich self - evacuees or hostile treatment of poor ones were signs of persistence of class resentments although these factors did not appear to threaten social order. The total number of evacuees numbered 1.4 million, including a high proportion from the poorest inner - city families. Reception committees were completely unprepared for the condition of some of the children. Far from displaying the nation 's unity in time of war, the scheme backfired, often aggravating class antagonism and bolstering prejudice about the urban poor. Within four months, 88 % of evacuated mothers, 86 % of small children, and 43 % of school children had been returned home. The lack of bombing in the Phoney War contributed significantly to the return of people to the cities, but class conflict was not eased a year later when evacuation operations had to be put into effect again.
In recent years a large number of wartime recordings relating to the Blitz have been made available on audiobooks such as The Blitz, The Home Front and British War Broadcasting. These collections include period interviews with civilians, servicemen, aircrew, politicians and Civil Defence personnel, as well as Blitz actuality recordings, news bulletins and public information broadcasts. Notable interviews include Thomas Alderson, the first recipient of the George Cross, John Cormack, who survived eight days trapped beneath rubble on Clydeside, and Herbert Morrison 's famous "Britain shall not burn '' appeal for more fireguards in December 1940.
In one 6 - month period, 750,000 tons of bombsite rubble from London were transported by railway on 1,700 freight trains to make runways on Bomber Command airfields in East Anglia. Bombsite rubble from Birmingham was used to make runways on US Air Force bases in Kent and Essex in southeast England. Many sites of bombed buildings, when cleared of rubble, were cultivated to grow vegetables to ease wartime food shortages and were known as victory gardens.
Below is a table by city of the number of major raids (where at least 100 tons of bombs were dropped) and tonnage of bombs dropped during these major raids. Smaller raids are not included in the tonnages.
Notes
Citations
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ N 0 ° 07 ′ W / 51.50 ° N 0.12 ° W / 51.50; - 0.12
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who produced directed and starred in citizen kane | Orson Welles - wikipedia
George Orson Welles (/ wɛlz /; May 6, 1915 -- October 10, 1985) was an American actor, director, writer, and producer who worked in theatre, radio, and film. He is remembered for his innovative work in all three: in theatre, most notably Caesar (1937), a Broadway adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar; in radio, the legendary 1938 broadcast "The War of the Worlds ''; and in film, Citizen Kane (1941), consistently ranked as one of the greatest films ever made.
In his 20s, Welles directed a number of high - profile stage productions for the Federal Theatre Project, including an adaptation of Macbeth with an entirely African American cast, and the political musical The Cradle Will Rock. In 1937 he and John Houseman founded the Mercury Theatre, an independent repertory theatre company that presented a series of productions on Broadway through 1941. Welles found national and international fame as the director and narrator of a 1938 radio adaptation of H.G. Wells ' novel The War of the Worlds performed for his radio anthology series The Mercury Theatre on the Air. It reportedly caused widespread panic when listeners thought that an invasion by extraterrestrial beings was actually occurring. Although some contemporary sources say these reports of panic were mostly false and overstated, they rocketed Welles to notoriety.
His first film was Citizen Kane (1941), which he co-wrote, produced, directed, and starred in as Charles Foster Kane. Welles was an outsider to the studio system and directed only 13 full - length films in his career. He struggled for creative control on his projects early on with the major film studios and later in life with a variety of independent financiers, and his films were either heavily edited or remained unreleased. His distinctive directorial style featured layered and nonlinear narrative forms, uses of lighting such as chiaroscuro, unusual camera angles, sound techniques borrowed from radio, deep focus shots, and long takes. He has been praised as "the ultimate auteur ''.
Welles followed up Citizen Kane with 12 other feature films, the most acclaimed of which include The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), Touch of Evil (1958), and Chimes at Midnight (1966). Other works of his, such as The Lady from Shanghai (1947) and F for Fake (1973), are also well - regarded.
In 2002, Welles was voted the greatest film director of all time in two British Film Institute polls among directors and critics. Known for his baritone voice, Welles was an actor in radio and film, a Shakespearean stage actor, and a magician noted for presenting troop variety shows in the war years.
George Orson Welles was born May 6, 1915, in Kenosha, Wisconsin, son of Richard Head Welles (b. Richard Hodgdon Wells, November 12, 1872, near St. Joseph, Missouri; d. December 28, 1930, Chicago, Illinois) and Beatrice Ives Welles (b. Beatrice Lucy Ives, September 1, 1883, Springfield, Illinois; d. May 10, 1924, Chicago). He was named after his paternal great - grandfather, influential Kenosha attorney Orson S. Head, and his brother George Head. An alternative story of the source of his first and middle names was told by George Ade, who met Welles 's parents on a West Indies cruise toward the end of 1914. Ade was traveling with a friend, Orson Wells (no relation), and the two of them sat at the same table as Mr. and Mrs. Richard Welles. Mrs. Welles was pregnant at the time, and when they said good - by, she told them that she had enjoyed their company so much that if the child were a boy, she intended to name it for them: George Orson. Welles 's birth announcement and a picture of him as a young boy are among George Ade 's papers at Purdue University.
Despite his family 's affluence, Welles encountered hardship in childhood. His parents separated and moved to Chicago in 1919. His father, who made a fortune as the inventor of a popular bicycle lamp, became an alcoholic and stopped working. Welles 's mother, a pianist, played during lectures by Dudley Crafts Watson at the Art Institute of Chicago to support her son and herself; the oldest Welles boy, "Dickie '', was institutionalized at an early age because he had learning difficulties. Beatrice died of hepatitis in a Chicago hospital May 10, 1924, just after Welles 's ninth birthday. The Gordon String Quartet, which had made its first appearance at her home in 1921, played at Beatrice 's funeral.
After his mother 's death, Welles ceased pursuing music. It was decided that he would spend the summer with the Watson family at a private art colony in Wyoming, New York, established by Lydia Avery Coonley Ward. There he played and became friends with the children of the Aga Khan, including the 12 - year - old Prince Aly Khan. Then, in what Welles later described as "a hectic period '' in his life, he lived in a Chicago apartment with both his father and Dr. Maurice Bernstein, a Chicago physician who had been a close friend of both his parents. Welles briefly attended public school before his alcoholic father left business altogether and took him along on his travels to Jamaica and the Far East. When they returned they settled in a hotel in Grand Detour, Illinois, that was owned by his father. When the hotel burned down, Welles and his father took to the road again.
"During the three years that Orson lived with his father, some observers wondered who took care of whom '', wrote biographer Frank Brady.
"In some ways, he was never really a young boy, you know, '' said Roger Hill, who became Welles 's teacher and lifelong friend.
Welles briefly attended public school in Madison, Wisconsin, enrolled in the fourth grade. On September 15, 1926, he entered the Todd Seminary for Boys, an expensive independent school in Woodstock, Illinois, that his older brother, Richard Ives Welles, had attended ten years before but was expelled for misbehavior. At Todd School, Welles came under the influence of Roger Hill, a teacher who was later Todd 's headmaster. Hill provided Welles with an ad hoc educational environment that proved invaluable to his creative experience, allowing Welles to concentrate on subjects that interested him. Welles performed and staged theatrical experiments and productions there.
"Todd provided Welles with many valuable experiences '', wrote critic Richard France. "He was able to explore and experiment in an atmosphere of acceptance and encouragement. In addition to a theater the school 's own radio station was at his disposal. '' Welles ' first radio experience was on the Todd station, he performed an adaptation of Sherlock Holmes that was written by him.
On December 28, 1930, when Welles was 15, his father died of heart and kidney failure at the age of 58, alone in a hotel in Chicago. Shortly before this, Welles had announced to his father that he would stop seeing him, believing it would prompt his father to refrain from drinking. As a result, Orson felt guilty because he believed his father had drunk himself to death because of him. His father 's will left it to Orson to name his guardian. When Roger Hill declined, Welles chose Maurice Bernstein.
Following graduation from Todd in May 1931, Welles was awarded a scholarship to Harvard University, while his mentor Roger Hill advocated he attend Cornell College in Iowa. Rather than enrolling, he chose travel. He studied for a few weeks at the Art Institute of Chicago with Boris Anisfeld, who encouraged him to pursue painting.
Welles would occasionally return to Woodstock, the place he eventually named when he was asked in a 1960 interview, "Where is home? '' Welles replied, "I suppose it 's Woodstock, Illinois, if it 's anywhere. I went to school there for four years. If I try to think of a home, it 's that. ''
After his father 's death, Welles traveled to Europe using a small portion of his inheritance. Welles said that while on a walking and painting trip through Ireland, he strode into the Gate Theatre in Dublin and claimed he was a Broadway star. The manager of the Gate, Hilton Edwards, later said he had not believed him but was impressed by his brashness and an impassioned audition he gave. Welles made his stage debut at the Gate Theatre on October 13, 1931, appearing in Ashley Dukes 's adaptation of Jew Suss as Duke Karl Alexander of Württemberg. He performed small supporting roles in subsequent Gate productions, and he produced and designed productions of his own in Dublin. In March 1932 Welles performed in W. Somerset Maugham 's The Circle at Dublin 's Abbey Theatre and travelled to London to find additional work in the theatre. Unable to obtain a work permit, he returned to the U.S.
Welles found his fame ephemeral and turned to a writing project at Todd School that would become the immensely successful, first entitled Everybody 's Shakespeare and subsequently, The Mercury Shakespeare. Welles traveled to North Africa while working on thousands of illustrations for the Everybody 's Shakespeare series of educational books, a series that remained in print for decades.
In 1933, Roger and Hortense Hill invited Welles to a party in Chicago, where Welles met Thornton Wilder. Wilder arranged for Welles to meet Alexander Woollcott in New York, in order that he be introduced to Katharine Cornell, who was assembling a repertory theatre company. Cornell 's husband, director Guthrie McClintic, immediately put Welles under contract and cast him in three plays. Romeo and Juliet, The Barretts of Wimpole Street and Candida toured in repertory for 36 weeks beginning in November 1933, with the first of more than 200 performances taking place in Buffalo, New York.
In 1934, Welles got his first job on radio -- on The American School of the Air -- through actor - director Paul Stewart, who introduced him to director Knowles Entrikin. That summer Welles staged a drama festival with the Todd School in Woodstock, Illinois, inviting Micheál Mac Liammóir and Hilton Edwards from Dublin 's Gate Theatre to appear along with New York stage luminaries in productions including Trilby, Hamlet, The Drunkard and Tsar Paul. At the old firehouse in Woodstock he also shot his first film, an eight - minute short titled The Hearts of Age.
On November 14, 1934, Welles married Chicago socialite and actress Virginia Nicolson (often misspelled "Nicholson '') in a civil ceremony in New York. To appease the Nicolsons, who were furious at the couple 's elopement, a formal ceremony took place December 23, 1934, at the New Jersey mansion of the bride 's godmother. Welles wore a cutaway borrowed from his friend George Macready.
A revised production of Katharine Cornell 's Romeo and Juliet opened December 20, 1934, at the Martin Beck Theatre in New York. The Broadway production brought the 19 - year - old Welles (now playing Tybalt) to the notice of John Houseman, a theatrical producer who was casting the lead role in the debut production of Archibald MacLeish 's verse play, Panic. On March 22, 1935, Welles made his debut on the CBS Radio series The March of Time, performing a scene from Panic for a news report on the stage production
By 1935 Welles was supplementing his earnings in the theater as a radio actor in Manhattan, working with many actors who would later form the core of his Mercury Theatre on programs including America 's Hour, Cavalcade of America, Columbia Workshop and The March of Time. "Within a year of his debut Welles could claim membership in that elite band of radio actors who commanded salaries second only to the highest paid movie stars, '' wrote critic Richard France.
Macbeth (1936)
Macbeth opening night at the Lafayette Theatre (April 14, 1936)
Horse Eats Hat (1936)
Faustus (1937)
The Cradle Will Rock (1937)
Part of the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Theatre Project (1935 -- 39) was a New Deal program to fund theatre and other live artistic performances and entertainment programs in the United States during the Great Depression. It was created as a relief measure to employ artists, writers, directors and theater workers. Under national director Hallie Flanagan it was shaped into a true national theatre that created relevant art, encouraged experimentation and innovation, and made it possible for millions of Americans to see live theatre for the first time.
John Houseman, director of the Negro Theatre Unit in New York, invited Welles to join the Federal Theatre Project in 1935. Far from unemployed -- "I was so employed I forgot how to sleep '' -- Welles put a large share of his $1,500 - a-week radio earnings into his stage productions, bypassing administrative red tape and mounting the projects more quickly and professionally. "Roosevelt once said that I was the only operator in history who ever illegally siphoned money into a Washington project, '' Welles said.
The Federal Theatre Project was the ideal environment in which Welles could develop his art. Its purpose was employment, so he was able to hire any number of artists, craftsmen and technicians, and he filled the stage with performers. The company for the first production, an adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Macbeth with an entirely African - American cast, numbered 150. The production became known as the Voodoo Macbeth because Welles changed the setting to a mythical island suggesting the Haitian court of King Henri Christophe, with Haitian vodou fulfilling the rôle of Scottish witchcraft. The play opened April 14, 1936, at the Lafayette Theatre in Harlem and was received rapturously. At 20, Welles was hailed as a prodigy. The production then made a 4,000 - mile national tour that included two weeks at the Texas Centennial Exposition in Dallas.
Next mounted was the farce Horse Eats Hat, an adaptation by Welles and Edwin Denby of The Italian Straw Hat, an 1851 five - act farce by Eugène Marin Labiche and Marc - Michel. The play was presented September 26 -- December 5, 1936, at Maxine Elliott 's Theatre, New York, and featured Joseph Cotten in his first starring role. It was followed by an adaptation of Dr. Faustus that used light as a prime unifying scenic element in a nearly black stage, presented January 8 -- May 9, 1937, at Maxine Elliott 's Theatre.
Outside the scope of the Federal Theatre Project, American composer Aaron Copland chose Welles to direct The Second Hurricane (1937), an operetta with a libretto by Edwin Denby. Presented at the Henry Street Settlement Music School in New York for the benefit of high school students, the production opened April 21, 1937, and ran its scheduled three performances.
In 1937, Welles rehearsed Marc Blitzstein 's political operetta, The Cradle Will Rock. It was originally scheduled to open June 16, 1937, in its first public preview. Because of severe federal cutbacks in the Works Progress projects, the show 's premiere at the Maxine Elliott Theatre was canceled. The theater was locked and guarded to prevent any government - purchased materials from being used for a commercial production of the work. In a last - minute move, Welles announced to waiting ticket - holders that the show was being transferred to the Venice, 20 blocks away. Some cast, and some crew and audience, walked the distance on foot. The union musicians refused to perform in a commercial theater for lower non-union government wages. The actors ' union stated that the production belonged to the Federal Theater Project and could not be performed outside that context without permission. Lacking the participation of the union members, The Cradle Will Rock began with Blitzstein introducing the show and playing the piano accompaniment on stage with some cast members performing from the audience. This impromptu performance was well received by its audience.
Breaking with the Federal Theatre Project in 1937, Welles and Houseman founded their own repertory company, which they called the Mercury Theatre. The name was inspired by the title of the iconoclastic magazine, The American Mercury. Welles was executive producer, and the original company included such actors as Joseph Cotten, George Coulouris, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Arlene Francis, Martin Gabel, John Hoyt, Norman Lloyd, Vincent Price, Stefan Schnabel and Hiram Sherman.
"I think he was the greatest directorial talent we 've ever had in the (American) theater, '' Lloyd said of Welles in a 2014 interview. "When you saw a Welles production, you saw the text had been affected, the staging was remarkable, the sets were unusual, music, sound, lighting, a totality of everything. We had not had such a man in our theater. He was the first and remains the greatest. ''
The Mercury Theatre opened November 11, 1937, with Caesar, Welles 's modern - dress adaptation of Shakespeare 's tragedy Julius Caesar -- streamlined into an anti-fascist tour de force that Joseph Cotten later described as "so vigorous, so contemporary that it set Broadway on its ear. '' The set was completely open with no curtain, and the brick stage wall was painted dark red. Scene changes were achieved by lighting alone. On the stage was a series of risers; squares were cut into one at intervals and lights were set beneath it, pointing straight up to evoke the "cathedral of light '' at the Nuremberg Rallies. "He staged it like a political melodrama that happened the night before, '' said Lloyd.
Beginning January 1, 1938, Caesar was performed in repertory with The Shoemaker 's Holiday; both productions moved to the larger National Theatre. They were followed by Heartbreak House (April 29, 1938) and Danton 's Death (November 5, 1938). As well as being presented in a pared - down oratorio version at the Mercury Theatre on Sunday nights in December 1937, The Cradle Will Rock was at the Windsor Theatre for 13 weeks (January 4 -- April 2, 1938). Such was the success of the Mercury Theatre that Welles appeared on the cover of Time magazine, in full makeup as Captain Shotover in Heartbreak House, in the issue dated May 9, 1938 -- three days after his 23rd birthday.
Simultaneously with his work in the theatre, Welles worked extensively in radio as an actor, writer, director and producer, often without credit. Between 1935 and 1937 he was earning as much as $2,000 a week, shuttling between radio studios at such a pace that he would arrive barely in time for a quick scan of his lines before he was on the air. While he was directing the Voodoo Macbeth Welles was dashing between Harlem and midtown Manhattan three times a day to meet his radio commitments.
In addition to continuing as a repertory player on The March of Time, in the fall of 1936 Welles adapted and performed Hamlet in an early two - part episode of CBS Radio 's Columbia Workshop. His performance as the announcer in the series ' April 1937 presentation of Archibald MacLeish 's verse drama The Fall of the City was an important development in his radio career and made the 21 - year - old Welles an overnight star.
In July 1937, the Mutual Network gave Welles a seven - week series to adapt Les Misérables. It was his first job as a writer - director for radio, the radio debut of the Mercury Theatre, and one of Welles 's earliest and finest achievements. He invented the use of narration in radio.
"By making himself the center of the storytelling process, Welles fostered the impression of self - adulation that was to haunt his career to his dying day '', wrote critic Andrew Sarris. "For the most part, however, Welles was singularly generous to the other members of his cast and inspired loyalty from them above and beyond the call of professionalism. ''
That September, Mutual chose Welles to play Lamont Cranston, also known as The Shadow. He performed the role anonymously through mid-September 1938.
After the theatrical successes of the Mercury Theatre, CBS Radio invited Orson Welles to create a summer show for 13 weeks. The series began July 11, 1938, initially titled First Person Singular, with the formula that Welles would play the lead in each show. Some months later the show was called The Mercury Theatre on the Air. The weekly hour - long show presented radio plays based on classic literary works, with original music composed and conducted by Bernard Herrmann.
The Mercury Theatre 's radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells October 30, 1938, brought Welles instant fame. The combination of the news bulletin form of the performance with the between - breaks dial spinning habits of listeners was later reported to have created widespread confusion among listeners who failed to hear the introduction, although the extent of this confusion has come into question. Panic was reportedly spread among listeners who believed the fictional news reports of a Martian invasion. The myth of the result created by the combination was reported as fact around the world and disparagingly mentioned by Adolf Hitler in a public speech.
Welles 's growing fame drew Hollywood offers, lures that the independent - minded Welles resisted at first. The Mercury Theatre on the Air, which had been a sustaining show (without sponsorship) was picked up by Campbell Soup and renamed The Campbell Playhouse. The Mercury Theatre on the Air made its last broadcast on December 4, 1938, and The Campbell Playhouse began five days later.
Welles began commuting from California to New York for the two Sunday broadcasts of The Campbell Playhouse after signing a film contract with RKO Pictures in August 1939. In November 1939, production of the show moved from New York to Los Angeles.
After 20 shows, Campbell began to exercise more creative control and had complete control over story selection. As his contract with Campbell came to an end, Welles chose not to sign on for another season. After the broadcast of March 31, 1940, Welles and Campbell parted amicably.
RKO Radio Pictures president George Schaefer eventually offered Welles what generally is considered the greatest contract offered to a filmmaker, much less to one who was untried. Engaging him to write, produce, direct and perform in two motion pictures, the contract subordinated the studio 's financial interests to Welles 's creative control, and broke all precedent by granting Welles the right of final cut. After signing a summary agreement with RKO on July 22, Welles signed a full - length 63 - page contract August 21, 1939. The agreement was bitterly resented by the Hollywood studios and persistently mocked in the trade press.
RKO rejected Welles 's first two movie proposals, but agreed on the third offer -- Citizen Kane. Welles co-wrote, produced and directed the film, and performed the lead role. Welles conceived the project with screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who was writing radio plays for The Campbell Playhouse. Mankiewicz based the original outline on the life of William Randolph Hearst, whom he knew socially and came to hate after being exiled from Hearst 's circle.
After agreeing on the storyline and character, Welles supplied Mankiewicz with 300 pages of notes and put him under contract to write the first draft screenplay under the supervision of John Houseman. Welles wrote his own draft, then drastically condensed and rearranged both versions and added scenes of his own. The industry accused Welles of underplaying Mankiewicz 's contribution to the script, but Welles countered the attacks by saying, "At the end, naturally, I was the one making the picture, after all -- who had to make the decisions. I used what I wanted of Mank 's and, rightly or wrongly, kept what I liked of my own. ''
Welles 's project attracted some of Hollywood 's best technicians, including cinematographer Gregg Toland. For the cast, Welles primarily used actors from his Mercury Theatre. Filming Citizen Kane took ten weeks.
Hearst 's newspapers barred all reference to Citizen Kane and exerted enormous pressure on the Hollywood film community to force RKO to shelve the film. RKO chief George Schaefer received a cash offer from MGM 's Louis B. Mayer and other major studio executives if he would destroy the negative and existing prints of the film.
While waiting for Citizen Kane to be released, Welles produced and directed the original Broadway production of Native Son, a drama written by Paul Green and Richard Wright based on Wright 's novel. Starring Canada Lee, the show ran March 24 -- June 28, 1941, at the St. James Theatre. The Mercury Production was the last time Welles and Houseman worked together.
Citizen Kane was given a limited release and the film received overwhelming critical praise. It was voted the best picture of 1941 by the National Board of Review and the New York Film Critics Circle. The film garnered nine Academy Award nominations but won only for Best Original Screenplay, shared by Mankiewicz and Welles. Variety reported that block voting by screen extras deprived Citizen Kane of Oscars for Best Picture and Best Actor (Welles), and similar prejudices were likely to have been responsible for the film receiving no technical awards.
The delay in the film 's release and uneven distribution contributed to mediocre results at the box office. After it ran its course theatrically, Citizen Kane was retired to the vault in 1942. In postwar France, however, the film 's reputation grew after it was seen for the first time in 1946. In the United States, it began to be re-evaluated after it began to appear on television in 1956. That year it was also re-released theatrically, and film critic Andrew Sarris described it as "the great American film '' and "the work that influenced the cinema more profoundly than any American film since Birth of a Nation. '' Citizen Kane is now hailed by some as one of the greatest films ever made.
Welles 's second film for RKO was The Magnificent Ambersons, adapted by Welles from the Pulitzer Prize - winning novel by Booth Tarkington. Toland was not available, so Stanley Cortez was named cinematographer. The meticulous Cortez worked slowly and the film lagged behind schedule and over budget. Prior to production, Welles 's contract was renegotiated, revoking his right to control the final cut. The Magnificent Ambersons was in production October 28, 1941 -- January 22, 1942.
Throughout the shooting of the film Welles was also producing a weekly half - hour radio series, The Orson Welles Show. Many of the Ambersons cast participated in the CBS Radio series, which ran September 15, 1941 -- February 2, 1942.
At RKO 's request, Welles worked on an adaptation of Eric Ambler 's spy thriller, Journey into Fear, co-written with Joseph Cotten. In addition to acting in the film, Welles was the producer. Direction was credited to Norman Foster. Welles later said that they were in such a rush that the director of each scene was determined by whoever was closest to the camera.
Journey into Fear was in production January 6 -- March 12, 1942.
In late November 1941, Welles was appointed as a goodwill ambassador to Latin America by Nelson Rockefeller, U.S. Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs and a principal stockholder in RKO Radio Pictures. The mission of the OCIAA was cultural diplomacy, promoting hemispheric solidarity and countering the growing influence of the Axis powers in Latin America. John Hay Whitney, head of the agency 's Motion Picture Division, was asked by the Brazilian government to produce a documentary of the annual Rio Carnival celebration taking place in early February 1942. In a telegram December 20, 1941, Whitney wrote Welles, "Personally believe you would make great contribution to hemisphere solidarity with this project. ''
The OCIAA sponsored cultural tours to Latin America and appointed goodwill ambassadors including George Balanchine and the American Ballet, Bing Crosby, Aaron Copland, Walt Disney, John Ford and Rita Hayworth. Welles was thoroughly briefed in Washington, D.C., immediately before his departure for Brazil, and film scholar Catherine L. Benamou, a specialist in Latin American affairs, finds it "not unlikely '' that he was among the goodwill ambassadors who were asked to gather intelligence for the U.S. government in addition to their cultural duties. She concludes that Welles 's acceptance of Whitney 's request was "a logical and patently patriotic choice ''.
In addition to working on his ill - fated film project, It 's All True, Welles was responsible for radio programs, lectures, interviews and informal talks as part of his OCIAA - sponsored cultural mission, which was regarded as a success. He spoke on topics ranging from Shakespeare to visual art at gatherings of Brazil 's elite, and his two intercontinental radio broadcasts in April 1942 were particularly intended to tell U.S. audiences that President Vargas was a partner with the Allies. Welles 's ambassadorial mission was extended to permit his travel to other nations including Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Uruguay. Welles worked for more than half a year with no compensation.
Welles 's own expectations for the film were modest. "It 's All True was not going to make any cinematic history, nor was it intended to, '' he later said. "It was intended to be a perfectly honorable execution of my job as a goodwill ambassador, bringing entertainment to the Northern Hemisphere that showed them something about the Southern one. ''
In July 1941, Welles conceived It 's All True as an omnibus film mixing documentary and docufiction in a project that emphasized the dignity of labor and celebrated the cultural and ethnic diversity of North America. It was to have been his third film for RKO, following Citizen Kane (1941) and The Magnificent Ambersons (1942). Duke Ellington was put under contract to score a segment with the working title, "The Story of Jazz '', drawn from Louis Armstrong 's 1936 autobiography, Swing That Music. Armstrong was cast to play himself in the brief dramatization of the history of jazz performance, from its roots to its place in American culture in the 1940s. "The Story of Jazz '' was to go into production in December 1941.
Mercury Productions purchased the stories for two other segments -- "My Friend Bonito '' and "The Captain 's Chair '' -- from documentary filmmaker Robert J. Flaherty. Adapted by Norman Foster and John Fante, "My Friend Bonito '' was the only segment of the original It 's All True to go into production. Filming took place in Mexico September -- December 1941, with Norman Foster directing under Welles 's supervision.
In December 1941, the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs asked Welles to make a film in Brazil that would showcase the Carnaval in Rio de Janeiro. With filming of "My Friend Bonito '' about two - thirds complete, Welles decided he could shift the geography of It 's All True and incorporate Flaherty 's story into an omnibus film about Latin America -- supporting the Roosevelt administration 's Good Neighbor policy, which Welles strongly advocated. In this revised concept, "The Story of Jazz '' was replaced by the story of samba, a musical form with a comparable history and one that came to fascinate Welles. He also decided to do a ripped - from - the - headlines episode about the epic voyage of four poor Brazilian fishermen, the jangadeiros, who had become national heroes. Welles later said this was the most valuable story.
Required to film the Carnaval in Rio de Janeiro in early February 1942, Welles rushed to edit The Magnificent Ambersons and finish his acting scenes in Journey into Fear. He ended his lucrative CBS radio show February 2, flew to Washington, D.C., for a briefing, and then lashed together a rough cut of Ambersons in Miami with editor Robert Wise. Welles recorded the film 's narration the night before he left for South America: "I went to the projection room at about four in the morning, did the whole thing, and then got on the plane and off to Rio -- and the end of civilization as we know it. ''
Welles left for Brazil on February 4 and began filming in Rio February 8, 1942. At the time it did not seem that Welles 's other film projects would be disrupted, but as film historian Catherine L. Benamou wrote, "the ambassadorial appointment would be the first in a series of turning points leading -- in ' zigs ' and ' zags, ' rather than in a straight line -- to Welles 's loss of complete directorial control over both The Magnificent Ambersons and It 's All True, the cancellation of his contract at RKO Radio Studio, the expulsion of his company Mercury Productions from the RKO lot, and, ultimately, the total suspension of It 's All True.
In 1942 RKO Pictures underwent major changes under new management. Nelson Rockefeller, the primary backer of the Brazil project, left its board of directors, and Welles 's principal sponsor at RKO, studio president George Schaefer, resigned. RKO took control of Ambersons and edited the film into what the studio considered a commercial format. Welles 's attempts to protect his version ultimately failed. In South America, Welles requested resources to finish It 's All True. Given a limited amount of black - and - white film stock and a silent camera, he was able to finish shooting the episode about the jangadeiros, but RKO refused to support further production on the film.
"So I was fired from RKO, '' Welles later recalled. "And they made a great publicity point of the fact that I had gone to South America without a script and thrown all this money away. I never recovered from that attack. '' Later in 1942, when RKO Pictures began promoting its new corporate motto, "Showmanship In Place of Genius: A New Deal at RKO '', Welles understood it as a reference to him.
Welles returned to the United States August 22, 1942, after more than six months in South America. A week after his return he produced and emceed the first two hours of a seven - hour coast - to - coast War Bond drive broadcast titled I Pledge America. Airing August 29, 1942, on the Blue Network, the program was presented in cooperation with the United States Department of the Treasury, Western Union (which wired bond subscriptions free of charge) and the American Women 's Voluntary Services. Featuring 21 dance bands and a score of stage and screen and radio stars, the broadcast raised more than $10 million -- more than $146 million today -- for the war effort.
On October 12, 1942, Cavalcade of America presented Welles 's radio play, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, an entertaining and factual look at the legend of Christopher Columbus.
"It belongs to a period when hemispheric unity was a crucial matter and many programs were being devoted to the common heritage of the Americas, '' wrote broadcasting historian Erik Barnouw. "Many such programs were being translated into Spanish and Portuguese and broadcast to Latin America, to counteract many years of successful Axis propaganda to that area. The Axis, trying to stir Latin America against Anglo - America, had constantly emphasized the differences between the two. It became the job of American radio to emphasize their common experience and essential unity. ''
Admiral of the Ocean Sea, also known as Columbus Day, begins with the words, "Hello Americans '' -- the title Welles would choose for his own series five weeks later.
Hello Americans, a CBS Radio series broadcast November 15, 1942 -- January 31, 1943, was produced, directed and hosted by Welles under the auspices of the Office of the Coordinator for Inter-American Affairs. The 30 - minute weekly program promoted inter-American understanding and friendship, drawing upon the research amassed for the ill - fated film, It 's All True. The series was produced concurrently with Welles 's other CBS series, Ceiling Unlimited (November 9, 1942 -- February 1, 1943), sponsored by the Lockheed - Vega Corporation. The program was conceived to glorify the aviation industry and dramatize its role in World War II. Welles 's shows were regarded as significant contributions to the war effort.
Throughout the war Welles worked on patriotic radio programs including Command Performance, G.I. Journal, Mail Call, Nazi Eyes on Canada, Stage Door Canteen and Treasury Star Parade.
In early 1943, the two concurrent radio series (Ceiling Unlimited, Hello Americans) that Orson Welles created for CBS to support the war effort had ended. Filming also had wrapped on the 1943 film adaptation of Jane Eyre and that fee, in addition to the income from his regular guest - star roles in radio, made it possible for Welles to fulfill a lifelong dream. He approached the War Assistance League of Southern California and proposed a show that evolved into a big - top spectacle, part circus and part magic show. He offered his services as magician and director, and invested some $40,000 of his own money in an extravaganza he co-produced with his friend Joseph Cotten: The Mercury Wonder Show for Service Men. Members of the U.S. armed forces were admitted free of charge, while the general public had to pay. The show entertained more than 1,000 service members each night, and proceeds went to the War Assistance League, a charity for military service personnel.
The development of the show coincided with the resolution of Welles 's oft - changing draft status in May 1943, when he was finally declared 4 - F -- unfit for military service -- for a variety of medical reasons. "I felt guilty about the war, '' Welles told biographer Barbara Leaming. "I was guilt - ridden about my civilian status. '' He had been publicly hounded about his patriotism since Citizen Kane, when the Hearst press began persistent inquiries about why Welles had not been drafted.
The Mercury Wonder Show ran August 3 -- September 9, 1943, in an 80 - by - 120 - foot tent located at 9000 Cahuenga Boulevard, in the heart of Hollywood.
At intermission September 7, 1943, KMPC radio interviewed audience and cast members of The Mercury Wonder Show -- including Welles and Rita Hayworth, who were married earlier that day. Welles remarked that The Mercury Wonder Show had been performed for approximately 48,000 members of the U.S. armed forces.
The idea of doing a radio variety show occurred to Welles after his success as substitute host of four consecutive episodes (March 14 -- April 4, 1943) of The Jack Benny Program, radio 's most popular show, when Benny contracted pneumonia on a performance tour of military bases. A half - hour variety show broadcast January 26 -- July 19, 1944, on the Columbia Pacific Network, The Orson Welles Almanac presented sketch comedy, magic, mindreading, music and readings from classic works. Many of the shows originated on U.S. military camps, where Welles and his repertory company and guests entertained the troops with a reduced version of The Mercury Wonder Show. The performances of the all - star jazz group Welles brought together for the show were so popular that the band became a regular feature and was an important force in reviving interest in traditional New Orleans jazz. Welles was placed on the U.S. Treasury payroll on May 15, 1944, as an expert consultant for the duration of the war, with a retainer of $1 a year. On the recommendation of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau asked Welles to lead the Fifth War Loan Drive, which opened June 12 with a one - hour radio show on all four networks, broadcast from Texarkana, Texas. Including a statement by the President, the program defined the causes of the war and encouraged Americans to buy $16 billion in bonds to finance the Normandy landings and the most violent phase of World War II. Welles produced additional war loan drive broadcasts on June 14 from the Hollywood Bowl, and June 16 from Soldier Field, Chicago. Americans purchased $20.6 billion in War Bonds during the Fifth War Loan Drive, which ended on July 8, 1944.
Welles campaigned ardently for Roosevelt in 1944. A longtime supporter and campaign speaker for FDR, he occasionally sent the president ideas and phrases that were sometimes incorporated into what Welles characterized as "less important speeches ''. One of these ideas was the joke in what came to be called the Fala speech, Roosevelt 's nationally broadcast September 23 address to the International Teamsters Union which opened the 1944 presidential campaign.
Welles campaigned for the Roosevelt -- Truman ticket almost full - time in the fall of 1944, traveling to nearly every state to the detriment of his own health and at his own expense. In addition to his radio addresses he filled in for Roosevelt, opposite Republican presidential nominee Thomas E. Dewey, at The New York Herald Tribune Forum broadcast October 18 on the Blue Network. Welles accompanied FDR to his last campaign rally, speaking at an event November 4 at Boston 's Fenway Park before 40,000 people, and took part in a historic election - eve campaign broadcast November 6 on all four radio networks.
On November 21, 1944, Welles began his association with This Is My Best, a CBS radio series he would briefly produce, direct, write and host (March 13 -- April 24, 1945). He wrote a political column called Orson Welles ' Almanac (later titled Orson Welles Today) for The New York Post January -- November 1945, and advocated the continuation of FDR 's New Deal policies and his international vision, particularly the establishment of the United Nations and the cause of world peace.
On April 12, 1945, the day Franklin D. Roosevelt died, the Blue - ABC network marshalled its entire executive staff and national leaders to pay homage to the late president. "Among the outstanding programs which attracted wide attention was a special tribute delivered by Orson Welles '', reported Broadcasting magazine. Welles spoke at 10: 10 p.m Eastern War Time, from Hollywood, and stressed the importance of continuing FDR 's work: "He has no need for homage and we who loved him have no time for tears... Our fighting sons and brothers can not pause tonight to mark the death of him whose name will be given to the age we live in. ''
Welles presented another special broadcast on the death of Roosevelt the following evening: "We must move on beyond mere death to that free world which was the hope and labor of his life. ''
He dedicated the April 17 episode of This Is My Best to Roosevelt and the future of America on the eve of the United Nations Conference on International Organization. Welles was an advisor and correspondent for the Blue - ABC radio network 's coverage of the San Francisco conference that formed the UN, taking place April 24 -- June 23, 1945. He presented a half - hour dramatic program written by Ben Hecht on the opening day of the conference, and on Sunday afternoons (April 29 -- June 10) he led a weekly discussion from the San Francisco Civic Auditorium.
In the fall of 1945 Welles began work on The Stranger (1946), a film noir drama about a war crimes investigator who tracks a high - ranking Nazi fugitive to an idyllic New England town. Edward G. Robinson, Loretta Young and Welles star.
Producer Sam Spiegel initially planned to hire director John Huston, who had rewritten the screenplay by Anthony Veiller. When Huston entered the military, Welles was given the chance to direct and prove himself able to make a film on schedule and under budget -- something he was so eager to do that he accepted a disadvantageous contract. One of its concessions was that he would defer to the studio in any creative dispute.
The Stranger was Welles 's first job as a film director in four years. He was told that if the film was successful he could sign a four - picture deal with International Pictures, making films of his own choosing. Welles was given some degree of creative control, and he endeavored to personalize the film and develop a nightmarish tone. He worked on the general rewrite of the script and wrote scenes at the beginning of the picture that were shot but subsequently cut by the producers. He filmed in long takes that largely thwarted the control given to editor Ernest J. Nims under the terms of the contract.
The Stranger was the first commercial film to use documentary footage from the Nazi concentration camps. Welles had seen the footage in early May 1945 in San Francisco, as a correspondent and discussion moderator at the UN Conference on International Organization. He wrote of the Holocaust footage in his syndicated New York Post column May 7, 1945.
Completed a day ahead of schedule and under budget, The Stranger was the only film made by Welles to have been a bona fide box office success upon its release. Its cost was $1.034 million; 15 months after its release it had grossed $3.216 million. Within weeks of the completion of the film, International Pictures backed out of its promised four - picture deal with Welles. No reason was given, but the impression was left that The Stranger would not make money.
In the summer of 1946, Welles moved to New York to direct the Broadway musical Around the World, a stage adaptation of the Jules Verne novel Around the World in Eighty Days with a book by Welles and music by Cole Porter. Producer Mike Todd, who would later produce the successful 1956 film adaptation, pulled out from the lavish and expensive production, leaving Welles to support the finances. When Welles ran out of money he convinced Columbia Pictures president Harry Cohn to send enough money to continue the show, and in exchange Welles promised to write, produce, direct and star in a film for Cohn for no further fee. The stage show soon failed due to poor box - office, with Welles unable to claim the losses on his taxes.
In 1946, Welles began two new radio series -- The Mercury Summer Theatre of the Air for CBS, and Orson Welles Commentaries for ABC. While Mercury Summer Theatre featured half - hour adaptations of some classic Mercury radio shows from the 1930s, the first episode was a condensation of his Around the World stage play, and is the only record of Cole Porter 's music for the project. Several original Mercury actors returned for the series, as well as Bernard Herrmann. Welles invested his earnings into his failing stage play. Commentaries was a political vehicle for him, continuing the themes from his New York Post column. Again, Welles lacked a clear focus, until the NAACP brought to his attention the case of Isaac Woodard. Welles brought significant attention to Woodard 's cause.
The last broadcast of Orson Welles Commentaries on October 6, 1946, marked the end of Welles 's own radio shows.
The film that Welles was obliged to make in exchange for Harry Cohn 's help in financing the stage production Around the World was The Lady from Shanghai, filmed in 1947 for Columbia Pictures. Intended as a modest thriller, the budget skyrocketed after Cohn suggested that Welles 's then - estranged second wife Rita Hayworth co-star.
Cohn disliked Welles 's rough cut, particularly the confusing plot and lack of close - ups, and was not in sympathy with Welles 's Brechtian use of irony and black comedy, especially in a farcical courtroom scene. Cohn ordered extensive editing and re-shoots. After heavy editing by the studio, approximately one hour of Welles 's first cut was removed, including much of a climactic confrontation scene in an amusement park funhouse. While expressing displeasure at the cuts, Welles was appalled particularly with the musical score. The film was considered a disaster in America at the time of release, though the closing shootout in a hall of mirrors has since become a touchstone of film noir. Not long after release, Welles and Hayworth finalized their divorce.
Although The Lady From Shanghai was acclaimed in Europe, it was not embraced in the U.S. until decades later, where it is now often regarded as a classic of film noir. A similar difference in reception on opposite sides of the Atlantic followed by greater American acceptance befell the Welles - inspired Chaplin film Monsieur Verdoux, originally to be directed by Welles starring Chaplin, then directed by Chaplin with the idea credited to Welles.
Prior to 1948, Welles convinced Republic Pictures to let him direct a low - budget version of Macbeth, which featured highly stylized sets and costumes, and a cast of actors lip - syncing to a pre-recorded soundtrack, one of many innovative cost - cutting techniques Welles deployed in an attempt to make an epic film from B - movie resources. The script, adapted by Welles, is a violent reworking of Shakespeare 's original, freely cutting and pasting lines into new contexts via a collage technique and recasting Macbeth as a clash of pagan and proto - Christian ideologies. Some voodoo trappings of the famous Welles / Houseman Negro Theatre stage adaptation are visible, especially in the film 's characterization of the Weird Sisters, who create an effigy of Macbeth as a charm to enchant him. Of all Welles 's post-Kane Hollywood productions, Macbeth is stylistically closest to Citizen Kane in its long takes and deep focus photography.
Republic initially trumpeted the film as an important work but decided it did not care for the Scottish accents and held up general release for almost a year after early negative press reaction, including Life 's comment that Welles 's film "doth foully slaughter Shakespeare. '' Welles left for Europe, while co-producer and lifelong supporter Richard Wilson reworked the soundtrack. Welles returned and cut 20 minutes from the film at Republic 's request and recorded narration to cover some gaps. The film was decried as a disaster. Macbeth had influential fans in Europe, especially the French poet and filmmaker Jean Cocteau, who hailed the film 's "crude, irreverent power '' and careful shot design, and described the characters as haunting "the corridors of some dreamlike subway, an abandoned coal mine, and ruined cellars oozing with water. ''
In Italy he starred as Cagliostro in the 1948 film Black Magic. His co-star, Akim Tamiroff, impressed Welles so much that Tamiroff would appear in four of Welles 's productions during the 1950s and 1960s.
The following year, Welles starred as Harry Lime in Carol Reed 's The Third Man, alongside Joseph Cotten, his friend and co-star from Citizen Kane, with a script by Graham Greene and a memorable score by Anton Karas.
A few years later, British radio producer Harry Alan Towers would resurrect the Lime character in the radio series The Adventures of Harry Lime.
Welles appeared as Cesare Borgia in the 1949 Italian film Prince of Foxes, with Tyrone Power and Mercury Theatre alumnus Everett Sloane, and as the Mongol warrior Bayan in the 1950 film version of the novel The Black Rose (again with Tyrone Power).
During this time, Welles was channeling his money from acting jobs into a self - financed film version of Shakespeare 's play Othello. From 1949 to 1951, Welles worked on Othello, filming on location in Italy and Morocco. The film featured Welles 's friends, Micheál Mac Liammóir as Iago and Hilton Edwards as Desdemona 's father Brabantio. Suzanne Cloutier starred as Desdemona and Campbell Playhouse alumnus Robert Coote appeared as Iago 's associate Roderigo.
Filming was suspended several times as Welles ran out of funds and left for acting jobs, accounted in detail in MacLiammóir 's published memoir Put Money in Thy Purse. The American release prints had a technically flawed soundtrack, suffering from a drop - out of sound at every quiet moment. Welles 's daughter, Beatrice Welles - Smith, restored Othello in 1992 for a wide re-release. The restoration included reconstructing Angelo Francesco Lavagnino 's original musical score, which was originally inaudible, and adding ambient stereo sound effects, which were not in the original film. The restoration went on to a successful theatrical run in America.
In 1952, Welles continued finding work in England after the success of the Harry Lime radio show. Harry Alan Towers offered Welles another series, The Black Museum, which ran for 52 weeks with Welles as host and narrator. Director Herbert Wilcox offered Welles the part of the murdered victim in Trent 's Last Case, based on the novel by E.C. Bentley. In 1953, the BBC hired Welles to read an hour of selections from Walt Whitman 's epic poem Song of Myself. Towers hired Welles again, to play Professor Moriarty in the radio series, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, starring John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson.
Welles briefly returned to America to make his first appearance on television, starring in the Omnibus presentation of King Lear, broadcast live on CBS October 18, 1953. Directed by Peter Brook, the production costarred Natasha Parry, Beatrice Straight and Arnold Moss.
In 1954, director George More O'Ferrall offered Welles the title role in the ' Lord Mountdrago ' segment of Three Cases of Murder, co-starring Alan Badel. Herbert Wilcox cast Welles as the antagonist in Trouble in the Glen opposite Margaret Lockwood, Forrest Tucker and Victor McLaglen. Old friend John Huston cast him as Father Mapple in his 1956 film adaptation of Herman Melville 's Moby - Dick, starring Gregory Peck.
Welles 's next turn as director was the film Mr. Arkadin (1955), which was produced by his political mentor from the 1940s, Louis Dolivet. It was filmed in France, Germany, Spain and Italy on a very limited budget. Based loosely on several episodes of the Harry Lime radio show, it stars Welles as a billionaire who hires a man to delve into the secrets of his past. The film stars Robert Arden, who had worked on the Harry Lime series; Welles 's third wife, Paola Mori, whose voice was dubbed by actress Billie Whitelaw; and guest stars Akim Tamiroff, Michael Redgrave, Katina Paxinou and Mischa Auer. Frustrated by his slow progress in the editing room, producer Dolivet removed Welles from the project and finished the film without him. Eventually five different versions of the film would be released, two in Spanish and three in English. The version that Dolivet completed was retitled Confidential Report. In 2005 Stefan Droessler of the Munich Film Museum oversaw a reconstruction of the surviving film elements.
In 1955, Welles also directed two television series for the BBC. The first was Orson Welles ' Sketch Book, a series of six 15 - minute shows featuring Welles drawing in a sketchbook to illustrate his reminiscences for the camera (including such topics as the filming of It 's All True and the Isaac Woodard case), and the second was Around the World with Orson Welles, a series of six travelogues set in different locations around Europe (such as Vienna, the Basque Country between France and Spain, and England). Welles served as host and interviewer, his commentary including documentary facts and his own personal observations (a technique he would continue to explore in later works).
In 1956, Welles completed Portrait of Gina. The film cans would remain in a lost - and - found locker at the hotel for several decades, where they were discovered after Welles 's death.
In 1956, Welles returned to Hollywood.
He began filming a projected pilot for Desilu, owned by Lucille Ball and her husband Desi Arnaz, who had recently purchased the former RKO studios. The film was The Fountain of Youth, based on a story by John Collier. Originally deemed not viable as a pilot, the film was not aired until 1958 -- and won the Peabody Award for excellence.
Welles guest starred on television shows including I Love Lucy. On radio, he was narrator of Tomorrow (October 17, 1956), a nuclear holocaust drama produced and syndicated by ABC and the Federal Civil Defense Administration.
Welles 's next feature film role was in Man in the Shadow for Universal Pictures in 1957, starring Jeff Chandler.
Welles stayed on at Universal to direct (and co-star with) Charlton Heston in the 1958 film Touch of Evil, based on Whit Masterson 's novel Badge of Evil. Originally only hired as an actor, Welles was promoted to director by Universal Studios at the insistence of Charlton Heston. The film reunited many actors and technicians with whom Welles had worked in Hollywood in the 1940s, including cameraman Russell Metty (The Stranger), makeup artist Maurice Seiderman (Citizen Kane), and actors Joseph Cotten, Marlene Dietrich and Akim Tamiroff. Filming proceeded smoothly, with Welles finishing on schedule and on budget, and the studio bosses praising the daily rushes. Nevertheless, after the end of production, the studio re-edited the film, re-shot scenes, and shot new exposition scenes to clarify the plot. Welles wrote a 58 - page memo outlining suggestions and objections, stating that the film was no longer his version -- it was the studio 's, but as such, he was still prepared to help with it.
In 1978, a longer preview version of the film was discovered and released.
As Universal reworked Touch of Evil, Welles began filming his adaptation of Miguel de Cervantes ' novel Don Quixote in Mexico, starring Mischa Auer as Quixote and Akim Tamiroff as Sancho Panza.
He continued shooting Don Quixote in Spain and Italy, but replaced Mischa Auer with Francisco Reiguera, and resumed acting jobs. In Italy in 1959, Welles directed his own scenes as King Saul in Richard Pottier 's film David and Goliath. In Hong Kong he co-starred with Curt Jürgens in Lewis Gilbert 's film Ferry to Hong Kong. In 1960, in Paris he co-starred in Richard Fleischer 's film Crack in the Mirror. In Yugoslavia he starred in Richard Thorpe 's film The Tartars and Veljko Bulajić 's Battle of Neretva.
Throughout the 1960s, filming continued on Quixote on - and - off until the end of the decade, as Welles evolved the concept, tone and ending several times. Although he had a complete version of the film shot and edited at least once, he would continue toying with the editing well into the 1980s, he never completed a version film he was fully satisfied with, and would junk existing footage and shoot new footage. (In one case, he had a complete cut ready in which Quixote and Sancho Panza end up going to the moon, but he felt the ending was rendered obsolete by the 1969 moon landings, and burned 10 reels of this version.) As the process went on, Welles gradually voiced all of the characters himself and provided narration. In 1992, the director Jesús Franco constructed a film out of the portions of Quixote left behind by Welles. Some of the film stock had decayed badly. While the Welles footage was greeted with interest, the post-production by Franco was met with harsh criticism.
In 1961, Welles directed In the Land of Don Quixote, a series of eight half - hour episodes for the Italian television network RAI. Similar to the Around the World with Orson Welles series, they presented travelogues of Spain and included Welles 's wife, Paola, and their daughter, Beatrice. Though Welles was fluent in Italian, the network was not interested in him providing Italian narration because of his accent, and the series sat unreleased until 1964, by which time the network had added Italian narration of its own. Ultimately, versions of the episodes were released with the original musical score Welles had approved, but without the narration.
In 1962, Welles directed his adaptation of The Trial, based on the novel by Franz Kafka and produced by Michael and Alexander Salkind. The cast included Anthony Perkins as Josef K, Jeanne Moreau, Romy Schneider, Paola Mori and Akim Tamiroff. While filming exteriors in Zagreb, Welles was informed that the Salkinds had run out of money, meaning that there could be no set construction. No stranger to shooting on found locations, Welles soon filmed the interiors in the Gare d'Orsay, at that time an abandoned railway station in Paris. Welles thought the location possessed a "Jules Verne modernism '' and a melancholy sense of "waiting '', both suitable for Kafka. To remain in the spirit of Kafka Welles set up the cutting room together with the Film Editor, Frederick Muller (as Fritz Muller), in the old un-used, cold, depressing, station master office. The film failed at the box - office. Peter Bogdanovich would later observe that Welles found the film riotously funny. Welles also told a BBC interviewer that it was his best film. While filming The Trial Welles met Oja Kodar, who later became his mistress and collaborator for the last 20 years of his life.
Welles played a film director in La Ricotta (1963), Pier Paolo Pasolini 's segment of the Ro. Go. Pa. G. movie, although his renowned voice was dubbed by Italian writer Giorgio Bassani. He continued taking what work he could find acting, narrating or hosting other people 's work, and began filming Chimes at Midnight, which was completed in 1966.
Filmed in Spain, Chimes at Midnight was based on Welles 's play, Five Kings, in which he drew material from six Shakespeare plays to tell the story of Sir John Falstaff (Welles) and his relationship with Prince Hal (Keith Baxter). The cast includes John Gielgud, Jeanne Moreau, Fernando Rey and Margaret Rutherford; the film 's narration, spoken by Ralph Richardson, is taken from the chronicler Raphael Holinshed. Welles held the film in high regard: "It 's my favorite picture, yes. If I wanted to get into heaven on the basis of one movie, that 's the one I would offer up. ''
In 1966, Welles directed a film for French television, an adaptation of The Immortal Story, by Karen Blixen. Released in 1968, it stars Jeanne Moreau, Roger Coggio and Norman Eshley. The film had a successful run in French theaters. At this time Welles met Oja Kodar again, and gave her a letter he had written to her and had been keeping for four years; they would not be parted again. They immediately began a collaboration both personal and professional. The first of these was an adaptation of Blixen 's The Heroine, meant to be a companion piece to The Immortal Story and starring Kodar. Unfortunately, funding disappeared after one day 's shooting. After completing this film, he appeared in a brief cameo as Cardinal Wolsey in Fred Zinnemann 's adaptation of A Man for All Seasons -- a role for which he won considerable acclaim.
In 1967, Welles began directing The Deep, based on the novel Dead Calm by Charles Williams and filmed off the shore of Yugoslavia. The cast included Jeanne Moreau, Laurence Harvey and Kodar. Personally financed by Welles and Kodar, they could not obtain the funds to complete the project, and it was abandoned a few years later after the death of Harvey. The surviving footage was eventually edited and released by the Filmmuseum München. In 1968 Welles began filming a TV special for CBS under the title Orson 's Bag, combining travelogue, comedy skits and a condensation of Shakespeare 's play The Merchant of Venice with Welles as Shylock. In 1969 Welles called again the Film Editor Frederick Muller to work with him re-editing the material and they set up cutting rooms at the Safa Palatino Studios in Rome. Funding for the show sent by CBS to Welles in Switzerland was seized by the IRS. Without funding, the show was not completed. The surviving film clips portions were eventually released by the Filmmuseum München.
In 1969, Welles authorized the use of his name for a cinema in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Orson Welles Cinema remained in operation until 1986, with Welles making a personal appearance there in 1977. Also in 1969 he played a supporting role in John Huston 's The Kremlin Letter. Drawn by the numerous offers he received to work in television and films, and upset by a tabloid scandal reporting his affair with Kodar, Welles abandoned the editing of Don Quixote and moved back to America in 1970.
Welles returned to Hollywood, where he continued to self - finance his film and television projects. While offers to act, narrate and host continued, Welles also found himself in great demand on television talk shows. He made frequent appearances for Dick Cavett, Johnny Carson, Dean Martin and Merv Griffin.
Welles 's primary focus during his final years was The Other Side of the Wind, an unfinished project that was filmed intermittently between 1970 and 1976. Written by Welles, it is the story of an aging film director (John Huston) looking for funds to complete his final film. The cast includes Peter Bogdanovich, Susan Strasberg, Norman Foster, Edmond O'Brien, Cameron Mitchell and Dennis Hopper. Financed by Iranian backers, ownership of the film fell into a legal quagmire after the Shah of Iran was deposed. While there have been several reports of all the legal disputes concerning ownership of the film being settled, enough disputes still exist to prevent its release.
Welles portrayed Louis XVIII of France in the 1970 film Waterloo, and narrated the beginning and ending scenes of the historical comedy Start the Revolution Without Me (1970).
In 1971, Welles directed a short adaptation of Moby - Dick, a one - man performance on a bare stage, reminiscent of his 1955 stage production Moby Dick -- Rehearsed. Never completed, it was eventually released by the Filmmuseum München. He also appeared in Ten Days ' Wonder, co-starring with Anthony Perkins and directed by Claude Chabrol, based on a detective novel by Ellery Queen. That same year, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences gave him an honorary award "For superlative artistry and versatility in the creation of motion pictures ''. Welles pretended to be out of town and sent John Huston to claim the award, thanking the Academy on film. Huston criticized the Academy for awarding Welles, even while they refused to give Welles any work.
In 1972, Welles acted as on - screen narrator for the film documentary version of Alvin Toffler 's 1970 book Future Shock. Working again for a British producer, Welles played Long John Silver in director John Hough 's Treasure Island (1972), an adaptation of the Robert Louis Stevenson novel, which had been the second story broadcast by The Mercury Theatre on the Air in 1938. This was the last time he played the lead role in a major film. Welles also contributed to the script, his writing credit was attributed to the pseudonym ' O.W. Jeeves '. In some versions of the film Welles 's original recorded dialog was redubbed by Robert Rietty.
In 1973, Welles completed F for Fake, a personal essay film about art forger Elmyr de Hory and the biographer Clifford Irving. Based on an existing documentary by François Reichenbach, it included new material with Oja Kodar, Joseph Cotten, Paul Stewart and William Alland. An excerpt of Welles 's 1930s War of the Worlds broadcast was recreated for this film; however, none of the dialogue heard in the film actually matches what was originally broadcast. Welles filmed a five - minute trailer, rejected in the U.S., that featured several shots of a topless Kodar.
Welles hosted a British syndicated anthology series, Orson Welles 's Great Mysteries, during the 1973 -- 74 television season. His brief introductions to the 26 half - hour episodes were shot in July 1973 by Gary Graver. The year 1974 also saw Welles lending his voice for that year 's remake of Agatha Christie 's classic thriller Ten Little Indians produced by his former associate, Harry Alan Towers and starring an international cast that included Oliver Reed, Elke Sommer and Herbert Lom.
In 1975, Welles narrated the documentary Bugs Bunny: Superstar, focusing on Warner Bros. cartoons from the 1940s. Also in 1975, the American Film Institute presented Welles with its third Lifetime Achievement Award (the first two going to director John Ford and actor James Cagney). At the ceremony, Welles screened two scenes from the nearly finished The Other Side of the Wind.
In 1976, Paramount Television purchased the rights for the entire set of Rex Stout 's Nero Wolfe stories for Orson Welles. Welles had once wanted to make a series of Nero Wolfe movies, but Rex Stout -- who was leery of Hollywood adaptations during his lifetime after two disappointing 1930s films -- turned him down. Paramount planned to begin with an ABC - TV movie and hoped to persuade Welles to continue the role in a mini-series. Frank D. Gilroy was signed to write the television script and direct the TV movie on the assurance that Welles would star, but by April 1977 Welles had bowed out. In 1980 the Associated Press reported "the distinct possibility '' that Welles would star in a Nero Wolfe TV series for NBC television. Again, Welles bowed out of the project due to creative differences and William Conrad was cast in the role.
In 1979, Welles completed his documentary Filming Othello, which featured Michael MacLiammoir and Hilton Edwards. Made for West German television, it was also released in theaters. That same year, Welles completed his self - produced pilot for The Orson Welles Show television series, featuring interviews with Burt Reynolds, Jim Henson and Frank Oz and guest - starring the Muppets and Angie Dickinson. Unable to find network interest, the pilot was never broadcast. Also in 1979, Welles appeared in the biopic The Secret of Nikola Tesla, and a cameo in The Muppet Movie as Lew Lord.
Beginning in the late 1970s, Welles participated in a series of famous television commercial advertisements. For two years he was on - camera spokesman for the Paul Masson Vineyards, and sales grew by one third during the time Welles intoned what became a popular catchphrase: "We will sell no wine before its time. '' He was also the voice behind the long - running Carlsberg "Probably the best lager in the world '' campaign, promoted Domecq sherry on British television and provided narration on adverts for Findus, though the actual adverts have been overshadowed by a famous blooper reel of voice recordings, known as the Frozen Peas reel. He also did commercials for the Preview Subscription Television Service seen on stations around the country including WCLQ / Cleveland, KNDL / St. Louis and WSMW / Boston. As money ran short, he began directing commercials to make ends meet, including the famous British "Follow the Bear '' commercials for Hofmeister lager.
In 1981, Welles hosted the documentary The Man Who Saw Tomorrow, about Renaissance - era prophet Nostradamus. In 1982, the BBC broadcast The Orson Welles Story in the Arena series. Interviewed by Leslie Megahey, Welles examined his past in great detail, and several people from his professional past were interviewed as well. It was reissued in 1990 as With Orson Welles: Stories of a Life in Film. Welles provided narration for the tracks "Defender '' from Manowar 's 1987 album Fighting the World and "Dark Avenger '' on their 1982 album, Battle Hymns.
During the 1980s, Welles worked on such film projects as The Dreamers, based on two stories by Isak Dinesen and starring Oja Kodar, and Orson Welles ' Magic Show, which reused material from his failed TV pilot. Another project he worked on was Filming The Trial, the second in a proposed series of documentaries examining his feature films. While much was shot for these projects, none of them was completed. All of them were eventually released by the Filmmuseum München.
In 1984, Welles narrated the short - lived television series Scene of the Crime. During the early years of Magnum, P.I., Welles was the voice of the unseen character Robin Masters, a famous writer and playboy. Welles 's death forced this minor character to largely be written out of the series. In an oblique homage to Welles, the Magnum, P.I. producers ambiguously concluded that story arc by having one character accuse another of having hired an actor to portray Robin Masters. He also, in this penultimate year released a music single, titled "I Know What It Is To Be Young (But You Do n't Know What It Is To Be Old) '', which he recorded under Italian label Compagnia Generale del Disco. The song was performed with the Nick Perito Orchestra and the Ray Charles Singers and produced by Jerry Abbott (father of guitarist "Dimebag Darrell '' Abbott).
The last film roles before Welles 's death included voice work in the animated films Enchanted Journey (1984) and The Transformers: The Movie (1986), in which he played the planet - eating robot Unicron. His last film appearance was in Henry Jaglom 's 1987 independent film Someone to Love, released after his death but produced before his voice - over in Transformers: The Movie. His last television appearance was on the television show Moonlighting. He recorded an introduction to an episode entitled "The Dream Sequence Always Rings Twice '', which was partially filmed in black and white. The episode aired five days after his death and was dedicated to his memory.
In the mid-1980s, Henry Jaglom taped lunch conversations with Welles at Los Angeles 's Ma Maison as well as in New York. Edited transcripts of these sessions appear in Peter Biskind 's 2013 book My Lunches With Orson: Conversations Between Henry Jaglom and Orson Welles.
Orson Welles and Chicago - born actress and socialite Virginia Nicolson (1916 -- 1996) were married on November 14, 1934. The couple separated in December 1939 and were divorced on February 1, 1940. After bearing with Welles 's romances in New York, Virginia had learned that Welles had fallen in love with Mexican actress Dolores del Río.
Infatuated with her since adolescence, Welles met del Río at Darryl Zanuck 's ranch soon after he moved to Hollywood in 1939. Their relationship was kept secret until 1941, when del Río filed for divorce from her second husband. They openly appeared together in New York while Welles was directing the Mercury stage production Native Son. They acted together in the movie Journey into Fear (1943). Their relationship came to an end due, among other things, to Welles 's infidelities. Del Río returned to México in 1943, shortly before Welles married Rita Hayworth.
Welles married Rita Hayworth on September 7, 1943. They were divorced on November 10, 1947. During his last interview, recorded for The Merv Griffin Show on the evening before his death, Welles called Hayworth "one of the dearest and sweetest women that ever lived... and we were a long time together -- I was lucky enough to have been with her longer than any of the other men in her life. ''
In 1955, Welles married actress Paola Mori (née Countess Paola di Girifalco), an Italian aristocrat who starred as Raina Arkadin in his 1955 film, Mr. Arkadin. The couple began a passionate affair, and they were married at her parents ' insistence. They were wed in London May 8, 1955, and never divorced.
Croatian - born artist and actress Oja Kodar became Welles 's longtime companion both personally and professionally from 1966 onward, and they lived together for some of the last 20 years of his life.
Welles had three daughters from his marriages: Christopher Welles Feder (born March 27, 1938, with Virginia Nicolson); Rebecca Welles Manning (December 17, 1944 -- October 17, 2004, with Rita Hayworth); and Beatrice Welles (born November 13, 1955, with Paola Mori).
Welles is thought to have had a son, British director Michael Lindsay - Hogg (born May 5, 1940), with Irish actress Geraldine Fitzgerald, then the wife of Sir Edward Lindsay - Hogg, 4th baronet. When Lindsay - Hogg was 16, his mother reluctantly divulged pervasive rumors that his father was Welles, and she denied them -- but in such detail that he doubted her veracity. Fitzgerald evaded the subject for the rest of her life. Lindsay - Hogg knew Welles, worked with him in the theatre and met him at intervals throughout Welles 's life. After learning that Welles 's oldest daughter, Chris, his childhood playmate, had long suspected that he was her brother, Lindsay - Hogg initiated a DNA test that proved inconclusive. In his 2011 autobiography, Lindsay - Hogg reported that his questions were resolved by his mother 's close friend Gloria Vanderbilt, who wrote that Fitzgerald had told her that Welles was his father. A 2015 Welles biography by Patrick McGilligan, however, reports the impossibility of Welles 's paternity: Fitzgerald left the U.S. for Ireland in May 1939, and her son was conceived before her return in late October, whereas Welles did not travel overseas during that period.
After the death of Rebecca Welles Manning, a man named Marc McKerrow was revealed to be her son -- and therefore a direct descendant of Orson Welles and Rita Hayworth. McKerrow 's reactions to the revelation and his meeting with Oja Kodar are documented in the 2008 film Prodigal Sons. McKerrow died on June 18, 2010.
Despite an urban legend promoted by Welles, he was not related to Abraham Lincoln 's wartime Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles. The myth dates back to the first newspaper feature ever written about Welles -- "Cartoonist, Actor, Poet and only 10 '' -- in the February 19, 1926, issue of The Capital Times. The article falsely states that he was descended from "Gideon Welles, who was a member of President Lincoln 's cabinet ''. As presented by Charles Higham in a genealogical chart that introduces his 1985 biography of Welles, Orson Welles 's father was Richard Head Welles (born Wells), son of Richard Jones Wells, son of Henry Hill Wells (who had an uncle named Gideon Wells), son of William Hill Wells, son of Richard Wells (1734 -- 1801).
Peter Noble 's 1956 biography describes Welles as "a magnificent figure of a man, over six feet tall, handsome, with flashing eyes and a gloriously resonant speaking - voice ''. Welles said that a voice specialist once told him he was born to be a heldentenor, a heroic tenor, but that when he was young and working at the Gate Theatre in Dublin, he forced his voice down into a bass - baritone.
Even as a baby, Welles was prone to illness, including diphtheria, measles, whooping cough, and malaria. From infancy he suffered from asthma, sinus headaches, and backache that was later found to be caused by congenital anomalies of the spine. Foot and ankle trouble throughout his life was the result of flat feet. "As he grew older '', Brady wrote, "his ill health was exacerbated by the late hours he was allowed to keep (and) an early penchant for alcohol and tobacco ''.
In 1928, at age 13, Welles was already more than six feet tall and weighed over 180 pounds. His passport recorded his height as six feet three inches, with brown hair and green eyes.
"Crash diets, drugs, and corsets had slimmed him for his early film roles '', wrote biographer Barton Whaley. "Then always back to gargantuan consumption of high - caloric food and booze. By summer 1949, when he was 34, his weight had crept up to a stout 230 pounds. In 1953, he ballooned from 250 to 275 pounds. After 1960, he remained permanently obese. ''
When Peter Bogdanovich once asked him about his religion, Welles gruffly replied that it was none of his business, then misinformed him that he was raised Catholic.
Although the Welles family was no longer devout, it was fourth - generation Protestant Episcopalian and, before that, Quaker and Puritan.
The funeral of Welles 's father, Richard H. Welles, was Episcopalian.
In April 1982, when interviewer Merv Griffin asked him about his religious beliefs, Welles replied, "I try to be a Christian. I do n't pray really, because I do n't want to bore God. '' Near the end of his life, Welles was dining at Ma Maison, his favorite restaurant in Los Angeles, when proprietor Patrick Terrail conveyed an invitation from the head of the Greek Orthodox Church, who asked Welles to be his guest of honor at divine liturgy at Saint Sophia Cathedral. Welles replied, "Please tell him I really appreciate that offer, but I am an atheist. ''
"Orson never joked or teased about the religious beliefs of others '', wrote biographer Barton Whaley. "He accepted it as a cultural artifact, suitable for the births, deaths, and marriages of strangers and even some friends -- but without emotional or intellectual meaning for himself. ''
Welles was politically active from the beginning of his career. He remained aligned with the left throughout his life, and always defined his political orientation as "progressive ''. He was a strong supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal and often spoke out on radio in support of progressive politics. He campaigned heavily for Roosevelt in the 1944 election. Welles did not support the 1948 presidential bid of Roosevelt 's vice president Henry A. Wallace for the Progressive Party, however, later describing Wallace as "a prisoner of the Communist Party. ''
"During a White House dinner, '' Welles recalled in a 1983 conversation with his friend Roger Hill, "when I was campaigning for Roosevelt, in a toast, with considerable tongue in cheek, he said, ' Orson, you and I are the two greatest actors alive today. ' In private that evening, and on several other occasions, he urged me to run for a Senate seat in either California or Wisconsin. He was n't alone. '' In the 1980s, Welles still expressed admiration for Roosevelt but also described his presidency as "a semidictatorship. ''
For several years, he wrote a newspaper column on political issues and considered running for the U.S. Senate in 1946, representing his home state of Wisconsin -- a seat that was ultimately won by Joseph McCarthy.
Welles 's political activities were reported on pages 155 -- 157 of Red Channels, the anti-Communist publication that, in part, fueled the already flourishing Hollywood Blacklist. He was in Europe during the height of the Red Scare, thereby adding one more reason for the Hollywood establishment to ostracize him.
In 1970, Welles narrated (but did not write) a satirical political record on the administration of President Richard Nixon titled The Begatting of the President.
He was also an outspoken critic of racism in the United States and the practice of segregation.
On the evening of October 9, 1985, Welles recorded his final interview on syndicated TV program The Merv Griffin Show, appearing with biographer Barbara Leaming. "Both Welles and Leaming talked of Welles 's life, and the segment was a nostalgic interlude, '' wrote biographer Frank Brady. Welles returned to his house in Hollywood and worked into the early hours typing stage directions for the project he and Gary Graver were planning to shoot at UCLA the following day. Welles died sometime on the morning of October 10, following a heart attack. He was found by his chauffeur at around 10 a.m.; the first of Welles 's friends to arrive was Paul Stewart.
Welles was cremated by prior agreement with the executor of his estate, Greg Garrison, whose advice about making lucrative TV appearances in the 1970s made it possible for Welles to pay off a portion of the taxes he owed the IRS. A brief private funeral was attended by Paola Mori and Welles 's three daughters -- the first time they had ever been together. Only a few close friends were invited: Garrison, Graver, Roger Hill and Prince Alessandro Tasca di Cuto. Chris Welles Feder later described the funeral as an awful experience.
A public memorial tribute took place November 2, 1985, at the Directors Guild of America Theater in Los Angeles. Host Peter Bogdanovich introduced speakers including Charles Champlin, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Greg Garrison, Charlton Heston, Roger Hill, Henry Jaglom, Arthur Knight, Oja Kodar, Barbara Leaming, Janet Leigh, Norman Lloyd, Dan O'Herlihy, Patrick Terrail and Robert Wise.
"I know what his feelings were regarding his death '', Joseph Cotten later wrote. "He did not want a funeral; he wanted to be buried quietly in a little place in Spain. He wanted no memorial services... '' Cotten declined to attend the memorial program; instead he sent a short message, ending with the last two lines of a Shakespeare sonnet that Welles had sent him on his most recent birthday:
But if the while I think on thee, dear friend, All losses are restored and sorrows end.
In 1987 the ashes of Welles and Mori (killed in a 1986 car crash) were taken to Ronda, Spain, and buried in an old well covered by flowers on the rural estate of a longtime friend, bullfighter Antonio Ordóñez.
Welles 's reliance on self - production meant that many of his later projects were filmed piecemeal or were not completed. Welles financed his later projects through his own fundraising activities. He often also took on other work to obtain money to fund his own films.
In the mid-1950s, Welles began work on Don Quixote, initially a commission from CBS television. Welles expanded the film to feature length, developing the screenplay to take Quixote and Sancho Panza into the modern age. Filming stopped with the death of Francisco Reiguera, the actor playing Quixote, in 1969. Orson Welles continued editing the film into the early 1970s. At the time of his death, the film remained largely a collection of footage in various states of editing. The project and, more important, Welles 's conception of the project changed radically over time. A version of the film was created from available fragments in 1992 and released to a very negative reception.
A version Oja Kodar supervised, with help from Jess Franco, assistant director during production, was released in 2008 to mixed reactions.
Frederick Muller -- the film editor for The Trial, Chimes at Midnight and the CBS Special Orson Bag was fortunate to work on editing three reels of the original, unadulterated version -- and when asked for his opinion in 2013 from a journalist of Time Out, his reply was that he felt that if released without image re-editing but with the addition of ad hoc sound and music, it probably would have been rather successful.
In 1969, Welles was given another TV commission to film a condensed adaptation of The Merchant of Venice. Although Welles had actually completed the film by 1970, the finished negative was later mysteriously stolen from his Rome production office. A restored and reconstructed version of the film, made by using the original script and composer 's notes, premiered at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival alongside Othello as part of the pre-opening ceremonies in 2015.
In 1970, Welles began shooting The Other Side of the Wind. The film relates the efforts of a film director (played by John Huston) to complete his last Hollywood picture and is largely set at a lavish party. By 1972 the filming was reported by Welles as being "96 % complete '', though it is likely that Welles had only edited about 40 minutes of the film by 1979. In that year, legal complications over the ownership of the film forced the negative into a Paris vault. In 2004 director Peter Bogdanovich, who acted in the film, announced his intention to complete the production. As of 2009, legal complications over the Welles estate had kept the film from being finished or released.
On October 28, 2014, Los Angeles - based production company Royal Road Entertainment announced it had negotiated an agreement, with the assistance of producer Frank Marshall, and would purchase the rights to complete and release The Other Side of the Wind. Bogdanovich and Marshall planned to complete Welles 's nearly finished film in Los Angeles, aiming to have it ready for screening May 6, 2015, the 100th anniversary of Welles 's birth. Royal Road Entertainment and German producer Jens Koethner Kaul acquired the rights held by Les Films de l'Astrophore and the late Mehdi Boushehri. They reached an agreement with Oja Kodar, who inherited Welles 's ownership of the film, and Beatrice Welles, manager of the Welles estate; but at the end of 2015, efforts to complete the film were at an impasse.
In March 2017, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. That same month, the original negative, dallies and other footage arrived in Los Angeles, thus resuming the post-production process.
Some footage is included in the documentaries Working with Orson Welles (1993) and Orson Welles: One Man Band (1995).
Too Much Johnson is a 1938 comedy film written and directed by Welles. Designed as the cinematic aspect of Welles 's Mercury Theatre stage presentation of William Gillette 's 1894 comedy, the film was not completely edited or publicly screened. Too Much Johnson was considered a lost film until August 2013 news reports that a pristine print was discovered in Italy in 2008. A copy restored by the George Eastman House museum was scheduled to premiere October 9, 2013, at the Pordenone Silent Film Festival, with a U.S. premiere to follow. A single performance of Too Much Johnson, on February 2, 2015, at the Film Forum in New York City, was a great success. Produced by Bruce Goldstein and adapted and directed by Allen Lewis Rickman, it featured the Film Forum Players with live piano.
Heart of Darkness was Welles 's projected first film, in 1940. It was planned in extreme detail and some test shots were filmed; the footage is now lost. It was planned to be entirely shot in long takes from the point of view of the narrator, Marlow, who would be played by Welles; his reflection would occasionally be seen in the window as his boat sailed down river. The project was abandoned because it could not be delivered on budget, and Citizen Kane was made instead.
In 1941, Welles planned a film with his then partner, the Mexican actress Dolores del Río. Santa was adapted from the novel by Mexican writer Federico Gamboa. The film would have marked the debut of Dolores del Río in the Mexican cinema. Welles made a correction of the script in 13 extraordinary sequences. Unfortunately, the high salary demanded by Del Río stopped the project. In 1943, the film was finally completed with the settings of Welles, led by Norman Foster and starring Mexican actress Esther Fernández.
In 1941 Welles also planned a Mexican drama with Dolores del Río, which he gave to RKO to be budgeted. The film was a movie version of the novel by the same name by Calder Marshall. In the story, Dolores del Río would play Elena Medina, "the most beautiful girl in the world '', with Welles playing an American who becomes entangled in a mission to disrupt a Nazi plot to overthrow the Mexican government. Welles planned to shoot in Mexico, but the Mexican government had to approve the story, and this never occurred.
In 1941, Welles received the support of Bishop Fulton Sheen for a retelling of the life of Christ, to be set in the American West in the 1890s. After filming of Citizen Kane was complete, Welles, Perry Ferguson and Gregg Toland scouted locations in Baja California and Mexico. Welles wrote a screenplay with dialogue from the Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke. "Every word in the film was to be from the Bible -- no original dialogue, but done as a sort of American primitive, '' Welles said, "set in the frontier country in the last century. '' The unrealized project was revisited by Welles in the 1950s, when he wrote a second unfilmed screenplay, to be shot in Egypt.
Welles did not originally want to direct It 's All True, a 1942 documentary on South America, but after its abandonment by RKO, he spent much of the 1940s attempting to buy the negative of his material from RKO, so that he could edit and release it in some form. The footage remained unseen in vaults for decades, and was assumed lost. Over 50 years later, some (but not all) of the surviving material saw release in the 1993 documentary It 's All True: Based on an Unfinished Film by Orson Welles.
In 1944, Welles wrote the first - draft script of Monsieur Verdoux, a film that he also intended to direct. Charlie Chaplin initially agreed to star in it, but later changed his mind, citing never having been directed by someone else in a feature before. Chaplin bought the film rights and made the film himself in 1947, with some changes. The final film credits Chaplin with the script, "based on an idea by Orson Welles ''.
Welles spent around nine months c. 1947 -- 48 co-writing the screenplay for Cyrano de Bergerac along with Ben Hecht, a project Welles was assigned to direct for Alexander Korda. He began scouting for locations in Europe whilst filming Black Magic, but Korda was short of money, so sold the rights to Columbia pictures, who eventually dismissed Welles from the project, and then sold the rights on to United Artists, who in turn made a film version in 1950, which was not based on Welles 's script.
After Welles 's elaborate musical stage version of this Jules Verne novel, encompassing 38 different sets, he began shooting some test footage in Morocco for a film version in 1947. The footage was never edited, funding never came through, and Welles abandoned the project. Nine years later, the stage show 's producer Mike Todd made his own award - winning film version of the book.
Moby Dick -- Rehearsed was a film version of Welles 's 1955 London meta - play, starring Gordon Jackson, Christopher Lee, Patrick McGoohan, and with Welles as Ahab. Using bare, minimalist sets, Welles alternated between a cast of nineteenth - century actors rehearsing a production of Moby Dick, with scenes from Moby Dick itself. Kenneth Williams, a cast member who was apprehensive about the entire project, recorded in his autobiography that Welles 's dim, atmospheric stage lighting made some of the footage so dark as to be unwatchable. The entire play was filmed, but is now presumed lost. This was made during one weekend at the Hackney Empire theatre.
The producers of Histoires extraordinaires, a 1968 anthology film based on short stories by Edgar Allan Poe, announced in June 1967 that Welles would direct one segment based on both "Masque of the Red Death '' and "The Cask of Amontillado '' for the omnibus film. Welles withdrew in September 1967 and was replaced. The script, written in English by Welles and Oja Kodar, is in the Filmmuseum Munchen collection.
This Monty Python-esque spoof in which Welles plays all but one of the characters (including two characters in drag), was made around 1968 - 9. Welles intended this completed sketch to be one of several items in a television special on London. Other items filmed for this special -- all included in the "One Man Band '' documentary by his partner Oja Kodar -- comprised a sketch on Winston Churchill (played in silhouette by Welles), a sketch on peers in a stately home, a feature on London gentlemen 's clubs, and a sketch featuring Welles being mocked by his snide Savile Row tailor (played by Charles Gray).
Welles wrote two screenplays for Treasure Island in the 1960s, and was eager to seek financial backing to direct it. Eventually, his own screenplay (under the pseudonym of O.W. Jeeves) was further rewritten, and formed the basis of the 1972 film version directed by John Hough, in which Welles played Long John Silver.
The Deep, an adaptation of Charles Williams ' Dead Calm, was entirely set on two boats and shot mostly in close - ups. It was filmed off the coasts of Yugoslavia and the Bahamas between 1966 and 1969, with all but one scene completed. It was originally planned as a commercially viable thriller, to show that Welles could make a popular, successful film. It was put on hold in 1970 when Welles worried that critics would not respond favorably to this film as his theatrical follow - up to the much - lauded Chimes at Midnight, and Welles focused instead on F for Fake. It was abandoned altogether in 1973 due to the death of its star Laurence Harvey.
Dune, an early attempt at adapting Frank Herbert 's sci - fi novel by Chilean film director Alejandro Jodorowsky, was to star Welles as the evil Baron Vladimir Harkonnen. Jodorowsky had personally chosen Welles for the role, but the planned film never advanced past pre-production.
In 1978 Welles was lined up by his long - time protégé Peter Bogdanovich (who was then acting as Welles 's de facto agent) to direct Saint Jack, an adaptation of the 1973 Paul Theroux novel about an American pimp in Singapore. Hugh Hefner and Bogdanovich 's then - partner Cybill Shepherd were both attached to the project as producers, with Hefner providing finance through his Playboy productions. However, both Hefner and Shepherd became convinced that Bogdanovich himself would be a more commercially viable director than Welles, and insisted that Bogdanovich take over. Since Bogdanovich was also in need of work after a series of box office flops, he agreed. When the film was finally made in 1979 by Bogdanovich and Hefner (but without Welles or Shepherd 's participation), Welles felt betrayed and according to Bogdanovich the two "drifted apart a bit ''.
After the success of his 1978 film Filming Othello made for West German television, and mostly consisting of a monologue to the camera, Welles began shooting scenes for this follow - up film, but never completed it. What Welles did film was an 80 - minute question - and - answer session in 1981 with film students asking about the film. The footage was kept by Welles 's cinematographer Gary Graver, who donated it to the Munich Film Museum, which then pieced it together with Welles 's trailer for the film, into an 83 - minute film which is occasionally screened at film festivals.
Written by Welles with Oja Kodar, The Big Brass Ring was adapted and filmed by director George Hickenlooper in partnership with writer F.X. Feeney. Both the Welles script and the 1999 film center on a U.S. Presidential hopeful in his 40s, his elderly mentor -- a former candidate for the Presidency, brought low by homosexual scandal -- and the Italian journalist probing for the truth of the relationship between these men. During the last years of his life, Welles struggled to get financing for the planned film; however, his efforts at casting Jack Nicholson, Robert Redford, Warren Beatty, Clint Eastwood, Burt Reynolds and Paul Newman as the main character were unsuccessful. All of the actors turned down the role for various reasons.
In 1984, Welles wrote the screenplay for a film he planned to direct, an autobiographical drama about the 1937 staging of The Cradle Will Rock. Rupert Everett was slated to play the young Welles. However, Welles was unable to acquire funding. Tim Robbins later directed a similar film, but it was not based on Welles 's script.
At the time of his death, Welles was in talks with a French production company to direct a film version of the Shakespeare play King Lear, in which he would also play the title role.
Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle was an adaptation of Vladimir Nabokov 's novel. Welles flew to Paris to discuss the project personally with the Russian author.
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if pluto is a dog what is goofy | Pluto (Disney) - wikipedia
Pluto, also called Pluto the Pup, is a cartoon dog created in 1930 at Walt Disney Productions. He is a yellow - orange color, medium - sized, short - haired dog with black ears. Unlike most Disney characters, Pluto is not anthropomorphic beyond some characteristics such as facial expression. He is Mickey Mouse 's pet. Officially a mixed - breed dog, he made his debut as a bloodhound in the Mickey Mouse cartoon The Chain Gang. Together with Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, and Goofy, Pluto is one of the "Sensational Six '' -- the biggest stars in the Disney universe. Though all six are non-human animals, Pluto alone is not dressed as a human.
Pluto debuted in animated cartoons and appeared in 24 Mickey Mouse films before receiving his own series in 1937. All together Pluto appeared in 89 short films between 1930 and 1953. Several of these were nominated for an Academy Award, including The Pointer (1939), Squatter 's Rights (1946), Pluto 's Blue Note (1947), and Mickey and the Seal (1948). One of his films, Lend a Paw (1941), won the award in 1942. Because Pluto does not speak, his films generally rely on physical humor. This made Pluto a pioneering figure in character animation, by expressing personality through animation rather than dialogue.
Like all of Pluto 's co-stars, the dog has appeared extensively in comics over the years, first making an appearance in 1931. He returned to theatrical animation in 1990 with The Prince and the Pauper and has also appeared in several direct - to - video films. Pluto also appears in the television series Mickey Mouse Works (1999 -- 2000), House of Mouse (2001 -- 2003), Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006 -- 2016), and the new Mickey Mouse shorts (2013 -- present).
In 1998, Disney 's copyright on Pluto, set to expire in several years, was extended by the passage of the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act. Disney, along with other studios, lobbied for passage of the act to preserve their copyrights on characters such as Pluto for 20 additional years.
Pluto first appeared as a nameless bloodhound tracking the escaped convict Mickey in the film The Chain Gang (September 1930). A month and a half later, Pluto appeared as Minnie Mouse 's dog named Rover who comes along with her and Mickey on a picnic. By his third appearance, in The Moose Hunt (1931), Pluto is Mickey 's pet, now named "Pluto ''.
Several months had passed between the naming of what was believed to be the ninth planet, Pluto, on March 24, 1930, and the attachment of that name to the dog character. Venetia Burney (later Venetia Phair), who as an eleven - year - old British schoolgirl had suggested the name Pluto for the planet, remarked in 2006: "The name had nothing to do with the Disney cartoon. Mickey Mouse 's dog was named after the planet, not the other way around. '' Although it has been claimed that Disney named the dog after the planet, rather than after the mythical god of the underworld, this has not been verified. Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen said "We thought the name (Rover) was too common, so we had to look for something else... We changed it to Pluto the Pup... but I do n't honestly remember why. '' Disney says they have no documents to support or refute the connection. Unofficially, even Disney 's animators believed that Walt Disney chose the name to capitalize on the sensation of the newly named planet.
Pluto was initially a minor character until 1934 when Disney animator Norm Ferguson gave the dog a key role in the cartoon Playful Pluto. Pluto becomes entangled with a sticky piece of flypaper, and Ferguson expanded the sequence significantly. The segment became a classic, demonstrating how Disney artists can take a simple circumstance and build humor through a character.
Unlike Mickey 's other animal friends, such as Goofy (who is also a dog), Pluto is a normal animal. Pluto does not speak, walk upright, or wear clothing. A significant departure from this was his speaking role in The Moose Hunt (1931), which was produced before Pluto 's characterization had been clearly defined. As Pluto made more appearances, it became common that he would not speak, but only vocalize in barks and grunts. Other ways of communicating Pluto 's thoughts occur through his facial expressions, and sometimes through the use of a shoulder angel / devil who speak directly to Pluto. (Mickey 's Elephant, Lend a Paw).
Pluto is generally a cheerful and adventurous dog, although he can be given to sheer panic when confronted with something unknown. Common themes in Pluto 's stories involve him becoming jealous of Mickey getting another pet (Mickey 's Elephant, Lend a Paw, Mickey and the Seal), Pluto accidentally and unwittingly swallowing something and panicking when he realizes it (Playful Pluto, Donald and Pluto), Pluto getting entangled with something inanimate, or Pluto being pestered by a smaller animal (Private Pluto, Squatter 's Rights). In many of his appearances with Mickey, Pluto will get himself into trouble and cause Mickey to get angry at him. Mickey, however, often cheers up quickly; often telling Pluto "I ca n't be mad at ya. ''
Pluto sometimes appears with other regular animal characters. His friends include Fifi the Peke, Dinah the Dachshund, and Ronnie the St. Bernard Puppy. Other animals he is less friendly with include Salty the Seal, Butch the Bulldog, Figaro the Kitten, Chip ' n Dale, Spike the Bee, Bent - Tail the Coyote, Milton the cat and other characters. In Disney 's 1937 animated short Pluto 's Quin - Puplets, Pluto has a son who is simply referred to as "Pluto Junior. '' In the 1946 animated short Pluto 's Kid Brother, Pluto has a younger brother named K.B.
Pluto first and most often appears in the Mickey Mouse series of cartoons. On rare occasions, he is paired with Donald Duck ("Donald and Pluto '', "Beach Picnic '', "Window Cleaners '', "The Eyes Have It '', "Donald 's Dog Laundry '', & "Put Put Troubles '').
The first cartoons to feature Pluto as a solo star were two Silly Symphonies, Just Dogs (1932) and Mother Pluto (1936). In 1937, Pluto appeared in Pluto 's Quin - Puplets which was the first installment of his own film series, then headlined Pluto the Pup. However, they were not produced on a regular basis until 1940, by which time the name of the series was shortened to Pluto.
His first comics appearance was in the Mickey Mouse daily strips in 1931 two months after the release of The Moose Hunt. Pluto Saves the Ship, a comic book published in 1942, was one of the first Disney comics prepared for publication outside newspaper strips. However, not counting a few cereal giveaway mini-comics in 1947 and 1951, he did not have his own comics title until 1952.
In 1936 Pluto got an early title feature in a picture book under title "Mickey Mouse and Pluto the Pup '' by Whitman Publishing.
Pluto runs his own neighborhood in Disney 's Toontown Online. It 's called the Brrrgh and it 's always snowing there except during Halloween. During April Toons Week, a weekly event that is very silly, Pluto switches playgrounds with Minnie (all other characters do this as well). Pluto actually talks in Minnie 's Melodyland.
Pluto has also appeared in the television series Mickey Mouse Works (1999 -- 2000), Disney 's House of Mouse (2001 -- 2002), Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006 -- 2016), the new Mickey Mouse shorts (2013 -- present), and Mickey & the Roadster Racers (2017 -- present). Curiously enough, however, Pluto was the only standard Disney character not included when the whole gang was reunited for the 1983 featurette Mickey 's Christmas Carol, although he did return in The Prince and the Pauper (1990) and Runaway Brain (1995). He also had a cameo in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988). In 1996, he made a cameo in the Quack Pack episode "The Really Mighty Ducks ''.
The following is a list of short films starring Pluto in the Silly Symphonies, Pluto the Pup and Pluto series. It is not a complete filmography for Pluto as he has also appeared extensively in Mickey Mouse or Donald Duck films. Although some of such cartoons are labeled as Mickey cartoons, they are actually officially placed under Pluto 's filmography.
Pluto appeared as a non-playable character in Mickey Mania (1994).
In the Kingdom Hearts video game series, Pluto is still Mickey 's pet and acts as somewhat of a messenger, assisting in his master 's plans. For most of Kingdom Hearts II, Pluto stays by Kairi 's side (even when she has been kidnapped), as he has apparently taken a liking to her. Strangely, throughout the series, Pluto appears and disappears at random moments.
In the various Disney theme park resorts around the world, Pluto is a meetable character just like many of his film co-stars. Pluto, however, uncharacteristically walks on two legs in this capacity out of necessity. Adults and children are able to meet, play with, and get autographs and pictures with Pluto and his friends at all Disney parks.
Disney has dealt with a certain amount of confusion concerning the fact that Pluto (an ordinary dog) is treated as a household pet while the anthropomorphic Goofy is treated as a human despite being of the same species. On their web site, it stated that "Goofy was originally created as Dippy Dawg '' and "was created as a human character, as opposed to Pluto who was a pet, so (Goofy) walked upright and had a speaking voice ''.
This problem was humorously illustrated in the film Stand By Me in which one of the boys ponders, "Mickey 's a mouse, Donald 's a duck, and Pluto 's a dog. What 's Goofy? '' Also in the series Funniest Pets & People a dog "mentions '' why could n't he have pants because Goofy was a dog and had pants. There is also an episode of the Disney Channel series Even Stevens called "Scrub Day '' wherein Louis ' rallying - the - troops speech he wonders why Goofy got to walk and talk and Pluto has to eat from a dog bowl. This confusion is also mentioned in the French movie La Cité de la peur. In the Disney 's Toontown Online event "April Toons Week, '' characters switch playgrounds and everything is silly. Pluto switches places with Minnie Mouse, and he speaks. A brief gag in an episode of House of Mouse also acknowledges this. Hades asks Goofy, "Are you a man, are you a dog, are you a man - dog... what are you? ''. Goofy simply replies, "I 'm just Goofy. '' The confusion between Goofy and Pluto is also mentioned in an episode of Full House by Dave Coulier 's character, Joey.
Tina Fey used the term "Goofy Pluto '' to refer to seemingly disparate roles for guest stars on 30 Rock, namely the mismatch between Jennifer Aniston playing a character in the show in the same episode in which the cast of Night Court appears as themselves in the episode titled "The One with the Cast of Night Court. ''
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two major types of chemical reactions in which molecules are formed or broken are called | Chemical compound - wikipedia
In chemistry, a compound is a molecule (or molecular entity) composed of atoms of more than one element held together by chemical bonds; or a corresponding chemical species, which is a pure chemical substance composed of many identical such compound molecules. There are four types of compounds, depending on how the constituent atoms are held together: molecules held together by covalent bonds, ionic compounds held together by ionic bonds, intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds, and certain complexes held together by coordinate covalent bonds. Many chemical compounds have a unique numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS): its CAS number.
A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound, using the standard abbreviations for the chemical elements, and subscripts to indicate the number of atoms involved. For example, water is composed of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom: the chemical formula is H O.
A compound can be converted to a different chemical composition by interaction with a second chemical compound via a chemical reaction. In this process, bonds between atoms are broken in both of the interacting compounds, and then bonds are reformed so that new associations are made between atoms. Schematically, this reaction could be described as AB + CD → AC + BD (\ displaystyle (\ text (AB)) + (\ text (CD)) \ rightarrow (\ text (AC)) + (\ text (BD))), where A, B, C, and D are each unique atoms; and AB, CD, AC, and BD are each unique compounds.
A chemical element bonded to an identical chemical element is not a chemical compound since only one element, not two different elements, is involved. Examples are the diatomic molecule hydrogen (H) and the polyatomic molecule sulfur (S).
Any substance consisting of two or more different types of atoms (chemical elements) in a fixed proportion of its atoms (i.e., stoichiometry) can be termed a chemical compound; the concept is most readily understood when considering pure chemical substances. It follows from their being composed of fixed proportions of two or more types of atoms that chemical compounds can be converted, via chemical reaction, into compounds or substances each having fewer atoms. The ratio of each element in the compound is expressed in a ratio in it 's chemical formula. In the case of non-stoichiometric compounds, the proportions may be reproducible with regard to their preparation, and give fixed proportions of their component elements, but proportions that are not integral (e.g., for palladium hydride, PdH (0.02 < x < 0.58)). Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Chemical compounds can be molecular compounds held together by covalent bonds, salts held together by ionic bonds, intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds, or the subset of chemical complexes that are held together by coordinate covalent bonds. Pure chemical elements are generally not considered chemical compounds, failing the two or more atom requirement, though they often consist of molecules composed of multiple atoms (such as in the diatomic molecule H, or the polyatomic molecule S, etc.).
There is varying and sometimes inconsistent nomenclature differentiating substances, which include truly non-stoichiometric examples, from chemical compounds, which require the fixed ratios. Many solid chemical substances -- for example many silicate minerals -- are chemical substances, but do not have simple formulae reflecting chemically bonding of elements to one another in fixed ratios; even so, these crystalline substances are often called "non-stoichiometric compounds ''. It may be argued that they are related to, rather than being chemical compounds, insofar as the variability in their compositions is often due to either the presence of foreign elements trapped within the crystal structure of an otherwise known true chemical compound, or due to perturbations in structure relative to the known compound that arise because of an excess of deficit of the constituent elements at places in its structure; such non-stoichiometric substances form most of the crust and mantle of the Earth. Other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light isotopes of the constituent elements, which changes the ratio of elements by mass slightly.
Characteristic properties of compounds include that elements in a compound are present in a definite proportion. For example, the molecule of the compound water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 2: 1. In addition, compounds have a definite set of properties, and the elements that comprise a compound do not retain their original properties. For example, hydrogen, which is combustible and non-supportive of combustion, combines with oxygen, which is non-combustible and supportive of combustion, to produce the compound water, which is non-combustible and non-supportive of combustion.
The physical and chemical properties of compounds differ from those of their constituent elements. This is one of the main criteria that distinguish a compound from a mixture of elements or other substances -- in general, a mixture 's properties are closely related to, and depend on, the properties of its constituents. Another criterion that distinguishes a compound from a mixture is that constituents of a mixture can usually be separated by simple mechanical means, such as filtering, evaporation, or magnetic force, but components of a compound can be separated only by a chemical reaction. Similarly, mixtures can be created by mechanical means alone, but a compound can be created (either from elements or from other compounds, or a combination of the two) only by a chemical reaction.
Some mixtures are so intimately combined that they have some properties similar to compounds and may easily be mistaken for compounds. One example is alloys. Alloys are made mechanically, most commonly by heating the constituent metals to a liquid state, mixing them thoroughly, and then cooling the mixture quickly so that the constituents are trapped in the base metal. Other examples of compound - like mixtures include intermetallic compounds and solutions of alkali metals in a liquid form of ammonia.
A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound, using a single line of chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and plus (+) and minus (−) signs.
Compounds may be described using formulas in various formats. For compounds that exist as molecules, the formula for the molecular unit is shown. For polymeric materials, such as minerals and many metal oxides, the empirical formula is normally given, e.g. NaCl for table salt.
The elements in a chemical formula are normally listed in a specific order, called the Hill system. In this system, the carbon atoms (if there are any) are usually listed first, any hydrogen atoms are listed next, and all other elements follow in alphabetical order. If the formula contains no carbon, then all of the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically. There are, however, several important exceptions to the normal rules. For ionic compounds, the positive ion is almost always listed first and the negative ion is listed second. For oxides, oxygen is usually listed last.
In general, organic acids follow the normal rules with C and H coming first in the formula. For example, the formula for trifluoroacetic acid is usually written as C HF O. More descriptive formulas can convey structural information, such as writing the formula for trifluoroacetic acid as CF CO H. On the other hand, the chemical formulas for most inorganic acids and bases are exceptions to the normal rules. They are written according to the rules for ionic compounds (positive first, negative second), but they also follow rules that emphasize their Arrhenius definitions. To be specific, the formula for most inorganic acids begins with hydrogen and the formula for most bases ends with the hydroxide ion (OH). Formulas for inorganic compounds do not often convey structural information, as illustrated by the common use of the formula H SO for a molecule (sulfuric acid) that contains no H-S bonds. A more descriptive presentation would be O S (OH), but it is almost never written this way.
Compounds may have several possible phases. All compounds can exist as solids, at least at low enough temperatures. Molecular compounds may also exist as liquids, gases, and, in some cases, even plasmas. All compounds decompose upon applying heat. The temperature at which such fragmentation occurs is often called the decomposition temperature. Decomposition temperatures are not sharp and depend on pressure, temperature, and the concentration of each species in the compound.
Compounds are held together through a variety of different types of bonding and forces. The differences in the types of bonds in compounds differ based on the types of elements present in the compound.
London dispersion forces are the weakest force of all intermolecular forces. They are temporary attractive forces that form when the electrons in two adjacent atoms are positioned so that they create a temporary dipole. Additionally, London dispersion forces are responsible for condensing non polar substances to liquids, and to further freeze to a solid state dependent on how low the temperature of the environment is.
A covalent bond, also known as a molecular bond, involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Primarily, this type of bond occurs between elements that fall close to each other on the periodic table of elements, yet it is observed between some metals and nonmetals. This is due to the mechanism of this type of bond. Elements that fall close to each other on the periodic table tend to have similar electronegativities, which means they have a similar affinity for electrons. Since neither element has a stronger affinity to donate or gain electrons, it causes the elements to share electrons so both elements have a more stable octet.
Ionic bonding occurs when valence electrons are completely transferred between elements. Opposite to covalent bonding, this chemical bond creates two oppositely charged ions. The metals in ionic bonding usually lose their valence electrons, becoming a positively charged cation. The nonmetal will gain the electrons from the metal, making the nonmetal a negatively charged anion. As outlined, ionic bonds occur between an electron donor, usually a metal, and an electron acceptor, which tends to be a nonmetal.
Hydrogen bonding, which is considered a weak dipole - dipole bond, occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom, and is in a position near another electronegative atom with a lone pair of electrons.
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gases found in each layer of the atmosphere | Atmosphere of Earth - wikipedia
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth 's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
By volume, dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen, 20.95 % oxygen, 0.93 % argon, 0.04 % carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1 % at sea level, and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 × 10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.
The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann.
The three major constituents of Earth 's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25 % of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5 % by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, also see volume (thermodynamics) ppmv: parts per million by volume Water vapor is about 0.25 % by mass over full atmosphere Water vapor strongly varies locally
The relative concentration of gasses remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature / altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth 's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free - moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.
The thermosphere is the second - highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500 -- 1000 km (310 -- 620 mi; 1,600,000 -- 3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth 's surface, contains the ionosphere.
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 ° C (2700 ° F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi).
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80 -- 85 km (50 -- 53 mi; 260,000 -- 280,000 ft) above sea level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around − 85 ° C (− 120 ° F; 190 K).
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar - mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning - induced discharges known as transient luminous events (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet - powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket - powered aircraft.
The stratosphere is the second - lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth 's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1 / 1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth 's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be − 60 ° C (− 76 ° F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 ° C.
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather - producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet - powered aircraft.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from Earth 's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth 's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn ''). The troposphere contains roughly 80 % of the mass of Earth 's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth 's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather - associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller - driven aircraft.
Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth 's surface is 14 ° C (57 ° F; 287 K) or 15 ° C (59 ° F; 288 K), depending on the reference.
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480 × 10 kg (1.135 × 10 lb), about 2.5 % less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth 's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth 's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather.
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1 / e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.
In summary, the mass of Earth 's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:
By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth 's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350 -- 400 km, within the F - layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700 -- 800 km.
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly - named thermosphere above 90 km.
Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg / m (1.2 g / L, 0.0012 g / cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.
The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5 × 10) tonnes or 1 / 1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 × 10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 × 10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 × 10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ± 0.0003 × 10 kg. ''
Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we can not see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.
When light passes through Earth 's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you can not see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun 's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O and O absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows '' of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet - C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400 -- 700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven - meter waves.
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body '' emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 ° C; 10,340 ° F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 ° C; 62 ° F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth 's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO and H O.
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth 's surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.
Atmospheric circulation is the large - scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large - scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth 's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia.
Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases. A major part of carbon - dioxide emissions dissolved in water and reacted with metals such as calcium and magnesium during weathering of crustal rocks to form carbonates that were deposited as sediments. Water - related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.
About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere ''. The influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life - forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30 % lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox ''.
The geological record however shows a continuous relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth -- with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archean Eon an oxygen - containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago.
Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth 's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long - term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.
Before this time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. O showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15 % by the end of the Precambrian. The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, oxygen - requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30 % around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today 's 21 %. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today 's atmosphere contains 21 % oxygen, which is great enough for this rapid development of animals.
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone - depleting substances.
The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.
On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.
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what states can you openly carry a firearm | Open carry in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, open carry refers to the practice of "openly carrying a firearm in public '', as distinguished from concealed carry, where firearms can not be seen by the casual observer. The practice of open carry, where gun owners openly carry firearms while they go about their daily business, has seen an increase in the U.S. in recent years. This has been marked by a number of organized events intended to increase the visibility of open carry and public awareness about the practice. Proponents of open carry point to history and statistics, noting that criminals usually conceal their weapons, a stark contrast to the law - abiding citizens who display their sidearms. Encouraged by groups like The Modern American Revolution, OpenCarry.org, GeorgiaCarry.org and some participants of the Free State Project, open carry has seen a revival in recent years, but it is not yet clear if this represents just a short - term trend.
The gun rights community has become supportive of the practice. Alan Gottlieb of the Second Amendment Foundation has been cautious in expressing support, while groups such as the aforementioned OpenCarry.org and GeorgiaCarry.org, and certain national groups such as the NRA and Gun Owners of America (GOA) have been more outspoken in favor of the practice.
Open carry is strongly opposed by gun control groups such as the Brady Campaign and the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence.
Today in the United States, the laws vary from state to state regarding open carry of firearms. The categories are defined as follows:
In the United States, the laws concerning open carry vary by state and sometimes by municipality. The following chart lists state policies for openly carrying a loaded handgun in public.
On open carry:
In my opinion, Act 746 's amendments to § 5 - 73 - 120 mean that (1) the statute only criminalizes a person 's "possess (ing) a handgun on or about his or her person, in a vehicle occupied by the person, or otherwise readily available for use '' if he or she simultaneously has the intent "to attempt to unlawfully employ the handgun... as a weapon '' against a person, and (2) this unlawful intent may not be presumed simply because that person possesses a loaded handgun.
On Concealed Carry:
Nothing in Act 746, § 5 - 73 - 120 (a), or this opinion is intended to suggest a person may carry a concealed handgun in public without a properly issued concealed - carry license. In fact, except during a journey, it is likely that the Arkansas Supreme Court would allow the presumption that a person who has flouted the concealed - carry regime in Arkansas law by possessing a concealed handgun without a concealed - carry license has the requisite unlawful intent for a violation of § 5 - 73 - 120 (a).
Point 4 requires additional explanation. In my opinion, a person may not lawfully carry a concealed handgun in public without a properly issued concealed - carry license. I believe this necessarily follows from the concealed - carry licensing scheme that predates Act 746 and that, in my opinion, was unaffected by Act 746. The licensing requirement is recognized in the "concealed handgun '' exception under § 5 - 73 - 120:
Attorney General Leslie Rutledge has also stated that open carry may generate reasonable suspicion for an officer to stop and briefly detain a person
The constitutionality of the general ban on open carry is currently being challenged in the Florida Supreme Court case of Norman v. State
F.S. 790.25 (3) states the provisions of ss. 790.053 (open carry ban) and 790.06 (concealed carry license) do not apply in the following instances, and, despite such sections, it is lawful for the following persons to own, possess, and lawfully use firearms and other weapons, ammunition, and supplies for lawful purposes. A few instances are listed below: (h) A person engaged in fishing, camping, or lawful hunting or going to or returning from a fishing, camping, or lawful hunting expedition; (i) A person engaged in the business of manufacturing, repairing, or dealing in firearms, or the agent or representative of any such person while engaged in the lawful course of such business; (j) A person firing weapons for testing or target practice under safe conditions and in a safe place not prohibited by law or going to or from such place; (k) A person firing weapons in a safe and secure indoor range for testing and target practice; (l) A person traveling by private conveyance when the weapon is securely encased or in a public conveyance when the weapon is securely encased and not in the person 's manual possession; (m) A person while carrying a pistol unloaded and in a secure wrapper, concealed or otherwise, from the place of purchase to his or her home or place of business or to a place of repair or back to his or her home or place of business; (n) A person possessing arms at his or her home or place of business;
Utah allows unlicensed carry of a firearm in a vehicle (loaded handguns or unloaded long guns; loaded long guns in vehicles is prohibited). Unlicensed open carry on foot is also allowed if the firearm is at least 2 actions from firing. For example, a semi-auto may have a full mag but the chamber must be empty (thus requiring 1. racking the slide, and 2. pulling the trigger).
Open carry has never been authoritatively addressed by the United States Supreme Court. The most obvious predicate for a federal "right '' to do so would arise under the Second Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
In the majority opinion in the case of District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), Justice Antonin Scalia wrote concerning the entirety of the elements of the Second Amendment; "We find that they guarantee the individual right to possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation. '' However, Scalia continued, "Like most rights, the Second Amendment right is not unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose. ''
Forty five states ' constitutions recognize and secure the right to keep and bear arms in some form, and none of those prohibit the open carrying of firearms. Five state constitutions provide that the state legislature may regulate the manner of keeping or bearing arms, and advocates argue that none rule out open carry specifically. Nine states ' constitutions indicate that the concealed carrying of firearms may be regulated and / or prohibited by the state legislature. Open carry advocates argue that, by exclusion, open carrying of arms may not be legislatively controlled in these states. But this is not settled law.
Section 1.7 of Kentucky 's state constitution only empowers the state to enact laws prohibiting "concealed carry ''.
In 2015, former Florida congressman Allen West opined, regarding the 2015 Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges, "Using the same ' due process clause ' argument as the Supreme Court just applied to gay marriage, my concealed carry permit must now be recognized as valid in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. '' This opinion echoes reasoning contained in an Amicus curiae brief in Obergefell. Others have indicated support or expressed skepticism for this line of reasoning.
KCC10. 12.080 Amendment: It is unlawful to shoot, fire or explode any firearm, firecracker, fireworks, torpedo or explosive of any kind or to carry any firearm or to shoot or fire any air gun, BB gun, bow and arrow or use any slingshot in any park, except the park director may authorize archery, slinging, fireworks and firing of small bore arms at designated times and places suitable for their use.
State laws on open carry vary widely. Four states, the Territory of the U.S. Virgin Islands and the District of Columbia fully prohibit the open carry of handguns. On the other side, twenty - five states permit open carry of a handgun without requiring the citizen to apply for any permit or license. Fifteen states require some form of permit (often the same permit as allows a person to carry concealed), and the remaining five states, though not prohibiting the practice in general, do not preempt local laws or law enforcement policies, and / or have significant restrictions on the practice, such as prohibiting it within the boundaries of an incorporated urban area. Illinois allows open carry on private property only.
On October 11, 2011, California Governor Jerry Brown signed into law that it would be a "misdemeanor to openly carry an exposed and unloaded handgun in public or in a vehicle. '' This does not apply to the open carry of rifles or long guns or persons in rural areas where permitted by ordinance.
On November 1, 2011, Wisconsin explicitly acknowledged the legality of open carry by amending its disorderly conduct statute (Wis. Stat. 947.01). A new subsection 2 states "Unless other facts and circumstances that indicate a criminal or malicious intent on the part of the person apply, a person is not in violation of, and may not be charged with a violation of, this section for loading, carrying, or going armed with a firearm, without regard to whether the firearm is loaded or is concealed or openly carried. ''
On May 15, 2012, Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin signed Senate Bill 1733, an amendment to the Oklahoma Self Defense Act, which will allow people with Oklahoma concealed weapons permits to open carry if they so choose. The law took effect November 1, 2012. "Under the measure, businesses may continue to prohibit firearms to be carried on their premises. SB 1733 prohibits carrying firearms on properties owned or leased by the city, state or federal government, at corrections facilities, in schools or college campuses, liquor stores and at sports arenas during sporting events. ''
The Federal Gun Free School Zones Act limits where a person may legally carry a firearm by generally prohibiting carry within 1000 ft of the property line of any K - 12 school in the nation, with private property excluded. A state - issued permit to carry may exempt a person from the restriction depending on the laws of the state, and most issuing states qualify for the exception. However, according to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, the exception in federal law is inapplicable to permit holders outside the state that physically issued their permit, and it does not exempt people with out - of - state permits even if the permit is recognized by state reciprocity agreements. BATFE letter explaining reciprocity of CCW permit holders and how it applies to Gun - Free School Zones.
In a 1995 Supreme Court case, the Act was declared unconstitutional: "The Court today properly concludes that the Commerce Clause does not grant Congress the authority to prohibit gun possession within 1,000 feet of a school, as it attempted to do in the Gun - Free School Zones Act of 1990, Pub. L. 101 - 647, 104 Stat. 4844. ''
The law was reenacted in the slightly different form, in 1996.
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when a fan is the man original song download | I 'm the Man (50 Cent song) - Wikipedia
"I 'm the Man '' is a song by American hip hop recording artist 50 Cent, released on December 4, 2015 as the third single from his eleventh mixtape, The Kanan Tape (2015). The song features vocals and production from Sonny Digital. It was released for digital download on February 12, 2016.
On January 1, 2016, 50 Cent uploaded the music video for "I 'm the Man '' on his YouTube account.
The official remix features vocals from recording artist Chris Brown and produced by Sonny Digital. It was released for digital download on May 6, 2016 as the single, with the record label G - Unit Records.
The music video for the remix version premiered on May 6, 2016, on his YouTube and Vevo account. It was directed by Eif Rivera. The end of the video features the preview from music video "No Romeo No Juliet '' As of July 25, 2017, the video has amassed over 90 million views.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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how many asnas are there in surya namaskar | Surya Namaskāra - wikipedia
Surya Namaskara (Sanskrit: सूर्यनमस्कार IPA: (suːrjɐ nəməskɐːrɐ); IAST: Sūrya Namaskāra), or Sun Salutation, is a Yoga warm up routine based on a sequence of gracefully linked asanas. The nomenclature refers to the symbolism of Sun as the soul and the source of all life. It was developed in the 20th century.
A yogi may develop a personalized yoga warm up routine as surya - namaskar to precede his or her asana practice.
Some scholars attribute modern Surya namaskar practice to Tirumalai Krishnamacharya teachings. It includes modern day Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga and the Visesha Vinyasa Sun Salutation subroutine from Vinyasa Krama Yoga, as well as a host of other popular forms of yoga.
In his work The Yoga Body, Mark Singleton states Sūryanamaskāra may have been invented by Patinidhi Pant, the Rajah of Aundh. He adds that there is no evidence that the Sūryanamaskāra sequence was practiced prior to the early 20th century. According to Alter, while Pant Pratinidhi of Aundh called the warm up routine as surya namaskar, how exactly Sūrya Namaskāra came to be included in the yogic practices of Hatha and Ashtanga Yoga in India remains unclear.
His Holiness Meherban Shrimant Raja BHAVAN RAO SHRINIVAS ' BALA SAHIB ', Pant Pratinidhi of Aundh (1868 -- 1951; Raja of Aundh 1909 - 1947) occupies an important position in the history of surya namaskar. He helped to popularize surya namaskar as a simple physical exercise, introducing it into schools and encouraged ordinary men to be physically fit by performing surya namaskar every day. Some Western scholars classify surya namaskar as a modern physical exercise invented by Raja of Aundh. The Raja of Aundh himself never claimed to have invented Surya Namaskar, but rather stressed an ancient origin for this procedure.
Early English publications record some ancient methods of sun salutation; however, they do not seem to be related to the modern Sūrya Namaskāra as seen in Yoga practice today. It is widely believed in the state of Maharashtra that Shivaji Maharaj, Sage Samarth Ramdas and the Marathas have performed Sūrya Namaskāra as a physical exercise to develop able bodies.
Aditya Hridayam is another ancient practice which involves a verbal variation of Sūrya Namaskāra. It is a procedure of saluting The Sun, taught to Rama by Sage Agastya, before his fight with Ravana. It is described in the "Yuddha Kaanda '' Canto 107 of Ramayana.
Any warm - up routine prior to a dedicated asana practice can constitute a Surya Namaskar. The following lists one warm up routine for Surya Namasakar. Other variations such as Surya Namasakar exist.
12 Surya Namaskaras are practised per cycle.
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