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who did the united states support in the chinese civil war | Chinese Civil war - wikipedia
Chinese Communist victory
The Chinese Civil War was a war fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) - led government of the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China (CPC). Although particular attention is paid to the four years of Chinese Communist Revolution from 1945 to 1949, the war actually started in August 1927, with the White Terror at the end of Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek 's Northern Expedition, and essentially ended when major hostilities between the two sides ceased in 1950. The conflict took place in two stages: the first between 1927 and 1937, and the second from 1946 to 1950, with the Second Sino - Japanese War in 1937 -- 1945 separating them. The war marked a major turning point in modern Chinese history, with the Communists gaining control of mainland China and establishing the People 's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Republic of China (ROC) to retreat to Taiwan. It resulted in a lasting political and military standoff between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, with the ROC in Taiwan and the PRC on mainland China with both officially claiming to be the legitimate government of all China.
The war represented an ideological split between the communist CPC and the nationalist KMT. Conflict continued intermittently until late 1937, when the two parties came together to form the Second United Front to counter the Imperial Japanese Army threat and to prevent the country from crumbling. Full - scale civil war in China resumed in 1946, a year after the end of hostilities with the Empire of Japan in September 1945. Four years later came the cessation of major military activity, with the newly founded People 's Republic of China controlling mainland China (including the island of Hainan), and the Republic of China 's jurisdiction restricted to Taiwan, Penghu, Quemoy, Matsu and several outlying islands.
As of April 2018 no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, and the debate continues as to whether the civil war has legally ended. Relations between both sides, officially called the Cross-Strait relations, have been hindered by military threats and political and economic pressure, particularly over Taiwan 's political status, with both governments officially adhering to the One - China policy. The PRC still actively claims Taiwan as part of its territory and continues to threaten the ROC with a military invasion if the ROC officially declares independence by changing its name to and gaining international recognition as the "Republic of Taiwan ''. The ROC, for its part, claims mainland China, and both parties continue the fight over diplomatic recognition. As of 2018 the war as such occurs on the political and economic fronts in the relations without actual military action. However, the two separate governments in China have close economic ties.
Following the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in the aftermath of the Xinhai Revolution, China fell into a brief period of civil war before Yuan Shikai assumed the presidency of the newly formed Republic of China. The administration became known as the Beiyang Government, with its capital in Peking. After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, the following years were characterized by the power struggle between different cliques in the former Beiyang Army. In the meantime, the Kuomintang, led by Sun Yat - sen, created a new government in Guangzhou to resist the rule of Beiyang Government through a series of movements.
Sun 's efforts to obtain aid from the Western countries were ignored, thus he turned to the Soviet Union in 1921. For political expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the newly established Communist Party of China, which would eventually found the People 's Republic of China. Thus the struggle for power in China began between the KMT and the CPC.
In 1923, a joint statement by Sun and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe in Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance to China 's unification. The Sun - Joffe Manifesto was a declaration of cooperation among the Comintern, KMT and CPC. Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin arrived in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPC joined the KMT to form the First United Front.
In 1923, Sun sent Chiang Kai - shek, one of his lieutenants from his Tongmenghui days, for several months of military and political study in the Soviet capital Moscow. By 1924, Chiang became the head of the Whampoa Military Academy, and rose to prominence as Sun 's successor as head of the KMT.
The Soviets provided the academy with much educational material, organization and equipment, including munitions. They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization. With this aid, Sun was able to raise a dedicated "army of the party, '' with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CPC members were also present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including Zhou Enlai, who was made a political instructor.
Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis. The CPC itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925. As of 1923, the KMT had 50,000 members.
However, after Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left - and right - wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CPC. The CPC then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting.
Then, in March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang 's power. Soon, the KMT would be clearly divided.
Throughout this time the Soviet Union had a large impact on the Communist Party of China. They sent money and spies to support the Chinese Communist Party. Without their support the communist party would have failed. There are documents showing of other communist parties in China at the time, one with as many as 10,000 members, but they all failed without support from the Soviet Union.
In early 1927, the KMT - CPC rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CPC and the left wing of the KMT had decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to Wuhan, where communist influence was strong. However, Chiang and Li Zongren, whose armies defeated warlord Sun Chuanfang, moved eastward toward Jiangxi. The leftists rejected Chiang 's demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat - sen 's Three Principles of the People by taking orders from the Soviet Union. According to Mao Zedong, Chiang 's tolerance of the CPC in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased.
On April 7, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting, during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed. On April 12, in Shanghai, many Communist members in the KMT were purged through hundreds of arrests and executions on the orders of General Bai Chongxi. The CPC referred to this as the April 12 Incident or Shanghai Massacre. This incident widened the rift between Chiang and Wang Jingwei, another warlord who controlled the city of Wuhan.
Eventually, the left wing of the KMT also expelled CPC members from the Wuhan government, which in turn was toppled by Chiang Kai - shek. The KMT resumed its campaign against warlords and captured Beijing in June 1928. Soon, most of eastern China was under the control of the Nanjing central government, which received prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China. The KMT government announced, in conformity with Sun Yat - sen, the formula for the three stages of revolution: military unification, political tutelage, and constitutional democracy.
On 1 August 1927, the Communist Party launched an uprising in Nanchang against the Nationalist government in Wuhan. This conflict led to the creation of the Red Army. On August 4, the main forces of the Red Army left Nanchang and headed southwards for an assault on Guangdong. Nationalist forces quickly reoccupied Nanchang while the remaining members of the CPC in Nanchang went into hiding. A CPC meeting on August 7 confirmed the objective of the party is to seize the political power by force, but the CPC was quickly suppressed the next day on August 8 by the Nationalist government in Wuhan led by Wang Jingwei. On August 14, Chiang Kai - shek announced his temporary retirement, as the Wuhan faction and Nanjing faction of the Kuomintang were allied once again with common goal of suppressing the Communist Party after the earlier split.
Attempts were later made by the CPC to take the cities of Changsha, Shantou and Guangzhou. The Red Army consisting of mutinous former National Revolutionary Army (NRA) soldiers as well as armed peasants established control over several areas in southern China. KMT forces continued to attempt to suppress the rebellions. Then, in September, Wang Jingwei was forced out of Wuhan. September also saw an unsuccessful armed rural insurrection, known as the Autumn Harvest Uprising, led by Mao Zedong. Borodin then returned to the USSR in October via Mongolia. In November, Chiang Kai - shek went to Shanghai and invited Wang to join him. On December 11, the CPC started the Guangzhou Uprising, establishing a soviet there the next day, but lost the city by December 13 to a counter-attack under the orders of General Zhang Fakui. On December 16, Wang Jingwei fled to France. There were now three capitals in China: the internationally recognized republic capital in Beijing, the CPC and left - wing KMT at Wuhan and the right - wing KMT regime at Nanjing, which would remain the KMT capital for the next decade.
This marked the beginning of a ten - year armed struggle, known in mainland China as the "Ten - Year Civil War '' (十 年 内战) which ended with the Xi'an Incident when Chiang Kai - shek was forced to form the Second United Front against invading forces from Japan. In 1930 the Central Plains War broke out as an internal conflict of the KMT. It was launched by Feng Yuxiang, Yan Xishan and Wang Jingwei. The attention was turned to root out remaining pockets of Communist activity in a series of five encirclement campaigns. The first and second campaigns failed and the third was aborted due to the Mukden Incident. The fourth campaign (1932 -- 1933) achieved some early successes, but Chiang 's armies were badly mauled when they tried to penetrate into the heart of Mao 's Soviet Chinese Republic. During these campaigns, KMT columns struck swiftly into Communist areas, but were easily engulfed by the vast countryside and were not able to consolidate their foothold.
Finally, in late 1934, Chiang launched a fifth campaign that involved the systematic encirclement of the Jiangxi Soviet region with fortified blockhouses. Unlike previous campaigns in which they penetrated deeply in a single strike, this time the KMT troops patiently built blockhouses, each separated by about five miles, to surround the Communist areas and cut off their supplies and food sources.
In October 1934 the CPC took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses (manned by the forces of a warlord ally of Chiang Kai - shek 's, rather than regular KMT troops) and broke out of the encirclement. The warlord armies were reluctant to challenge Communist forces for fear of losing their own men and did not pursue the CPC with much fervor. In addition, the main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating Zhang Guotao 's army, which was much larger than Mao 's. The massive military retreat of Communist forces lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12,500 km (25,000 Li); it became known as the Long March. The Long March was a military retreat taken on by the Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong to evade the pursuit or attack of the Kuomintang army. It consisted of a series of marches, during which numerous Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. Over the course of the march from Jiangxi the First Front Army, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by Chiang Kai Shek 's troops as their stronghold was in Jiangxi. The Communists, under the command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, "escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed over 9,000 kilometers over 370 days ''. The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, and then northwards towards Shaanxi. "In November 1935, shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai 's leading position in the Red Army. Following a major reshuffling of official roles, Mao became the chairman of the Military Commission, with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice-chairmen. '' This marked Mao 's position as the pre-eminent leader of the Party, with Zhou in second position to him.
The march ended when the CPC reached the interior of Shaanxi. Zhang Guotao 's army, which took a different route through northwest China, was largely destroyed by the forces of Chiang Kai - shek and his Chinese Muslim allies, the Ma clique. Along the way, the Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords, while recruiting peasants and the poor, solidifying its appeal to the masses. Of the 90,000 -- 100,000 people who began the Long March from the Soviet Chinese Republic, only around 7,000 -- 8,000 made it to Shaanxi. The remnants of Zhang 's forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi, but with his army destroyed, Zhang, even as a founding member of the CPC, was never able to challenge Mao 's authority. Essentially, the great retreat made Mao the undisputed leader of the Communist Party of China.
The Kuomintang used Khampa troops -- who were former bandits -- to battle the Communist Red Army as it advanced and to undermine local warlords who often refused to fight Communist forces to conserve their own strength. The KMT enlisted 300 "Khampa bandits '' into its Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government to penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui. The government was seeking to exert full control over frontier areas against the warlords. Liu had refused to battle the Communists in order to conserve his army. The Consolatory Commission forces were used to battle the Red Army, but they were defeated when their religious leader was captured by the Communists.
In 1936, Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang grew closer, with Zhang even suggesting that he join the CPC. However, this was turned down by the Comintern in the USSR. Later on, Zhou persuaded Zhang and Yang Hucheng, another warlord, to instigate the Xi'an Incident. Chiang was placed under house arrest and forced to stop his attacks on the Red Army, instead focusing on the Japanese threat.
The situation in China in 1929: After the Northern Expedition, the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government.
Map showing the communist - controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns.
Route (s) taken by Communist forces during the Long March.
A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March.
During Japan 's invasion and occupation of Manchuria Chiang Kai - shek, who saw the CPC as a greater threat, refused to ally with them to fight against the Imperial Japanese Army. Chiang preferred to unite China by eliminating the warlords and CPC forces first. He believed that he was still too weak to launch an offensive to chase out Japan and that China needed time for a military build - up. Only after unification would it be possible for the KMT to mobilize a war against Japan. So he would rather ignore the discontent and anger among Chinese people at his policy of compromise with the Japanese, and ordered KMT generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng to carry out suppression of the CPC; however, their provincial forces suffered significant casualties in battles with the Red Army. ref
On 12 December 1936, the disgruntled Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CPC. The incident became known as the Xi'an Incident. Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fighting against the Japanese. In 1937 Japan launched its full - scale invasion of China and its well - equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China.
The alliance of CPC and KMT was in name only. Unlike the KMT troops, CPC shunned conventional warfare and instead engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese. The level of actual cooperation and coordination between the CPC and KMT during World War II was at best minimal. In the midst of the Second United Front, the CPC and the KMT were still vying for territorial advantage in "Free China '' (i.e., areas not occupied by the Japanese or ruled by Japanese puppet governments such as Manchukuo and the Reorganized National Government of China).
The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified. In December 1940 Chiang demanded that the CPC 's New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area. Under intense pressure, the New Fourth Army commanders complied. In 1941 they were ambushed by KMT forces during their evacuation, which led to several thousand deaths. It also ended the Second United Front, which had been formed earlier to fight the Japanese.
Despite the intensified clashes between the CPC and KMT, countries such as the US and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war. After the New Fourth Army incident, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt sent special envoy Lauchlin Currie to talk with Chiang Kai - shek and KMT party leaders to express their concern regarding the hostility between the two parties, with Currie stating that the only ones to benefit from a civil war would be the Japanese. In 1941 the Soviet Union, with its closer alliance to the CPC, also sent an imperative telegram to Mao warning that the civil war would also make the situation easier for the Japanese military. Due to the international community 's efforts, there was a temporary and superficial peace. In 1943 Chiang attacked the CPC with the propaganda piece China 's Destiny, which questioned the CPC 's power after the war, while the CPC strongly opposed Chiang 's leadership and referred to his regime as fascist in an attempt to generate a negative public image. Both leaders knew that a deadly battle had begun between themselves.
In general, developments in the Second Sino - Japanese War were to the advantage of the CPC, as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese - occupied areas. However, the KMT had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns, since it was the legal Chinese government, and this proved costly to Chiang Kai - shek and his troops. In 1944 Japan launched its last major offensive against the KMT, Operation Ichi - Go, which resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang 's forces. The CPC also suffered fewer losses through their guerrilla tactics. By the end of the war, the Red Army had grown to more than 1.3 million members, with a separate militia of over 2.6 million members. About one hundred million people lived in CPC - controlled zones.
Under the terms of the Japanese unconditional surrender dictated by the United States, Japanese troops were ordered to surrender to KMT troops and not to the CPC, which was present in some of the occupied areas. In Manchuria, however, where the KMT had no forces, the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union. Chiang Kai - shek ordered the Japanese troops to remain at their post to receive the Kuomintang and not surrender their arms to the Communists.
The first post-war peace negotiation was attended by both Chiang Kai - shek and Mao Zedong in Chongqing from 28 August 1945 and concluded on 10 October 1945 with the signing of Double Tenth Agreement. Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction, but the conference did not produce any concrete results. Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress, until the agreement was reached in January 1946. However, large campaigns and full - scale confrontations between the CPC and Chiang 's troops were temporarily avoided.
In the last month of World War II in East Asia, Soviet forces launched the huge Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation to attack the Japanese 2 million strong Kwantung Army in Manchuria and along the Chinese - Mongolian border. This operation destroyed the fighting capability of Japan 's Kwantung Army in just 3 weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces. Consequently, the 700,000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered. Later in the year Chiang Kai - shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CPC takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure. He therefore made a deal with the Russians to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best - trained men and modern material into the region; however, the Russians refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory. KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China, while the countryside was already dominated by the CPC. On 15 November 1945, an offensive began with the intent of preventing the CPC from strengthening its already strong base. The Soviets spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base (worth up to $2 billion) and shipping it back to their war - ravaged country.
Yang Kuisong, a Chinese historian, said that in 1945 -- 46, during the Soviet Red Army Manchurian campaign, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin commanded Marshal Rodion Malinovsky to give Mao Zedong most Imperial Japanese Army weapons that were captured.
Chiang Kai - shek 's forces pushed as far as Chinchow (Jinzhou) by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. This was followed by a Communist offensive on the Shantung (Shandong) Peninsula that was largely successful, as all of the peninsula, except what was controlled by the US, fell to the Communists. The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full - scale war between CPC and KMT forces broke out on June 26. China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years.
By the end of the Second Sino - Japanese War, the power of the Communist Party grew considerably. Their main force grew to 1.2 million troops, backed with additional militia of 2 million, totalling 3.2 million troops. Their "Liberated Zone '' in 1945 contained 19 base areas, including one - quarter of the country 's territory and one - third of its population; this included many important towns and cities. Moreover, the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists, who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well.
In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang, the Soviet Red Army under the command of Marshal Malinovsky continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria while Malinovsky secretly told the CPC forces to move in behind them, which led to full - scale war for the control of the Northeast. These favorable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership: the more radical hard - line faction who wanted full military bloodshed and warfare to take - over China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists. Prior to giving control to Communist leaders, on March 27 Soviet diplomats requested a joint venture of industrial development with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria.
Although General Marshall stated that he knew of no evidence that the CPC was being supplied by the Soviet Union, the CPC was able to utilize a large number of weapons abandoned by the Japanese, including some tanks, but it was not until large numbers of well - trained KMT troops began surrendering and joining the Communist forces that the CPC was finally able to master the hardware. However, despite the disadvantage in military hardware, the CPC 's ultimate trump card was its land reform policy. The CPC continued to make the irresistible promise in the countryside to the massive number of landless and from hunger starving peasants that by fighting for the CPC they would be given their own land to grow crops once the victory was won.
This strategy enabled the CPC to access an almost unlimited supply of manpower for both combat and logistical purposes, despite suffering heavy casualties throughout many of the war 's campaigns, man power continued to pour in massively. For example, during the Huaihai Campaign alone the CPC was able to mobilize 5,430,000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces.
After the war with the Japanese ended, Chiang Kai - shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender. The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the Northeast (Manchuria). President Harry Truman was very clear about what he described as "using the Japanese to hold off the Communists ''. In his memoirs he writes:
It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists. We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send Marines to guard the seaports.
Using the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender '', business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army. They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5 %.
The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces. About 50,000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hupeh and Shandong. The US equipped and trained KMT troops, and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist - controlled areas. American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies; loans were made to the KMT. Within less than two years after the Sino - Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the US -- most of which was military aid.
Situation in 1947
Situation in the fall of 1948
Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949
Situation in April to October 1949
As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government in Nanjing and the Communist Party failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in mainland China and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation '' (Chinese: 解放 战争; pinyin: Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai - shek launched a large - scale assault on Communist territory in North China with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops). This marked the first stage of the final phase in the Chinese Civil War.
Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CPC executed a "passive defense '' strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CPC also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CPC. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.
In March 1947 the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing the CPC capital of Yan'an. The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards; on 30 June 1947 CPC troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the Dabie Mountains area, restored and developed the Central Plain. At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, North China and East China.
By late 1948, the CPC eventually captured the northern cities of Shenyang and Changchun and seized control of the Northeast after suffering numerous setbacks while trying to take the cities, with the decisive Liaoshen Campaign. The New 1st Army, regarded as the best KMT army, was forced to surrender after the CPC conducted a brutal six - month siege of Changchun that resulted in more than 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.
The capture of large KMT units provided the CPC with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined - arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948 the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an. Following a fierce battle, the CPC captured Jinan and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. The Huaihai Campaign of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east - central China for the CPC. The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.
The Pingjin Campaign resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China. It lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948, to 31 January 1949. The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing Zhangjiakou, Tianjin along with its port and garrison at Dagu and Beiping. The CPC brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops. There were 40,000 CPC casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.
After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CPC wiped out 144 regular and 29 non-regular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million veteran KMT troops, which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces. Stalin initially favored a coalition government in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CPC from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river. Mao rejected Stalin 's position and on 21 April, and began the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign. On 23 April they captured the KMT 's capital, Nanjing. The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until October 15, Chongqing until November 25, and then Chengdu before retreating to Taiwan on December 10. By late 1949 the People 's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only Tibet was left. In addition, the Ili Rebellion was a Soviet - backed revolt by the Second East Turkestan Republic against the KMT from 1944 -- 49, as the Mongolians in the People 's Republic were in a border dispute with the Republic of China. A Chinese Muslim Hui cavalry regiment, the 14th Tungan Cavalry, was sent by the Chinese government to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the Pei - ta - shan Incident.
The Kuomintang made several last - ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists. Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.
On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People 's Republic of China with its capital at Beiping, which was returned to the former name Beijing. Chiang Kai - shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers retreated from mainland China to the island of Taiwan in December after the PLA advanced into the Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area, but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the fall of Chengdu on 10 December 1949, with some resistance continuing in the far south.
A PRC attempt to take the ROC - controlled island of Quemoy was thwarted in the Battle of Kuningtou, halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan. In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.
The Communists ' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the Communist conquest of Hainan Island in April 1950, capture of Wanshan Islands off the Guangdong coast (May -- August 1950), Zhoushan Island off Zhejiang (May 1950).
Most observers expected Chiang 's government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People 's Liberation Army, and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand. US President Harry S. Truman announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC. The situation quickly changed after the onset of the Korean War in June 1950. This led to changing political climate in the US, and President Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet to sail to the Taiwan Strait as part of the containment policy against potential Communist advance.
In June 1949 the ROC declared a "closure '' of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships. The closure was from a point north of the mouth of Min River in Fujian to the mouth of the Liao River in Liaoning. Since mainland China 's railroad network was underdeveloped, north - south trade depended heavily on sea lanes. ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen.
After losing mainland China, a group of approximately 3,000 KMT Central soldiers retreated to Burma and continued launching guerrilla attacks into south China during the Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency in China (1950 -- 1958) and Campaign at the China -- Burma Border. Their leader, Gen. Li Mi, was paid a salary by the ROC government and given the nominal title of Governor of Yunnan. Initially, the US supported these remnants and the Central Intelligence Agency provided them with military aid. After the Burmese government appealed to the United Nations in 1953, the US began pressuring the ROC to withdraw its loyalists. By the end of 1954 nearly 6,000 soldiers had left Burma and General Li declared his army disbanded. However, thousands remained, and the ROC continued to supply and command them, even secretly supplying reinforcements at times to maintain a base close to China.
After the ROC complained to the United Nations against the Soviet Union for violating the Sino - Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance to support the CPC, the UN General Assembly Resolution 505 was adopted on 1 February 1952, condemning the Soviet Union.
Though viewed as a military liability by the US, the ROC viewed its remaining islands in Fujian as vital for any future campaign to defeat the PRC and retake mainland China. On 3 September 1954, the First Taiwan Strait Crisis began when the PLA started shelling Quemoy and threatened to take the Dachen Islands in Zhejiang. On 20 January 1955, the PLA took nearby Yijiangshan Island, with the entire ROC garrison of 720 troops killed or wounded defending the island. On January 24 of the same year, the United States Congress passed the Formosa Resolution authorizing the President to defend the ROC 's offshore islands. The First Taiwan Straits crisis ended in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its bombardment. The crisis was brought to a close during the Bandung conference.
The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces, leading to intense artillery bombardment of Quemoy (by the PRC) and Amoy (by the ROC), and ended on November of the same year. PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships. Though the US rejected Chiang Kai - shek 's proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries, it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti-aircraft missiles to the ROC. It also provided amphibious assault ships to land supplies, as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor. On September 7 the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing.
The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1995 -- 96 escalated tensions between both sides when the PRC tested a series of missiles not far from Taiwan, although, arguably, Beijing ran the test to shift the 1996 presidential election vote in favor of the KMT, already facing a challenge from the opposition Democratic Progressive Party which did not agree with the "One China Policy '' shared by the CPC and KMT.
On 25 October 1971, the United Nations General Assembly admitted the PRC and expelled the ROC, which had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai - shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People 's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.
By 1984 PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991. Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term '' during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders ''. The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union '', which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents: the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethic organisations. '' By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.
Under the new ROC president Lee Teng - hui, the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion was renounced in May 1991, thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang 's conquest to retake the mainland.
With the election in 2000 of Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui - bian, a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan. The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CPC. This led to tension between the two sides, although trade and other ties such as the 2005 Pan-Blue visit continued to increase.
With the election of President Ma Ying - jeou (KMT) in 2008, significant warming of relations resumed between Taipei and Beijing, with high - level exchanges between the semi-official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the Chen - Chiang summit series. Although the Taiwan straits remain a potential flash point, regular direct air links were established in 2009.
Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai - shek and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists targeted different groups, such as peasants, and brought them to its corner.
Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948 that the KMT had failed not because of external enemies but because of rot from within.
The USSR generally supported Chiang 's forces. Stalin distrusted Mao, tried to block him from leadership as late as 1942, and worried that Mao would become an independent rival force in world communism.
Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the Marshall Mission, and then stopped completely mainly because of KMT corruption (such as the notorious Yangtze Development Corporation controlled by H.H. Kung and T.V. Soong 's family) and KMT 's military setback in Northeast China.
Communist land reform policy promised poor peasants farmland from their landlords, ensuring popular support for the PLA.
The main advantage of the Chinese Communist Party was the "extraordinary cohesion '' within the top level of its leadership. These skills were not only secured from defections that came about during difficult times but also coupled with "communications and top level debates over tactics ''. A big addition to this was the charismatic style of leadership of Mao Zedong which created a "unity of purpose '' and a "unity of command '' which the KMT lacked majorly. Apart from that the CPC had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit, this was also derived from their propaganda skills that had also been decentralised successfully. By "portraying their opponents as enemies of all groups of Chinese '' and itself as "defenders of the nation '' and people (given the backdrop of the war with Japan).
In the Chinese Civil War after 1945, the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of hyperinflation and the failure of price controls by the ROC government and financial reforms; the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 1948 and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities ' middle classes. In the meantime, the Communists continued their relentless land reform (land redistribution) programs to win the support of the population in the countryside.
During the war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949. Atrocities include deaths from forced conscription and massacres.
Communist Party / People 's Republic of China (Red Army → 8th Route Army, N4A, etc. → People 's Liberation Army)
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discuss the history and background of entrepreneurship in nigeria | Economic history of Nigeria - wikipedia
Colonialism is a major feature of the economic history of Nigeria. Britain eventually gained control of Nigerian administration. After independence, the Nigerian economy seemed very promising. Many saw Nigeria, with 25 % of Africa 's population, as an emerging economy. However, this potential never materialized. A series of unfortunate political and economic events have stalled Nigerian growth. The country still plays an important economic role in the world, especially as a producer of fossil fuels.
Direct trade with Europe started from the fifteenth century. Portuguese had explored the coasts to avoid Saharan intermediaries in the trade of West African gold to Europe and that was a way to India. They built coastal bases and introduced the Atlantic slave trade when they bought captives from the kingdom of Benin (nowadays Nigeria) and sold them to African tradesmen on the coast (nowadays Ghana).
The period from 1680 - 1800 was dominated by a boom of the Atlantic slave trade because of the growth of the Atlantic plantation system. The effects on peaceful production and trade were terrible since slave trade was a cause of conflicts. However, the Atlantic trade still brought advantages. Especially, the currencies that West African tradesmen adopted were more efficient than earlier commodity currencies. This helped to reduce the cost of doing business.
The European struggle to establish communities and trading posts on the West African coast from about the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century was part of the wider competition for trade and empire in the Atlantic. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found they could compete with the Dutch in West Africa only by forming national trading companies. The first such effective English enterprise was the Company of the Royal Adventurers, chartered in 1660 and succeeded in 1672 by the Royal African Company. Only a monopoly company could afford to build and maintain the forts considered essential to hold stocks of slaves and trade goods. In the early 18th century, Britain and France repired the Dutch hold on West African trade; and by the end of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars (1799 -- 1815), Britain had become the dominant commercial power in West Africa.
The slave trade was one of the major causes of the devastating internecine strife in southern Nigeria during the three centuries to the mid-19th century, when abolition occurred. In the 19th century, Britain was interested primarily in opening markets for its manufactured goods in West Africa and expanding commerce in palm oil. Securing the oil and ivory trade required that Britain usurp the power of coastal chiefs in what became Nigeria.
That was an unplanned consequence of the creation of the Sokoto Caliphate in 1804. At its peak, the Sokoto Caliphate was the most populous state in Africa. The Caliphate occupied most of north - central and north - west Nigeria, as well as parts of neighboring countries of nowadays Nigeria. Internal peace and market integration was a basis of the commercial prosperity of the Caliphate. Hausa merchant diasporas ran an extensive export - trade network and the state had regular increase of the labour supply through the importation of "pagan '' captives as slaves. Many cities became bigger, especially, its commercial capital Kano, which was the biggest manufacturing center in the region. The clothing was exported from Kano to all over West Africa. The formation of the Sokoto Caliphate made Islam a mass rural religion for the first time in the region. The Caliphate introduced Islamic taxes that facilitated economic expansion.
Formal "protection '' and -- eventually -- colonization of Nigeria resulted not only from the desire to safeguard Britain 's expanding trade interests in the Nigerian hinterland, but also from an interest in forestalling formal claims by other colonial powers, such as France and Germany. By 1850 British trading interests were concentrating in Lagos and the Niger River delta. British administration in Nigeria formally began in 1861, when Lagos became a crown colony, a step taken in response to factors such as the now - illegal activities of slave traders, the disruption of trade by the Yoruba civil wars, and fears that the French would take over Lagos. Through a series of steps designed to facilitate trade, by 1906 present - day Niger was under British control.
Starting in 1949, when Nigerian 's recently emergent labor, commercial, and professional elites were first consulted by the British as part of a constitutional review, the peoples of Nigeria engaged in ongoing debate over the pressure of decolonization, independence, and modernization. The two coup d'états of 1966 and the civil war of 1967 - 70 reflected economic as well as political elements.
Between 1951 and 1960, the major political parties played leading roles in unifying and locally mobilizing the economic elite. Elites from majority parties in the regional assemblies who cooperated with the ruling federal coalition dispensed a wide range of rewards and sanctions, thus retaining their own positions and power and keeping the masses subordinated. Positions in government services and public corporations, licenses for market stalls, permits for agricultural export production, rights to establish enterprises, roads, electrical service, running water, and the governing group allocated scholarships to its supporters. Each major party was backed by a bank, which assisted in the transfer of substantial public funds to the party.
At all levels -- local and regional after 1951 and federal after 1954 -- political leaders could use a range of controls, extending over local councils, district administration, police, and courts, to subdue any dissident minority, especially in the far north, where clientage was the social adhesive of the emirate system. Political superiors offered protection, patronage, and economic security in exchange for loyalty and the obedience of inferiors.
The elites attracted clients and socially inferior groups not only in the far north, where Islam legitimized the traditional hierarchy, but even in Igboland, an area of southeastern Nigeria where power had been widely dispersed before the 20th century. The elites of the three regions preferred to close ranks to share the fruits of office and to prevent challenges to their positions, but by the time independence was achieved in 1960, policies designed to enhance the security of one regional elite threatened the security of others.
A major feature of Nigeria 's economy in the 1980s, as in the 1970s, was its dependence on petroleum, which accounted for 87 percent of export receipts and 77 percent of the federal government 's current revenue in 1988. Falling oil output and prices contributed to another noteworthy aspect of the economy in the 1980s -- the decline in per capita real gross national product, which persisted until oil prices began to rise in 1990. Indeed, GNP per capita per year decreased 4.8 percent from 1980 to 1987, which led in 1989 to Nigeria 's classification by the World Bank as a low - income country (based on 1987 data) for the first time since the annual World Development Report was instituted in 1978. In 1989 the World Bank also declared Nigeria poor enough to be eligible (along with countries such as Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Chad, and Mali) for concessional aid from an affiliate, the International Development Association (IDA).
Another relevant feature of the Nigerian economy was a series of abrupt changes in the government 's share of expenditures. As a percentage of gross domestic product, national government expenditures rose from 9 percent in 1962 to 44 percent in 1979, but fell to 17 percent in 1988. In the aftermath of the 1967 - 70 civil war, Nigeria 's government became more centralized. The oil boom of the 1970s provided the tax revenue to strengthen the central government further. Expansion of the government 's share of the economy did little to enhance its political and administrative capacity, but did increase incomes and the number of jobs that the governing elites could distribute to their clients.
The economic collapse in the late 1970s and early 1980s contributed to substantial discontent and conflict between ethnic communities and nationalities, adding to the political pressure to expel more than 2 million illegal workers (mostly from Ghana, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad) in early 1983 and May 1985.
Nigeria has one of the largest populations in Africa with over 200 million citizens. Its economy was booming from the oil industry in the Niger Delta, and was said to become the leading economy in Africa by 2020. Although their economy was doing well, 35 percent live in absolute poverty. Approximately 90 million Nigerians are believed to live on less than one US dollar a day. With economic insecurity, high unemployment rates, and poverty the Boko Haram was able to emerge within Nigeria as political protests. Boko Haram is a violent social group that arose, partly in response to the social and economic deprivation of Nigeria 's northeastern population. Starting out around 2008, Boko Haram has carried out attacks in order to spread their Islamic influence and defeat the westernization that began during colonialism. They were able to recruit among the youth population of Nigeria because of youth unemployment; approximately 64 million youths are unemployed with 1.6 million being underemployed. Boko Haram targets individuals or organizations who encourage lifestyles believed to follow western culture, like the US or Europe. One targeted attack was on women who were attacked while attending school, leading to roughly 250 girls being kidnapped.
The Boko Haram are responsible for roughly 10,000 deaths since 2011 and roughly 2.6 million displaced Nigerians. Nigeria 's economy suffered when attacks held by the Boko Haram began on local businesses, government buildings, and local facilities such as schools and churches. Local businesses began to migrate south as a result of being attacked or due to fear of the Boko Haram. Roughly 80 percent of the businesses in Kano had to close down due to power failure and security challenges caused by attacks. In the capital city of Borno, Maiduguri, a major market known as Market Monday was drastically hit by the Boko Haram causing over 10,000 shops to have to close. Banks were said to be affected by the Boko Haram 's violent attacks, and caused them to shorten their hours from eight to three hours to minimize the risk of getting hit by the Boko Haram; limiting citizens to their finances. Citizens and the government had to pay for the retribution of damages caused by the Boko Haram. This stalled the economy in the northeast region because businesses were leaving, people began to lose jobs, and there was less money going into the local economy. Foreign investors began to withdraw their money from Nigeria because of the state of conflict Nigeria is in and the degrading economy as a result of the Boko Haram; causing Nigeria to lose 1.33 trillion dollars in foreign investments. Nigerian refugees who were displaced or just seeking refuge from the Boko Haram migrated to neighboring countries such as Cameroon, Ghana, Niger, and Chad. Majority citizens migrated to the southern half of Nigeria where there are more opportunities for work, better economy, and more security. This further plays into the socioeconomic divide between the north and the south of Nigeria where the south is more financially stable from lack of conflict, government funding, and the oil industry in the Niger Delta.
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when does wheel of fortune start new season 2017 | Wheel of Fortune (U.S. game show) - wikipedia
Wheel of Fortune (often known simply as Wheel) is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin. The show features a competition in which contestants solve word puzzles, similar to those used in Hangman, to win cash and prizes determined by spinning a giant carnival wheel.
Wheel premiered as a daytime series on NBC on January 6, 1975, and continued to air on the network until June 30, 1989. After some changes were made to its format, the daytime series returned on July 17, 1989 as part of CBS 's daytime lineup. On January 14, 1991, Wheel moved back to NBC and aired on that network until it was cancelled on September 20, 1991. The popularity of the daytime series led to a nightly syndicated edition being developed; that series premiered on September 19, 1983 and continues to air to this day.
The network version was originally hosted by Chuck Woolery and Susan Stafford, with Charlie O'Donnell as its announcer. O'Donnell left in 1980, Woolery in 1981, and Stafford in 1982; they were replaced, respectively, by Jack Clark, Pat Sajak, and Vanna White. After Clark 's death in 1988, M.G. Kelly took over briefly as announcer until O'Donnell returned in 1989. O'Donnell remained on the network version until its cancellation, and continued to announce on the syndicated show until his death in 2010, when Jim Thornton succeeded him. Sajak left the network version in January 1989 to host his own late - night talk show, and was replaced on that version by Rolf Benirschke. Bob Goen replaced Benirschke when the network show moved to CBS, then remained as host until the network show was canceled altogether. The syndicated version has been hosted continuously by Sajak and White since its inception.
Wheel of Fortune ranks as the longest - running syndicated game show in the United States, with over 6,000 episodes aired. TV Guide named it the "top - rated syndicated series '' in a 2008 article, and in 2013, the magazine ranked it at No. 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever. The program has also come to gain a worldwide following with sixty international adaptations. The syndicated series ' 35th season premiered on September 11, 2017.
The core game is based on Hangman. Each round has a category and a blank word puzzle, with each blank representing a letter in the answer, and punctuation revealed as needed. The titular Wheel of Fortune is a roulette - style wheel mechanism with 24 spaces, most of which are labeled with dollar amounts ranging from $500 to $900, plus a top dollar value: $2,500 in round 1, $3,500 in rounds 2 and 3, and $5,000 for round 4 and any subsequent rounds. The wheel also features two Bankrupt wedges and one Lose a Turn, both of which forfeit the contestant 's turn, with the former also eliminating any cash or prizes the contestant has accumulated within the round. Each game features three contestants, or occasionally, three two - contestant teams; each contestant / team is positioned behind a single scoreboard with its own flipper. The left scoreboard from the viewer 's perspective is colored red, the center yellow, and the right blue; which contestant / team occupies which position is determined by a random selection.
A contestant spins the wheel to determine a dollar value and guess a consonant. Calling a correct letter earns the value before the corresponding flipper, multiplied by the number of times that the letter appears in the puzzle. A contestant with at least $250 may buy a vowel for a flat rate of that amount, until all the vowels in the puzzle have been revealed. Calling a correct letter keeps the wheel in the contestant 's control. Control passes to the next contestant clockwise if the wheel lands on Lose a Turn or Bankrupt, if the contestant calls a letter that is not in the puzzle, calls a letter that has already been called in that round, fails to call a letter within five seconds of the wheel stopping, or attempts unsuccessfully to solve the puzzle. The only exception is the Free Play wedge, on which the contestant may call a consonant for $500 per occurrence, call a free vowel, or solve the puzzle, with no penalty for an incorrect letter or answer.
In the first three rounds, the wheel contains a Wild Card and a Gift Tag, while two 1⁄2 Car tags are present in rounds two and three only. The 1⁄2 Car tags are not used during weeks with two - contestant teams, unless the teams are married couples. The Wild Card may be used to call an additional consonant after any turn (for the amount that the contestant has just spun) or taken to the bonus round to call an extra consonant there. The Gift Tag offers either a $1,000 credit toward purchases from, or $1,000 in cash courtesy of, the sponsoring company, and the 1⁄2 Car tags award a car if the contestant wins the round (s) in which he or she claims both. Unlike the other tags, the 1⁄2 Car tags are replaced in subsequent rounds unless the car is won. A special wedge in the first two rounds awards a prize which is described by the announcer if won. All of the tags and the prize wedge are located over the $500 wedges, so calling a letter that appears in the puzzle when landed upon awards both the tag / wedge and $500 per every occurrence of that letter in the puzzle. The first three rounds also contain a special wedge which, if won and taken to the bonus round, offers an opportunity to play that round for $1,000,000. A contestant must solve the puzzle in order to keep any cash, prizes, or extras accumulated during that round, with the exception of the Wild Card; once this is picked up, it is kept until the contestant either loses it to Bankrupt or uses it. Bankrupt does not affect score from previous rounds, but it does take away the Wild Card, individual 1⁄2 Car tags, and / or million dollar wedge if any was claimed in a previous round. Contestants who solve a round for less than $1,000 in cash and prizes ($2,000 on weeks with two - contestant teams) have their scores increased to that amount.
Each game also features three toss - up puzzles, which reveal the puzzle one random letter at a time, and award cash to whoever rings in with the right answer. The first determines who is interviewed first by the host, the second determines who starts round 1, and the third determines who starts round 4; respectively, these are valued at $1,000, $2,000, and $3,000. In addition to these, each game has a minimum of four rounds, with more played if time permits. Rounds 2 and 3 are respectively started by the next two contestants clockwise from the contestant who began round 1.
Round 2 features two "mystery wedges ''. Calling a correct letter after landing upon this wedge offers the contestant the chance to accept its face value of $1,000 per letter, or forfeit that amount to flip over the wedge and see whether its reverse side contains a $10,000 cash prize or Bankrupt. Once either mystery wedge is flipped over, the other becomes a standard $1,000 space and can not be flipped. Round 3 is a prize puzzle, which offers a prize (usually a trip) to the contestant who solves it. Starting with season 31 in 2013, an "Express '' wedge is also placed on the wheel in round 3. A contestant who lands on this space and calls a consonant that appears in the puzzle receives $1,000 per appearance. The contestant can then either "pass '' and continue the round normally, or "play '' and keep calling consonants for $1,000 each (without spinning) and buying vowels for $250. The Express play ends when the contestant either calls an incorrect letter (which has the same effect as landing on a Bankrupt wedge) or solves the puzzle.
The final round is always played at least in part in a "speed - up '' format, in which the host spins the wheel to determine the value of each consonant, with $1,000 being added to the value on which the wheel stops before the red contestant 's arrow. Vowels do not add or deduct money from the contestants ' scores in the speed - up round. The contestant in control calls one letter; if it appears in the puzzle, the contestant is given three seconds to attempt to solve. Play proceeds from the viewer 's left to right, starting with the contestant who was in control at the time of the final spin, until the puzzle is solved. The three - second timer does not begin until the hostess has revealed all instances of a called letter and moved aside from the puzzle board, and the contestant may offer multiple guesses on his / her turn. After the speed - up round, the total winnings of the three contestants are compared; the contestant with the highest total winnings wins the game and advances to the bonus round. Contestants who fail to earn any cash or prizes in the game are awarded a consolation prize of $1,000 (or $2,000 on weeks with two - contestant teams).
If a tie for first place occurs after the speed - up round, an additional toss - up puzzle is played between the tied contestants. The contestant who solves the toss - up puzzle wins $1,000 and advances to the bonus round.
Before the bonus round begins, the winning contestant chooses one of three categories for his or her puzzle (prior to season 35, the puzzle and category were predetermined). After doing so, the contestant spins a smaller wheel with 24 envelopes to determine the prize. He or she is then shown a puzzle in the chosen category, and every instance of R, S, T, L, N, and E is revealed. The contestant provides three more consonants (four if he / she is holding the Wild Card) and one more vowel, then has 10 seconds to solve the puzzle after his or her other letters (if any) are revealed. The contestant may make as many guesses as necessary, so long as the contestant begins the correct answer before time expires. Whether or not the contestant solves the puzzle, the host opens the envelope at the end of the round to reveal the prize at stake. Prizes in the bonus round include various cash amounts, with the lowest being the season number multiplied by $1,000; a vehicle (or two vehicles during weeks with two - contestant teams); and a top prize of $100,000.
If the contestant has the Million Dollar Wedge, the $100,000 envelope is replaced with a $1,000,000 envelope. The $1,000,000 prize has been awarded three times: to Michelle Loewenstein (on the episode that aired October 14, 2008), to Autumn Erhard (May 30, 2013), and to Sarah Manchester (September 17, 2014). Contestants who win the $1,000,000 may receive it in installments over 20 years, or in a lump sum of that amount 's present value. When the contestant fails to land on the $1,000,000 wedge, Sajak will reveal where it was on the prize wheel.
Originally, after winning a round, contestants spent their winnings on prizes that were presented onstage. At any time during a shopping round, most often if the contestant did not have enough left to buy another prize, a contestant could choose to put his or her winnings on a gift certificate; alternatively, he or she could put the winnings "on account '' for use in a later shopping round, but at the risk of losing any "on account '' money to a Bankrupt, or failing to claim it by not winning subsequent rounds. The shopping element was eliminated from the syndicated version on the episode that aired October 5, 1987, both to speed up gameplay and to alleviate the taxes paid by contestants. However, the network version continued to use the shopping element until the end of its first NBC run on June 30, 1989.
Before the introduction of toss - up puzzles at the start of the 18th syndicated season in 2000, the contestant at the red arrow always started round 1, with the next contestant clockwise starting each subsequent round. In addition, if a tie for first place occurred, an additional speed - up round was played between the tied contestants for the right to go to the bonus round. The wheel formerly featured a Free Spin wedge, which automatically awarded a token that the contestant could turn in after a lost turn to keep control of the wheel. It was replaced in 1989 with a single Free Spin token placed over a selected cash wedge. Free Spin was retired, and Free Play introduced, at the start of the 27th syndicated season in 2009. Between September 16, 1996 and the end of season 30 in 2013, the show featured a progressive Jackpot wedge, which had been in several different rounds in its history. The jackpot started at $5,000 and had the value of every spin within the round added to it; to claim the jackpot, a contestant had to land on the wedge, call a correct letter, and solve the puzzle all in the same turn. In later years, it also offered $500 per correct letter and $500 to the jackpot, regardless of whether or not it was won in that turn.
The network version allowed champions to appear for up to five days originally, which was later reduced to three. The syndicated version, which originally retired contestants after one episode, adopted the three - day champion rule at the start of the seventh season in 1989. In later years, the top three winners from the week 's first four shows would return to compete in the "Friday Finals ''; when the jackpot wedge was introduced, its value was affected as well, beginning at $10,000 instead of $5,000. The rules allowing champions to return after their initial appearances were eliminated permanently beginning with the syndicated episode aired September 21, 1998; as was the case before season 7, contestants appear only on a single episode.
Before December 1981, the show did not feature a bonus round. Under the bonus round 's original rules, no letters were provided automatically; the contestant was asked for five consonants and a vowel, and had fifteen seconds to attempt solving the puzzle. Also, bonus prizes were selected by the contestant at the start of the round. The current time limit and rules for letter selection were introduced on October 3, 1988. Starting on September 4, 1989, the first episode of the seventh syndicated season, bonus prizes were selected by the contestant choosing from one of five envelopes labeled W, H, E, E, and L. One prize was always $25,000 in cash, and the rest were changed weekly; any prize that was won was taken out of rotation for the rest of the week. During seasons 16 through 18 (1998 -- 2001), the $25,000 remained in - place the entire week of shows regardless if it was won. At the start of season 19 in 2001, there were three car envelopes and two $25,000 envelopes, which were available the entire week of shows. These envelopes were replaced with the bonus wheel on October 22, 2001.
Merv Griffin conceived Wheel of Fortune just as the original version of Jeopardy!, another show he had created, was ending its 11 - year run on NBC with Art Fleming as its host. Griffin decided to create a Hangman - style game after recalling long car trips as a child, on which he and his sister would play Hangman. After he discussed the idea with Merv Griffin Enterprises ' staff, they thought that the idea would work as a game show if it had a "hook ''. He decided to add a roulette - style wheel because he was always "drawn to '' such wheels when he saw them in casinos. He and MGE 's then - president Murray Schwartz consulted an executive of Caesars Palace to find out how to build such a wheel.
When Griffin pitched the idea for the show to Lin Bolen, then the head of NBC 's daytime programming division, she approved, but wanted the show to have more glamour to attract the female audience; she suggested that Griffin incorporate a shopping element into the gameplay, and so, in 1973, he created a pilot episode titled Shopper 's Bazaar, with Chuck Woolery as host and Mike Lawrence as announcer. The pilot started with the three contestants being introduced individually, with Lawrence describing the prizes that they chose to play for. The main game was played to four rounds, with the values on the wheel wedges increasing after the second round. Unlike the show it evolved into, Shopper 's Bazaar had a vertically mounted wheel, which was spun by Woolery rather than by the contestants; this wheel lacked the Bankrupt wedge and featured a wedge where a contestant could call a vowel for free, as well as a "Your Own Clue '' wedge that allowed contestants to pick up a rotary telephone and hear a private clue about the puzzle. At the end of the game, the highest - scoring contestant would play a bonus round called the "Shopper 's Special '' where all the vowels in the puzzle were already there, and the contestant had 30 seconds to call out consonants in the puzzle.
Edd Byrnes, an actor from 77 Sunset Strip, served as host for the second and third pilots, both titled Wheel of Fortune. These pilots were directed by Marty Pasetta, who gave the show a "Vegas '' feel that more closely resembled the look and feel that the actual show ended up having, a wheel that was now spun by the contestants themselves, and a lighted mechanical puzzle board with letters that were now manually turnable. Showcase prizes on these pilots were located behind the puzzle board, and during shopping segments a list of prizes and their price values scrolled on the right of the screen. By the time production began in December 1974, Woolery was selected to host, the choice being made by Griffin after he reportedly heard Byrnes reciting "A-E-I-O-U '' to himself in an effort to remember the vowels. Susan Stafford turned the letters on Byrnes ' pilot episodes, a role that she also held when the show was picked up as a series.
The original host of Wheel of Fortune was Chuck Woolery, who hosted the series from its 1975 premiere until December 25, 1981, save for one week in August 1980 when Alex Trebek hosted in his place. Woolery 's departure came over a salary dispute with show creator Merv Griffin, and his contract was not renewed. On December 28, 1981, Pat Sajak made his debut as the host of Wheel. Griffin said that he chose Sajak for his "odd '' sense of humor. NBC president and CEO Fred Silverman objected as he felt Sajak, who at the time of his hiring was the weatherman for KNBC - TV, was "too local '' for a national audience. Griffin countered by telling Silverman he would stop production if Sajak was not allowed to become host, and Silverman acquiesced.
Sajak hosted the daytime series until January 9, 1989, when he left to host a late - night talk show for CBS. Rolf Benirschke, a former placekicker in the National Football League, was chosen as his replacement and hosted for a little more than five months. Benirschke 's term as host came to an end due to NBC 's cancellation of the daytime Wheel after fourteen years, with its final episode airing on June 30, 1989. When the newly formatted daytime series returned on CBS on July 17, 1989, Bob Goen became its host. The daytime program continued for a year and a half on CBS, then returned to NBC on January 14, 1991 and continued until September 20, 1991 when it was cancelled for a second and final time.
Susan Stafford was the original hostess, serving in that role from the premiere until October 1982. Stafford was absent for two extended periods, once in 1977 after fracturing two vertebrae in her back and once in 1979 after an automobile accident. During these two extended absences, former Miss USA Summer Bartholomew was Stafford 's most frequent substitute, with model Cynthia Washington and comedian Arte Johnson also filling in for Stafford.
After Stafford left to become a humanitarian worker, over two hundred applicants signed up for a nationwide search to be her replacement. Griffin eventually narrowed the list to three finalists, which consisted of Summer Bartholomew, former Playboy centerfold Vicki McCarty, and Vanna White. Griffin gave each of the three women an opportunity to win the job by putting them in a rotation for several weeks after Stafford 's departure. In December 1982, Griffin named White as Stafford 's successor, saying that he felt she was capable of activating the puzzle board letters (which is the primary role of the Wheel hostess) better than anyone else who had auditioned. White became highly popular among the young female demographic, and also gained a fanbase of adults interested in her daily wardrobe, in a phenomenon that has been referred to as "Vannamania ''. White remained on the daytime series for the rest of the time it was on the air.
Sajak and White have starred on the syndicated version continuously as host and hostess, respectively, since it began, except for very limited occasions. During two weeks in January 1991, Tricia Gist, the girlfriend and future wife of Griffin 's son Tony, filled in for White when she and her new husband, restaurateur George San Pietro, were honeymooning. Gist returned for the week of episodes airing March 11 through 15, 1991, because White had a cold at the time of taping. On an episode in November 1996, when Sajak proved unable to host the bonus round segment because of laryngitis, he and White traded places for that segment. On the March 4, 1997 episode, Rosie O'Donnell co-hosted the third round with White after O'Donnell's name was used in a puzzle.
On April 1, 1997, Sajak and Alex Trebek traded jobs for the day. Sajak hosted that day 's edition of Jeopardy! in place of Trebek, who presided over a special two - contestant Wheel celebrity match between Sajak and White, who were playing for the Boy Scouts of America and the American Cancer Society, respectively; Lesly Sajak, Pat 's wife, was the guest hostess for the day. In January and February 2011, the show held a "Vanna for a Day '' contest in which home viewers submitted video auditions to take White 's place for one episode, with the winner determined by a poll on the show 's website; the winner of this contest, Katie Cantrell of Wooster, Ohio (a student at the Savannah College of Art and Design), took White 's place for the second and third rounds on the episode that aired March 24, 2011.
Charlie O'Donnell was the program 's first and longest tenured announcer. In 1980, NBC was discussing cancelling Wheel and O'Donnell agreed to take the position as announcer on The Toni Tennille Show. The network decided against the cancellation but O'Donnell decided to honor his commitment and left the series. His replacement was Jack Clark, who added the syndicated series to his responsibilities when it premiered in 1983 and announced for both series until his death in July 1988. Los Angeles radio personality M.G. Kelly was Clark 's replacement, starting on the daytime series in August 1988 and on the syndicated series when its new season launched a month later. Kelly held these positions until O'Donnell was able to return to the announcer position, doing so after his duties with Barris Industries came to an end at the end of the 1988 -- 89 television season. O'Donnell remained with the series until shortly before his death in November 2010. Don Pardo, Don Morrow, and Johnny Gilbert have occasionally served as substitute announcers.
After O'Donnell's death, the producers sought a permanent replacement, and a series of substitutes filled out the rest of the season, including Gilbert, John Cramer, Joe Cipriano, Rich Fields, Lora Cain and Jim Thornton. For the show 's twenty - ninth season, which began in 2011, Thornton was chosen to be the new announcer for Wheel, and has been with the show ever since.
Wheel of Fortune typically employs a total of 100 in - house production personnel, with 60 to 100 local staff joining them for those episodes that are taped on location. Griffin was the executive producer of the network version throughout its entire run, and served as the syndicated version 's executive producer until his retirement in 2000. Since 1999, the title of executive producer has been held by Harry Friedman, who had shared his title with Griffin for his first year, and had earlier served as a producer starting in 1995.
John Rhinehart was the program 's first producer, but departed in August 1976 to become NBC 's West Coast Daytime Program Development Director. Afterwards, his co-producer, Nancy Jones, was promoted to sole producer, and served as such until 1995, when Friedman succeeded her. In the 15th syndicated season in 1997, Karen Griffith and Steve Schwartz joined Friedman as producers; they were later promoted to supervising producers, with Amanda Stern occupying Griffith and Schwartz 's old post.
The show 's original director was Jeff Goldstein, who was succeeded by Dick Carson (a brother of Johnny Carson) in 1978. Mark Corwin, who had served as associate director under Carson, took over for him upon his retirement at the end of the 1998 -- 99 season, and served as such until he himself died in July 2013 (although episodes already taped before his death continued airing until late 2013). Jeopardy! director Kevin McCarthy, Corwin 's associate director Bob Cisneros, and Wheel and Jeopardy! technical director Robert Ennis filled in at various points until Cisneros became full - time director in November 2013. Ennis returned as guest director for the weeks airing October 13 through 17 and November 17 through 21, 2014, as Cisneros was recovering from neck surgery at the time of taping. With the start of the 33rd season on September 14, 2015, Ennis was promoted to full - time director.
Wheel of Fortune is owned by Sony Pictures Television (previously known as Columbia TriStar Television; the successor company to original producer Merv Griffin Enterprises). The production company and copyright holder of all episodes to date is Califon Productions, Inc., which like SPT has Sony Pictures for its active registered agent, and whose name comes from a New Jersey town where Griffin once owned a farm. The rights to distribute the show worldwide are owned by CBS Television Distribution, into which original distributor King World Productions was folded in 2007.
The show was originally taped in Studio 4 at NBC Studios in Burbank. Upon NBC 's 1989 cancellation of the network series, production moved to Studio 33 at CBS Television City in Los Angeles, where it remained until 1995. Since then, the show has occupied Stage 11 at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City. Some episodes are also recorded on location, a tradition which began with two weeks of episodes taped at Radio City Music Hall in late 1988. Recording sessions usually last for five or six episodes in one day.
Various changes have been made to the basic set since the syndicated version 's premiere in 1983. In 1996, a large video display was added center stage, which was then upgraded in 2003 as the show began the transition into high - definition broadcasting. In the mid-1990s, the show began a long - standing tradition of nearly every week coming with its own unique theme; as a result, in addition to its generic design, the set also uses many alternate designs, which are unique to specific weekly sets of themed programs. The most recent set design was conceived by production designer Renee Hoss - Johnson, with later modifications by Jody Vaclav. Previous set designers included Ed Flesh and Dick Stiles.
The first pilot used a vertically mounted wheel which was often difficult to see on - screen. Flesh, who also designed the sets for The $25,000 Pyramid and Jeopardy!, designed the wheel mechanism. Originally made mostly of paint and cardboard, the modern wheel mechanism is framed on a steel tube surrounded with Plexiglas and more than 200 lighting instruments, and is held by a stainless steel shaft with roller bearings. Altogether, the wheel weighs approximately 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg).
The show 's original puzzle board had three rows of 13 manually operated trilons, for a total of 39 spaces. On December 21, 1981, a larger board with 48 trilons in four rows (11, 13, 13 and 11 trilons) was adopted. This board was surrounded by a double - arched border of lights which flashed at the beginning and end of the round. Each trilon had three sides: a green side to represent spaces not used by the puzzle, a blank side to indicate a letter that had not been revealed, and a side with a letter on it. With these older boards, in segments where more than one puzzle was present, while the viewer saw a seamless transition to the next puzzle, what actually happened was a stop - down of the taping; during the old stop - downs, the board would be wheeled offstage and the new puzzle loaded in by hand out of sight of the contestants. On February 24, 1997, the show introduced a computerized puzzle board composed of 52 touch - activated monitors in four rows (12 on the top and bottom rows, 14 in the middle two). To illuminate a letter during regular gameplay, the hostess touches the right edge of the monitor to reveal it. The computerized board obviated the stop - downs, allowing tapings to finish quicker at a lower cost to the production company. The former board was subsequently sent to the Smithsonian Institution for storage.
Although not typically seen by viewers, the set also includes a used letter board that shows contestants which letters are remaining in play, a scoreboard that is visible from the contestants ' perspective, and a countdown clock. The used letter board is also used during the bonus round, and in at least one case, helped the contestant to see unused letters to solve a difficult puzzle.
Alan Thicke composed the show 's original theme, which was titled "Big Wheels ''. In 1983, it was replaced by Griffin 's own composition, "Changing Keys '', to allow him to derive royalties from that composition 's use on both the network and syndicated versions. Steve Kaplan became music director starting with the premiere of the 15th syndicated season in 1997, and continued to serve as such until he was killed when the Cessna 421C Golden Eagle he was piloting crashed into a home in Claremont, California, in December 2003; his initial theme was a remix of "Changing Keys '', but by the 18th syndicated season (2000 -- 01), he had replaced it with a composition of his own, which was titled "Happy Wheels ''. Since 2006, music direction has been handled by Frankie Blue and John Hoke; themes they have written for the show include a remix of "Happy Wheels '' and an original rock - based composition.
In addition to "Changing Keys '', Griffin also composed various incidental music cues for the syndicated version which were used for announcements of prizes in the show 's early years. Among them were "Frisco Disco '' (earlier the closing theme for a revival of Jeopardy! which aired in 1978 and 1979), "A Time for Tony '' (whose basic melody evolved into "Think! '', the longtime theme song for Jeopardy!), "Buzzword '' (later used as the theme for Merv Griffin 's Crosswords), "Nightwalk '', "Struttin ' on Sunset '', and an untitled vacation cue.
Anyone at least 18 years old has the potential to become a contestant through Wheel of Fortune 's audition process. Exceptions include employees and immediate family members of CBS Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries; any firm involved in supplying prizes for the show; and television stations that broadcast Wheel and / or Jeopardy!, their sister radio stations, and those advertising agencies that are affiliated with them. Also ineligible to apply as contestants are individuals who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year, three other game shows within the past ten years, or on any version of Wheel of Fortune itself.
Throughout the year, the show uses a custom - designed Winnebago recreational vehicle called the "Wheelmobile '' to travel across the United States, holding open auditions at various public venues. Participants are provided with entry forms which are then drawn randomly. Individuals whose names are drawn appear on stage, five at a time, and are interviewed by traveling host Marty Lublin. The group of five then plays a mock version of the speed - up round, and five more names are selected after a puzzle is solved. Everyone who is called onstage receives a themed prize, usually determined by the spin of a miniature wheel. Auditions typically last two days, with three one - hour segments per day. After each Wheelmobile event, the "most promising candidates '' are invited back to the city in which the first audition was held, to participate in a second audition. Alternatively, a participant may submit an audition form with a self - shot video through the show 's website to enter an audition. Contestants not appearing on stage at Wheelmobile events have their applications retained and get drawn at random to fill second - level audition vacancies. At the second audition, potential contestants play more mock games featuring a miniature wheel and puzzle board, followed by a 16 - puzzle test with some letters revealed. The contestants have five minutes to solve as many puzzles as they can by writing in the correct letters. The people who pass continue the audition, playing more mock games which are followed by interviews.
Wheel of Fortune premiered on January 6, 1975, at 10: 30 am (9: 30 Central) on NBC. Lin Bolen, then the head of daytime programming, purchased the show from Griffin to compensate him for canceling the original Jeopardy! series, which had one year remaining on its contract; Jeopardy! aired its final episode on the Friday before Wheel 's premiere. The original Wheel aired on NBC, in varying time slots between 10: 30 am and noon, until June 30, 1989. Throughout that version 's run, episodes were generally 30 minutes in length, except for six weeks of shows aired between December 1975 and January 1976 which were 60 minutes in length. NBC announced the cancellation of the show in August 1980, but it stayed on the air following a decision to cut the duration of The David Letterman Show from 90 to 60 minutes. The network Wheel moved to CBS on July 17, 1989, and remained there until January 14, 1991. After that, it briefly returned to NBC, replacing Let 's Make a Deal, but was canceled permanently on September 20 of that year.
The daily syndicated version of Wheel premiered on September 19, 1983, preceded by a series of episodes taped on location at the Ohio State Fair and aired on WBNS - TV in Columbus, Ohio. From its debut, the syndicated version offered a larger prize budget than its network counterpart. The show came from humble beginnings: King World chairmen Roger, Michael, and Robert King could initially find only 50 stations that were willing to carry the show, and since they could not find affiliates for the syndicated Wheel in New York, Los Angeles, or Chicago, Philadelphia was the largest market in which the show could succeed in its early days. Only nine stations carried the show from its beginning, but by midseason it was airing on all 50 of the stations that were initially willing to carry it, and by the beginning of 1984 the show was available to 99 percent of television households. Soon, Wheel succeeded Family Feud as the highest - rated syndicated show, and at the beginning of the 1984 -- 85 season, Griffin followed up on the show 's success by launching a syndicated revival of Jeopardy!, hosted by Alex Trebek. The syndicated success of Wheel and Jeopardy! siphoned ratings from the period 's three longest - running and most popular game shows, Tic - Tac - Dough, The Joker 's Wild, and Family Feud, to the point that all three series came to an end by the fall of 1986. At this point, Wheel had the highest ratings of any syndicated television series in history, and at the peak of the show 's popularity, over 40 million people were watching five nights per week. The series, along with companion series Jeopardy!, remained the most - watched syndicated program in the United States until dethroned by Judge Judy in 2011. The program has become America 's longest - running syndicated game show and its second - longest in either network or syndication, second to the version of The Price Is Right which began airing in 1972. The syndicated Wheel has become part of the consciousness of over 90 million Americans, and awarded a total of over $200 million in cash and prizes to contestants.
The popularity of Wheel of Fortune has led it to become a worldwide franchise, with over forty known adaptations in international markets outside the United States. Versions of the show have existed in such countries as Australia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The American version of Wheel has honored its international variants with an occasional theme of special weeks known as "Wheel Around the World '', the inaugural episode of which aired when the 23rd syndicated season premiered on September 12, 2005.
Between September 1997 and January 1998, CBS and Game Show Network concurrently aired a special children 's version of the show titled Wheel 2000. It was hosted by David Sidoni, with Tanika Ray providing voice and motion capture for a virtual reality hostess named "Cyber Lucy ''. Created by Scott Sternberg, the spin - off featured special gameplay in which numerous rules were changed; for example, the show 's child contestants competed for points and prizes instead of cash, with the eventual winner playing for a grand prize in the bonus round.
Wheel of Fortune has long been one of the highest - rated programs on U.S. syndicated television. It was the highest - rated show in all of syndication before it was dethroned by Two and a Half Men in the 28th season (2010 -- 11). The syndicated Wheel shared the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show with Jeopardy! in 2011, and Sajak won three Daytime Emmys for Outstanding Game Show Host -- in 1993, 1997, and 1998. In a 2001 issue, TV Guide ranked Wheel number 25 among the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and in 2013, the magazine ranked it number 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever, second only to Jeopardy! In August 2006, the show was ranked number 6 on GSN 's list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows.
Wheel was the subject of many nominations in GSN 's Game Show Awards special, which aired on June 6, 2009. The show was nominated for Best Game Show, but lost to Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?; Sajak and White were nominated for Best Game Show Host, but lost to Deal or No Deal 's Howie Mandel; and O'Donnell was considered for Best Announcer but lost to Rich Fields from The Price Is Right. One of the catchphrases uttered by contestants, "I 'd like to buy a vowel '', was considered for Favorite Game Show Catch Phrase, but lost to "Come on down! '', the announcer 's catchphrase welcoming new contestants to Price. The sound effect heard at the start of a new regular gameplay round won the award for Favorite Game Show Sound Effect; the sound heard when the wheel lands on Bankrupt was also nominated. Despite having been retired from the show for nearly a decade by that point, "Changing Keys '' was nominated for Best Game Show Theme Song; however, it lost to its fellow Griffin composition, "Think! '' from Jeopardy!
A hall of fame honoring Wheel of Fortune is part of the Sony Pictures Studios tour, and was introduced on the episode aired May 10, 2010. Located in the same stage as the show 's taping facility, this hall of fame features memorabilia related to Wheel 's syndicated history, including retired props, classic merchandise, photographs, videos, and a special case dedicated to White 's wardrobe. Two years later, in 2012, the show was honored with a Ride of Fame on a double decker tour bus in New York City.
Numerous board games based on Wheel of Fortune have been released by different toy companies. The games are all similar, incorporating a wheel, puzzle display board, play money and various accessories like Free Spin tokens. Milton Bradley released the first board game in 1975. In addition to all the supplies mentioned above, the game included 20 prize cards (to simulate the "shopping '' prizes of the show; the prizes ranged in value from $100 to $3,000). Two editions were released, with the only differences being the box art and the included books of puzzles. Other home versions were released by Pressman Toy Corporation, Tyco / Mattel, Parker Brothers, Endless Games, and Irwin Toys.
Additionally, several video games based on the show have been released for personal computers, the Internet, and various gaming consoles spanning multiple hardware generations. Most games released in the 20th century were published by GameTek, which produced a dozen Wheel games on various platforms, starting with a Nintendo Entertainment System game released in 1987 and continuing until the company closed in 1998 after filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Subsequent games were published by Hasbro Interactive and its acquirer Infogrames / Atari, Sony Online Entertainment, and THQ.
Wheel has also been licensed to International Game Technology for use in its slot machines. The games are all loosely based on the show, with contestants given the chance to spin the wheel to win a jackpot prize. Since 1996, over 200 slot games based on the show have been created, both for real - world casinos and those on the Internet. With over 1,000 wins awarded in excess of $1,000,000 and over $3 billion in jackpots delivered, Wheel has been regarded as the most successful slots brand of all time.
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where is oranges are not the only fruit set | Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit - wikipedia
Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit is a novel by Jeanette Winterson published in 1985, which she subsequently adapted into a BBC television drama of the same name. It is a coming - of - age story about a lesbian girl who grows up in an English Pentecostal community. Key themes of the book include transition from youth to adulthood, complex family relationships, same sex relationships, and religion.
In England and Wales, it has been included on both GCSE and A Level curricula, such as the OCR English Literature A Level, Literature Post 1900.
The book is semi-autobiographical and is generally based on Winterson 's life in Accrington, Lancashire, where she lived after moving from her birth town Manchester. "I wrote about some of these things in Oranges, and when it was published, my mother sent me a furious note. '' A parallel non-fictional account of her life at this time is given in her 2011 memoir, Why Be Happy When You Could Be Normal? Although the protagonist of Oranges bears the author 's first name, John Mullan has argued that it is neither an autobiography nor a memoir, but a Künstlerroman.
The main character is a young girl named Jeanette, who is adopted by evangelists from the Elim Pentecostal Church. She believes she is destined to become a missionary. The book depicts religious enthusiasm as an exploration of the power of love. As an adolescent, Jeanette finds herself attracted to another girl, and her mother 's group of religious friends subject her and her partner to exorcisms.
The novel won Winterson the Whitbread Award for a First Novel in 1985.
Although it is sometimes referred to as a "lesbian novel '', Winterson has objected to this label, arguing, "I 've never understood why straight fiction is supposed to be for everyone, but anything with a gay character or that includes gay experience is only for queers. ''
A television adaptation of the book was made and aired by the BBC in 1990, starring Charlotte Coleman and Geraldine McEwan, which won the Prix Italia in 1991.
The book was released on cassette by BBC Audiobooks in 1990, also read by Coleman.
A two - part dramatisation, adapted by Winterton and starring Lesley Sharp, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in April 2016.
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who did we fight in world war 1 and world war 2 | World War I - wikipedia
World War I (WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. Over nine million combatants and seven million civilians died as a result of the war (including the victims of a number of genocides), a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents ' technological and industrial sophistication, and the tactical stalemate caused by gruelling trench warfare. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. Unresolved rivalries still extant at the end of the conflict contributed to the start of the Second World War only twenty - one years later.
The war drew in all the world 's economic great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria - Hungary. Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria - Hungary, it did not join the Central Powers, as Austria - Hungary had taken the offensive against the terms of the alliance. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies, while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.
The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria - Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a diplomatic crisis when Austria - Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia, and entangled international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked. Within weeks the major powers were at war, and the conflict soon spread around the world.
Russia was the first to order a partial mobilization of its armies on 24 -- 25 July, and when on 28 July Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia declared general mobilization on 30 July. Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Being outnumbered on the Eastern Front, Russia urged its Triple Entente ally France to open up a second front in the west. Over forty years earlier in 1870, the Franco - Prussian War had ended the Second French Empire and France had ceded the provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to a unified Germany. Bitterness over that defeat and the determination to retake Alsace - Lorraine made the acceptance of Russia 's plea for help an easy choice, so France began full mobilisation on 1 August and, on 3 August, Germany declared war on France. The border between France and Germany was heavily fortified on both sides so, according to the Schlieffen Plan, Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France from the north, leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 4 August due to their violation of Belgian neutrality. After the German march on Paris was halted in the Battle of the Marne, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army led a successful campaign against the Austro - Hungarians, but the Germans stopped its invasion of East Prussia in the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers; Romania joined the Allies in 1916, as did the United States in 1917.
The Russian government collapsed in March 1917, and a revolution in November followed by a further military defeat brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, which granted the Germans a significant victory. After a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. On 4 November 1918, the Austro - Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice, and Germany, which had its own trouble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice on 11 November 1918, ending the war in victory for the Allies.
By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro - Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist. National borders were redrawn, with 9 independent nations restored or created, and Germany 's colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four (Britain, France, the United States and Italy) imposed their terms in a series of treaties. The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation (particularly in Germany) eventually contributed to the start of World War II.
From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, the First World War was called simply the World War or the Great War and thereafter the First World War or World War I. At the time, it was also sometimes called "the war to end war '' or "the war to end all wars '' due to its then - unparalleled scale and devastation.
In Canada, Maclean 's magazine in October 1914 wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War. '' During the interwar period (1918 -- 1939), the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English - speaking countries.
The term "First World War '' was first used in September 1914 by the German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared ' European War '... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word, '' citing a wire service report in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914. After the onset of the Second World War in 1939, the terms World War I or the First World War became standard, with British and Canadian historians favouring the First World War, and Americans World War I.
In the introduction to his book, Waterloo in 100 Objects, historian Gareth Glover states: "This opening statement will cause some bewilderment to many who have grown up with the appellation of the Great War firmly applied to the 1914 -- 18 First World War. But to anyone living before 1918, the title of the Great War was applied to the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars in which Britain fought France almost continuously for twenty - two years from 1793 to 1815. '' In 1911, the historian John Holland Rose published a book titled William Pitt and the Great War.
During the 19th century, the major European powers went to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. When Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of Austria - Hungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement failed because Austria - Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria - Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken. This alliance expanded in 1882 to include Italy, in what became the Triple Alliance.
Bismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germany 's side in an effort to avoid a two - front war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was compelled to retire and his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised. For example, the Kaiser refused, in 1890, to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. Two years later, the Franco - Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo - Russian Convention. While these agreements did not formally ally Britain with France or Russia, they made British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia a possibility, and the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the Triple Entente.
German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1871 following the Franco - Prussian War. From the mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy. As a result, each nation strove to out - build the other in capital ships. With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rival. The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe, with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict. Between 1908 and 1913, the military spending of the European powers increased by 50 %.
Austria - Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908 -- 1909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire. Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords that were already fracturing in the Balkans, which came to be known as the "powder keg of Europe. '' In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian state while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33 - day Second Balkan War, further destabilising the region. The Great Powers were able to keep these Balkan conflicts contained, but the next one would spread throughout Europe and beyond.
On 28 June 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. A group of six assassins (Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso Čubrilović) from the Yugoslavist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the Serbian Black Hand, had gathered on the street where the Archduke 's motorcade would pass, with the intention of assassinating him. Čabrinović threw a grenade at the car, but missed. Some nearby were injured by the blast, but Ferdinand 's convoy carried on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them.
About an hour later, when Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with those wounded in the assassination attempt, the convoy took a wrong turn into a street where, by coincidence, Princip stood. With a pistol, Princip shot and killed Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The reaction among the people in Austria was mild, almost indifferent. As historian Zbyněk Zeman later wrote, "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday (28 and 29 June), the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened. '' Nevertheless, the political impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant and has been described as a "9 / 11 effect '', a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna. And although they were not personally close, the Emperor Franz Joseph was profoundly shocked and upset.
The Austro - Hungarian authorities encouraged the subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks killed two Bosnian Serbs and damaged numerous Serb - owned buildings. Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organized outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro - Hungarian - controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro - Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs.
The assassination led to a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria - Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain, called the July Crisis. Believing correctly that Serbian officials (especially the officers of the Black Hand) were involved in the plot to murder the Archduke, and wanting to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia, Austria - Hungary delivered to Serbia on 23 July the July Ultimatum, a series of ten demands that were made intentionally unacceptable, in an effort to provoke a war with Serbia. Serbia decreed general mobilization on the 25th. Serbia accepted all of the terms of the ultimatum except for article six, which demanded that Austrian delegates be allowed in Serbia for the purpose of participation in the investigation into the assassination. Following this, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia and, the next day ordered a partial mobilization. Finally, on 28 July 1914, Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia.
On 29 July, Russia, in support of Serbia, declared partial mobilization against Austria - Hungary. On the 30th, Russia ordered general mobilization. German Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg waited until the 31st for an appropriate response, when Germany declared a "state of danger of war ''. Kaiser Wilhelm II asked his cousin, Tsar Nicolas II, to suspend the Russian general mobilization. When he refused, Germany issued an ultimatum demanding its mobilization be stopped, and a commitment not to support Serbia. Another was sent to France, asking her not to support Russia if it were to come to the defence of Serbia. On 1 August, after the Russian response, Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia. This also led to the general mobilization in Austria - Hungary on 4 August.
The German government issued demands to France that it remain neutral as they had to decide which deployment plan to implement, it being difficult if not impossible to change the deployment whilst it was underway. The modified German Schlieffen Plan, Aufmarsch II West, would deploy 80 % of the army in the west, and Aufmarsch I Ost and Aufmarsch II Ost would deploy 60 % in the west and 40 % in the east as this was the maximum that the East Prussian railway infrastructure could carry. The French did not respond, but sent a mixed message by ordering their troops to withdraw 10 km (6 mi) from the border to avoid any incidents, and at the same time ordered the mobilisation of her reserves. Germany responded by mobilising its own reserves and implementing Aufmarsch II West. On 1 August Wilhelm ordered General Moltke to "march the whole of the... army to the East '' after he had been wrongly informed that the British would remain neutral as long as France was not attacked. The General convinced the Kaiser that improvising the redeployment of a million men was unthinkable and that making it possible for the French to attack the Germans "in the rear '' might prove disastrous. Yet Wilhelm insisted that the German army should not march into Luxembourg until he received a telegram sent by his cousin George V, who made it clear that there had been a misunderstanding. Eventually the Kaiser told Moltke, "Now you can do what you want. '' Germany attacked Luxembourg on 2 August, and on 3 August declared war on France. On 4 August, after Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as well. Britain declared war on Germany at 19: 00 UTC on 4 August 1914 (effective from 11 pm), following an "unsatisfactory reply '' to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral.
The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria - Hungary 's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro - Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned Austria - Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro - Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts.
Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August. Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro - Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. Serbia 's defeat of the Austro - Hungarian invasion of 1914 has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.
At the outbreak of World War I, 80 % of the German army was deployed as seven field armies in the west according to the plan Aufmarsch II West. However, they were then assigned to execute the retired deployment plan Aufmarsch I West, also known as the Schlieffen Plan. This would march German armies through northern Belgium and into France, in an attempt to encircle the French army and then breach the ' second defensive area ' of the fortresses of Verdun and Paris and the Marne river.
Aufmarsch I West was one of four deployment plans available to the German General Staff in 1914. Each plan favoured certain operations, but did not specify exactly how those operations were to be carried out, leaving the commanding officers to carry those out at their own initiative and with minimal oversight. Aufmarsch I West, designed for a one - front war with France, had been retired once it became clear it was irrelevant to the wars Germany could expect to face; both Russia and Britain were expected to help France, and there was no possibility of Italian nor Austro - Hungarian troops being available for operations against France. But despite its unsuitability, and the availability of more sensible and decisive options, it retained a certain allure due to its offensive nature and the pessimism of pre-war thinking, which expected offensive operations to be short - lived, costly in casualties, and unlikely to be decisive. Accordingly, the Aufmarsch II West deployment was changed for the offensive of 1914, despite its unrealistic goals and the insufficient forces Germany had available for decisive success. Moltke took Schlieffen 's plan and modified the deployment of forces on the western front by reducing the right wing, the one to advance through Belgium, from 85 % to 70 %. In the end, the Schlieffen plan was so radically modified by Moltke, that it could be more properly called the Moltke Plan.
The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to bypass the French armies concentrated on the Franco - German border, defeat the French forces closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and move south to Paris. Initially the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14 -- 24 August). By 12 September, the French, with assistance from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5 -- 12 September) and pushed the German forces back some 50 km (31 mi). The French offensive into southern Alsace, launched on 20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success.
In the east, Russia invaded with two armies. In response, Germany rapidly moved the 8th Field Army from its previous role as reserve for the invasion of France to East Prussia by rail across the German Empire. This army, led by general Paul von Hindenburg, defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August -- 2 September). While the Russian invasion failed, it caused the diversion of German troops to the east, allowing the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. This meant Germany failed to achieve its objective of avoiding a long, two - front war. However, the German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and effectively halved France 's supply of coal. It had also killed or permanently crippled 230,000 more French and British troops than it itself had lost. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a more decisive outcome.
New Zealand occupied German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on 30 August 1914. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which formed part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized Germany 's Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao on the Chinese Shandong peninsula. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro - Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only on Germany, but also on Austria - Hungary; the ship participated in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific; only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea remained.
Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6 -- 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South - West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow - Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe.
Germany attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, instigating uprisings in India, and sending a mission that urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards Britain. Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups were eager to support the British war effort, since they believed that strong support for the war effort would further the cause of Indian Home Rule. The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self - government to India after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment and fuelled the campaign for full independence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and others.
Military tactics developed before World War I failed to keep pace with advances in technology and had become obsolete. These advances had allowed the creation of strong defensive systems, which out - of - date military tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances, while artillery, vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, technology began to produce new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and the tank.
Just after the First Battle of the Marne (5 -- 12 September 1914), Entente and German forces repeatedly attempted manoeuvring to the north in an effort to outflank each other: this series of manoeuvres became known as the "Race to the Sea ''. When these outflanking efforts failed, the opposing forces soon found themselves facing an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from Lorraine to Belgium 's coast. Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended the occupied territories. Consequently, German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy; Anglo - French trenches were only intended to be "temporary '' before their forces broke through the German defences.
Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides, and though it never proved a decisive, battle - winning weapon, poison gas became one of the most - feared and best - remembered horrors of the war. Tanks were developed by Britain and France, and were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers -- Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with only partial success. However, their effectiveness would grow as the war progressed; the Allies built tanks in large numbers, whilst the Germans employed only a few of their own design, supplemented by captured Allied tanks.
Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years. Throughout 1915 -- 17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides. Strategically, while the Germans only mounted one major offensive, the Allies made several attempts to break through the German lines.
In February 1916 the Germans attacked the French defensive positions at Verdun. Lasting until December 1916, the battle saw initial German gains, before French counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties suffered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self - sacrifice.
The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo - French offensive of July to November 1916. The opening of this offensive (1 July 1916) saw the British Army endure the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead, on the first day alone. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties. The French suffered another estimated 200,000 casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000.
Protracted action at Verdun throughout 1916, combined with the bloodletting at the Somme, brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile attempts using frontal assault came at a high price for both the British and the French and led to the widespread French Army Mutinies, after the failure of the costly Nivelle Offensive of April -- May 1917. The concurrent British Battle of Arras was more limited in scope, and more successful, although ultimately of little strategic value. A smaller part of the Arras offensive, the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps, became highly significant to that country: the idea that Canada 's national identity was born out of the battle is an opinion widely held in military and general histories of Canada.
The last large - scale offensive of this period was a British attack (with French support) at Passchendaele (July -- November 1917). This offensive opened with great promise for the Allies, before bogging down in the October mud. Casualties, though disputed, were roughly equal, at some 200,000 -- 400,000 per side.
These years of trench warfare in the West saw no major exchanges of territory and, as a result, are often thought of as static and unchanging. However, throughout this period, British, French, and German tactics constantly evolved to meet new battlefield challenges.
At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East - Asia squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, most of the German East - Asia squadron -- consisting of the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships -- did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it met British warships. The German flotilla and Dresden sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra these too had been destroyed or interned.
Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic of the British, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.
The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak '') developed into the largest naval battle of the war. It was the only full - scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The Kaiserliche Marine 's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand off, as the Germans were outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, but managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war.
German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules '', which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety '' (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising that the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but after initial successes eventually failed to do so.
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol.
Faced with Russia, Austria - Hungary could spare only one - third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria - Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro - Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro - Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria - Hungary, in the fight with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia.
Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, 12 October and joined in the attack by the Austro - Hungarian army under Mackensen 's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 6 -- 7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to Greece. After conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro - Hungary and Bulgaria.
In late 1915, a Franco - British force landed at Salonica in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which effectively divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and the new provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica. After intense negotiations and an armed confrontation in Athens between Allied and royalist forces (an incident known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece resigned and his second son Alexander took his place; Greece then officially joined the war on the side of the Allies.
In the beginning, the Macedonian Front was mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir Offensive, which brought stabilization of the front.
Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918, after most of the German and Austro - Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole and by 25 September 1918 British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were far too weak to reestablish a front.
The disappearance of the Macedonian Front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement.
The Ottomans threatened Russia 's Caucasian territories and Britain 's communications with India via the Suez Canal. As the conflict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers ' preoccupation with the war and conducted large - scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations, known as the Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide, and Assyrian Genocide.
The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the Siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915 -- 16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian tribesmen, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes.
Further to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917.
Russian armies generally saw success in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously. He was, however, a poor commander. He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86 % of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.
The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in December 1914 in an effort to cut off British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku near the Caspian Sea. Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai, Tangistanis, Luristanis, and Khamseh, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian Campaign was to last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led to Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inflicted a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and their allies, being cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.
General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart.
The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Office, started June 1916 with the Battle of Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than two and half years during the Siege of Medina before surrendering.
The Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small - scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi Campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916.
Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000 (325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded).
Italy had been allied with the German and Austro - Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Fiume (Rijeka) and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its part in the Triple Alliance. At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that Austria - Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro - Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol, Austrian Littoral and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria - Hungary. This was formalised by the Treaty of London. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria - Hungary on 23 May. Fifteen months later, Italy declared war on Germany.
The Italians had numerical superiority but this advantage was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which the fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna.
On the Trentino front, the Austro - Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen engaged Italian Alpini in bitter hand - to - hand combat throughout the summer. The Austro - Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress.
Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted eleven offensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo (Soča) River, northeast of Trieste. All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro - Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, after the Battle of Doberdò, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives, centred on the Banjšice and Karst Plateau east of Gorizia.
The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at Caporetto (Kobarid). The Italian Army was routed and retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) to reorganise, stabilising the front at the Piave River. Since the Italian Army had suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian Government called to arms the so - called ' 99 Boys (Ragazzi del ' 99): that is, all males born 1899 and prior, and so were 18 years old or older. In 1918, the Austro - Hungarians failed to break through in a series of battles on the Piave and were finally decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. On 1 November, the Italian Navy destroyed much of the Austro - Hungarian fleet stationed in Pula, preventing it from being handed over to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 3 November, the Italians invaded Trieste from the sea. On the same day, the Armistice of Villa Giusti was signed. By mid-November 1918, the Italian military occupied the entire former Austrian Littoral and had seized control of the portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the London Pact. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy 's Governor of Dalmatia. Austria - Hungary surrendered on 11 November 1918.
Romania had been allied with the Central Powers since 1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria - Hungary had itself declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania Transylvania and Banat, large territories of eastern Hungary, in exchange for Romania 's declaring war on the Central Powers, the Romanian government renounced its neutrality. On 27 August 1916, the Romanian Army launched an attack against Austria - Hungary, with limited Russian support. The Romanian offensive was initially successful, against the Austro - Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but a counterattack by the forces of the Central Powers drove them back. As a result of the Battle of Bucharest, the Central Powers occupied Bucharest on 6 December 1916. Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917, resulting in a costly stalemate for the Central Powers. Russian withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to sign an armistice with the Central Powers on 9 December 1917.
In January 1918, Romanian forces established control over Bessarabia as the Russian Army abandoned the province. Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian and the Bolshevik Russian governments following talks between 5 and 9 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March 1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, formally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly of that territory on its unification with Romania.
Romania officially made peace with the Central Powers by signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Under that treaty, Romania was obliged to end the war with the Central Powers and make small territorial concessions to Austria - Hungary, ceding control of some passes in the Carpathian Mountains, and to grant oil concessions to Germany. In exchange, the Central Powers recognised the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia. The treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government, and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compiègne. Total Romanian deaths from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000.
While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in East Europe. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and East Prussia. Although Russia 's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, it was driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. Russia 's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership were instrumental in the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated to Galicia, and, in May, the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland 's southern frontiers. On 5 August, they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland.
Despite Russia 's success with the June 1916 Brusilov Offensive in eastern Galicia, dissatisfaction with the Russian government 's conduct of the war grew. The offensive 's success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily by Romania 's entry into the war on 27 August. German forces came to the aid of embattled Austro - Hungarian units in Transylvania while a German - Bulgarian force attacked from the south, and Bucharest was retaken by the Central Powers on 6 December. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandra 's increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the end of 1916.
In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became increasingly ineffective.
Following the Tsar 's abdication, Vladimir Lenin was ushered by train from Switzerland into Russia 16 April 1917. He was financed by Jacob Schiff. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the Central Powers war effort.
With the adoption of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, the Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a small - scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources, and to a lesser extent, to support the "Whites '' (as opposed to the "Reds '') in the Russian Civil War. Allied troops landed in Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok as part of the North Russia Intervention.
The Czechoslovak Legion fought with the Entente; their goal was to win support for the independence of Czechoslovakia. The Legion in Russia was established in September 1914, in December 1917 in France (including volunteers from America) and in April 1918 in Italy. Czechoslovak Legion troops defeated the Austro - Hungarian army at the Ukrainian village of Zborov, in July 1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak legionaries increased, as well as Czechoslovak military power. In the Battle of Bakhmach, the Legion defeated the Germans and forced them to make a truce.
In Russia, they were heavily involved in the Russian Civil War, siding with the Whites against the Bolsheviks, at times controlling most of the Trans - Siberian railway and conquering all the major cities of Siberia. The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion near Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the Bolshevik execution of the Tsar and his family in July 1918. Legionaries arrived less than a week afterwards and captured the city. Because Russia 's European ports were not safe, the corps was evacuated by a long detour via the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American ship Heffron in September 1920.
In December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful offensive against Romania, the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. Soon after, the U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson, attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd George 's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson 's note as a separate effort, signalling that the United States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the "submarine outrages ''. While the Allies debated a response to Wilson 's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views ''. Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho - Slovaks, and the creation of a "free and united Poland ''. On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds that Germany had not put forward any specific proposals.
Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918.
The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann - Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. German planners estimated that unrestricted submarine warfare would cost Britain a monthly shipping loss of 600,000 tons. The General Staff acknowledged that the policy would almost certainly bring the United States into the conflict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced to sue for peace after 5 to 6 months, before American intervention could make an impact. In reality, tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the newly re-introduced convoy system became effective in reducing the U-boat threat. Britain was safe from starvation, while German industrial output fell and the United States joined the war far earlier than Germany had anticipated.
On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, the French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately implemented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to a further 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action. Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pétain, who suspended bloody large - scale attacks.
The victory of the Central Powers at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies to convene the Rapallo Conference at which they formed the Supreme War Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands.
In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, both sides became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory.
In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, through his wife 's brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. Italy opposed the proposals. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was revealed to Germany, resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe.
In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani. At the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby 's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba. Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem (1917). About this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army 's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders.
In early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attack by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. In March, most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's British infantry and Yeomanry cavalry were sent to the Western Front as a consequence of the Spring Offensive. They were replaced by Indian Army units. During several months of reorganisation and training of the summer, a number of attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman front line. These pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions for the Entente in preparation for an attack and to acclimatise the newly arrived Indian Army infantry. It was not until the middle of September that the integrated force was ready for large - scale operations.
The reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an additional mounted division, broke Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. In two days the British and Indian infantry, supported by a creeping barrage, broke the Ottoman front line and captured the headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at Tulkarm, the continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara and the Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the break in the front line created by the infantry and, during virtually continuous operations by Australian Light Horse, British mounted Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and New Zealand Mounted Rifle brigades in the Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin, along with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa east of the Jordan River on the Hejaz railway. Samakh and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, were captured on the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytor 's Force of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted rifles, Indian, British West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan River, Es Salt, Amman and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire). The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October, ended hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when fighting was continuing north of Aleppo.
On or shortly before 15 August 1917 Pope Benedict XV made a peace proposal suggesting:
At the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President Woodrow Wilson insisted that "America is too proud to fight '' but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that the United States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as "piracy ''. Wilson was narrowly reelected in 1916 after campaigning with the slogan "he kept us out of war ''.
In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry. The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germany 's ally against the United States. In return, the Germans would finance Mexico 's war and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The United Kingdom intercepted the message and presented it to the U.S. embassy in the U.K. From there it made its way to President Wilson who released the Zimmermann note to the public, and Americans saw it as casus belli. Wilson called on antiwar elements to end all wars, by winning this one and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued that the war was so important that the U.S. had to have a voice in the peace conference. After the sinking of seven U.S. merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the U.S. Congress declared on 6 April 1917.
The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self - styled "Associated Power ''. The United States had a small army, but, after the passage of the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men, and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the U.S. Congress granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans to allow them to be drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones -- Shafroth Act. German General Staff assumptions that it would be able to defeat the British and French forces before American troops reinforced them were proven incorrect.
The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of U.S. Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up American units to be used as filler material. As an exception, he did allow African - American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, and earned a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château - Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault. AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders due to the large loss of life that resulted.
Ludendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to end the war before significant U.S. forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces near Saint - Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).
British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive of 1918, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.
The front moved to within 120 kilometres (75 mi) of Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell - torn and often impassable to traffic.
General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops as individual replacements, whereas Pershing sought to field American units as an independent force. These units were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the Allied forces. Haig, Petain, and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a coordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and U.S. commands operated largely independently.
Following Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) 15 July, in an attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counterattack, which started the Hundred Days Offensive, marked the first successful Allied offensive of the war.
By 20 July, the Germans had retreated across the Marne to their starting lines, having achieved little, and the German Army never regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained storm troopers.
Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti-war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. Industrial output was half the 1913 levels.
In the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed in the South Caucasus: the First Republic of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence from the Russian Empire. Two other minor entities were established, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic (the former was liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint Armenian - British task force in early 1919). With the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 1917 -- 18, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity was briefly maintained when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring of 1918, but this collapsed in May, when the Georgians asked for and received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend for itself and struggled for five months against the threat of a full - fledged occupation by the Ottoman Turks before defeating them at the Battle of Sardarabad.
The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918, with the Battle of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and 120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by the end of its first day a gap 24 kilometres (15 mi) long had been created in the German lines. The defenders displayed a marked collapse in morale, causing Ludendorff to refer to this day as the "Black Day of the German army ''. After an advance as far as 23 kilometres (14 mi), German resistance stiffened, and the battle was concluded on 12 August.
Rather than continuing the Amiens battle past the point of initial success, as had been done so many times in the past, the Allies shifted their attention elsewhere. Allied leaders had now realised that to continue an attack after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began to undertake attacks in quick order to take advantage of successful advances on the flanks, then broke them off when each attack lost its initial impetus.
British and Dominion forces launched the next phase of the campaign with the Battle of Albert on 21 August. The assault was widened by French and then further British forces in the following days. During the last week of August the Allied pressure along a 110 - kilometre (68 mi) front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, "Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an ever and again on - storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in retirements to new lines. ''
Faced with these advances, on 2 September the German Supreme Army Command issued orders to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line in the south. This ceded without a fight the salient seized the previous April. According to Ludendorff "We had to admit the necessity... to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle.
September saw the Allies advance to the Hindenburg Line in the north and centre. The Germans continued to fight strong rear - guard actions and launched numerous counterattacks on lost positions, but only a few succeeded, and those only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights, and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September an assault by both the British and French came within 3 kilometres (2 mi) of St. Quentin. The Germans had now retreated to positions along or behind the Hindenburg Line.
In nearly four weeks of fighting beginning on 8 August, over 100,000 German prisoners were taken. As of "The Black Day of the German Army '', the German High Command realised that the war was lost and made attempts to reach a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludendorff said: "We can not win the war any more, but we must not lose it either. '' On 11 August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it, replying, "I see that we must strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended. '' On 13 August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, the Chancellor, and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended militarily and, on the following day, the German Crown Council decided that victory in the field was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned that they could only continue the war until December, and Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden: "Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier. '' On 10 September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria, and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace offer to Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected, and on 24 September Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable.
The final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse - Argonne Offensive, launched by French and American troops on 26 September. The following week, cooperating French and American units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier. On 8 October the line was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the Battle of Cambrai. The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear - guard actions as it fell back towards Germany.
When Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 September, Ludendorff, having been under great stress for months, suffered something similar to a breakdown. It was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence.
News of Germany 's impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valour '' of the German Navy. Knowing the government of Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel. Many, refusing to be part of a naval offensive, which they believed to be suicidal, rebelled and were arrested. Ludendorff took the blame; the Kaiser dismissed him on 26 October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. Its reserves had been used up, even as U.S. troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day. The Americans supplied more than 80 % of Allied oil during the war, and there was no shortage.
With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. There was no resistance when the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. The Kaiser, kings and other hereditary rulers all were removed from power and Wilhelm fled to exile in the Netherlands. Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born as the Weimar Republic.
The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, on 29 September 1918 at Saloniki. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.
On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro - Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro - Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria - Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an armistice (Armistice of Villa Giusti). The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy. In the following days the Italian Army occupied Innsbruck and all Tyrol with 20 to 22,000 soldiers.
On 11 November, at 5: 00 am, an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. At 11 am on 11 November 1918 -- "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month '' -- a ceasefire came into effect. During the six hours between the signing of the armistice and its taking effect, opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, but fighting continued along many areas of the front, as commanders wanted to capture territory before the war ended.
The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the Armistice. The occupying armies consisted of American, Belgian, British and French forces.
In November 1918, the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel to invade Germany. Yet at the time of the armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German frontier; the Western Front was still some 720 kilometres (450 mi) from Berlin; and the Kaiser 's armies had retreated from the battlefield in good order. These factors enabled Hindenburg and other senior German leaders to spread the story that their armies had not really been defeated. This resulted in the stab - in - the - back legend, which attributed Germany 's defeat not to its inability to continue fighting (even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu pandemic and unfit to fight), but to the public 's failure to respond to its "patriotic calling '' and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks.
The Allies had much more potential wealth they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 U.S. dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, the UK spent $21 billion and the U.S. $17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion.
In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German, Austro - Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian. Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties, together with their ancillary aristocracies, all fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected.
A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it, and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox -- Porter Resolution was signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding. For the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 with respect to:
After the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife, and a final peace treaty between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923, at Lausanne.
Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned to their home countries; by contrast, most commemorations of the war 's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces left Constantinople on 23 August 1923.
After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building on Wilson 's 14th point, brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.
The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by '' their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement was Article 231. This article became known as the War Guilt clause as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful. Overall the Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the "diktat of Versailles ''. German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated. '' Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasizes the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:
Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the "stab in the back '' and the wish to revise the "Versailles diktat '', and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as (Gustav) Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanize the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its own policies.
Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbors. The Peace Conference required all the defeated powers to pay reparations for all the damage done to civilians. However, owing to economic difficulties and Germany being the only defeated power with an intact economy, the burden fell largely on Germany.
Austria - Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint - Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54 % of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, only 32 % of its territory was left to Hungary. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918.
The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, with much of its Levant territory awarded to various Allied powers as protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much less stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.
Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation '' and the country with the most casualties per capita, became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.
In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations ' "Baptism of Fire ''. It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates this defining moment.
After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation "forged from fire ''. Having succeeded on the same battleground where the "mother countries '' had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure of independence. When Britain declared war in 1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Versailles.
The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli -- Palestinian conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East that resulted from World War I. Before the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. With the fall of the Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. The political boundaries drawn by the victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. These continue to be problematic in the 21st - century struggles for national identity. While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the Arab - Israeli conflict, the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources.
The war had profound consequences on the health of soldiers. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized from 1914 to 1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1 % of its active male population, Austria - Hungary lost 17.1 %, and France lost 10.5 %. In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease. By the end of the war, starvation caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Between 5 and 10 million people died in the Russian famine of 1921. By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920 -- 1922. Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States.
The Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, Lloyd George, "You have assured us that you can not get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies. '' Australia received ₤ 5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been ₤ 376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were ₤ 831,280,947. Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.
Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse - borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia. From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus. In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted malaria, a sharp increase from the pre-war years. In addition, a major influenza epidemic spread around the world. Overall, the 1918 flu pandemic killed at least 50 million people.
Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British government 's Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in Austria - Hungary and 450,000 in Tsarist Russia.
The social disruption and widespread violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in Ukraine. An estimated 60,000 -- 200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities.
In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek Genocide.
World War I began as a clash of 20th - century technology and 19th - century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks, and aircraft. Infantry formations were reorganised, so that 100 - man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre; instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favoured.
Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone. Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries.
Germany was far ahead of the Allies in using heavy indirect fire. The German Army employed 150 mm (6 in) and 210 mm (8 in) howitzers in 1914, when typical French and British guns were only 75 mm (3 in) and 105 mm (4 in). The British had a 6 - inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. The Germans also fielded Austrian 305 mm (12 in) and 420 mm (17 in) guns and, even at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench warfare.
In 1917, on 27 June the Germans used their biggest gun of the world Batterie Pommern, nicknamed "Lange Max ''. This gun from Krupp was able to shoot 750 kg shells from Koekelare to Dunkirk, which is about 50 km away.
Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which hundreds often died for each metre gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during World War I. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans employed the Haber process of nitrogen fixation to provide their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite the British naval blockade. Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with improvements, still in use today.
Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! -- An ecstasy of fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime... Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.
The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Few war casualties were caused by gas, as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. The use of chemical warfare and small - scale strategic bombing were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, though they captured the public imagination.
The most powerful land - based weapons were railway guns, weighing dozens of tons apiece. The German ones were nicknamed Big Berthas, even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris from over 100 kilometres (62 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb).
Trenches, machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The British and the French sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British first tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability was an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds, and they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French introduced the first tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT, which became a decisive tool of the victory. The conflict also saw the introduction of light automatic weapons and submachine guns, such as the Lewis Gun, the Browning automatic rifle, and the Bergmann MP18.
Another new weapon, the flamethrower, was first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, the flamethrower was a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on the battlefield.
Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for automobiles and trucks / lorries eventually rendered trench railways obsolete.
On the Western Front neither side made impressive gains in the first three years of the war with attacks at Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele, and Cambrai -- the exception was Nivelle 's Offensive in which the German defense gave ground while mauling the attackers so badly that there were mutinies in the French Army. In 1918 the Germans smashed through the defense lines in three great attacks: Michael, on the Lys, and on the Aisne, which displayed the power of their new tactics. The Allies struck back at Soissons which showed the Germans that they must return to the defensive, and at Amiens; tanks played a prominent role in both of these assaults, as they had the year before at Cambrai.
The areas in the East were larger. The Germans did well at the First Masurian Lakes driving the invaders from East Prussia, and at Riga which led to the Russian 's suing for peace. The Austro - Hungarians and Germans joined for a great success at Gorlice -- Tarnów which drove the Russians out of Poland. In a series of attacks along with the Bulgarians they occupied Serbia, Albania, Montenegro and most of Romania. The Allies successes came later in Palestine (the beginning of the end for the Ottomans), in Macedonia (which drove the Bulgarians out of the war), and at Vittorio Veneto (the final blow for the Austro - Hungarians)).
The area occupied in East by the Central powers on 11 November 1918 was 1,042,600 km2, roughly the size of Columbia.
Germany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Kaiserliche Marine employed them to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter - killer submarines (HMS R - 1, 1917), forward - throwing anti-submarine weapons, and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need.
Fixed - wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo - Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914, their military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918.
Manned observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes, so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output), and smaller versions were not developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice.
Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To defend them against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air - to - air rockets were tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps and balloons contributed to the development of air - to - air combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France.
On 19 August 1915, the German submarine U-27 was sunk by the British Q - ship HMS Baralong. All German survivors were summarily executed by Baralong 's crew on the orders of Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the captain of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American citizens who were on board the Nicosia, a British freighter loaded with war supplies, which was stopped by U-27 just minutes before the incident.
On 24 September, Baralong destroyed U-41, which was in the process of sinking the cargo ship Urbino. According to Karl Goetz, the submarine 's commander, Baralong continued to fly the U.S. flag after firing on U-41 and then rammed the lifeboat -- carrying the German survivors -- sinking it.
The Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U-86 on 27 June 1918 in violation of international law. Only 24 of the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew survived. Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and ran down the lifeboats, machine - gunning survivors in the water. The U-boat captain, Helmut Patzig, was charged with war crimes in Germany following the war, but escaped prosecution by going to the Free City of Danzig, beyond the jurisdiction of German courts.
The first successful use of poison gas as a weapon of warfare occurred during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April -- 25 May 1915). Gas was soon used by all major belligerents throughout the war. It is estimated that the use of chemical weapons employed by both sides throughout the war had inflicted 1.3 million casualties. For example, the British had over 180,000 chemical weapons casualties during the war, and up to one - third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War I. The use of chemical weapons in warfare was in direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use.
The effect of poison gas was not limited to combatants. Civilians were at risk from the gases as winds blew the poison gases through their towns, and rarely received warnings or alerts of potential danger. In addition to absent warning systems, civilians often did not have access to effective gas masks. An estimated 100,000 -- 260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands more (along with military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew such weapons would cause major harm to civilians but nonetheless continued to use them. British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary, "My officers and I were aware that such weapons would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common in the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all. ''
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire 's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide. The Ottomans carried out organized and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and portrayed deliberately provoked acts of Armenian resistance as rebellions to justify further extermination. In early 1915, a number of Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorized the deportation of Armenians from the Empire 's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to death and a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands. While an exact number of deaths is unknown, the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates 1.5 million. The government of Turkey has consistently denied the genocide, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War I; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.
Many pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War. 60,000 -- 200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present - day Ukraine).
The German invaders treated any resistance -- such as sabotaging rail lines -- as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were potential francs - tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near - random large - scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000 -- 20,000 buildings -- most famously the university library at Louvain -- and generated a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention in the United States, while Berlin said it was both lawful and necessary because of the threat of franc - tireurs like those in France in 1870. The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.
The British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves. Grouping together, they formed "veterans ' associations '' or "Legions ''. A small number of personal accounts of American veterans have been collected by the Library of Congress Veterans History Project.
About eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of their peers at the front. Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usually surrendered en masse. At the siege of Maubeuge about 40,000 French soldiers surrendered, at the battle of Galicia Russians took about 100,000 to 120,000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Offensive about 325,000 to 417,000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, and at the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at the battle near Przasnysz (February -- March 1915) 14,000 Germans surrendered to Russians, and at the First Battle of the Marne about 12,000 Germans surrendered to the Allies. 25 -- 31 % of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria - Hungary 32 %, for Italy 26 %, for France 12 %, for Germany 9 %; for Britain 7 %. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5 -- 3.5 million men as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.2 -- 2.9 million; while Britain and France held about 720,000. Most were captured just before the Armistice. The United States held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. Once prisoners reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15 -- 20 % of the prisoners in Russia died and in Central Powers imprisonment -- 8 % of Russians. In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5 % died.
The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity. Although many were in a poor condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia. A survivor said: "We were driven along like beasts; to drop out was to die. '' The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains.
In Russia, when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro - Hungarian army were released in 1917, they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War.
While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced labor, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council. German prisoners were still being held in Russia as late as 1924.
Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern "embedded '' positions within the opposing land and naval forces.
In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria - Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London; Trumbić led the Committee. In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self - determination for the peoples residing within Austria - Hungary.
In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman - controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence.
In East Africa, Iyasu V of Ethiopia was supporting the Dervish state who were at war with the British in the Somaliland Campaign. Von Syburg, the German envoy in Addis Ababa, said, "now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size. '' The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World War I on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu 's overthrow due to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy.
A number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for war. Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries ' intervention in the war.
Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism. Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati. However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week. The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian - populated regions of Austria - Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action '') in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism. Mussolini 's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.
Once war was declared, many socialists and trade unions backed their governments. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany.
Benedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months into World War I, made the war and its consequences the main focus of his early pontificate. In stark contrast to his predecessor, five days after his election he spoke of his determination to do what he could to bring peace. His first encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1 November 1914, was concerned with this subject. Benedict XV found his abilities and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with Italy to ignore papal peace moves towards the Central Powers. Consequently, the publication of Benedict 's proposed seven - point Peace Note of August 1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except Austria - Hungary.
In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Officers ' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army, Lord Kitchener, was to review the cadets, but the imminence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith - Dorrien was sent instead. He surprised the two - or - three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present),
that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust -- probably not more than one - quarter of us -- learned how right the General 's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it.
Voicing these sentiments did not hinder Smith - Dorrien 's career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War I to the best of his abilities.
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed "disloyal ''. Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors, and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic.
A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part. The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912 and, by July 1914, there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain. The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising; although, once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in the Conscription Crisis of 1918.
Other opposition came from conscientious objectors -- some socialist, some religious -- who refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Henry Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service. Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply ''.
The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service.
In 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned.
In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people arrested.
In September 1917, Russian soldiers in France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all and mutinied. In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land, and peace ''. The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany, the peace of Brest - Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions.
In northern Germany, the end of October 1918 saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large - scale operation in a war they saw as good as lost; this initiated the uprising. The sailors ' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Conscription was common in most European countries. However it was controversial in English speaking countries. It was especially unpopular among minority ethnic groups -- especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland and Australia, and the French Catholics in Canada.
In Canada the issue produced a major political crisis that permanently alienated the Francophones. It opened a political gap between French Canadians, who believed their true loyalty was to Canada and not to the British Empire, and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the war as a duty to their British heritage.
In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Billy Hughes, the Prime Minister, caused a split in the Australian Labor Party, so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Farmers, the labour movement, the Catholic Church, and the Irish Catholics successfully opposed Hughes ' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites.
In Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly every physically fit man in Britain -- six of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.
The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause, or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, there were multiple peace proposals coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far.
... "Strange, friend, '' I said, "Here is no cause to mourn. '' "None, '' said the other, "Save the undone years ''...
The War was an unprecedented triumph for natural science. (Francis) Bacon had promised that knowledge would be power, and power it was: power to destroy the bodies and souls of men more rapidly than had ever been done by human agency before. This triumph paved the way to other triumphs: improvements in transport, in sanitation, in surgery, medicine, and psychiatry, in commerce and industry, and, above all, in preparations for the next war.
The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities, and is still underway, more than a century later.
Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalization of politics, race, and the male body. Furthermore, new research has revised our understanding of five major topics that historians have long debated. These are: Why did the war begin? Why did the Allies win? Were the generals to blame for the high casualty rates? How did the soldiers endure the horrors of trench warfare? To what extent did the civilian homefront accept and endorse the war effort?
Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.
In 1915 John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day.
National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921, when the supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people.
The UK Government has budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum. On 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany 's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war.
World War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed. Historian Samuel Hynes explained:
A generation of innocent young men, their heads full of high abstractions like Honour, Glory and England, went off to war to make the world safe for democracy. They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not the Germans, but the old men at home who had lied to them. They rejected the values of the society that had sent them to war, and in doing so separated their own generation from the past and from their cultural inheritance.
This has become the most common perception of World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King & Country have perpetuated the idea, while war - time films including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war - time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. Several historians like John Terraine, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views:
These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World War I. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a ' fight about nothing ', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory.
Though these views have been discounted as "myths '', they are common. They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as "aimless '' following the contrasting Second World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected.
The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate.
The optimism of la belle époque was destroyed, and those who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost Generation. For years afterwards, people mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled. Many soldiers returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to posttraumatic stress disorder). Many more returned home with few after - effects; however, their silence about the war contributed to the conflict 's growing mythological status. Though many participants did not share in the experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma became the widely shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually incorrect.
The rise of Nazism and Fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the stab - in - the - back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The widespread acceptance of the "stab - in - the - back '' theory delegitimized the Weimar government and destabilized the system, opening it to extremes of right and left.
Communist and fascist movements around Europe drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity by using German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles. World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I. Furthermore, it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World War I. American historian William Rubinstein wrote that:
The ' Age of Totalitarianism ' included nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the Armenian Genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central, eastern and southern Europe as a result of World War I, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots.
One of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. To harness all the power of their societies, governments created new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war effort; many have lasted to this day. Similarly, the war strained the abilities of some formerly large and bureaucratised governments, such as in Austria - Hungary and Germany.
Gross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and the United States), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire ranged between 30 % and 40 %. In Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at war 's end there was no meat.
In all nations, the government 's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50 % in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great increase in U.S. government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the U.S. demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion of World War I debt in 1934, the last installment was finally paid in 2015
Macro - and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women.
World War I further compounded the gender imbalance, adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million: from 670,000 to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demobilised men displaced many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of the wartime factories.
In Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and margarine), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million.
Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so - called "war guilt '' clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. '' It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt. '' In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay '' this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being "deliberately designed to be chimerical '' and its "primary function was to mislead public opinion... into believing the "total sum was being maintained. '' Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay '' and "therefore... represented the total German reparations '' figure that had to be paid.
This figure could be paid in cash or in kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lost -- via the treaty of Versailles -- was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain. By 1929, the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the world. In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had only paid the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks in reparations. With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled. David Andelman notes "refusing to pay does n't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist. '' Thus, following the Second World War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds.
The war contributed to the evolution of the wristwatch from women 's jewelry to a practical everyday item, replacing the pocketwatch, which requires a free hand to operate. Military funding of advancements in radio contributed to the postwar popularity of the medium.
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famous circular landmarks located on the salisbury plain of england | Salisbury plain - wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 09 ′ 18 '' N 1 ° 48 ′ 32 '' W / 51.155 ° N 1.809 ° W / 51.155; - 1.809
Salisbury Plain is a chalk plateau in the south western part of central southern England covering 300 square miles (780 km). It is part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England formed by the rocks of the Chalk Group and largely lies within the county of Wiltshire, but also stretching into Berkshire and Hampshire. The plain is famous for its rich archaeology, including Stonehenge, one of England 's best known landmarks. Largely as a result of the establishment of the Defence Training Estate Salisbury Plain (DTE SP), the plain is sparsely populated and is the largest remaining area of calcareous grassland in north - west Europe. Additionally the plain has arable land, and a few small areas of beech trees and coniferous woodland. Its highest point is Easton Hill.
The boundaries of Salisbury Plain have never been truly defined, and there is some difference of opinion as to its exact area. The river valleys surrounding it, and other downs and plains beyond them loosely define its boundaries. To the north the scarp of the downs overlooks the Vale of Pewsey, and to the north west the Bristol Avon. The River Wylye runs along the south west, and the Bourne runs to the east. The Hampshire Avon runs through the eastern half of the plain and to the south the plain peters out as the river valleys close together before meeting at Salisbury. From here the Avon continues south to the English Channel at Christchurch. The Hampshire Downs and the Berkshire Downs are chalk downland to the east and north of Salisbury Plain, and the Dorset Downs is to the south west. In the west and north west the geology is mainly of the clays and limestones of the Blackmore Vale, Avon Vale and Vale of Wardour.
Amesbury is considered the largest settlement on the plain, though there are a number of small villages, such as Tilshead, Chitterne and Shrewton in the middle of the plain, as well as various hamlets and army camps. The A303 road runs along the southern area of the plain, while the A345 and the A360 cut across the centre.
Salisbury Plain is famous for its history and archaeology. In the Neolithic period Stone Age man began to settle on the plain, most likely centred around the causewayed enclosure of Robin Hood 's Ball. Large long barrows like White Barrow and other earthworks were built across the plain. By 2500 BC areas around Durrington Walls and Stonehenge had become a focus for building, and the southern part of the plain continued to be settled into the Bronze Age.
Around 600 BC Iron Age Hill forts came to be constructed around the boundaries of the plain, including Scratchbury Camp and Battlesbury Camp to the south west, Bratton Camp to the north west, Casterley Camp to the north, Yarnbury and Vespasian 's Camp to the south, and Sidbury Hill to the east.
Roman roads are visible features, probably serving a settlement near Old Sarum. Villas are sparse, however, and Anglo - Saxon place names suggest that the plain was mostly a grain - producing imperial estate.
In the 6th century Anglo - Saxon incomers built planned settlements in the valleys surrounded by strip lynchets, with the downland left as sheep pasture. To the south is the city of Salisbury, whose 13th and 14th century cathedral is famous for having the tallest spire in the country, and the building was, for many centuries, the tallest building in Britain. The cathedral is evidence of the prosperity the wool and cloth trade brought to the area. In the mid-19th century the wool and cloth industry began to decline, leading to a decline in the population and change in land use from sheep farming to agriculture and military use. Wiltshire became one of the poorest counties in England during this period of decline.
There are a number of chalk carvings on the plain, of which the most famous is the Westbury White Horse. The Kennet and Avon Canal was constructed to the north of the plain, through the Vale of Pewsey.
In September 1896, George Kemp and Guglielmo Marconi experimented with wireless telegraphy on Salisbury Plain, and achieved good results over a distance of 1.25 miles (2.0 km).
Media related to Army Training Estate Salisbury Plain at Wikimedia Commons
The military training area covers roughly half of the plain. The army first conducted exercises on the plain in 1898. From that time, the Ministry of Defence bought up large areas of land until the Second World War. The MoD now own 150 square miles (390 km) of land, making it the largest military training area in the United Kingdom. Of this, around 39 square miles (100 km) are permanently closed to the public, and access is greatly restricted in other areas. As of 2016, the largest camps and barracks are at Larkhill, Bulford, Tidworth, Trenchard Lines (Upavon) and Warminster.
Several installations have been built and since removed, including a railway line and aerodrome that were constructed next to Stonehenge. In 1943 the village of Imber and the hamlet of Hinton Parva were evacuated to allow training for Operation Overlord to be conducted. Whilst the inhabitants of Hinton Parva were allowed to return at the end of hostilities, Imber village has remained closed, except for an annual church service and some bank holidays.
The Royal School of Artillery is based at Larkhill, and live firing is conducted on the plain for approximately 340 days of each year. Military personnel from the UK and around the world spend some 600,000 - man days on the plain every year.
The DTE SP is located close to other military facilities including the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory at Porton Down (much of whose work is secret), Boscombe Down airfield and Middle Wallop Army Air Corps Base, where pilots train on the Westland Apache.
20,000 hectares are designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest and Special Areas of Conservation, and the entire SP is a Special Protection Area for birds.
BFBS Radio broadcasts from studios on Marlborough Road, Bulford, on DAB, FM and satellite channels.
Because of the large training areas inaccessible to the public, the plain is a wildlife haven, and home to two national nature reserves, but there is concern that the low level of grazing on the plain could allow scrub to encroach on the grassland. The plain supports the largest known expanse of unimproved chalk downland in north west Europe, and represents 41 % of Britain 's remaining area of this wildlife habitat. The plain supports 13 species of nationally rare and scarce plants, 67 species of rare and scarce invertebrates and forms a site of international importance for birds. In addition to chalk downland, the plain supports scrub and woodland habitats, temporary and permanent pools and the River Winterbourne.
A diversity of soil types, slope, aspect and past and present land - use has given rise to various grassland communities. Historical evidence suggests that large areas of grassland are of great antiquity, and areas which were cultivated at the beginning of the 20th century have experienced nearly 100 years of chalk grassland re-colonisation. Parts of East Salisbury Plain and the periphery of Central and West comprise areas of grassland currently managed for grazing pasture and hay - cutting, whilst the middle of Centre and West are ungrazed. A large proportion of Salisbury Plain supports upright brome (Bromus erectus) species - rich grassland, within which a continuous floristic variation is seen. A widespread type on the plain is characterised by an abundance of red fescue (Festuca rubra), crested hair - grass (Koeleria macrantha), salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor), lady 's bedstraw (Galium verum), rough hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus), common rock - rose (Helianthemum nummularium) and dropwort (Filipendula vulgaris). The high constancy of this last species is a distinctive feature of the upright brome grasslands on Salisbury Plain and is otherwise only known from one other site in Hampshire. Where upright brome is less dominating, plants such as small scabiosa (Scabiosa columbaria), clustered bellflower (Campanula glomerata), dyer 's greenweed (Genista tinctoria), kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria), sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and horseshoe vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) are characteristic associates.
The rare and notable plants which occur here include burnt - tip orchid (Neotinea ustulata), slender bedstraw (Galium pumilum), field fleawort (Senecio integrifolius) and the nationally scarce British endemic early gentian (Gentianella anglica). Particularly associated with long established turf on thin rendzina soils, and rabbit - grazed areas of the eastern and central ranges, are low - growing perennials including squinancy - wort (Asperula cynanchica), chalk milkwort (Polygala calcarea), dwarf thistle (Cirsium acaule), wild thyme (Thymus praecox), the nationally scarce bastard toadflax (Thesium humifusum) and purple milk - vetch (Astragalus danicus) in its most southerly British station.
Devil 's - bit scabious (Succisa pratensis), saw - wort (Serratula tinctoria) and betony (Stachys officinalis) are all abundant and exemplify the oceanic character of the chalk grassland on the plain, a feature which is confined to South West England. Similarly restricted is a community in which dwarf sedge Carex humilis forms a conspicuous component. This type of grassland has its stronghold in Wiltshire and occurs on the less disturbed areas of the central ranges. Herb diversity is generally lower in the tall, upright brome - dominated swards, but wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium) and greater knapweed (Centaurea scabiosa) are characteristic. Parasitic on the latter species is knapweed broomrape (Orobanche elatior), occurring in greater quantity on the plain than anywhere else in Britain. False - oat grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) grassland is also widespread, but is particularly a feature of the western ranges, often indicating areas of past cultivation.
On anthills, and in the more disturbed turf that is especially a feature of the impact area, mouse - ear hawkweed (Hieracium pilosella) is abundant together with sheep 's fescue (Festuca ovina) and wild thyme. Annuals are also characteristic of this habitat, including common whitlowgrass (Erophila verna), rue - leaved saxifrage (Saxifraga tridactylites,) hairy rock - cress (Arabis hirsuta) and the nationally scarce dwarf mouse - ear (Cerastium pumilum) and fine - leaved sandwort (Minuartia hybrida). A very local community characterised by a lichen - rich turf (Cladonia species) and the broom moss (Dicranum scoparium) is found in some stabilised missile - impaction craters on the central ranges. This vegetation type is found elsewhere only on Porton Down SSSI and on the Brecklands.
Small areas of chalk - heath vegetation occur on superficial clay - with - flints deposits. Here chalk - loving plants such as salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor) and dropwort co-exist with plants typical of acid soils, including gorse (Ulex europaeus), heather (Calluna vulgaris) and the uncommon annual knawel (Scleranthus annuus). Two Red Data Book (RDB) plants occur on the plain. The largest population in Britain of tuberous thistle (Cirsium tuberosum) occurs on the western ranges and is notable for the low incidence of hybridisation with dwarf thistle, a contributory cause of its decline in other localities. Meadow clary (Salvia pratensis) persists as a small colony in tall upright brome grassland.
Salisbury Plain supports a diverse bryophyte flora with seven nationally scarce species which have seen a general decline in other chalk grassland sites, including Barbula acuta, Phascum curvicolle, Pleurochaete squarrosa, Thuidium abietinum and Weissia sterilis.
Although there is some scrub development on the plain, it is remarkable that large expanses of the chalk grassland remain open with very little invasion of woody species. Of particular interest are the large stands of juniper (Juniperus communis) on Bulford Downs and Beacon Hill. Both pyramidal and prostrate forms are present and this site, along with Porton Down SSSI to the south, supports the best remaining examples of the lowland type of juniper associated with chalk and mixed scrub in England.
The botanically and structurally diverse grasslands support a large range of rare and uncommon chalk downland invertebrates. Where abundance has been assessed strong populations of national and local importance are present, and the large area of habitat available to them is important in ensuring their survival.
The plain is an important stronghold for declining downland butterflies. A high concentration of colonies of three nationally scarce species, the Adonis blue (Polyommatus bellargus), Duke of Burgundy (Hamearis lucina), and the largest population of marsh fritillary (Euphydryas aurinia) on the chalk, occur. A colony of brown hairstreak (Thecla betulae) is present on East Salisbury Plain at one of its two Wiltshire localities. Strong populations of other downland species such as chalkhill blue (Polyommatus coridon) and dark green fritillary (Argynnis aglaja) are found, and of note here is the occurrence of grayling (Hipparchia semele), a butterfly rarely found away from the coast.
An outstanding assemblage of two rare (RDB), 36 nationally scarce and two regionally notable moths are present, most of which are either chalk grassland specialists or are partly dependent on chalk grassland. The RDB species scarce forester (Adscita globulariae) is present, and amongst many species of nationally scarce moths are the cistus forester (Adscita geryon), six - belted clearwing (Bembecia scopigera), oblique striped (Phibalapteryx virgata), pimpernel pug (Eupithecia pimpinellata), shaded pug (Eupithecia subumbrata) and narrow - bordered bee hawk moth (Hemaris tityus). Larvae of these moths feed on the chalk grassland plants which are widespread on the plain. Other nationally scarce moths such as orange - tailed clearwing (Synanthedon anthraciniformis) depend on the associated scrub habitats.
The bee fauna is particularly rich in species which depend on chalk grassland. One of only two British populations of the endangered (RDB) mining bee Melitta dimidiata is present on the plain, and two other RDB species which occur are Andrena hattorfiana and its nest parasite the cuckoo bee Nomada armata. This is a rare inland site for the nationally scarce brown - banded carder bee (Bombus humilis), and the only lowland English site for the broken - belted bumblebee (Bombus soroeensis).
The Diptera (flies) include four RDB species which depend on chalk grassland, the picture - wing flies Chaetorellia loricata, Urophora solstitialis and Terellia vectensis and the hover fly Volucella inflata.
Recent observations have shown that Salisbury Plain is an important site for the RDB crustacean, the fairy shrimp Chirocephalus diaphanus which is dependent on temporary pools, a rare and declining habitat. On the plain this habitat requirement is met by numerous pools created by repeated tank movements along the earth tracks which cross the chalk grassland.
Other nationally scarce invertebrates occur within the Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets), Heteroptera (bugs) and Coleoptera (beetles), the latter group including a RDB soldier beetle, Cantharis fusca.
The area as a whole is of national and international importance for breeding and wintering birds. It supports seven species listed on Annex 1 of the EC Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds, populations of six species of Red Data bird and several species of candidate Red Data bird. Amongst the breeding birds three species are particularly noteworthy. Up to 20 pairs of stone curlew representing 12 % of the British population breed on the plain. The area accounts for approximately 20 % of breeding records for quail in Britain each year, and numbers of breeding Hobby are thought to exceed 1 % of the British population on a regular basis. Other important breeding species include buzzard, barn owl, long - eared owl, nightingale, stonechat, whinchat, wheatear, corn bunting and, on occasion, Montagu 's harrier.
The overall breeding assemblage is exceptionally diverse for a British dry grassland site. In winter the plain is an important area for foraging flocks of thrushes, finches and buntings. These, together with abundant small mammals are prey for wintering hen harrier, merlin and short - eared owl. Hen harriers occur in nationally significant numbers each winter, and the plain is an important winter roost for this species in southern England. In 2003 the great bustard was reintroduced into Britain on Salisbury Plain.
Other species of interest on Salisbury Plain include the great crested newt (Triturus cristatus). This newt occurs in dew ponds across the plain and in pools along the River Winterbourne, together with smooth newt (Triturus vulgaris), common frog (Rana temporia) and common toad (Bufo bufo). Grass snake (Natrix natrix) are also often seen near pools, and common lizard (Lacerta vivipara), slowworm (Anguis fragilis) and adder (Vipera berus) are present.
The plain has featured in the writings of William Wordsworth, Thomas Hardy, William Henry Hudson, Herman Melville, A.G. Street and Edward Rutherfurd, and in the paintings of John Constable.
The folk song "Salisbury Plain '' - concerning highway robbery - was collected by Ralph Vaughan Williams in 1904.
It is used in the Beatles ' film Help!, in which the Beatles are portrayed as recording "The Night Before '' and "I Need You '' on Salisbury Field under the protection of British Army tanks and soldiers. It is also the setting of a scene in John Boorman 's film Catch Us If You Can (1965) when the film 's hero, pop star Dave Clark, encounters a group of sinister beatniks in a deserted village -- clearly identifiable as Imber -- used as target practice by the British Army.
In a Gilbert and Sullivan patter song, "When You 're Lying Awake '' from their 1882 operetta Iolanthe, the Lord Chancellor of England relates the nightmare from which he has just awoken, in which he found himself "crossing Salisbury Plain on a bicycle, '' together with his 11 - year - old attorney from Devon and the crew of "a steamer from Harwich ''.
The song "The Armadillo '' by Flanders and Swann is set on the plain. The singer encounters a lone armadillo while "taking compass bearings for the Ordnance Survey '' and finds the creature is seranading an "armour - plated tank... abandoned on manoeuvers '', having mistaken it for another armadillo.
Billy Bragg makes mention of Salisbury Plain in the song "Island of No Return ''.
Salisbury Plain is also marked as the location of a Piece of Eden in the video game Assassins Creed.
In the episode "One of Us '' of the British television series Yes, Prime Minister, a lost dog on Salisbury Plain becomes a crucial plot point.
The second Uriah Heep album, Salisbury is named after the plain, as is the closing track on the album. The original cover featured a Chieftain tank, emphasising the plain 's role as an Army training area.
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who is the greek god pan related to | Pan (god) - Wikipedia
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Pan (/ pæn /; Ancient Greek: Πάν, Pan) is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, nature of mountain wilds, rustic music and impromptus, and companion of the nymphs. He has the hindquarters, legs, and horns of a goat, in the same manner as a faun or satyr. With his homeland in rustic Arcadia, he is also recognized as the god of fields, groves, wooded glens and often affiliated with sex; because of this, Pan is connected to fertility and the season of spring. The ancient Greeks also considered Pan to be the god of theatrical criticism. The word panic ultimately derives from the god 's name.
In Roman religion and myth, Pan 's counterpart was Faunus, a nature god who was the father of Bona Dea, sometimes identified as Fauna; he was also closely associated with Sylvanus, due to their similar relationships with woodlands. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Pan became a significant figure in the Romantic movement of western Europe and also in the 20th - century Neopagan movement.
Many modern scholars consider Pan to be derived from the reconstructed Proto - Indo - European god * Péh usōn, whom these scholars believe to have been an important pastoral deity (* Péh usōn shares an origin with the modern English word "pasture ''). The Rigvedic god Pushan is believed to be a cognate of Pan. The connection between Pan and Pushan was first identified in 1924 by the German scholar Hermann Collitz. According to Edwin L. Brown, the name Pan is probably a cognate with the Greek word ὀπάων "companion ''.
In his earliest appearance in literature, Pindar 's Pythian Ode iii. 78, Pan is associated with a mother goddess, perhaps Rhea or Cybele; Pindar refers to maidens worshipping Cybele and Pan near the poet 's house in Boeotia.
The worship of Pan began in Arcadia which was always the principal seat of his worship. Arcadia was a district of mountain people, culturally separated from other Greeks. Arcadian hunters used to scourge the statue of the god if they had been disappointed in the chase.
Being a rustic god, Pan was not worshipped in temples or other built edifices, but in natural settings, usually caves or grottoes such as the one on the north slope of the Acropolis of Athens. These are often referred to as the Cave of Pan. The only exceptions are the Temple of Pan on the Neda River gorge in the southwestern Peloponnese -- the ruins of which survive to this day -- and the Temple of Pan at Apollonopolis Magna in ancient Egypt. In the 4th century BC Pan was depicted on the coinage of Pantikapaion.
The parentage of Pan is unclear; generally he is the son of Hermes, although occasionally in some myths he is the son of Zeus, or Dionysus, with whom his mother is said to be a wood nymph, sometimes Dryope or, even in the 5th - century AD source Dionysiaca by Nonnus (14.92), Penelope of Mantineia in Arcadia. In some early sources such as Pindar, his father is Apollo via Penelope, the wife of Odysseus. Herodotus (2.145), Cicero (ND 3.22. 56), Apollodorus (7.38) and Hyginus (Fabulae 224) all make Hermes and Penelope his parents. Pausanias 8.12. 5 records the story that Penelope had in fact been unfaithful to her husband, who banished her to Mantineia upon his return. Other sources (Duris of Samos; the Vergilian commentator Servius) report that Penelope slept with all 108 suitors in Odysseus ' absence, and gave birth to Pan as a result. This myth reflects the folk etymology that equates Pan 's name (Πάν) with the Greek word for "all '' (πᾶν).
In the mystery cults of the highly syncretic Hellenistic era, Pan is made cognate with Phanes / Protogonos, Zeus, Dionysus and Eros.
Accounts of Pan 's genealogy are so varied that it must lie buried deep in mythic time. Like other nature spirits, Pan appears to be older than the Olympians, if it is true that he gave Artemis her hunting dogs and taught the secret of prophecy to Apollo. Pan might be multiplied as the Pans (Burkert 1985, III. 3.2; Ruck and Staples, 1994, p. 132) or the Paniskoi. Kerenyi (p. 174) notes from scholia that Aeschylus in Rhesus distinguished between two Pans, one the son of Zeus and twin of Arcas, and one a son of Cronus. "In the retinue of Dionysos, or in depictions of wild landscapes, there appeared not only a great Pan, but also little Pans, Paniskoi, who played the same part as the Satyrs ''.
The goat - god Aegipan was nurtured by Amalthea with the infant Zeus in Crete. In Zeus ' battle with Typhon, Aegipan and Hermes stole back Zeus ' "sinews '' that Typhon had hidden away in the Corycian Cave. Pan aided his foster - brother in the battle with the Titans by letting out a horrible screech and scattering them in terror. According to some traditions, Aegipan was the son of Pan, rather than his father.
One of the famous myths of Pan involves the origin of his pan flute, fashioned from lengths of hollow reed. Syrinx was a lovely wood - nymph of Arcadia, daughter of Landon, the river - god. As she was returning from the hunt one day, Pan met her. To escape from his importunities, the fair nymph ran away and did n't stop to hear his compliments. He pursued from Mount Lycaeum until she came to her sisters who immediately changed her into a reed. When the air blew through the reeds, it produced a plaintive melody. The god, still infatuated, took some of the reeds, because he could not identify which reed she became, and cut seven pieces (or according to some versions, nine), joined them side by side in gradually decreasing lengths, and formed the musical instrument bearing the name of his beloved Syrinx. Henceforth Pan was seldom seen without it.
Echo was a nymph who was a great singer and dancer and scorned the love of any man. This angered Pan, a lecherous god, and he instructed his followers to kill her. Echo was torn to pieces and spread all over earth. The goddess of the earth, Gaia, received the pieces of Echo, whose voice remains repeating the last words of others. In some versions, Echo and Pan had two children: Iambe and Iynx. In other versions, Pan had fallen in love with Echo, but she scorned the love of any man but was enraptured by Narcissus. As Echo was cursed by Hera to only be able to repeat words that had been said by someone else, she could not speak for herself. She followed Narcissus to a pool, where he fell in love with his own reflection and changed into a narcissus flower. Echo wasted away, but her voice could still be heard in caves and other such similar places.
Pan also loved a nymph named Pitys, who was turned into a pine tree to escape him.
Disturbed in his secluded afternoon naps, Pan 's angry shout inspired panic (panikon deima) in lonely places. Following the Titans ' assault on Olympus, Pan claimed credit for the victory of the gods because he had frightened the attackers. In the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), it is said that Pan favored the Athenians and so inspired panic in the hearts of their enemies, the Persians.
Pan is famous for his sexual powers, and is often depicted with a phallus. Diogenes of Sinope, speaking in jest, related a myth of Pan learning masturbation from his father, Hermes, and teaching the habit to shepherds.
Pan 's greatest conquest was that of the moon goddess Selene. He accomplished this by wrapping himself in a sheepskin to hide his hairy black goat form, and drew her down from the sky into the forest where he seduced her.
In two late Roman sources, Hyginus and Ovid, Pan is substituted for the satyr Marsyas in the theme of a musical competition (agon), and the punishment by flaying is omitted.
Pan once had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the lyre, to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain - god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes and gave great satisfaction with his rustic melody to himself and to his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. Midas dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer and turned Midas ' ears into those of a donkey.
In another version of the myth, the first round of the contest was a tie, so the competitors were forced to hold a second round. In this round, Apollo demanded that they play their instruments upside - down. Apollo, playing the lyre, was unaffected. However, Pan 's pipe could not be played while upside down, so Apollo won the contest.
The constellation Capricornus is traditionally depicted as a sea - goat, a goat with a fish 's tail (see "Goatlike '' Aigaion called Briareos, one of the Hecatonchires). A myth reported as "Egyptian '' in Hyginus ' Poetic Astronomy that would seem to be invented to justify a connection of Pan with Capricorn says that when Aegipan -- that is Pan in his goat - god aspect -- was attacked by the monster Typhon, he dove into the Nile; the parts above the water remained a goat, but those under the water transformed into a fish.
Aegocerus "goat - horned '' was an epithet of Pan descriptive of his figure with the horns of a goat.
Pan could be multiplied into a swarm of Pans, and even be given individual names, as in Nonnus ' Dionysiaca, where the god Pan had twelve sons that helped Dionysus in his war against the Indians. Their names were Kelaineus, Argennon, Aigikoros, Eugeneios, Omester, Daphoenus, Phobos, Philamnos, Xanthos, Glaukos, Argos, and Phorbas.
Two other Pans were Agreus and Nomios. Both were the sons of Hermes, Agreus ' mother being the nymph Sose, a prophetess: he inherited his mother 's gift of prophecy, and was also a skilled hunter. Nomios ' mother was Penelope (not the same as the wife of Odysseus). He was an excellent shepherd, seducer of nymphs, and musician upon the shepherd 's pipes. Most of the mythological stories about Pan are actually about Nomios, not the god Pan. Although, Agreus and Nomios could have been two different aspects of the prime Pan, reflecting his dual nature as both a wise prophet and a lustful beast.
Aegipan, literally "goat - Pan, '' was a Pan who was fully goatlike, rather than half - goat and half - man. When the Olympians fled from the monstrous giant Typhoeus and hid themselves in animal form, Aegipan assumed the form of a fish - tailed goat. Later he came to the aid of Zeus in his battle with Typhoeus, by stealing back Zeus ' stolen sinews. As a reward the king of the gods placed him amongst the stars as the Constellation Capricorn. The mother of Aegipan, Aix (the goat), was perhaps associated with the constellation Capra.
Sybarios was an Italian Pan who was worshipped in the Greek colony of Sybaris in Italy. The Sybarite Pan was conceived when a Sybarite shepherd boy named Krathis copulated with a pretty she - goat amongst his herds.
According to the Greek historian Plutarch (in De defectu oraculorum, "The Obsolescence of Oracles ''), Pan is the only Greek god (other than Asclepius) who actually dies. During the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 14 -- 37), the news of Pan 's death came to one Thamus, a sailor on his way to Italy by way of the island of Paxi. A divine voice hailed him across the salt water, "Thamus, are you there? When you reach Palodes, take care to proclaim that the great god Pan is dead. '' Which Thamus did, and the news was greeted from shore with groans and laments.
Christian apologists such as G.K. Chesterton have repeated and amplified the significance of the "death '' of Pan, suggesting that with the "death '' of Pan came the advent of theology. To this effect, Chesterton once said, "It is said truly in a sense that Pan died because Christ was born. It is almost as true in another sense that men knew that Christ was born because Pan was already dead. A void was made by the vanishing world of the whole mythology of mankind, which would have asphyxiated like a vacuum if it had not been filled with theology. '' It was interpreted with concurrent meanings in all four modes of medieval exegesis: literally as historical fact, and allegorically as the death of the ancient order at the coming of the new. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Praeparatio Evangelica (book V) seems to have been the first Christian apologist to give Plutarch 's anecdote, which he identifies as his source, pseudo-historical standing, which Eusebius buttressed with many invented passing details that lent verisimilitude.
In more modern times, some have suggested a possible a naturalistic explanation for the myth. For example, Robert Graves (The Greek Myths) reported a suggestion that had been made by Salomon Reinach and expanded by James S. Van Teslaar that the sailors actually heard the excited shouts of the worshipers of Tammuz, Thamus Panmegas tethneke, "All - great Tammuz is dead! '', and misinterpreted them as a message directed to an Egyptian sailor named ' Thamus ': "Great Pan is Dead! '' Van Teslaar explains, "(i) n its true form the phrase would have probably carried no meaning to those on board who must have been unfamiliar with the worship of Tammuz which was a transplanted, and for those parts, therefore, an exotic custom. '' Certainly, when Pausanias toured Greece about a century after Plutarch, he found Pan 's shrines, sacred caves and sacred mountains still very much frequented. However, a naturalistic explanation might not be needed. For example, William Hansen has shown that the story is quite similar to a class of widely known tales known as Fairies Send a Message.
The cry "Great Pan is dead '' has appealed to poets, such as John Milton, in his ecstatic celebration of Christian peace, On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity line 89, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning.
One remarkable commentary of Herodotus on Pan is that he lived 800 years before himself (c. 1200 BCE), this being already after the Trojan War.
In the late 18th century, interest in Pan revived among liberal scholars. Richard Payne Knight discussed Pan in his Discourse on the Worship of Priapus (1786) as a symbol of creation expressed through sexuality. "Pan is represented pouring water upon the organ of generation; that is, invigorating the active creative power by the prolific element. ''
In the English town of Painswick in Gloucestershire, a group of 18th - century gentry, led by Benjamin Hyett, organised an annual procession dedicated to Pan, during which a statue of the deity was held aloft, and people shouted ' Highgates! Highgates! '' Hyett also erected temples and follies to Pan in the gardens of his house and a "Pan 's lodge '', located over Painswick Valley. The tradition died out in the 1830s, but was revived in 1885 by the new vicar, W.H. Seddon, who mistakenly believed that the festival had been ancient in origin. One of Seddon 's successors, however, was less appreciative of the pagan festival and put an end to it in 1950, when he had Pan 's statue buried.
John Keats 's "Endymion '' opens with a festival dedicated to Pan where a stanzaic hymn is sung in praise of him. "Keats 's account of Pan 's activities is largely drawn from the Elizabethan poets. Douglas Bush notes, ' The goat - god, the tutelary divinity of shepherds, had long been allegorized on various levels, from Christ to "Universall Nature '' (Sandys); here he becomes the symbol of the romantic imagination, of supra - mortal knowledge. ' ''
In the late 19th century Pan became an increasingly common figure in literature and art. Patricia Merivale states that between 1890 and 1926 there was an "astonishing resurgence of interest in the Pan motif ''. He appears in poetry, in novels and children 's books, and is referenced in the name of the character Peter Pan. In the Peter Pan stories, Peter represents a golden age of pre-civilisation in both the minds of very young children, before enculturation and education, and in the natural world outside the influence of humans. Peter Pan 's character is both charming and selfish emphasizing our cultural confusion about whether human instincts are natural and good, or uncivilised and bad. J.M. Barrie describes Peter as ' a betwixt and between ', part animal and part human, and uses this device to explore many issues of human and animal psychology within the Peter Pan stories.
He is the eponymous "Piper at the Gates of Dawn '' in the seventh chapter of Kenneth Grahame 's The Wind in the Willows (1908). Grahame 's Pan, unnamed but clearly recognisable, is a powerful but secretive nature - god, protector of animals, who casts a spell of forgetfulness on all those he helps. He makes a brief appearance to help the Rat and Mole recover the Otter 's lost son Portly.
Arthur Machen 's 1894 novella "The Great God Pan '' uses the god 's name in a simile about the whole world being revealed as it really is: "seeing the Great God Pan ''. The novella is considered by many (including Stephen King) as being one of the greatest horror stories ever written.
Pan entices villagers to listen to his pipes as if in a trance in Lord Dunsany 's novel The Blessing of Pan published in 1927. Although the god does not appear within the story, his energy certainly invokes the younger folk of the village to revel in the summer twilight, and the vicar of the village is the only person worried about the revival of worship for the old pagan god.
Pan is also featured as a prominent character in Tom Robbins ' Jitterbug Perfume (1984). Aeronautical engineer and occultist Jack Parsons invoked Pan before test launches at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
The British writer and editor Mark Beech of Egaeus Press published in 2015 the limited - edition anthology Soliloquy for Pan which includes essays and poems such as "The Rebirthing of Pan '' by Adrian Eckersley, "Pan 's Pipes '' by Robert Louis Stevenson, "Pan with Us '' by Robert Frost, and "The Death of Pan '' by Lord Dunsany. Some of the detailed illustrated depictions of Pan included in the volume are by the artists Giorgio Ghisi, Sir James Thornhill, Bernard Picart, Agostino Veneziano, Vincenzo Cartari, and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.
Pan 's goatish image recalls conventional faun - like depictions of Satan. Although Christian use of Plutarch 's story is of long standing, Ronald Hutton has argued that this specific association is modern and derives from Pan 's popularity in Victorian and Edwardian neopaganism. Medieval and early modern images of Satan tend, by contrast, to show generic semi-human monsters with horns, wings, and clawed feet.
In 1933, the Egyptologist Margaret Murray published the book, The God of the Witches, in which she theorised that Pan was merely one form of a horned god who was worshipped across Europe by a witch - cult. This theory influenced the Neopagan notion of the Horned God, as an archetype of male virility and sexuality. In Wicca, the archetype of the Horned God is highly important, as represented by such deities as the Celtic Cernunnos, Hindu Pashupati, and Greek Pan.
A modern account of several purported meetings with Pan is given by Robert Ogilvie Crombie in The Findhorn Garden (Harper & Row, 1975) and The Magic of Findhorn (Harper & Row, 1975). Crombie claimed to have met Pan many times at various locations in Scotland, including Edinburgh, on the island of Iona and at the Findhorn Foundation.
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which type of erosion most likely formed the grand canyon | Grand Canyon - Wikipedia
The Grand Canyon (Hopi: Ongtupqa; Yavapai: Wi: kaʼi: la, Navajo: Tsékooh Hatsoh, Spanish: Gran Cañón) is a steep - sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in Arizona, United States. The Grand Canyon is 277 miles (446 km) long, up to 18 miles (29 km) wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6,093 feet or 1,857 meters).
The canyon and adjacent rim are contained within Grand Canyon National Park, the Kaibab National Forest, Grand Canyon - Parashant National Monument, the Hualapai Indian Reservation, the Havasupai Indian Reservation and the Navajo Nation. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery.
Nearly two billion years of Earth 's geological history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut their channels through layer after layer of rock while the Colorado Plateau was uplifted. While some aspects about the history of incision of the canyon are debated by geologists, several recent studies support the hypothesis that the Colorado River established its course through the area about 5 to 6 million years ago. Since that time, the Colorado River has driven the down - cutting of the tributaries and retreat of the cliffs, simultaneously deepening and widening the canyon.
For thousands of years, the area has been continuously inhabited by Native Americans, who built settlements within the canyon and its many caves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon a holy site, and made pilgrimages to it. The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon was García López de Cárdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.
The Grand Canyon is a river valley in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the six distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world (Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal is much deeper). However, the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically, it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are well preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent.
Uplift associated with mountain formation later moved these sediments thousands of feet upward and created the Colorado Plateau. The higher elevation has also resulted in greater precipitation in the Colorado River drainage area, but not enough to change the Grand Canyon area from being semi-arid. The uplift of the Colorado Plateau is uneven, and the Kaibab Plateau that Grand Canyon bisects is over a one thousand feet (300 m) higher at the North Rim (about 1,000 ft or 300 m) than at the South Rim. Almost all runoff from the North Rim (which also gets more rain and snow) flows toward the Grand Canyon, while much of the runoff on the plateau behind the South Rim flows away from the canyon (following the general tilt). The result is deeper and longer tributary washes and canyons on the north side and shorter and steeper side canyons on the south side.
Temperatures on the North Rim are generally lower than those on the South Rim because of the greater elevation (averaging 8,000 feet or 2,400 metres above sea level). Heavy rains are common on both rims during the summer months. Access to the North Rim via the primary route leading to the canyon (State Route 67) is limited during the winter season due to road closures.
The Grand Canyon is part of the Colorado River basin which has developed over the past 70 million years, in part based on apatite (U-Th) / He thermochronometry showing that Grand Canyon reached a depth near to the modern depth by 20 Ma. A recent study examining caves near Grand Canyon places their origins beginning about 17 million years ago. Previous estimates had placed the age of the canyon at 5 -- 6 million years. The study, which was published in the journal Science in 2008, used uranium - lead dating to analyze calcite deposits found on the walls of nine caves throughout the canyon. There is a substantial amount of controversy because this research suggests such a substantial departure from prior widely supported scientific consensus. In December 2012, a study published in the journal Science claimed new tests had suggested the Grand Canyon could be as old as 70 million years. However, this study has been criticized by those who support the "young canyon '' age of around six million years as "(an) attempt to push the interpretation of their new data to their limits without consideration of the whole range of other geologic data sets. ''
The canyon is the result of erosion which exposes one of the most complete geologic columns on the planet.
The major geologic exposures in the Grand Canyon range in age from the 2 - billion - year - old Vishnu Schist at the bottom of the Inner Gorge to the 230 - million - year - old Kaibab Limestone on the Rim. There is a gap of about a billion years between the 500 - million - year - old stratum and the level below it, which dates to about 1.5 billion years ago. This large unconformity indicates a long period for which no deposits are present.
Many of the formations were deposited in warm shallow seas, near - shore environments (such as beaches), and swamps as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto - North America. Major exceptions include the Permian Coconino Sandstone, which contains abundant geological evidence of aeolian sand dune deposition. Several parts of the Supai Group also were deposited in non -- marine environments.
The great depth of the Grand Canyon and especially the height of its strata (most of which formed below sea level) can be attributed to 5 -- 10 thousand feet (1,500 to 3,000 m) of uplift of the Colorado Plateau, starting about 65 million years ago (during the Laramide Orogeny). This uplift has steepened the stream gradient of the Colorado River and its tributaries, which in turn has increased their speed and thus their ability to cut through rock (see the elevation summary of the Colorado River for present conditions).
Weather conditions during the ice ages also increased the amount of water in the Colorado River drainage system. The ancestral Colorado River responded by cutting its channel faster and deeper.
The base level and course of the Colorado River (or its ancestral equivalent) changed 5.3 million years ago when the Gulf of California opened and lowered the river 's base level (its lowest point). This increased the rate of erosion and cut nearly all of the Grand Canyon 's current depth by 1.2 million years ago. The terraced walls of the canyon were created by differential erosion.
Between 100,000 and 3 million years ago, volcanic activity deposited ash and lava over the area which at times completely obstructed the river. These volcanic rocks are the youngest in the canyon.
The Ancestral Puebloans were a Native American culture centered on the present - day Four Corners area of the United States. They were the first people known to live in the Grand Canyon area. The cultural group has often been referred to in archaeology as the Anasazi, although the term is not preferred by the modern Puebloan peoples. The word "Anasazi '' is Navajo for "Ancient Ones '' or "Ancient Enemy ''.
Archaeologists still debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current consensus, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence was around 1200 BCE during the Basketmaker II Era. Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers have believed that the Ancient Puebloans are ancestors of the modern Pueblo peoples.
In addition to the Ancestral Puebloans, a number of distinct cultures have inhabited the Grand Canyon area. The Cohonina lived to the west of the Grand Canyon, between 500 and 1200 CE. The Cohonina were ancestors of the Yuman, Havasupai, and Hualapai peoples who inhabit the area today.
The Sinagua were a cultural group occupying an area to the southeast of the Grand Canyon, between the Little Colorado River and the Salt River, between approximately 500 and 1425 CE. The Sinagua may have been ancestors of several Hopi clans.
By the time of the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, newer cultures had evolved. The Hualapai inhabit a 100 - mile (160 km) stretch along the pine - clad southern side of the Grand Canyon. The Havasupai have been living in the area near Cataract Canyon since the beginning of the 13th century, occupying an area the size of Delaware. The Southern Paiutes live in what is now southern Utah and northern Arizona. The Navajo, or Diné, live in a wide area stretching from the San Francisco Peaks eastwards towards the Four Corners. Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggests the Navajo descended from the Athabaskan people near Great Slave Lake, Canada, who migrated after the 11th century.
In September 1540, under orders from the conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to search for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, Captain García López de Cárdenas, along with Hopi guides and a small group of Spanish soldiers, traveled to the south rim of the Grand Canyon between Desert View and Moran Point. Pablo de Melgrossa, Juan Galeras, and a third soldier descended some one third of the way into the canyon until they were forced to return because of lack of water. In their report, they noted that some of the rocks in the canyon were "bigger than the great tower of Seville, Giralda '' It is speculated that their Hopi guides likely knew routes to the canyon floor, but may have been reluctant to lead the Spanish to the river. No Europeans visited the canyon again for more than two hundred years.
Fathers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante were two Spanish priests who, with a group of Spanish soldiers, explored southern Utah and traveled along the north rim of the canyon in Glen and Marble Canyons in search of a route from Santa Fe to California in 1776. They eventually found a crossing, formerly known as the "Crossing of the Fathers, '' that today lies under Lake Powell.
Also in 1776, Fray Francisco Garces, a Franciscan missionary, spent a week near Havasupai, unsuccessfully attempting to convert a band of Native Americans to Christianity. He described the canyon as "profound ''.
James Ohio Pattie, along with a group of American trappers and mountain men, may have been the next European to reach the canyon, in 1826.
Jacob Hamblin, a Mormon missionary, was sent by Brigham Young in the 1850s to locate suitable river crossing sites in the canyon. Building good relations with local Hualapai and white settlers, he found the Crossing of the Fathers, and the locations what would become Lees Ferry in 1858 and Pearce Ferry (later operated by, and named for, Harrison Pearce) -- only the latter two sites suitable for ferry operation. He also acted as an advisor to John Wesley Powell before his second expedition to the Grand Canyon, serving as a diplomat between Powell and the local native tribes to ensure the safety of his party.
In 1857, Edward Fitzgerald Beale was superintendent of an expedition to survey a wagon road along the 35th parallel from Fort Defiance, Arizona to the Colorado River. He led a small party of men in search of water on the Coconino Plateau near the canyon 's south rim. On September 19, near present - day National Canyon, they came upon what May Humphreys Stacey described in his journal as "... a wonderful canyon four thousand feet deep. Everyone (in the party) admitted that he never before saw anything to match or equal this astonishing natural curiosity. ''
Also in 1857, the U.S. War Department asked Lieutenant Joseph Ives to lead an expedition to assess the feasibility of an up - river navigation from the Gulf of California. Also in a stern wheeler steamboat Explorer, after two months and 350 miles (560 km) of difficult navigation, his party reached Black Canyon some two months after George Johnson. The Explorer struck a rock and was abandoned. Ives led his party east into the canyon -- they may have been the first Europeans to travel the Diamond Creek drainage and traveled eastwards along the south rim. In his "Colorado River of the West '' report to the Senate in 1861 he states that "One or two trappers profess to have seen the canyon. ''
According to the San Francisco Herald, in a series of articles run in 1853, Captain Joseph R. Walker in January 1851 with his nephew James T. Walker and six men, traveled up the Colorado River to a point where it joined the Virgin River and continued east into Arizona, traveling along the Grand Canyon and making short exploratory side trips along the way. Walker is reported to have said he wanted to visit the Moqui Indians, as the Hopi were then called by whites. He had met these people briefly in previous years, thought them exceptionally interesting and wanted to become better acquainted. The Herald reporter then stated, "We believe that Captain Joe Walker is the only white man in this country that has ever visited this strange people. ''
In 1858, John Strong Newberry became probably the first geologist to visit the Grand Canyon.
In 1869, Major John Wesley Powell led the first expedition down the canyon. Powell set out to explore the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Gathering nine men, four boats and food for 10 months, he set out from Green River, Wyoming on May 24. Passing through (or portaging around) a series of dangerous rapids, the group passed down the Green River to its confluence with the Colorado River, near present - day Moab, Utah and completed the journey with many hardships through the Grand Canyon on August 13, 1869. In 1871 Powell first used the term "Grand Canyon ''; previously it had been called the "Big Canyon ''.
In 1889, Frank M. Brown wanted to build a railroad along the Colorado River to carry coal. He, his chief engineer Robert Brewster Stanton, and 14 others started to explore the Grand Canyon in poorly designed cedar wood boats, with no life preservers. Brown drowned in an accident near Marble Canyon: Stanton made new boats and proceeded to explore the Colorado all of the way to the Gulf of California.
The Grand Canyon became an official national monument in 1908 and a national park in 1919.
U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Grand Canyon in 1903. An avid outdoorsman and staunch conservationist, Roosevelt established the Grand Canyon Game Preserve on November 28, 1906. Livestock grazing was reduced, but predators such as mountain lions, eagles, and wolves were eradicated. Roosevelt along with other members of his conservation group, the Boone and Crockett Club helped form the National Parks Association, which in turn lobbied for the Antiquities Act of 1906 which gave Roosevelt the power to create national monuments. Once the act was passed, Roosevelt immediately added adjacent national forest lands and redesignated the preserve a U.S. National Monument on January 11, 1908. Opponents such as land and mining claim holders blocked efforts to reclassify the monument as a U.S. National Park for 11 years. Grand Canyon National Park was finally established as the 17th U.S. National Park by an Act of Congress signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on February 26, 1919.
The federal government administrators who manage park resources face many challenges. These include issues related to the recent reintroduction into the wild of the highly endangered California condor, air tour overflight noise levels, water rights disputes with various tribal reservations that border the park, and forest fire management. Federal officials started a flood in the Grand Canyon in hopes of restoring its ecosystem on March 5, 2008. The canyon 's ecosystem was permanently changed after the construction of the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963.
Between 2003 and 2011, 2,215 mining claims had been requested that are adjacent to the canyon, including claims for uranium mines. Mining has been suspended since 2009, when U.S. Interior Secretary Ken Salazar withdrew 1 million acres (4,000 km) from the permitting process, pending assessment of the environmental impact of mining. Critics of the mines are concerned that, once mined, the uranium will leach into the water of the Colorado River and contaminate the water supply for up to 18 million people. Salazar 's so - called "Northern Arizona Withdrawal '' is a 20 - year moratorium on new mines, but allows existing mines to continue. In 2012, the federal government stopped new mines in the area, which was upheld by the U.S. District Court for Arizona in 2014, but appealed by the National Mining Association, joined by the state of Arizona under Attorney General Mark Brnovich as well as Utah, Montana and Nevada. National Mining Association v. Jewell is pending before the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals as of September 2015.
There are several historic buildings located along the South Rim with most in the vicinity of Grand Canyon Village.
Weather in the Grand Canyon varies according to elevation. The forested rims are high enough to receive winter snowfall, but along the Colorado River in the Inner Gorge, temperatures are similar to those found in Tucson and other low elevation desert locations in Arizona. Conditions in the Grand Canyon region are generally dry, but substantial precipitation occurs twice annually, during seasonal pattern shifts in winter (when Pacific storms usually deliver widespread, moderate rain and high - elevation snow to the region from the west) and in late summer (due to the North American Monsoon, which delivers waves of moisture from the southeast, causing dramatic, localized thunderstorms fueled by the heat of the day). Average annual precipitation on the South Rim is less than 16 inches (41 cm), with 60 inches (150 cm) of snow; the higher North Rim usually receives 27 inches (69 cm) of moisture, with a typical snowfall of 144 inches (370 cm); and Phantom Ranch, far below the canyon 's rims along the Colorado River at 2,500 feet (762 m) gets just 8 inches (20 cm) of rain, and snow is a rarity.
Temperatures vary wildly throughout the year, with summer highs within the Inner Gorge commonly exceeding 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) and winter minimum temperatures sometimes falling below zero degrees Fahrenheit (− 17.8 ° C) along the canyon 's rims. Visitors are often surprised by these potentially extreme conditions, and this, along with the high altitude of the canyon 's rims, can lead to unpleasant side effects such as dehydration, sunburn, and hypothermia.
Weather conditions can greatly affect hiking and canyon exploration, and visitors should obtain accurate forecasts because of hazards posed by exposure to extreme temperatures, winter storms and late summer monsoons. While the park service posts weather information at gates and visitor centers, this is a rough approximation only, and should not be relied upon for trip planning. For accurate weather in the canyon, hikers should consult the National Weather Service 's NOAA weather radio or the official National Weather Service website.
The National Weather Service has had a cooperative station on the South Rim since 1903. The record high temperature on the South Rim was 105 ° F (41 ° C) on June 26, 1974, and the record low temperature was − 20 ° F (− 29 ° C) on January 1, 1919, February 1, 1985, and December 23, 1990.
The Grand Canyon area has some of the cleanest air in the United States. However, at times the air quality can be considerably affected by events such as forest fires and dust storms in the Southwest.
What effect there is on air quality and visibility in the canyon has been mainly from sulfates, soils, and organics. The sulfates largely result from urban emissions in southern California, borne on the prevailing westerly winds throughout much of the year, and emissions from Arizona 's copper smelter region, borne on southerly or southeasterly winds during the monsoon. Airborne soils originate with windy conditions and road dust. Organic particles result from vehicle emissions, long - range transport from urban areas, and forest fires, as well as from VOCs emitted by vegetation in the surrounding forests. Nitrates, carried in from urban areas, stationary sources, and vehicle emissions; as well as black carbon from forest fires and vehicle emissions, also contribute to a lesser extent.
A number of actions have been taken to preserve and further improve air quality and visibility at the canyon. In 1990, amendments to the Clean Air Act established the Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission (GCVTC) to advise the US EPA on strategies for protecting visual air quality on the Colorado Plateau. The GCVTC released its final report in 1996 and initiated the Western Regional Air Partnership (WRAP), a partnership of state, tribal and federal agencies to help coordinate implementation of the Commission 's recommendations.
In 1999, the Regional Haze Rule established a goal of restoring visibility in national parks and wilderness areas (Class 1 areas), such as the Grand Canyon, to natural background levels by 2064. Subsequent revisions to the rule provide specific requirements for making reasonable progress toward that goal.
In the early 1990s, studies indicated that emissions of SO, a sulfate precursor, from the Navajo Generating Station affected visibility in the canyon mainly in the winter, and which if controlled would improve wintertime visibility by 2 to 7 %. As a result, scrubbers were added to the plant 's three units in 1997 through 1999, reducing SO2 emissions by more than 90 %. The plant also installed low - NO SOFA burners in 2009 - 2011, reducing emissions of NO, a nitrate precursor, by 40 %. Emissions from the Mohave Generating Station to the west were similarly found to affect visibility in the canyon. The plant was required to have installed SO scrubbers, but was instead shut down in 2005, completely eliminating its emissions.
Prescribed fires are typically conducted in the spring and fall in the forests adjacent to the canyon to reduce the potential for severe forest fires and resulting smoke conditions. Although prescribed fires also affect air quality, the controlled conditions allow the use of management techniques to minimize their impact.
There are approximately 1,737 known species of vascular plants, 167 species of fungi, 64 species of moss and 195 species of lichen found in Grand Canyon National Park. This variety is largely due to the 8,000 foot (2,400 m) elevation change from the Colorado River up to the highest point on the North Rim. Grand Canyon boasts a dozen endemic plants (known only within the Park 's boundaries) while only ten percent of the Park 's flora is exotic. Sixty - three plants found here have been given special status by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
The Mojave Desert influences the western sections of the canyon, Sonoran Desert vegetation covers the eastern sections, and ponderosa and pinyon pine forests grow on both rims.
Natural seeps and springs percolating out of the canyon walls are home to 11 % of all the plant species found in the Grand Canyon. The canyon itself can act as a connection between the east and the west by providing corridors of appropriate habitat along its length. The canyon can also be a genetic barrier to some species, like the tassel - eared squirrel.
The aspect, or direction a slope faces, also plays a major role in adding diversity to the Grand Canyon. North - facing slopes receive about one - third the normal amount of sunlight, so plants growing there are similar to plants found at higher elevations, or in more northern latitudes. The south - facing slopes receive the full amount of sunlight and are covered in vegetation typical of the Sonoran Desert.
Of the 90 mammal species found along the Colorado River corridor, 18 are rodents and 22 are bats.
The Park contains several major ecosystems. Its great biological diversity can be attributed to the presence of five of the seven life zones and three of the four desert types in North America. The five life zones represented are the Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian. This is equivalent to traveling from Mexico to Canada. Differences in elevation and the resulting variations in climate are the major factors that form the various life zones and communities in and around the canyon. Grand Canyon National Park contains 129 vegetation communities, and the composition and distribution of plant species is influenced by climate, geomorphology and geology.
The Lower Sonoran life zone spans from the Colorado River up to 3,500 feet (1,100 m). Along the Colorado River and its perennial tributaries, a riparian community exists. Coyote willow, arrowweed, seep - willow, western honey mesquite, catclaw acacia, and exotic tamarisk (saltcedar) are the predominant species. Hanging gardens, seeps and springs often contain rare plants such as the white - flowering western redbud, stream orchid, and Flaveria mcdougallii. Endangered fish in the river include the humpback chub and the razorback sucker.
The three most common amphibians in these riparian communities are the canyon tree frog, red - spotted toad, and Woodhouse 's Rocky Mountain toad. Leopard frogs are very rare in the Colorado River corridor, they have undergone major declines and have not been seen in the Canyon in several years. There are 33 crustacean species found in the Colorado River and its tributaries within Grand Canyon National Park. Of these 33, 16 are considered true zooplankton organisms.
Only 48 bird species regularly nest along the river, while others use the river as a migration corridor or as overwintering habitat. The bald eagle is one species that uses the river corridor as winter habitat.
River otters may have disappeared from the park in the late 20th century, and muskrats are extremely rare. Beavers cut willows, cottonwoods, and shrubs for food, and can significantly affect the riparian vegetation. Other rodents, such as antelope squirrels and pocket mice, are mostly omnivorous, using many different vegetation types. Grand Canyon bats typically roost in desert uplands, but forage on the abundance of insects along the river and its tributaries. In addition to bats, coyotes, ringtails, and spotted skunks are the most numerous riparian predators and prey on invertebrates, rodents, and reptiles.
Raccoons, weasels, bobcats, gray foxes, and mountain lions are also present, but are much more rare. Mule deer and desert bighorn sheep are the ungulates that frequent the river corridor. Since the removal of 500 feral burros in the early 1980s, bighorn sheep numbers have rebounded. Mule deer are generally not permanent residents along the river, but travel down from the rim when food and water resources there become scarce.
The insect species commonly found in the river corridor and tributaries are midges, caddis flies, mayflies, stoneflies, black flies, mites, beetles, butterflies, moths, and fire ants. Numerous species of spiders and several species of scorpions including the bark scorpion and the giant desert hairy scorpion inhabit the riparian zone.
Eleven aquatic and 26 terrestrial species of mollusks have been identified in and around Grand Canyon National Park. Of the aquatic species, two are bivalves (clams) and nine are gastropods (snails). Twenty - six species of terrestrial gastropods have been identified, primarily land snails and slugs.
There are approximately 41 reptile species in Grand Canyon National Park. Ten are considered common along the river corridor and include lizards and snakes. Lizard density tends to be highest along the stretch of land between the water 's edge and the beginning of the upland desert community. The two largest lizards in the canyon are gila monsters and chuckwallas. Many snake species, which are not directly dependent on surface water, may be found both within the inner gorge and the Colorado River corridor. Six rattlesnake species have been recorded in the park.
Above the river corridor a desert scrub community, composed of North American desert flora, thrives. Typical warm desert species such as creosote bush, white bursage, brittlebush, catclaw acacia, ocotillo, mariola, western honey mesquite, four - wing saltbush, big sagebrush, blackbrush and rubber rabbitbrush grow in this community. The mammalian fauna in the woodland scrub community consists of 50 species, mostly rodents and bats. Three of the five Park woodrat species live in the desert scrub community.
Except for the western (desert) banded gecko, which seems to be distributed only near water along the Colorado River, all of the reptiles found near the river also appear in the uplands, but in lower densities. The desert gopher tortoise, a threatened species, inhabits the desert scrublands in the western end of the park.
Some of the common insects found at elevations above 2,000 feet (610 m) are orange paper wasps, honey bees, black flies, tarantula hawks, stink bugs, beetles, black ants, and monarch and swallowtail butterflies. Solifugids, wood spiders, garden spiders, black widow spiders and tarantulas can be found in the desert scrub and higher elevations.
The Upper Sonoran Life Zone includes most of the inner canyon and South Rim at elevations from 3,500 to 7,000 feet (1,100 to 2,100 m). This zone is generally dominated by blackbrush, sagebrush, and pinyon - juniper woodlands. Elevations of 3,500 to 4,000 feet (1,100 to 1,200 m) are in the Mojave Desert Scrub community of the Upper Sonoran. This community is dominated by the four - winged saltbush and creosote bush; other important plants include Utah agave, narrowleaf mesquite, ratany, catclaw acacia, and various cacti species.
Approximately 30 bird species breed primarily in the desert uplands and cliffs of the inner canyon. Virtually all bird species present breed in other suitable habitats throughout the Sonoran and Mohave deserts. The abundance of bats, swifts, and riparian birds provides ample food for peregrines, and suitable eyrie sites are plentiful along the steep canyon walls. Also, several critically endangered California condors that were re-introduced to the Colorado Plateau on the Arizona Strip, have made the eastern part of the Park their home.
The conifer forests provide habitat for 52 mammal species. Porcupines, shrews, red squirrels, tassel eared Kaibab and Abert 's squirrels, black bear, mule deer, and elk are found at the park 's higher elevations on the Kaibab Plateau.
Above the desert scrub and up to 6,200 feet (1,900 m) is a pinyon pine forest and one seed juniper woodland. Within this woodland one can find big sagebrush, snakeweed, Mormon tea, Utah agave, banana and narrowleaf Yucca, winterfat, Indian ricegrass, dropseed, and needlegrass. There are a variety of snakes and lizards here, but one species of reptile, the mountain short - horned lizard, is a particularly abundant inhabitant of the piñon - juniper and ponderosa pine forests.
Ponderosa pine forests grow at elevations between 6,500 and 8,200 feet (2,000 and 2,500 m), on both North and South rims in the Transition life zone. The South Rim includes species such as gray fox, mule deer, bighorn sheep, rock squirrels, pinyon pine and Utah juniper. Additional species such as Gambel oak, New Mexico locust, mountain mahogany, elderberry, creeping mahonia, and fescue have been identified in these forests. The Utah tiger salamander and the Great Basin spadefoot toad are two amphibians that are common in the rim forests. Of the approximately 90 bird species that breed in the coniferous forests, 51 are summer residents and at least 15 of these are known to be neotropical migrants.
Elevations of 8,200 to 9,000 feet (2,500 to 2,700 m) are in the Canadian Life Zone, which includes the North Rim and the Kaibab Plateau. Spruce - fir forests characterized by Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, Douglas fir, white fir, aspen, and mountain ash, along with several species of perennial grasses, groundsels, yarrow, cinquefoil, lupines, sedges, and asters, grow in this sub-alpine climate. Mountain lions, Kaibab squirrels, and northern goshawks are found here.
Montane meadows and subalpine grassland communities of the Hudsonian life zone are rare and located only on the North Rim. Both are typified by many grass species. Some of these grasses include blue and black grama, big galleta, Indian ricegrass and three - awns. The wettest areas support sedges and forbs.
Grand Canyon National Park is one of the world 's premier natural attractions, attracting about five million visitors per year. Overall, 83 % were from the United States: California (12.2 %), Arizona (8.9 %), Texas (4.8 %), Florida (3.4 %) and New York (3.2 %) represented the top domestic visitors. Seventeen percent of visitors were from outside the United States; the most prominently represented nations were the United Kingdom (3.8 %), Canada (3.5 %), Japan (2.1 %), Germany (1.9 %) and The Netherlands (1.2 %). The South Rim is open all year round weather permitting. The North Rim is generally open mid-May to mid-October.
Aside from casual sightseeing from the South Rim (averaging 7,000 feet (2,100 m) above sea level), skydiving, rafting, hiking, running, and helicopter tours are popular. The Grand Canyon Ultra Marathon is a 78 - mile (126 km) race over 24 hours. The floor of the valley is accessible by foot, muleback, or by boat or raft from upriver. Hiking down to the river and back up to the rim in one day is discouraged by park officials because of the distance, steep and rocky trails, change in elevation, and danger of heat exhaustion from the much higher temperatures at the bottom. Rescues are required annually of unsuccessful rim - to - river - to - rim travelers. Nevertheless, hundreds of fit and experienced hikers complete the trip every year.
Camping on the North and South rims is generally restricted to established campgrounds and reservations are highly recommended, especially at the busier South Rim. There is at large camping available along many parts of the North Rim managed by Kaibab National Forest. North Rim campsites are only open seasonally due to road closures from weather and winter snowpack. All overnight camping below the rim requires a backcountry permit from the Backcountry Office (BCO). Each year Grand Canyon National Park receives approximately 30,000 requests for backcountry permits. The park issues 13,000 permits, and close to 40,000 people camp overnight. The earliest a permit application is accepted is the first of the month, four months before the proposed start month.
Tourists wishing for a more vertical perspective can go skydiving, board helicopters and small airplanes in Boulder, Las Vegas, Phoenix and Grand Canyon National Park Airport (seven miles from the South Rim) for canyon flyovers. Scenic flights are no longer allowed to fly within 1500 feet of the rim within the national park because of a late 1990s crash. The last aerial video footage from below the rim was filmed in 1984. However, some helicopter flights land on the Havasupai and Hualapai Indian Reservations within Grand Canyon (outside of the park boundaries).
In 2007, the Hualapai Tribe opened the glass - bottomed Grand Canyon Skywalk on their property, Grand Canyon West. The Skywalk is about 250 miles (400 km) by road from Grand Canyon Village at the South Rim. The skywalk has attracted "thousands of visitors a year, most from Las Vegas ''.
In 2016, skydiving at the Grand Canyon become possible with the first Grand Canyon Skydiving operation opening up at the Grand Canyon National Park Airport, on the South Rim.
In 2014, a developer announced plans to build a multimedia complex on the canyon 's rim called the Grand Canyon Escalade. On 420 acres there would be shops, an IMAX theater, hotels and an RV park. A gondola would enable easy visits to the canyon floor where a "riverwalk '' of "connected walkways, an eatery, a tramway station, a seating area and a wastewater package plant '' would be situated. Navajo Nation President Ben Shelly has indicated agreement; the tribe would have to invest $65 million for road, water and communication facilities for the $1 billion complex. One of the developers is Navajo and has cited an 8 to 18 percent share of the gross revenue for the tribe as an incentive.
Lipan Point is a promontory located on the South Rim. This point is located to the east of the Grand Canyon Village along the Desert View Drive. There is a parking lot for visitors who care to drive along with the canyon 's bus service that routinely stops at the point. The trailhead to the Tanner Trail is located just before the parking lot. The view from Lipan Point shows a wide array of rock strata and the Unkar Creek area in the inner canyon.
About 770 deaths have occurred between the mid 1800s and 2015. Of the fatalities that occurred from 1869 to 2001, some were as follows: 53 resulted from falls; 65 were attributable to environmental causes, including heat stroke, cardiac arrest, dehydration, and hypothermia; 7 were caught in flash floods; 79 were drowned in the Colorado River; 242 perished in airplane and helicopter crashes (128 of them in the 1956 disaster mentioned below); 25 died in freak errors and accidents, including lightning strikes and rock falls; and 23 were the victims of homicides.
In 1956, the Grand Canyon was the site of the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history at the time.
On the morning of June 30, 1956, a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation and a United Airlines Douglas DC - 7 departed Los Angeles International Airport within three minutes of one another on eastbound transcontinental flights. Approximately 90 minutes later, the two propeller - driven airliners collided above the canyon while both were flying in unmonitored airspace.
The wreckage of both planes fell into the eastern portion of the canyon, on Temple and Chuar Buttes, near the confluence of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. The disaster killed all 128 passengers and crew members aboard both planes.
This accident led to the institution of high - altitude airways and direct radar observation of aircraft (known as positive control) by en route ground controllers.
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if a volume is 10 ft.3 what does that mean | Tree volume measurement - wikipedia
Tree volume is one of many parameters that are measured to document the size of individual trees. Tree volume measurements serve a variety of purposes, some economic, some scientific, and some for sporting competitions. Measurements may include just the volume of the trunk, or the volume of the trunk and the branches depending on the detail needed and the sophistication of the measurement methodology.
Other commonly used parameters, outlined in Tree measurement: Tree height measurement, Tree girth measurement, and Tree crown measurement. Volume measurements can be achieved via tree climbers making direct measurements or through remote methods. In each method, the tree is subdivided into smaller sections, the dimensions of each section are measured and the corresponding volume calculated. The section volumes are then totaled to determine the overall volume of the tree or part of the tree being modeled. In general most sections are treated as frustums of a cone, paraboloid, or neiloid, where the diameter at each end and the length of each section is determined to calculate volume. Direct measurements are obtained by a tree climber who uses a tape to measure the girth at each end of a segment along with its length. Ground - based methods use optical and electronic surveying equipment to remotely measure the end diameters and the length of each section.
The largest trees in the world by volume are all Giant Sequoias in King 's Canyon National Park. They have been previously reported by trunk volume as: General Sherman at 52,508 cubic feet (1,486.9 m); General Grant at 46,608 cubic feet (1,319.8 m); and President at 45,148 cubic feet (1,278.4 m). The largest non-giant Sequoia tree currently standing, Lost Monarch, is, at 42,500 cubic feet (1,203.5 m), larger than all but the top five largest living giant sequoias. The Lost Monarch is a Coast Redwood (Sequoia empervirens) tree in Northern California that is 26 feet (7.9 m) in diameter at breast height (with multiple stems included), and 320 feet (98 m) in height. In 2012 a team of researchers led by Stephen Sillett did a detailed mapping of the branches of the President tree and calculated the volume of the branches to be 9,000 cubic feet (250 m). This would raise the total volume for the President from 45,000 cubic feet to 54,000 cubic feet (1,500 m) surpassing the volume of the General Grant Tree. It should be noted the branch volume of the General Grant and General Sherman Trees have yet to be measured in this detail.
Tree climbers can physically measure the height and circumference of a tree using a tape. The distance from the highest climb point and the top of the tree is measured using a pole that extends from the tree top to the anchor point of the tape. This height is noted and the diameter of the tree is measured at that point. The climber then rappels down the tree measuring the trunk circumference by tape wrap at different heights with the height of each measurement referenced to the fixed tape running down the trunk.
Direct trunk measurements are obtained by a tree climber. The climber will ascend into the tree until he reaches the highest safe climbing point. Once this point is reached, the climber drops a weighted throw line straight to the ground. A measuring (reference) tape is then attached via a small carabineer to the dropped throw line and pulled up to the top, following the vertical path of the weight 's descent. The tape is affixed to the trunk at this point via several thumbtacks at this point and allowed to hang freely down the trunk. The exact position of the tack relative to the top of the tree is noted. If the top of the tree was not safely reachable a pole or stick is used to assist in measuring the remaining distance to the high point of the tree.
The climber pulls up an extendable pole and uses it to reach to the top of the tree from the point at the upper end of the tape. If not vertical, the slope of the leaning pole is measured and the length of the pole is measured. The vertical distance added by the pole to the tape length is (sin Θ x pole length). The lower end of the tape is terminated at the base of the tree. If on sloping ground this is the mid-slope point between the lowest and highest sides of the tree. The total height of the tree is equal to the measured distance from the base at mid-slope to the upper end of the tape where affixed to the tree plus the vertical height measured to the actual top of the tree. Girth measurements are made by wrapping the tape around the tree perpendicular to the bole at successive intervals as the climber rappels down the tree. All points of measurement are referenced for height above ground as measured on the fixed reference tape. Measurement intervals are subjectively chosen based on changes in trunk taper. An area where a change in profile is observed (in or out) is measured with a tape. Clear sections of trunk are selected so as to not include branch collars, burls, etc. For greatest accuracy, measurements are taken on single - trunked trees at no more than 10 foot (3 m) intervals. Additional measurements are generally required where the trunk branches or bifurcates or where there are trunk reiterations.
Reiterations are identified by an upturned branch that had gained apical dominance and formed an additional branch supporting trunk. Reiteration lengths are terminated at the point of trunk contact. Trunk reiterations are measured and added to the final trunk volume. A bifurcation is defined as a split or fork in the trunk that forms two or more often similarly sized ascending trunks. Bifurcations often form an irregularly shaped fused section that can not be accurately measured with a tape for the purpose of computing cross-sectional area. All bifurcation lengths are terminated at estimated pith origination from the main stem.
As part of the Tsuga Search Project, a frame mapping technique was developed to allow characterization of significantly large fusion areas at forks in the trees. With two climbers, each on opposite sides of the tree, an area of fusion is selected to be measured. Two poles, longer than the diameter of the fused section, are lifted in place and connected by a thin rope threaded through opposite ends so they are adjustable. The poles are temporarily tensioned and the distance between the ends measured. Adjustments are made until they are parallel and perpendicular to the axis of the trunk. The slight tension between the poles holds them steady against the trunk. Tents stakes wedged in the bark can also be used to level and steady the frame. One end is designated the y axis, and the adjacent side the x axis. Measurements are made with a carpenters tape from the frame to the edge of the trunk and the profile of the trunk shape is plotted. The data is then entered into a trapezoidal area function in a spreadsheet and converted into cross sectional area so as to calculate the equivalent circumference to use in the volume formula.
Many trees flare outward significantly at the base and this basal wedge has a complex surface of bumps and hollows. This becomes an even more complex volume in trees growing on a slope. Approximations of the volume of this basal segment using best estimates of the effective diameters exhibited may be used in many cases. In other cases footprint mapping is an option. In footprint mapping a level, rectangular reference frame is placed around the base of the tree, to create a horizontal plane. The position of the multiple points on the trunk surface is measured with respect to the frame and plotted. This process repeated at different heights creating a series of virtual slices at different heights. The volume of each individual slice is then calculated and all are added together to determine the volume of the basal wedge.
Remote measurements of trunk volume are usually made from a position on the ground where the observer has a clear view of the entire length of the trunk. Measurements may be made using professional surveying equipment such as a total station or an instrument such as the Criterion RD1000, using a combination of a monocular w / reticle, laser rangefinder, and clinometer, using photographic methods combined with a laser rangefinder and clinometer, or by using cloud mapping techniques.
Electronic surveying instruments such as a total station allows the observer to measure the position of each diameter measurement and the length of the trunk section between each measurement. With most of the instruments, the diameter is determined by measuring the angle of azimuth between the opposite sides of the trunk. Laser - measured distances to the sides of the trunk representing the ends of the diameter and the included angle are used with the law of cosines to calculate the diameter. The Criterion RD 1000 has a special feature that allows the diameter to be measured through a visible display. These length and diameter values then can be used to determine the volume of the individual section.
Another technique is available for those who possess instruments that will measure horizontal angles. The following diagram shows how to measure diameter remotely using a laser rangefinder to shoot the distance to the middle of the trunk and a transit or compass or another device to measure the horizontal angle created by the diameter. Note that in this method, the measurer shoots to the middle of the trunk instead of either edge. Also, the full diameter does not have to be visible from the point of measurement. It is a common misconception that closer distances lead to errors because the measurer ca n't see the full diameter. However, if the trunk is round, closeness is not a factor. In the diagram d = diameter, D = distance from measurer to middle of the tree, a = angle from the middle to the edge of the trunk. A variation of this method is to measure the complete angle taken up by the image of the trunk and divide it by 2 to get angle a.
A combination of a monocular w / reticle, laser rangefinder, and a clinometer can be used to do go from simple diameters to a full measure of trunk volume. A monocular w / reticle is a small telescope with an internal scale visible through the glass. The monocular is mounted on a tripod and the trunk of the tree is sighted through the monocular. The width of the trunk is measured as so many units of the reticle scale. The height above, or distance below, instrument and distance of the target point is measured using the laser rangefinder and clinometer. The distance is measured to the center (side) of the tree. With the distance known, the diameter of the tree measured expressed as units of the reticle scale, and an optical scaling factor for the monocular w / reticle, provided by the diameter of the tree at that point can be calculated:
Diameter = (Reticle scale) X (distance to target) ÷ (optical factor)
To assure accuracy, the calibration of the optical factor should be checked for each instrument rather than solely relying upon the manufacturer 's specifications.
A series of tree diameters up the trunk of the tree are systematically measured using this procedure from the base of the tree to the top and their height is noted. Diameters can sometimes be measured with the monocular w / reticle in sections where it is difficult to obtain accurate laser distances because intervening thin brush or branches. Distances to the obscured section may be interpolated from measurements made above and below the obscured section.
Some photographic methods are being developed to allow calculation of diameters of trunk and limb segments in photographs that contain a scale of known size and where distance to the target is known. Essentially, the camera is treated as if it were a monocular w / reticle and the "optical factor '' for the camera at a particular focal length is calculated for each photograph based upon the size of a reference scale and its distance from the camera. The scale need not be present in every image of an individual tree so long as the focal length has not been changed between images. Using this principle a shot can be made of each measurement point through an enlarged image to make the girth measurements easier and more accurate. In addition, this allows the central, less optically distorted portion of the image to be used for the measurements. The measured diameter of the almost cylindrical section is not going to vary significantly with viewing angle. Using data from clinometer and distance measurements at each end of a segment, the height, length, and distance of intermediate points can be calculated and the trunk diameters at these points can be measured. One advantages of the photographic method is the ubiquity of the digital camera. In addition, once the framework data is measured in the field, the trunk diameter measurement process can be done later on a computer. The photographic image can be also easily be re-measured if an error is encountered in the calculations.
Point cloud mapping is a process being developed by Michael Taylor using optical parallax scanning technology whereby thousands of measurements are made around the trunk of a tree. These can be used to recreate a three - dimensional model of the trunk and volume data is among the values that can be calculated. There are a handful of widely available technologies including ground LIDAR) and optical parallax scanners that can quickly and accurately map a trunk. LIDAR has the best range. The problem is in a cluttered forest environment you get a lot of ' noise ' and unwanted cloud points, hundreds of thousands potentially, but these can be filtered out. The surface of tree trunks can be mapped using an optical scanner which measures pixel off - set ratio between a digital camera focal center and line laser projection and blends with photo pixel data. Taylor reports this optical data can be supplemented using a system such as an Impulse200LR laser and Mapsmart software to target tight areas where cloud density is low and / or not reachable by optical scanning technology, provided a properly scaled skeleton framework is established with the MapSmart / Impulse200 combination first. The data can be saved as a. ply file which can be viewed and manipulated with a variety of software packages including the free open source 3D graphics viewer Meshlab. There are several software programs available that can be used to calculate the volume of the space defined by the point cloud including some tree specific currently under development.
Currently only the lower portions of the trunks of tree have been successfully mapped using point cloud mapping technology, but various options to map the entire trunk length of these trees are being evaluated. The point cloud mapping of the base of these trees can quickly create a 3D representation of the base of these large trees in much more detail than can be practically obtained through traditional footprint mapping.
Limb and branch volumes present significant challenges. Not only must the girths of each end of the branch segment be measured, but the length of the limb segment must be determined as well for limbs oriented in different directions. The collected information must further be organized to assure that each section has been measured and none have been measured twice. The length and diameter measurements of the limbs can be accomplished by climbers physically measuring these values, or through remote methods, or a combination of both. In most cases the branch diameters are only measured down to a certain lower size limit, and the volume of the remaining finer branches is ignored, or extrapolated.
The volume of the limbs and branches can be significant. For example, the Middleton Live Oak (Quercus virginiana), height 67.4 feet, dbh 10.44 feet, crown spread 118 feet) was found to have a trunk volume of 970 ft (24.5 m) and a branch volume of 3,850 ft (109 m) The branch volume was almost 4x that of the trunk. In contrast the volume of the Sag Branch Tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), height 167.7 feet, dbh 7.08 feet, crown spread 101 feet) had a trunk volume of 2430 ft (68.6 m) and a branch volume of 1560 ft (44.17 m). The volume of the branches on the tuliptree was only 64.2 % that of the trunk. The President Tree (Sequoiadendron giganteum) (3) was measured in 2012 to have a trunk volume of 54,000 cubic feet (1,500 m) of wood and a branch volume of 9,000 cubic feet (250 m) of wood in the branches. In this giant tree the branch volume was only 16.7 % that of the trunk volume. In many trees with smaller or fewer large branches the branch volume may average as low as 5 - 10 % of the trunk volume.
Detailed three dimensional mapping of the trunk and major branches of trees can be done for significant specimens. The methodology used to map the Middleton Oak and the Sag Branch Tuliptree was developed by Dr. Robert Van Pelt. This process is called canopy mapping. It may be used to measure branch volume from within the tree itself for exception or complex trees. Ground based measurements may also be made where the branches can be adequately traced within the crown of the tree.
Canopy mapping is the process whereby the positions and size of the branches within the canopy are mapped in three dimensional space. It is a labor - intensive process that usually reserved for only the most significant specimens. This is usually done from a set position or a series of positions within the tree. Sketches and photographs are used to facilitate the process. Trees are climbed and the overall architecture is mapped including the location of the main stem and all reiterated trunks, in addition to all branches that originate from trunks. The position of every branch point in the canopy down to a certain size and also the positions of various reiterations, breaks, kinks, or any other eccentricities in the tree are also mapped. Each mapped trunk and branch is measured for basal diameter, length, and azimuth. Specific circumferences and other features within the tree are measured by climbers.
Van Pelt et al. (2004) outlined the process in Quantifying and Visualizing Canopy Structure in Tall Forests: Methods and a Case Study. In the example he used a LTI Criterion 400 Laser Survey instrument to map the tree canopies. It is essentially a device that includes a laser - rangefinder, clinometer, and a compass. The LTI Criterion 400 uses an infrared semi-conductor laser diode for slope distance measurement. A vertical tilt - sensing encoder provides vertical inclination, while a fluxgate electronic compass measures magnetic azimuth, completing the data required to establish a point 's three - dimensional location in space. It is used to map the position of every branch point in the canopy down to a certain size and also the positions of various reiterations, breaks, kinks, or any other eccentricities in the tree. This is usually done from a set position or a series of positions within the tree. Sketches and photographs are used to facilitate the process. Trees were climbed and the architecture mapped in accordance with criterion previously established. This involves mapping the location of the main stem and all reiterated trunks, in addition to all branches that originate from trunks. Each mapped trunk and branch was measured for basal diameter, length, azimuth, Climbers measure specific circumferences and detail other features within the tree. In addition a footprint map of the base of the tree is made to calculate the exact volume of the basal section of the tree. The data is processed in Excel to generate a volume calculation. Graphing functions can be used to create a 3 - dimensional figure of the tree data. Dr. Van Pelt also uses an Excel macro to rotate the image so that it can be viewed from different angles. In the cases of the Middleton Live Oak and Sag Branch Tulip each of the trees were mapped from a single set station from within the canopy of each tree.
Ground based measurements can be used to measure the limb length and diameters of branch sections remotely through the use of a monocular w / reticle or photographic analysis. Where the trunk itself is sloping away from vertical, additional measurements need to be made to determine the true length of each trunk segment rather than simply treating it as a vertical column. The length of a segment can be determined by measuring the position of the end points of the branch in 3 - dimensional space from an external reference position. The length is then calculated by applying Pythagorean 's Theorem. The following diagram illustrates the process.
From the external reference position O, the direct distance to L is measured to P along with the vertical angle V and azimuth A. The coordinates x, y, and z are then computed. The same process is followed for P. This sequence is carried out as follows: The horizontal distance d1 from the initial reference point O to a target point P is computed as d = cos (inclination) x laser distance = L sinV The value of x at the first point is: x = sin (azimuth) x horizontal distance = d sinA The value of y at the first point is: y = cos (azimuth) x horizontal distance = d cosA The value of z at the first point is: z = sin (inclination) x laser distance = L sinV This process is repeated for P to get x, y, z The final step is to compute the distance from P to P (L) using the following formula. L = ((X-X) + (Y - Y) + (Z - Z))
Note that the computation involves squaring the changes in the x, y, and z values, adding these squares together and taking the square root of the sum.
Leverett has developed a methodology where the length of a limb is measured using a monocular w / reticle aligned along the orientation of the limb, the distance to either end of the limb segment, and a calculated scaling factor to determine limb length. Essentially the apparent length of the limb at each end as using the distance to that point and the scaling factor for that distance as if the limb were perpendicular to the observer. These lengths are considered to be the top and base of a regular trapezoid with a height equal to the difference in the distance between the two points. The true length of the limb can then be calculated by treating it as a diagonal of the trapezoid.
To calculate trunk volume, the tree is subdivided into a series of segments with the successive diameters being the bottom and top of each segment and segment length being equal to the difference in height between the lower and upper diameters, or if the trunk is not vertical, the segment length can be calculated using the limb length formula above. Whether using the aerial or ground based methods, the diameter or girth measurements do not need to be evenly spaced along the trunk of the tree, but a sufficient number of measurements need to be taken to adequately represent the changes in diameter of the trunk. Cumulative trunk volume is calculated by adding the volume of the measured segments of the tree together. Where segments are short, the volume of each segment is calculated as the volume of a frustum of a cone where volume is calculated by any of the three forms:
Volume = h (π / 3) (r + r + r r)
Volume = h (π / 12) (D + D + D D)
Volume = h / 3 (A + A + (A A))
A similar, but more complex formula can be used where the trunk is significantly more elliptical in shape where the lengths of the major and minor axis of the ellipse are measured at the top and bottom of each segment.
Let D = major axis of upper ellipse of the frustum D = minor axis of upper ellipse of the frustum D = major axis of lower ellipse of the frustum D = minor axis of lower ellipse of the frustum h = height of frustum V = volume of frustum π = 3.141593
Volume = h (π / 12) (((D) (D)) + ((D) (D)) + ((D D D D)))
While this formula is more involved than the equivalent for a circle, if the major and minor axis of each ellipse are equal, the result is the more familiar formula for the frustum of a right circular cone.
The volume calculations for these individual frustums of trunk segments can be further refined by considering the overall shape of the trunk. Tree trunks change shape, or more appropriately, curvature multiple times from base to top. It is not uncommon to see the base of a tree as neiloid in shape for 3 to 10 feet. This neiloid shape then changes to a cylinder or paraboloid for perhaps several tens of feet and then to a cone for the remaining distance.
The best method for modeling that is to divide the trunk into adjacent segments no more than 3 to 5 feet in height / length and then apply either the cone, paraboloid, or neiloid frustum form to each. This is a labor - intensive process. To gain efficiency, longer sections can be chosen that appear to the eye to have uniform curvature. However, the longer the segment, the more important it is to choose the optimum solid. Over longer frustums, the greater volume contribution of the paraboloid or the lesser volume of the neiloid becomes apparent when compared to the basic conical form. Therefore, when modeling longer frustums the measurer needs to perform independent checks to insure that the right solid has been chosen. One way to check is to take a diameter measurement at an intermediate point and then project what the diameter would be for the chosen model at the point. If the projected diameter is substantially greater or lesser than the measured diameter, then the selected solid is not the right choice. In this case, an intermediate form that combines the two forms through weighting may be appropriate. The measurer selects weights and applies them to each solid formula to arrive at an intermediate result. Each frustum can represent a different parent cone, paraboloid, or neiloid so that there is not a need to impose a single form on the entire tree.
The formula for the volume of a frustum of a paraboloid is: V = (πh / 2) (r + r), where h = height of the frustum, r is the radius of the base of the frustum, and r is the radius of the top of the frustum. This allows us to use a paraboloid frustum where that form appears more appropriate than a cone. Frustums are then dictated by visual inspection.
As an extension of this approach, the neiloid form is one whose sides are concave, so its volume is less than that of a cone. The neiloid form often applies near the base of tree trunks exhibiting root flare, and just below limb bulges. The formula for the volume of a frustum of a neiloid: V = (h / 4) (A + (A A) + (A A) + A), where A is the area of the base and A is the area of the top of the frustum. This volume may also be expressed in terms of radii: V = (h 4 π) (r b 2 + r b 4 3 r u 2 3 + r b 2 3 r u 4 3 + r u 2) (\ displaystyle V = \ left ((\ frac (h) (4)) \ pi \ right) \ left (r_ (b) ^ (2) + r_ (b) ^ (\ frac (4) (3)) r_ (u) ^ (\ frac (2) (3)) + r_ (b) ^ (\ frac (2) (3)) r_ (u) ^ (\ frac (4) (3)) + r_ (u) ^ (2) \ right)) The final tree volume is the sum of the volumes for the individual frustum sections for the trunk, the volumes of sections measured as bifurcations, the volume of the basal flare, the volume of miscellaneous unusual sections, and the volumes of the limbs (if applicable.)
Forestry data suggests that the slowdown of diameter growth is correlated to a commensurate slowdown in volume growth, but the association is not always straightforward. Diameter represents linear growth and volume is growth within a three dimensional context. Slowdown in radial growth rates can occur without slowdown in corresponding cross-sectional area or volume growth. Leverett compared growth rates of six young white pines (Pinus strobus), 75 to 90 years in age, growing along Broad Brook, MA with that of eleven old growth white pines from various other forest sites around Massachusetts. As anticipated, the smaller trees grow at a higher relative rate, but their actual volume increase is less than the larger trees with an average annual trunk volume increase is 6.76 ft (0.191 m).
Some of the older Mohawk Trail State Forest pines in western Massachusetts are growing at a rate of slightly less than double the rate of the young pines in terms of absolute volume increases with an average annual volume increase of 11.9 ft3 over the referenced time periods. The Ice Glen pine, in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, estimated to be around 300 years old or possibly older based on dating of nearby pines, shows a decline in annual volume increase to approximately half of that for the trees in the 90 to 180 - year age class, but still averaged a volume increase of 5.8 ft over the five year monitoring period. This study shows that these old trees continue to add significant volume even into old age.
Tree trunks not only vary in shape from top to bottom, but also vary in shape over time. The overall shape of a tree trunk can be defined as a form factor: V = F * A * H, where A = area of the base at a designated height (such as 4.5 feet), H = full height of tree, and F = the form factor. Examinations of white pines samples in Massachusetts found a sequence of progressive changes in shape over time. Young pines were found to have a form factor between 0.33 and 0.35, forest grown pines in the age class of 150 years or more had a form factor of between 0.36 and 0.44, and stocky old - growth outlier pines would on occasion achieve a form factor of between 0.45 and 0.47. The form factor concept is parallel to idea of Percent Cylinder Occupation. The volume of the trunk is expressed as a percentage of the volume of a cylinder that is equal in diameter to the trunk above basal flare and with a height equal to the height of the tree. A cylinder would have a percent cylinder occupation of 100 %, a quadratic paraboloid would have 50 %, a cone would have 33 %, and a neiloid would have 25 %. For example, the old growth hemlock trees (Tsuga canadiensis) measured as part of the Tsuga Search Project were found to have occupation percentages from 34.8 % to 52.3 % for the intact, single trunked trees sampled. In general trees with a fat base or a trunk that quickly tapers scores low on the list, while trees that taper more slowly have higher values. Those trees with broken tops will have anomalously high values. If the base diameter is taken within the area of basal flare the overall volume will be anomalously low.
One goal of looking at overall tree shape is to find a method of determining overall tree volume using a minimum of measurements and a generalized volume formula. The simplest method to achieve this is to model the entire trunk with one application of a solid. Application of one form to the whole tree has been discussed as a way to get a quick volume approximation. But, the method is unlikely to produce an accurate result.
Given the general form changes from the base to top of the tree and the pattern of change in form factor over time, a predictive model was developed and applied to a variety of trees in New England where volume estimates were made based upon measurements tree height, girth at breast height, girth at root flair, and assigned values for form factor (taper), and a flare factor. For young to mature Eastern White Pines, applying the cross-sectional area at trunk flare with full tree height in the cone formula almost always overstates the fully modeled volume. Similarly, using the cross-sectional area at breast height with full tree height in the cone formula usually understates the volume. These values provide an upper and lower bound for actual volume for younger trees. Old - growth pines can develop a columnar form, and if they have only a modest root flare, the actual trunk volume can exceed the volume as estimated by the upper bound formula. In an analysis of 44 trees, including 42 Eastern White Pines, one Eastern Hemlock, and a single Tuliptree, the average of the upper and lower - bound volumes as compared to the modeled volume shows that the average divided by the modeled volumes is 0.98 with a standard deviation of 0.10. The volumes of 34 trees fall within the hypothetical upper and lower - bound calculations.
Better results can be obtained using subjectively assigned factors to incorporate the taper of the trunk and characterize the basal flare. Trees with major root flare or pronounced taper skew the formula. Extreme root flare produces noticeable overestimates of volume. Conversely, a rapid trunk taper leads to an estimated volume that is too low. This can be addressed if we create multipliers for the averaged volume: one for flare and one for taper. If, by visual inspection, we see a large flare, we could use a flare multiplier of 0.90, otherwise 1.00. If we saw a very slow taper, we could use a taper multiplier of 1.11.By using separate factors for flare and taper and multiplying them together to create a composite factor.
V = F F H (C + C / 75.4)
where C = circumference at root flare, C = circumference at 4.5 feet, H = full tree height, F = flare factor, F = taper factor, and V = volume. Any objection to equation rests primarily with the subjective nature of F and F. The value 75.4 = 24 π, where 24π substitutes for factor of 12π in the formula for a volume of frustum of a cone encompassing a full tree using one base circumference, converting it to a volume formula that uses a basal circumference that is the average of circumferences C and C By using separate factors for flare and taper and multiplying them together, we create a composite factor. It is suggested that these flare and taper could be extended in some cases to values in the range of 0.80 and 1.25 to allow extreme forms to be characterized by the formula. Similarly a model of overall trunk volume could potentially be predicted by using height, girth above basal flare, and the percent cylinder occupation for that species and age class. However at this time there is insufficient data available to test this concept.
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name the three factors that greatly supported agriculture in pakistan | Agriculture in Pakistan - Wikipedia
Pakistan 's principal natural resources are arable land and water. About 25 % of Pakistan 's agriculture accounts for about 21 % of GDP and employs about 43 % of the labour force. In Pakistan, the most agricultural province is Punjab where wheat and cotton are the most grown. Mango orchards are mostly found in Sindh and Punjab provinces that make Pakistan the world 's 4th largest producer of mangoes.
Barley and wheat cultivation -- along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goat -- was visible in Mehrgarh by 8000 -- 6000 BCE. They cultivated six - row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2655 BC.
Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization (see also Mohenjo - daro) by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE.
Archeological evidence of an animal - drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.
All agricultural affairs and activities in Pakistan are overseen and regulated by the Ministry of Agriculture.
Pakistan is one of the world 's largest producers and suppliers of food and crops according to the different sources.
Pakistan ranks eighth worldwide in farm output, according to the List of countries by GDP sector composition.
The most important crops are wheat, sugarcane, cotton, and rice, which together account for more than 75 % of the value of total crop output.
Pakistan 's largest food crop is wheat. In 2005, Pakistan produced 21,591,400 metric tons of wheat, more than all of Africa (20,304,585 metric tons) and nearly as much as all of South America (24,557,784 metric tons), according to the FAO. The country had harvested more than 25 to 23 million tons of wheat in 2012.
Pakistan has also cut the use of dangerous pesticides dramatically.
Pakistan is a net food exporter, except in occasional years when its harvest is adversely affected by droughts. Pakistan exports rice, cotton, fish, fruits (especially Oranges and Mangoes), and vegetables and imports vegetable oil, wheat, pulses and consumer foods. The country is Asia 's largest camel market, second - largest apricot and ghee market and third - largest cotton, onion and milk market.
The economic importance of agriculture has declined since independence, when its share of GDP was around 53 %. Following the poor harvest of 1993, the government introduced agriculture assistance policies, including increased support prices for many agricultural commodities and expanded availability of agricultural credit. From 1993 to 1997, real growth in the agricultural sector averaged 5.7 % but has since declined to about 4 %. Agricultural reforms, including increased wheat and oilseed production, play a central role in the government 's economic reform package.
Outdated irrigation practices have led to inefficient water usage in Pakistan. 25 percent of the water withdrawn for use in the agricultural sector is lost through leakages and line losses in the canals. Only a limited amount of the remaining water is actually absorbed and used by the crops due to poor soil texture and unlevelled fields.
Much of the Pakistan 's agriculture output is utilized by the country 's growing processed - food industry. The value of processed retail food sales has grown 12 percent annually during the Nineties and was estimated at over $1 billion in 2000, although supermarkets accounted for just over 10 % of the outlets.
The Federal Bureau of Statistics provisionally valued major crop yields at Rs. 504,868 million in 2005 thus registering over 55 % growth since 2000 while minor crop yields were valued at Rs. 184,707 million in 2005 thus registering over 41 % growth since 2000. The exports related to the agriculture sector in 2009 -- 10 are Rs 288.18 billion including food grains, vegetables, fruits, tobacco, fisheries products, spices and livestock.
According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan, the livestock sector contributes about half of the value added in the agriculture sector, amounting to nearly 11 per cent of Pakistan 's GDP, which is more than the crop sector. The leading daily newspaper Jang reports that the national herd consists of 24.2 million cattle, 26.3 million buffaloes, 24.9 million sheep, 56.7 million goats and 0.8 million camels. In addition to these there is a vibrant poultry sector in the country with more than 530 million birds produced annually. These animals produce 29.472 million tons of milk (making Pakistan the 4th largest producer of milk in the world), 1.115 million tons of beef, 0.740 million tons of mutton, 0.416 million tons of poultry meat, 8.528 billion eggs, 40.2 thousand tons of wool, 21.5 thousand tons of hair and 51.2 million skins and hides.
The Food and Agriculture Organization reported in June 2006 that in Pakistan, government initiatives are being undertaken to modernize milk collection and to improve milk and milk product storage capacity.
The Federal Bureau of Statistics provisionally valued this sector at Rs. 758,470 million in 2005 thus registering over 70 % growth since 2000.
Fishery and fishing industry plays an important role in the national economy of Pakistan. With a coastline of about 1046 km, Pakistan has enough fishery resources that remain to be fully developed. It is also a major source of export earning. Aquaculture is also a rapidly developing industry in Pakistan. Especially the Punjab Province has demonstrated rapid growth in fish farming. GIFT Tilapia culture has also been introduced quite recently in Pakistan especially Punjab province.
About only 4 % of land in Pakistan is covered with forest. The forest of Pakistan are a main source of food, lumber, paper, fuelwood, latex, medicine as well as used for purposes of wildlife conservation and ecotourism.
Some reformers have blamed imbalance in land ownership in Pakistan for playing a part in "maintaining poverty and food insecurity ''. According to the Pakistan - based NGO, Society For Conservation and Protection of The Environment (SCOPE), about one - half (50.8 %) of rural households in Pakistan are landless, while 5 % of the country 's population owns almost two - thirds (64 percent) of its farmland. (The World Bank found that according to 2000 agricultural census 63.3 % of rural households were landless. Of the remaining 37 % of rural households, 61 % of these owned fewer than 5 acres, totaling 15 % of total land. Two percent of households owned 50 acres or more, accounting for 30 percent of total land area.) Concentration of ownership is also thought to be less productive than owner farmed land. According to the World Bank, "most empirical evidence indicates that land productivity on large farms in Pakistan is lower than that of small farms, holding other factors constant. '' Small farmers have "higher net returns per hectare '' than large farms, according to farm household income data. Sharecropper productivity is also lower (about 20 %) than landowner productivity, holding other factors constant, because there is less incentive for sharecroppers ' own - labour inputs.
The major effort to redistribute land to peasants and landless -- Laws in 1972 and 1977 by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto -- were struck down as un-Islamic by Pakistan courts in a number of decisions from 1979 to 1989.
The first attempts at land reform in Pakistan occurred under Ayub Khan 's government, the West Pakistan Land Reforms Regulation 1959 (Regulation 64 of 1959). The law put a ceiling on individual holdings: no one individual could own more than 500 acres of irrigated and 1,000 acres of unirrigated land or a maximum of 36,000 Produce Index Units (PIU), whichever was greater. On result of this attempt at redistribution was that land was divided up among members of the landowning family to keep the land owned by individuals below the "ceiling ''.
The People 's Party government (1971 - 1977) intended to transform Pakistan with land reform among other policies. Its rationale was that
It issued two major land reform laws, Land Reform Regulation 1972 (Martial Law Regulation - MLR 115) promulgated by Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was designed to place ceilings on the agricultural holding of Pakistan 's large landlords. Land in excess of a ceiling of 150 acres was to be seized by the state without compensation and distributed to the landless. The ceiling was raised to 300 acres if the land was unirrigated; exceptions were also granted for tractors or installed tubewells.
Another provision of MLR 115, Section 25, gave first right of re-emption (right of first refusal to buy) to the existing tenants. In 1977, another bill the Land Reform Act, 1977, reduced the ceiling to 100 acres, although this act provided for compensation to landlords.
"Analysts agree '' that the implementation of land reforms under Ali Bhutto "left much to be desired. '' The amount of land seized and redistributed to the peasants was modest, and the reforms were not administered equitably, with implementation much more robust in the NWFP and Balochistan, where opposition to Bhutto was centered, than in provinces where his power base resided, (Sindh and Punjab). Many of Pakistan 's large landlords mobilized against the reforms which they saw as "a direct challenged to their long - standing interest in maintaining political control in Pakistan 's rural areas ''. The land reforms were attacked as "unjustly administered; and as inherently un-Islamic. ''
After Ali Bhutto was overthrown, landlord victims of land reform appealed to "Islamic Courts '' established by Bhutto 's successor General Zia - ul - Haq (i.e. the Shariah Appellate Bench and Federal Shariat Court), and these, rather than the executive or legislature of Pakistan, undid much of Ali Bhutto 's redistribution. According to scholar Charles H. Kennedy, the courts effectively "suspended implementation '' of the land reforms, "repealed the reforms, drafted new legislation, and then interpreted the new laws ' meanings ''. A 3 - 2 decision in 1989 by the Shariat Appellate Bench ruled against setting a ceiling on size of landholdings (as the Bhutto land reform had done) on the grounds that "Islam does not countenance compulsory redistribution of wealth or land for the purpose of alleviating poverty, however laudable the goal of poverty relief may be. '' According to barrister writing in dawn.com, "The net result of the Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner (The 1989 Shariat Appellate Bench decision) is that land reforms in Pakistan are now at the same level as they were in 1947, as the 1972 regulations and the 1977 act have seen their main provisions being struck down and the 1959 regulations have been repealed. ''
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where does the pfe reside on an mx960 router | Juniper MX - series - wikipedia
The Juniper MX - Series is a family of ethernet routers and switches designed and manufactured by Juniper Networks. In 2006, Juniper released the first of the MX - series, the MX960, MX240, and MX480. The second generation routers, called MX "3D '', were first released in 2009 and featured a new Trio chipset and IPv6 support. In 2013, the MX routers were improved to increase their bandwidth, and a virtualized MX 3D router, the vMX 3D, was released in 2014. Utilizing the Juniper Extension Toolkit (JET), third party software can be integrated into the routers.
On October 18, 2006, the MX Series was publicly announced. Before its release, Ethernet aggregation was a missing component of Juniper 's edge network products, which was causing it to lose market - share to Alcatel. The MX Series was late to market, but it was well received by analysts and customers. It was part of a trend at - the - time to incorporate additional software features in routers and switches.
The first product release of the MX series was the MX960, a 14 - slot, 480 Gbit / s switch and router. In late 2006, Juniper introduced the MX240 and MX480, which are smaller versions of the 960. They had a throughput of 240 Gbit / s and 480 Gbit / s respectively.
In 2009 a new line of MX "3D '' products were introduced, using Juniper 's programmable Trio chipset. Trio is a proprietary semiconductor technology with custom network instructions. It provides a cross between network processing units and ASICs. IPv6 features were added and the MX80, a smaller 80Gbit / s router, was introduced the following year.
In 2011 new switch fabric cards increased the capacity of MX 3D routers. In May 2011 Juniper introduced several new products including the MX5, MX10 and MX40 3D routers, which have a throughput of 20, 40 and 60 Gbit / s respectively and can each be upgraded to an MX80. A collection of features called MobileNext was introduced in 2011 at Mobile World Congress, then discontinued in August 2013. According to Network World, it allowed MX 3D products to serve as a mobile "gateway, an authentication and management control plan for 2G / 3G and LTE mobile packet cores and as a policy manager for subscriber management systems. ''
In October 2012, Juniper introduced the MX2020 and 2010 3D Universal Edge Routers, with throughputs of 80 Tbit / s and 40 Tbit / s respectively. Juniper also released a video caching system for the MX family and a suite of software applications that include parental control, firewall and traffic monitoring. New "Virtual Chassis '' features allowed network operators to manage multiple boxes as though they were a single router or switch.
In 2013, Juniper introduced new line cards for the MX series and a new switch fabric module, intended to upgrade the MX series ' for higher bandwidth needs and for software defined networking applications. The capacity of the MX240, 480 and 960 were increased by double or more. A new Multiservice Modular Interface Card (MS - MIC) was incorporated that supports up to 9 Gbit / s for services like tunneling software.
In March 2013, Juniper released the EX9200 switch, which is n't part of the MX Series, but uses the same software and Trio chipset. A virtualized MX series 3D router, the vMX 3D, was introduced in November 2014. A suite of updates were announced in late 2015. New MPC line cards were introduced, which have a throughput of up to 1.6 Tbit / s. Simultaneously the Juniper Extension Toolkit (JET) was announced. JET is a programming interface for integrating third - party applications that automate provisioning, maintenance and other tasks. The Junos Telemetry Interface was also announced at the same time. It reports data to applications and other equipment to automate changes to the network in response to faults or in order optimize performance.
According to Juniper 's website, Juniper 's current MX Series products include the following:
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what is the length of a chrysler 300 | Chrysler 300 - wikipedia
The Chrysler 300 is a luxury, rear - wheel - drive, front - engine, full - sized car car manufactured and marketed by FCA US (and its predecessor companies) as a four - door sedan and station wagon in its first generation (model years 2005 -- 2010) and solely as a four - door sedan in its second and current generation (model years 2011 -- present). The second generation 300 was marketed as the Chrysler 300C in the United Kingdom and Ireland and as the Lancia Thema in the remainder of Europe.
The 300 debuted as a concept at the 2003 New York International Auto Show with styling by Ralph Gilles and production starting in January 2004 for the 2005 model year. The Chrysler 300 was designed as a modern interpretation of the Chrysler C - 300 (and the letter series Chryslers that followed), featuring a large grille, long hood and low roofline that was prominent on those vehicles. The styling retained many elements of the 1998 Chrysler Chronos concept car, such as chrome interior accents and tortoiseshell finishings on the steering wheel and shifter knob.
The Chrysler 300 is based on the rear - wheel drive Chrysler LX platform with components derived from the W211 Mercedes - Benz E-Class of 2003 to 2009. Shared components include the rear suspension design, front seat frames, wiring harnesses, steering column, the 5 - speed automatic transmission 's design, and a derivative of the 4Matic all - wheel drive system.
The basic 300 (or 300C in some countries) comes with standard 17 - inch wheels, wheel covers, four - wheel disc brakes, single disc MP3 player, auxiliary input jack, power driver seat and a four - speed automatic transmission. It uses a 2,736 cc (2.736 L; 167.0 cu in) EER V6 making 190 hp (140 kW). In Canada, it comes standard with the Touring model 's 3,518 cc (3.5 L; 214.7 cu in) V6 engine. The vehicle comes with standard rear wheel drive and available all wheel drive. The basic 300 model was renamed to LX for 2008 and remains as the code - name for the platform.
The Touring model uses a 3,518 cc (3.5 L; 214.7 cu in) V6, producing 250 hp (190 kW) and 250 lb ⋅ ft (340 N ⋅ m) of torque, either a 4 or 5spd transmission depending on the year and drive configuration, and comes with 17 - inch aluminium wheels, AM / FM radio with CD player and auxiliary audio jack, Electronic Stability Program (ESP), remote keyless entry, leather trimmed seats, and SIRIUS satellite radio. This model was renamed Touring Plus for the 2009 and 2010 model years.
The Limited model included the Touring model 's 3.5 L V6 engine, generating 250 hp (190 kW) and 250 lb ⋅ ft (340 N ⋅ m) and either a 4 or 5 speed transmission depending on the year and drive configuration. Additional features included 18 - inch chrome - clad aluminium wheels, anti-roll bars.
The top - of - the - line 300C version uses a 5.7 L (345 cu in) Hemi V8. Using the Multidisplacement System (MDS), this engine can run on four cylinders when less power is needed in order to reduce total fuel consumption. The USEPA - rated fuel consumption of the 300C is: 15 miles per US gallon (16 L / 100 km; 18 mpg) city, and 23 miles per US gallon (10 L / 100 km; 28 mpg) highway. When all eight cylinders are needed, the 300C can make 340 hp (250 kW) and 390 lb ⋅ ft (530 N ⋅ m) torque. It uses a five - speed automatic transmission and comes standard with 18 - inch chrome - clad alloy wheels, Chrysler 's MyGIG Infotainment System in 2008 and SIRIUS Satellite Radio and Backseat Television in 2008. The HEMI cylinder heads necessitate the use of a double rocker arm shaft configuration, with a cam - in - block, overhead valve (OHV) pushrod design. There are two spark plugs per cylinder to promote efficient fuel / air mixture burn and thereby reduce emissions. In 2009 -- 2010 power output was increased to 360 hp (268 kW; 365 PS).
The SRT - 8 model was equipped with a 6.1 - liter Hemi engine producing 425 hp (317 kW; 431 PS) at 6,200 rpm and 420 pound force - feet (570 N ⋅ m) of torque at 4,800 rpm. The SRT8 can hit 0 -- 60 mph in 4.9 seconds.
The 300C was sold in Europe, Australia, and Japan as both a four - door notchback sedan and a five - door station wagon. The five - door station wagon was sold as the 300C Touring (not to be confused with the North American notchback sedan 's "Touring '' trim level), which shared much of its sheet metal aft of the C - pillar and wheel designs with the Dodge Magnum. The base Chrysler 300 was not sold in Europe, instead all cars came with the 300C body style / interior and a choice of either V6 diesel or V8 gasoline powerplants. The economical Mercedes - based V6 diesel was popular in Europe, where gasoline prices are high. All 300C Touring models, along with European 300C sedans and right - hand drive models were assembled by Magna Steyr in Graz, Austria beginning in June 2005. Steyr insisted on upgrading suspension components to suit European tastes. The five - door station wagon bodystyle was discontinued after the first generation.
In Europe and Australia, the 300C was available with a Mercedes - Benz 3.0 L diesel V6 engine (internal code OM642) rated 218 PS (160 kW; 215 hp) @ 3800rpm and 376 lb ⋅ ft (510 N ⋅ m) @ 1600rpm. Fuel economy for the 300C diesel is rated at 26.2 mpg (9.0 L / 100 km; 31.5 mpg) City, 42.8 mpg (5.50 L / 100 km; 51.4 mpg) Highway and 34.9 mpg (6.74 L / 100 km; 41.9 mpg) on the combined cycle. Acceleration from 0 -- 60 mph happens in 7.9 seconds while the top speed remains the same as the gasoline V6 (140 mph (230 km / h)).
The 2008 UK models included the 300C SRT - Design model in sedan or Touring body, which included SRT 20 - inch alloy wheels and wheel arch spats, chrome mesh grille, MyGIG satellite navigation, SRT - 8 steering wheel, SRT - 8 leather sports seats and carbon fiber interior details.
ASC created a convertible version of the Chrysler 300C, dubbed the ASC Helios 300, and unveiled it at the North American International Auto Show in early 2005. Despite rumours, Chrysler confirmed that the vehicle would not be produced.
The Walter P. Chrysler Executive Series 300 was an extended wheelbase version shown at the 2006 New York Auto Show. It added six inches (152 mm) to the rear passenger compartment.
Heritage Edition 300C The Chrysler 300C Heritage Edition debuted in 2006 and was a performance oriented trim that used the 5.7 Hemi and had styling cues from the Chrysler 300 "letter series '' of the 1950s and the 1960s.
In the USA, the 300C enjoyed a wave of popularity in the mid-2000s, aided by celebrity owners (including US President Barack Obama,) and appearances in music videos. In 2004, rapper Snoop Dogg famously called then - Chrysler CEO, Dieter Zetsche, asking for his own 300C; he later appeared in a commercial for the car alongside Lee Iacocca. The 300C was ranked # 12 in a Complex.com article, "The 25 Most Iconic Hip - Hop Cars '' due to its popularity in many hip - hop music videos following its introduction. Chrysler 300 designer Ralph Gilles reflected on the vehicle 's success in 2008, saying that the "300 turned out to be a bit of an icon for Chrysler ''.
In the UK, the BBC Top Gear team described the 300C as "something different with a bit of kitsch gangster cool ''. They praised the spacious and well - equipped interior and the low price while criticizing the quality of materials, ride, steering and low engine torque. The first generation model was popular with British buyers who regarded it as the "poor man 's Bentley ''.
On Hip - hop artist Drake 's album Views, the song "Keep The Family Close '' references the Chrysler 300 with the lyrics: "Always saw you for what you could 've been / Ever since you met me / Like when Chrysler made that one car that looked just like the Bentley ''.
The 300C was the 2005 Motor Trend Car of the Year. It was on Car and Driver 's Ten Best list for both 2005 and 2006. Automobile Magazine named it its Automobile of the Year.
It also won the North American Car of the Year award. It was voted Canadian Car of the Year by automobile journalists as the Best New Luxury Car.
Receiving numerous other recognitions during its debut year, it was promoted as being one of the most awarded new cars ever.
The 300C was also included in the finalists for 2005 World Car of the Year, but final points total put it in fifth place equal to the BMW 1 - series.
A mildly redesigned 300 was introduced in 2011 as a four - door notchback sedan, the five - door station wagon version of the 300 having been retired.
Exterior changes included revised sheet metal, thinner roof pillars, a more raked windshield, bi-xenon HID projector headlights, LED daytime running strips within the headlights, new taillights with LEDs and a horizontally slotted front grille with an updated version of the Chrysler winged brand emblem. Options included a dual - pane panoramic sunroof and 20 - inch polished - aluminium wheels.
The 2011 model was offered in Touring, Limited, 300C, and 300C AWD trim levels. Touring and Limited trims included the Pentastar V6, while the 300C line offered a standard 5.7 HEMI.
A new 300C Executive Series luxury trim level was introduced alongside a new 300S trim at the 2011 New York International Auto Show. The Executive / Luxury Series was also sold in Europe, rebranded as the Lancia Thema from 2011 -- 2014. The sport themed 300S featured black treatment for grille and headlamps, 20 - inch polished - face aluminium wheels with black painted pockets, 10 - speaker Beats by Dr. Dre sound system, and steering wheel mounted paddle shifters.
An SRT version was unveiled at the 2011 New York International Auto Show, powered by a 6.4 - litre 392 HEMI V8 engine. The 6.4 392 Hemi engine is also used in other Chrysler Group SRT vehicles. With 470 hp (350 kW), the new 300 SRT can go from zero to 60 mph (97 km / h) in the low 4 second range.
In addition to the increase in power, the SRT receives specific exterior trim including a lower front fascia, large exhaust tips, body color instead of chrome trim and large 20 - inch aluminium wheels. The car also gets a lowered, sportier suspension setup and a large Brembo brake package.
The 300 SRT (or SRT8) was discontinued for the 2015 model year in the United States, but is still sold in Australia, New Zealand, and the Middle East. Contrary to past statements by Chrysler, the 300 SRT is still sold in left - hand drive abroad.
The predecessors ' 2.7 - and 3.5 - litre engines were replaced with Chrysler 's new 3.6 - litre Pentastar V6 engine producing 292 horsepower (218 kW) and 260 lb ⋅ ft (350 N ⋅ m) of torque. The 5.7 - litre HEMI V8 engine remained available with 363 horsepower. A 3.0 - litre VM Motori V6 turbodiesel is also available in Europe, and Australia. Beginning with model year 2012 all V6 models were equipped with the 8 - speed 8HP45 automatic transmission, licensed from ZF Friedrichshafen.
Interior changes included a revised instrument panel with localized "soft - touch '' materials, 8.4 - inch Uconnect Touch, new steering wheel and center console, and standard leather seating on all trim levels. Both seat - mounted and curtain side airbags were standard.
In late 2014 a facelift version of the 300 was introduced. Changes include:
As part of the 2011 Chrysler 300 advertising campaign, three TV commercials were produced. "Homecoming '' featured Detroit Lions defensive lineman Ndamukong Suh driving through his rainy hometown of Portland, Oregon, in his new 2011 Chrysler 300, retracing his humble beginnings. "Attitude '' featured John Varvatos seeking inspiration at a record store in Brooklyn and record under his arm and into his Chrysler 300. "Good Things '' featured Dr. Dre driving through the streets of Los Angeles in a Beats by Dre equipped 2012 Chrysler 300.
The ' See It Through ' TV commercial featured the Chrysler 300 and notable Detroit locals, including Detroit Lion Ndamukong Suh and a poem written in 1917 by Edgar Guest titled "See It Through ''.
The Lancia version was safety tested by Euro NCAP in autumn 2011 and got the following results:
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winner of the fillies triple crown in 1985 crossword | British classic races - wikipedia
The British Classics are five long - standing Group 1 horse races run during the traditional flat racing season. They are restricted to three - year - old horses and traditionally represent the pinnacle of achievement for racehorses against their own age group. As such, victory in any classic marks a horse as amongst the very best of a generation. Victory in two or even three of the series (a rare feat known as the English Triple Crown) marks a horse as truly exceptional.
The five British Classics are:
It is common to think of them as taking place in three legs.
The first leg is made up of the Newmarket Classics -- 1,000 Guineas and 2,000 Guineas. Given that the 1,000 Guineas is restricted to fillies, this is regarded as the fillies ' classic and the 2,000, which is open to both sexes, as the colts ' classic, although it is theoretically possible for a filly to compete in both.
The second leg is made up of The Derby and / or Oaks, both ridden over 1 1 / 2 miles at Epsom in early June. The Oaks is regarded as the fillies ' classic, the Derby as the colts ', although, as with the Guineas, a filly could theoretically contest both.
The final leg is the St. Leger, held over 1 mile 6 1 / 2 furlongs at Doncaster and is open to both sexes.
The variety of distances and racecourses faced in the Classics make them particularly challenging as a series to even the best horses. It is rare for a horse to possess both the speed and stamina to compete across all these distances, making the Triple Crown a particularly notable achievement. In fact, in the modern era, it is rare for any attempt on the Triple Crown to be made.
Although the oldest race in the series, the St Leger, was first run 1776, the races were not designated ' classics ' until 1815, shortly after the first running of the 1,000 Guineas.
(see also Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing)
In 1902 Sceptre became the only racehorse to win four British Classic Races outright, winning both Guineas, the Oaks and the St Leger. Previously, in 1868, Formosa won the same four races but dead - heated in the 2,000 Guineas.
Fifteen horses have won the standard Triple Crown (2,000 Guineas -- Derby -- St Leger), the last being Nijinsky in 1970.
In addition to Sceptre and Formosa above, eight horses have won the fillies ' Triple Crown (1,000 Guineas -- Oaks -- St Leger), the last being Oh So Sharp in 1985.
Many horses have won two classics, some of whom have gone on to attempt the Triple Crown, losing in the last leg at Doncaster. The most recent example of this was the Aidan O'Brien trained Camelot, who having won 2,000 Guineas and Derby, finished second in the St Leger in 2012.
Most wins as a horse
Most wins as a jockey
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and you thought there was never a girl online mal | And you thought there is Never a girl online? - Wikipedia
And You Thought There Is Never a Girl Online? (Japanese: ネトゲ の 嫁 は 女の子 じゃ ない と 思っ た?, Hepburn: Netoge no Yome wa Onna no Ko Janai to Omotta?, lit. "You Thought Your Online Game Wife Was n't A Girl? '') is a Japanese light novel series, written by Shibai Kineko and illustrated by Hisasi. ASCII Media Works have published nine volumes since 2013 under their Dengeki Bunko imprint. A manga adaptation with art by Kazui Ishigami began serialization in ASCII Media Works ' seinen manga magazine Dengeki G 's Comic from August 30, 2014, and has been collected in two tankōbon volumes. An anime television series adaptation by Project No. 9 aired from April 7, 2016 to June 23, 2016.
Teenager Hideki Nishimura plays a massively multiplayer online role - playing game called Legendary Age (LA), but one day he proposes online to a girl who tells him she is really a man, so he swears off online marriages. Two years later, he has been involved with a guild and eventually accepts an in - game marriage offer from his persistent guildmate, Ako. When the guild has their first - ever real - life meeting, Hideki is shocked to discover that his teammates are not only all girl gamers, but they also attend his school. The story follows their adventures as they form a school club to play the game while Hideki tries to help Ako, who is infatuated with Hideki as his game character, try to separate fantasy from reality.
The first light novel volume was published on July 10, 2013 by ASCII Media Works under their Dengeki Bunko imprint. As of February 2017, thirteen volumes have been published.
An anime television series adaptation by Project No. 9 ran from April 7 to June 23, 2016 on AT - X. The opening theme is "1st Love Story '' by Luce Twinke Wink ☆, and the ending theme is "Zero Ichi Kiseki '' (ゼロイチ キセキ, lit. "Zero One Miracle '') by Yoshino Nanjō. Universal Pictures originally announced that they would release the series in the UK, however, it was later revealed that MVM Entertainment would release the series within the region.
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has pakistan ever won a test series in england | List of Pakistan Test cricket records - wikipedia
Test cricket is the oldest form of cricket played at international level. A Test match is scheduled to take place over a period of five days, and is played by teams representing Full Member nations of the International Cricket Council (ICC). Pakistan obtained Full Member status of the ICC in 1952, becoming the seventh nation eligible to play Test cricket. The Pakistan national cricket team played their first Test match on 16 October 1952 against India which they lost by an innings and 70 runs. They recorded their first victory in their second ever match against India on 23 October 1952. Since then, they have played 410 matches, against every other Test - playing nation. As of August 2017, Pakistan is fourth-most successful team in Test cricket with an overall winning percentage of 32.19, ahead of Australia (47.00), South Africa (36.86) and England (35.89).
Top order batsman and former captain Younis Khan holds several Pakistan batting records. He has scored the most runs (10,099) for Pakistan in Test cricket -- the first and only player to score over 10,000 runs in the format for his country. He is the record holder for the highest number of centuries (34) as well as the highest number of double centuries (six with Javed Miandad) for Pakistan. Hanif Mohammad 's 337 runs against the West Indies in 1958 is the highest individual score by a Pakistani cricketer, surpassing the previous best of 209 by Imtiaz Ahmed, which was established in 1955. It is also the eighth - highest individual score in Test cricket. Hanif, Inzamam - ul - Haq (329), Younis Khan (313) and Azhar Ali (302 not out) are the only Pakistani players who have scored triple centuries.
Wasim Akram, regarded as "one of the greatest left - arm bowlers in the history of world cricket '', holds several Test records. He holds the record for the most Test wickets (414) as well as the record for the most number of five wickets per innings (25) for Pakistan. Akram also holds the record of highest individual score batting at number 8 (257 not out) in Test cricket. This feat was achieved in 1996 playing against Zimbabwe (1). Abdul Qadir 's nine wickets for 56 runs, against England at Gaddafi Stadium in 1987, is the best bowling figures in an innings by a Pakistani bowler. 14 wickets for 116 runs by Imran Khan against Sri Lanka in 1982 at the same ground is the best bowling performance in a Test by a Pakistani player. He also holds the record for best bowling average for Pakistan with 22.81. Younis Khan took 139 catches from 118 matches as fielder, the most by a Pakistani and twelfth - highest overall. Wasim Bari is Pakistan 's most successful wicket - keeper having taken 228 dismissals; he is eleventh in the list of most number of dismissals in Test cricket.
The top five records are listed for each category, except in "team wins, losses, and draws '' and "highest wicket partnerships ''. Tied records for the fifth place are listed as well. Explanations of the general symbols and cricketing terms used in the list are given below. Specific details are provided in each category where appropriate.
Pakistan has played 413 Test matches resulting in 133 victories, 122 defeats and 158 draws for an overall winning percentage of 32.20, the fourth - highest winning percentage of Test playing teams. A tie can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings. Only two matches have ended in a tie in Test cricket history, neither of which involved Pakistan.
The highest innings total scored in Test cricket came in the series between Sri Lanka and India in August 1997. Playing in the first Test at the R. Premadasa Stadium in Colombo, the hosts posted a first innings total of 952 / 6d. This broke the longstanding record of 903 / 7d which England set against Australia in the final Test of the 1938 Ashes series at The Oval. The first Test of the 2008 -- 09 series against Sri Lanka saw Pakistan set their highest innings total of 765 / 5d, the fifth - highest score in Test cricket.
The lowest innings total scored in Test cricket came in the second Test of England 's tour of New Zealand in March 1955. Trailing England by 46, New Zealand was bowled out in their second innings for 26 runs. The twentieth - lowest score in Test history is Pakistan 's total of 49 scored in their second innings against South Africa in the first Test of the 2012 -- 13 series.
A Test match is won when one side has scored more runs than the total runs scored by the opposing side during their two innings. If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If one side scores more runs in a single innings than the total runs scored by the other side in both their innings, it is known as a win by innings and runs. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by wickets, indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.
The fifth Test of the 1938 Ashes series at The Oval saw England win by an innings and 579 runs, the largest victory by an innings in Test cricket history. The fifth - largest victory was Pakistan 's win against New Zealand in the first Test of the 2002 tour at the Gaddafi Stadium, where the hosts won by an innings and 324 runs.
The greatest winning margin by runs in Test cricket was England 's victory over Australia by 675 runs in the first Test of the 1928 -- 29 Ashes series. Pakistan 's largest victory by runs was recorded in the second Test of the 2018 -- 19 series where they defeated Australia by 373 runs.
Pakistan have won a Test match by a margin of 10 wickets on 13 occasions, rank fourth in the list after Australia (28), West Indies (25) and England (20).
Pakistan 's narrowest win by runs was against India in the first Test of the 1998 -- 99 series at M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore. Set 271 runs for victory in the final innings, India were bowled all out for 258 to give victory to Pakistan by twelve runs. This was the twelfth - narrowest win in the history of Test cricket.
Out of twelve occasions, Pakistan have achieved their narrowest win of one - wicket victory twice. Their first - narrowest win by wickets came in the first Test of the Australia tour of Pakistan in 1994 -- 95. Played at the National Stadium in Karachi, the hosts won the match by a margin of one wicket. Pakistan repeated the feat against Bangladesh at Multan Cricket Stadium in 2003.
Lord 's in London played host Pakistan 's greatest defeat by an innings in Test cricket. The final Test of the 2010 series saw England defeat the tourists by an innings and 225 runs, to the won the series 2 -- 0.
The first Test of the 2004 -- 05 series saw Pakistan defeated by Australia by 491 runs, fourth greatest losing margin by runs in Test cricket.
Pakistan have lost a Test match by a margin of 10 wickets on nine occasions.
The first Test of Pakistan -- Sri Lanka series in in 2017 -- 18 contested at Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium, Pakistan was set 136 runs for victory in the final innings. With just 22 runs left to score, Pakistan 's number eleven batsman Muhammad Abbas was out leg before wicket (lbw) to give the victory to Sri Lanka.
Test cricket has seen twelve matches been decided by a margin of one wicket, with Pakistan being defeated once of them. This was the final Test of the 1999 -- 2000 series at Antigua Recreation Ground where the West Indies ran down the target of 216 runs in the final innings.
A run is the basic means of scoring in cricket. A run is scored when the batsman hits the ball with his bat and with his partner runs the length of 22 yards (20 m) of the pitch.
India 's Sachin Tendulkar has scored the most runs in Test cricket with 15,921. Second is Ricky Ponting of Australia with 13,378 ahead of Jacques Kallis from South Africa in third with 13,289. Younis Khan is the only Pakistani batsman who has scored more than 10,000 runs in Test cricket.
Hanif Mohammad set the highest Test score for Pakistan with 337, surpassing Imtiaz Ahmed 's 209 scored against New Zealand in October 1955 at Bagh - e-Jinnah. Inzamam - ul - Haq (329), Younis Khan (313) and Azhar Ali (302 *) are the only others to sore a triple century for Pakistan.
A batsman 's batting average is the total number of runs they have scored divided by the number of times they have been dismissed.
Pakistan 's Javed Miandad, "one of the best and most exciting players in the world '', finished his Test career with an average of 52.57. The next closest Pakistani to him is Mohammad Yousuf who retired in 2012 with an average of 52.29.
A half - century is a score of between 50 and 99 runs. Statistically, once a batsman 's score reaches 100, it is no longer considered a half - century but a century.
Sachin Tendulkar of India has score the most half - centuries in Test cricket with 68. He is followed by the West Indies ' Shivnarine Chanderpaul on 66, Pakistan 's Inzamam - ul - Haq has 46 fifties to his name.
A century is a score of 100 or more runs in a single innings.
Tendulkar has also scored the most centuries in Test cricket with 51. South Africa 's Jacques Kallis is next on 45 and Ponting with 41 hundreds is in third. Younis Khan is the highest century - maker for Pakistan.
A double century is a score of 200 or more runs in a single innings.
Bradman holds the Test record for the most double centuries scored with twelve, one ahead of Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara who finished his career with eleven. In third is Brian Lara of the West Indies with nine. England 's Wally Hammond and Mahela Jayawardene of Sri Lanka both scored seven, and Miandad and Younis Khan are two of six cricketers who reached the mark on six occasions.
Test cricket is the oldest form of cricket played at international level. The 1930 Ashes series in England saw Bradman set the record for the most runs scored in a single series, falling just 26 short of 1,000 runs. He is followed by Wally Hammond with 905 runs scored in the 1928 -- 29 Ashes series. Mark Taylor with 839 in the 1989 Ashes and Neil Harvey with 834 in 1952 -- 53 South African series are third and fourth on the list, respectively. Pakistani cricketer Mudassar Nazar is seventeenth in the list with 761.
A duck refers to a batsman dismissed without scoring a run. West Indian Courtney Walsh has the most number of ducks to his name with 43. Pakistan 's Danish Kaneria has scored the ninth - highest number of ducks in Test cricket along with Indian cricketer Ishant Sharma with 25.
A bowler takes the wicket of a batsman when the form of dismissal is bowled, caught, leg before wicket, stumped or hit wicket. If the batsman is dismissed by run out, obstructing the field, handling the ball, hitting the ball twice or timed out the bowler does not receive credit.
Shane Warne held the record for the most Test wickets with 708 until December 2007 when Sri Lankan bowler Muttiah Muralitharan passed Warne 's milestone. Muralitharan, who continued to play until 2010, finished with 800 wickets to his name. India 's Anil Kumble is third on the list taking 610 wickets and Glenn McGrath of Australia with 563 holds the record for most wickets by a fast bowler in Test cricket. Wasim Akram is the highest wicket taker for Pakistan with 414.
Bowling figures refers to the number of the wickets a bowler has taken and the number of runs conceded.
There has been two occasions in Test cricket where a bowler has taken all ten wickets in a single innings -- Jim Laker of England took 10 / 53 against Australia in 1956 and India 's Anil Kumble in 1999 returned figures of 10 / 74 against Pakistan. Abdul Qadir is one of 15 bowlers who has taken nine wickets in a Test match innings.
A bowler 's bowling figures in a match is sum of the wickets taken and the runs conceded in two innings.
No bowler in the history of Test cricket has taken all 20 wickets in a match. The closest to do so was English spin bowler Jim Laker. During the fourth Test of the 1956 Ashes series, Laker took 9 / 37 in the first innings and 10 / 53 in the second to finish with match figures of 19 / 90. Imran Khan 's figures of 14 / 116, taken in finaal match of the 1981 -- 82 Test series against Sri Lanka, is the sixteenth - best in Test cricket history.
A bowler 's bowling average is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of wickets they have taken.
Nineteenth century English medium pacer George Lohmann holds the record for the best career average in Test cricket with 10.75. J.J. Ferris, one of fourteen cricketers to play Test cricket for more than one team, is second behind Lohmann with an overall career average of 12.70 runs per wicket. Imran Khan 's bowling average of 22.81 is the best figures for Pakistan.
A bowler 's economy rate is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of overs they have bowled.
English bowler William Attewell, who played 10 matches for England between 1884 and 1892, holds the Test record for the best career economy rate with 1.31. Pervez Sajjad, with a rate of 2.04 runs per over conceded over his 19 - match Test career, is the best for Pakistan.
A bowler 's strike rate is the total number of balls they have bowled divided by the number of wickets they have taken.
English George Lohmann has best Test career strike rate with 34.1; Waqar Younis of Pakistan with an overall career strike rate of 43.4 balls per wicket, is eighth in the list.
A five - wicket haul refers to a bowler taking five wickets in a single innings.
Sri Lanka 's Muttiah Muralitharan has taken the most number five - wicket hauls in Test cricket with 67 throughout his career. former Pakistani captain Wasim Akram is tenth on the list and leading the equivalent list for Pakistan.
A ten - wicket haul refers to a bowler taking ten or more wickets in a match over two innings.
Muttiah Muralitharan of Sri Lanka has taken the most ten - wicket hauls in Test cricket with 22. Imran Khan, jointly tenth with Derek Underwood of England, leads the equivalent list for Pakistan with 6 ten - wicket hauls.
The worst figures in a single innings in Test cricket came in the third Test between the West Indies at home to Pakistan in 1958. Pakistan 's Khan Mohammad returned figures of 0 / 259 from his 54 overs in the second innings of the match.
The worst figures in a match in Test cricket were taken by South Africa 's Imran Tahir in the 2006 Boxing Day Test match against Australia. He returned figures of 0 / 180 from his 23 overs in the first innings and 0 / 80 off 14 in the third innings for a total 0 / 260 from 37 overs. He claimed the record in his final over when two runs came from it -- enough for him to pass the previous record of 0 / 259, set 48 years prior by Pakistan 's Khan Mohammad.
South Africa 's seventh Test tour of England in 1913 -- 14 saw the record set for the most wickets taken by a bowler in a Test series. English paceman Sydney Barnes played in four of the five matches and achieved a total of 49 wickets to his name. Jim Laker sits second on the list with 46 wickets taken during the 1956 Ashes series. Pakistan 's Imran Khan is seventh with his 40 wickets taken against India during the 1982 -- 83 tour.
The wicket - keeper is a specialist fielder who stands behind the stumps being guarded by the batsman on strike and is the only member of the fielding side permitted to wear gloves and external leg guards.
A wicket - keeper can be credited with the dismissal of batsman in two ways, caught or stumped. A fair catch is a taken when the ball is caught fully within the field of play without it bouncing when the ball has touched the striker 's bat or glove holding the bat, while a stumping occurs when the wicket - keeper puts down the wicket while the batsman out of his ground and not attempting a run.
Pakistan 's Wasim Bari is eleventh in taking most dismissals in Test cricket as a designated wicket - keeper with 228.
Bari leads in the list of most number of catches taken as a designated wicket - keeper in Test cricket for Pakistan, with 201.
Bert Oldfield, Australia 's fifth-most capped wicket - keeper, holds the record for most stumpings in Test cricket with 52. He is followed by England 's Godfrey Evans with 46 to his name. Indian glovemen Syed Kirmani and MS Dhoni are both equal third on 38 and Gilchrist is fifth on the list with 37. Bari, Pakistan 's most capped wicket - keeper, is eighth in the list for most stumpings in Test cricket with 27.
Four wicket - keepers have taken seven wickets in a single innings in a Test match -- Wasim Bari of Pakistan in 1979, Englishman Bob Taylor in 1980, New Zealand 's Ian Smith in 1991 and most recently West Indian gloveman Ridley Jacobs against Australia in 2000.
The feat of taking 6 wickets in an innings has been achieved by 22 wicket - keepers on 30 occasions including two Pakistanis.
Brad Haddin holds the Test cricket record for the most dismissals taken by a wicket - keeper in a series. He took 29 catches during the 2013 Ashes series which broke the previous record held by fellow Australian Rod Marsh where he took 28 catches in the 1982 -- 83 Ashes series. Rashid Latif has the most number of dismissals for Pakistan in a Test series.
Caught is one of the ten methods a batsman can be dismissed in cricket. A fair catch is defined as a fielder catches the ball, from a legal delivery, fully within the field of play without it bouncing when the ball has touched the striker 's bat or glove holding the bat. The majority of catches are caught in the slips, located behind the batsman, next to the wicket - keeper, on the off side of the field. Most slip fielders are top order batsmen.
India 's Rahul Dravid holds the record for the most catches in Test cricket by a non-wicket - keeper with 210, followed by Mahela Jayawardene of Sri Lanka on 205 and South African Jacques Kallis with 200. Younis Khan is the highest - ranked Pakistani and twelfth overall, securing 139 catches in his Test career.
The 1920 -- 21 Ashes series, in which Australia whitewashed England 5 -- 0 for the first time, saw the record set for the most catches taken by non-wicket - keeper in a Test series. Australian all - rounder Jack Gregory took 15 catches in the series as well as 23 wickets. Greg Chappell, a fellow Australian all - rounder, is second behind Gregory with 14 catches taken during the 1974 -- 75 Ashes series. Three players have taken 13 catches in a series on five occasions with both Bob Simpson and Brian Lara having done so twice and Rahul Dravid once. Younis Khan has taken 10 catches, the most by a Pakistani.
India 's Sachin Tendulkar holds the record for the most Test matches played with 200 with former captains in Ricky Ponting and Steve Waugh being joint second with each having represented Australia on 168 occasions. Javed Miandad played for Pakistan in 124 matches.
Graeme Smith, who led the South African cricket team from 2003 to 2014, holds the record for the most matches played as captain in Test cricket with 109. Allan Border, the man who skippered Australia from 1984 to 1994 is second with 93 matches. New Zealand 's captain from 1997 to 2006, Stephen Fleming, is third on the list with 80 and in fourth on 77 is Australia 's Ricky Ponting who led the side for six years from 2004 to 2010. Pakistan 's Misbah - ul - Haq is ninth in the list along with Sri Lankan Arjuna Ranatunga.
Pakistan won 26 Tests under Misbah - ul - Haq 's captaincy followed by Imran Khan and Javed Miandad with 14 each.
The youngest player to play in a Test match is claimed to be Hasan Raza at the age of 14 years and 227 days. Making his debut for Pakistan against Zimbabwe on 24 October 1996, there is some doubt as to the validity of Raza 's age at the time. The second - and third - youngest players are also from Pakistan -- Mushtaq Mohammad and Aaqib Javedwith at 15 years and 124 days and 16 years and 189 days, respectively.
At 49 years and 119 days, James Southerton of England, playing in the very first Test match in March 1877, is the oldest player to make his debut in Test cricket. Second on the list is Miran Bakhsh of Pakistan who at 47 years and 284 days made his debut against India in 1955. Australia 's Don Blackie is the third - oldest player to make his debut, breaking into the side during the second Test of the 1928 -- 29 Ashes series at the age of 46 years and 253 days.
In cricket, two batsman are always present at the crease batting together in a partnership. This partnership will continue until one of them is dismissed, retires or the innings comes to a close.
A wicket partnership describes the number of runs scored before each wicket falls. The first wicket partnership is between the opening batsman and continues until the first wicket falls. The second wicket partnership then commences between the not out batsman and the number three batsman. This partnership continues until the second wicket falls. The third wicket partnership then commences between the not out batsman and the new batsman. This continues down to tenth wicket partnership. When the eleventh wicket has fallen, there is no more batsman left so the innings is closed.
The highest Test partnership by runs for any wicket is held by the Sri Lankan pairing of Kumar Sangakkara and Mahela Jayawardene who put together a third wicket partnership of 624 runs during the first Test against South Africa in July 2006. This broke the record of 576 runs set by their compatriots Sanath Jayasuriya and Roshan Mahanama against India in 1997. New Zealand 's Andrew Jones and Martin Crowe hold the third - highest Test partnership with 467 made in 1991 against Sri Lanka. Equal fourth on the list is Mudassar Nazar and Javed Miandad of Pakistan who together scored 451 against Pakistan in 1983 and the Australian pairing of Bill Ponsford and Don Bradman putting on the same score against England in the 1934 Ashes series.
An umpire in cricket is a person who officiates the match according to the laws of cricket. Two umpires adjudicate the match on the field, whilst a third umpire has access to video replays, and a fourth umpire looks after the match balls and other duties. The records below are only for on - field umpires.
Steve Bucknor of the West Indies holds the record for the most Test matches umpired with 128. He is followed by the currently active Aleem Dar from Pakistan who has stood in 114 Test matches and South Africa 's Rudi Koertzen who has officiated in 108.
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what are some gifts of the holy spirit | Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit - wikipedia
The Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit is an enumeration of seven spiritual gifts originating from patristic authors, later elaborated by five intellectual virtues and four other groups of ethical characteristics. They are: wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord.
The seven gifts are found in the Book of Isaiah 11: 1 - 2, where the Biblical passage refers to the characteristics of a Messianic figure understood by Christians to be Jesus Christ empowered by the "Spirit of the Lord ''.
In the Hebrew Masoretic text the "Spirit of the Lord '' is described with six characteristics (wisdom, understanding, counsel, might, knowledge, fear of the Lord), and then the last characteristic (fear of the Lord) is mentioned a second time.
In the Greek Septuagint the first mention of the fear of the Lord is translated as "spirit of (...) godliness '' (πνεῦμα (...) εὐσεβείας).
The seven Latin terms are then:
The Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit is one of several works in Christian devotional literature which follow a scheme of seven. Others include the seven petitions of the Lord 's Prayer, the beatitudes, the seven last words from the cross, the seven deadly sins, and the seven virtues.
The seven gifts were often represented as doves in medieval texts and especially figure in depictions of the Tree of Jesse which shows the Genealogy of Jesus. For Saint Thomas Aquinas, the dove signifies by its properties each gift of the Holy Spirit.
Although the New Testament does not refer to Isaiah 11: 1 - 2 regarding these gifts, Roman Catholicism teaches that initiates receive them at Baptism and that they are strengthened at Confirmation, so that one can proclaim the truths of the faith: "The reception of the sacrament of Confirmation is necessary for the completion of baptismal grace. '' For "by the sacrament of Confirmation, (the baptized) are more perfectly bound to the Church and are enriched with a special strength of the Holy Spirit. Hence they are, as true witnesses of Christ, more strictly obliged to spread and defend the faith by word and deed. ''
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, these gifts "... complete and perfect the virtues of those who receive them. ''
In Summa Theologiae I. II, q. 68, a1, Saint Thomas Aquinas says that four of these gifts (wisdom, understanding, knowledge, and counsel) direct the intellect, while the other three gifts (fortitude, piety, and fear of the Lord) direct the will toward God.
In some respects, the gifts are similar to the virtues, but a key distinction is that the virtues operate under the impetus of human reason (prompted by grace), whereas the gifts operate under the impetus of the Holy Spirit; the former can be used when one wishes, but the latter, according to Aquinas, operate only when the Holy Spirit wishes. In the case of Fortitude, the gift has, in Latin and English, the same name as the virtue which it is related, to but from which it must be distinguished.
In Summa Theologiae II. II, Thomas Aquinas asserts the following correspondences between the seven Capital Virtues and the seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit:
To the virtue of temperance, no Gift is directly assigned; but the gift of fear can be taken as such, since fear drives somebody to restrict himself from forbidden pleasures.
The Rev. Brian Shanley contrasts the gifts to the virtues this way: "What the gifts do over and above the theological virtues (which they presuppose) is dispose the agent to the special promptings of the Holy Spirit in actively exercising the life of the virtues; the gifts are necessary for the perfect operations of the virtues, especially in the face of our human weakness and in difficult situations. ''
Saint Augustine drew a connection between the gifts of the Holy Spirit and the Beatitudes (Matt. 5: 3 - 12).
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rickaby, John (1909). "Fortitude ''. In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 6. New York: Robert Appleton.
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when does season 4 of the thundermans start | List of the Thundermans episodes - Wikipedia
The Thundermans is an American sitcom created by Jed Spingarn that premiered on Nickelodeon on October 14, 2013. The series stars Kira Kosarin, Jack Griffo, Addison Riecke, Diego Velazquez, Chris Tallman, Rosa Blasi, and Maya Le Clark.
The Thundermans are a family of superheroes who are trying to live a normal life in Hiddenville. The two oldest children, twins Phoebe and Max Thunderman, must babysit their younger siblings, Nora and Billy, while their parents, Hank and Barb, go out to dinner. Phoebe disobeys her parents orders when she invites her best friend Cherry over and accidentally exposes the family 's superpower abilities. As for Max, he uses Nora and Billy to work on evil tasks in his bedroom lair. Hank and Barb are enjoying dinner until they overhear that a party entertainer who was to be Thunderman at a child 's birthday party could not perform. Hank does not want to disappoint the child so he decides to wear the Thunderman supersuit without exposing his true super powers.
A prank war between Max and Phoebe gets out of hand. At first Max dumps melted cheese and chocolate on Phoebe 's head and transfers her bed into the school. Later, Phoebe tricks Max into dressing up as a hula dancer. Max reveals to Phoebe that the only reason he is evil is because he does not want to live in his sister 's shadow and be second best so he would rather be best at being evil. Hank and Barb try a new parenting style by letting the children handle their own problems and Nora and Billy have a trash competition.
Just as Hank reminds the children about no non-superheroes in the house, Max plans to sabotage dinner when Phoebe has to invite her crush, Cole Campbell, and his rich family over. However, just as Max 's plans are in play, his crush, Tara, also arrives with the family. This forces Phoebe and Max to work together to keep the night from turning into a complete disaster, while they also deal with Nora, Billy, and their parents, who are embarrassing them and their guests.
Max changes the grades on his report card and is moved into an advanced class, at first only to annoy Phoebe and win the class over, but later becomes serious about competing. The competition is tight, and near the end, Phoebe and Max both use their superpowers to make the other team 's player unable to speak. Meanwhile, Nora, Billy, and Hank try to catch a newspaper thief and learn that the culprit is actually Dr. Colosso. Back at Math Bowl, the two teams are tied, which results in a sudden death round with a tiebreaker question where only the team captains, Phoebe and Max, can answer. They get a question which Max happens to know the answer to, but he deliberately gives a wrong answer to make Phoebe 's team win.
Max and Phoebe create some fun for themselves on Ditch Day, but it becomes a race against time to rush to school and erase footage of Phoebe and Max using their powers. However, as they try to get to the principal 's office, they have to participate in a country - western - themed dance to keep the guests from knowing their actual motives. Meanwhile, Barb is sick and Hank is babysitting Nora and Billy, who are trying to get in on the Phoebe and Max 's plans, while Hank stays at home and watches the movie Space Kitties.
Both Phoebe and Max want new phones but their parents refuse because the phones are expensive. So, Phoebe and Max interview for a job at Mrs. Wongs. Phoebe and Tyler get are hired but Tyler is quickly fired after sneezing. So, Max gets Tyler 's job forcing the Thunder Twins to learn to work together in harmony. Mrs. Wong fires them on the first day for ruining everything and failing to work together, but they convince her to hire them back. While Mrs. Wong is away, they accept a huge order of pizzas so that they can make all the money they need in one day. Unfortunately, the twins ca n't keep up with the machine 's speed and are forced to slow it down by blocking it with pizza. The machine builds pressure and explodes covering Mrs. Wong with pizza dough. She fires them again. Back at home, they realize that Nora and Billy had bought phones after betting against Barb in sports - stacking. The Thunder Twins blackmail their little siblings to give them the phones but Nora zaps and melts the phones with her laser eyes.
Hank and Barb leave Max and Phoebe in charge of the house as they go Metroburg for the will reading of Barb 's late Uncle "All American Blob '' Wilfred. They expect their Uncle to leave them a lot of inheritance but instead Cousin Blobbin inherits all his wealth and mansions. Meanwhile back at home, Phoebe 's teacher asks her to babysit a Venus Fly Trap for her. She reveals to her siblings that the plant feeds on flies. Max becomes obsessed with feeding the plant stuff and enlists Nora and Billy to steal it from Phoebe, forcing Phoebe to be on guard at all times. Phoebe accidentally drops an entire tube of water to the plant causing it to start dying. Max helps fix the plant on condition that Phoebe will let him feed it anything he wants. Phoebe takes the deal. Max brings the plant back to life and feeds it a lot of food, causing it to mutate and grow really big. The plant swallows Dr. Colosso and starts attacking the kids. Since the plant is immune to powers, they 're forced to come up with an antidote and figure out a way to feed it to the plant. They save Dr. Colosso and the plant grows down to its normal size.
Phoebe is running for class president and she gives Max and Cherry questions to ask her to make her look good during her speech. While reading the questions, Max starts complaining that those are not the things that students care about. He ends up leading an unexpected rant about what students really want. This ultimately gets him elected the class president even though he was n't running. Phoebe becomes Max 's vice president and gives him her "three pronged approach '' ideas to present to Principal Bradford. Max presents the ideas with a few improvements as his own without giving Phoebe credit. This makes Phoebe mad especially since Max has been taking advantage of her. Nora advises Phoebe to get revenge on Max by feeding him a Russian plant that 's guaranteed to give Max a bad stomachache for days, during which Phoebe would become President. Unfortunately, Flunky tastes the pizza with the plant first and accidentally knocks Max down his lair. Max falls on the rocks that Billy and Hank had been hiding in his lair. He gets badly injured and asks Phoebe to take over as the class president and unveil his new smoothie machine. After learning from Nora that Phoebe did it on purpose, Max sets up the smoothie machine to explode. During the unveiling, Phoebe feels guilty and the twins apologize to each other. Principal Bradford becomes impatient and opens the smoothie machine himself, causing it to explode on him.
Nora and Billy are preparing for an upcoming science fair and Phoebe warns them not to mention science fair in front of Max because it brings back bad memories. They do it anyway, causing Max to narrate how he lost fifth grade science to Phoebe after his device malfunctioned. Max then starts helping Nora with her project so that he can use it to prove himself. Phoebe starts helping Billy too, leading to a competition between the Thunder Twins. Phoebe and Max forcibly take over Billy and Nora 's projects for a chance to reclaim their science victory. So, Nora gives Billy an idea to sabotage the twins during the presentation. During Science Fair, both Phoebe and Max take over the presentations as well. Both of their projects malfunction leading to explosions. Nora and Billy remind Max and Phoebe to never take over their projects again. Phoebe 's Science Medal is taken away and the Thunder Twins are both banned from science fairs for being a disgrace to the science community.
The Thundermans and their neighbors are concerned about a new neighborhood vandal who has been going around vandalizing things. Mrs. Wong, her niece Darcy and other neighbors come over to the Thundermans house to form a neighborhood watch group, with Hank as the captain. Both Mrs. Wong and Phoebe suspect Max as the vandal but Max denies it. So, Phoebe follows Max and busts him sneaking out. She follows closely behind only to find him riding a small bike. Max admits that he 's been sneaking to practise riding a bike but he ca n't let anyone know because it 's embarrassing. So, when the next crime is committed and Mrs. Wong sees Max all muddy, she concludes that Max did it. Max admits being the vandal to avoid revealing his bike secret. Mrs. Wong takes over the captainship from Hank. Phoebe persuades Max to tell them the truth, after which the Thundermans plan to capture the vandal in action at the park to prove that Max is innocent. The Thundermans spend all night undercover at the Hiddenville Park. The Vandal turns out to be Darcy Wong. She tells them that she enjoys destroying other people 's property and threatens the Thundermans to watch their back.
The Achilles comet is passing Earth, and it is making the Thundermans ' powers go crazy. Phoebe can not go to the school dance with Cole because of the comet, unless she and Max stay three feet together. The dance goes terrible as Max ruins the night for them, with Max getting involved in a dance - off, prompting Cole to leave. Phoebe must race to Cole 's house for him to forgive her before they leave for a week - long trip. Meanwhile, the rest of the family try to control their powers.
It 's Hank and Barb 's anniversary, and Hank has bought Barb a new car as a surprise birthday gift. Unfortunately, Phoebe finds out about the car which is a problem because she is not good at keeping such secrets. Hank tries his best to make sure Phoebe wo n't tell anyone. While the parents are away, Phoebe accidentally tells Max, Billy and Nora about the car. They get inside to check it out but accidentally get it dented. Now, they must fix the car before their parents return home. They ask Cousin Blobbin to help fix it but he says he will do it on condition that Hank says he loves him since he had failed to say it earlier. Max shows Phoebe a phone app he uses to edit words together that they could use to make it sound as if Hank said "I love you Blobbin. '' All they need to do is sneak into the restaurant and make sure Hank says those words in any order. It does n't go as smooth as planned but after finally getting the words, they replay them to Blobbin who buys a new car to replace the dented one. Hank figures out what happened but he does n't get mad at Phoebe since Barb loves the new car.
Phoebe thinks that she is only a hero with her new Thundersense ability, but Hank attempts to reassure Phoebe that she is a hero with or without it. Meanwhile, Max gives in to a trade for a trampoline in exchange for silence about his Thundersense. However, things go haywire with the trampoline as it leaves Billy dangling from the roof.
Phoebe commits herself to too many activities and Max helps her out by creating a clone so she can be at two places at once. However, like many of Max 's activities, it does n't work out very well. Clone Phoebe turns out to be really dumb. Phoebe and Max attempt to restrain the clone by selling brownies at Phoebe and Cherry 's bake sale, but it escapes, leaving Phoebe tied and gagged under the table. Max eventually manages to stop the clone. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy must find a dance routine for their school talent show.
It 's Phoebe and Max 's birthday and they are planning on throwing a huge party with their friends instead of the usual family activities they do every year. So, the twins ask Mrs. Wong to use Wong 's Pizza Palace for their birthday party. Max freezes Mrs. Wong to prevent her from finding out that he invited the entire class. Unfortunately, Mrs. Wong 's frozen "statue '' is mistakenly carried by a dojo class while picking up their pizza. Max and Phoebe are forced to leave their own party in order to get Mrs. Wong back. At the dojo, Phoebe pretends to be "the Chosen One '' in order to convince the sensei to let them have the statue back. The twins take Mrs. Wong back only to find that the party is over. They unfreeze her and go back home to celebrate the birthday with their family.
Phoebe hosts a sleepover and exposes her powers to save the party. She now has to wear anklets that prevent her from using her powers. In his lair, Max watches a wrestling match on the 3D TV, while Hank accepts a bet to break Billy 's indestructobot, but is repeatedly unsuccessful in doing so.
Phoebe faces a tough rival in the school choir, a snooty girl named Veronica. Max helps Phoebe with revenge, but he instead becomes her "boyfriend ''. However, he soon learns the truth that he really is not her boyfriend, according to her. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy must infiltrate Darcy 's home to retrieve Dr. Colosso, after Darcy heard him talk and stole him. At the same time, Darcy insults Barb 's hairdo just after Barb tells Hank to let insults roll off his back. Barb gets her hair dyed orange in spite and makes it worse using Max 's chemicals to try and change it back.
While Hank and Barb drive Nora to a prestigious school interview, Phoebe and Max must babysit Billy. Max and Billy play Danger Disk in the house and Billy injures his thumb. They now have to get Billy to the hospital. The problem is Billy 's biology is different. They manage to fool the doctor and get the prescription to the thumb, but Max faints due to a needle, and now they have to get the brain scan results. Meanwhile, Hank and Nora simply want the free ice - cream the school offers, but when two snotty girls say that Nora could never make it in, she goes too far trying to prove she can get in. However, she realizes she 'll miss going to school with Billy, and she, Hank, and Barb sabotage the interview with an ice - cream mess.
Guest star: Jeff Meacham
Phoebe gets upset when her science teacher gives her a B, so Hank replaces her teacher and the class ' grades. However, she unexpectedly gets a D as her new grade is after she did her project. Also, Hank falls asleep from eating one of Max 's sleeping sandwiches, and it 's up to Phoebe and Max to save him during the science presentation. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy work with Barb and Dr. Colosso to try and get rid of squirrels which entered into the house when the back door was left open. In the end, Hank gives Max one of his sleeping sandwiches for dinner causing Max to fall asleep, which leaves the family an excuse to draw on his face.
Phoebe has an obsessive crush over Dylan. After figuring out that Dylan takes care of his little brother, Phoebe lies to him that she takes care of her little brother and sister too. So, they agree to meet at the park for their babies ' playdate. Meanwhile, Max gets a safe from Dark Mayhem and forces Billy and Nora to help open it with their powers. Phoebe uses telekinesis to pull Nora and Billy from Max 's Lair and force them to go to the park with her. Max comes to the park and takes the kids back so that they can open the safe. He mistakenly grabs Rusty 's stroller, mistaking it for Nora 's Baby Lulu stroller. Phoebe discovers that Max took the real baby and left them with Baby Lulu. Max is forced to take care of baby Rusty as he tries to figure out a way to go past his parents. At the park, Phoebe keeps Dylan away from the baby while waiting for Max to return the real baby. Dylan gets suspicious and Phoebe is about to tell him the truth when Max, Nora and Billy arrive just in time. They swap the babies. Dylan grabs Rusty and leaves angrily, refusing to ever go on a date with Phoebe again.
After Max 's prank on the principal, the geeks from school start to ask him for advice on how to prank people. Max teaches them and calls them his minions, but when they betray Max and make him the victim of a humiliating prank, Max must find a way to regain his reputation as the baddest boy in school. Meanwhile, when Phoebe wants to go to a club with Cherry and her other friends, Hank and Barb want her to do her chores before she goes, so she enlists the help of Nora and Billy.
Phoebe tells Barb that she has a crush on a new student, a rocker called Oyster who writes the cutest lyrics. She wishes someone would introduces her to him - just before Max enters the room with Oyster. Max tells them that him, Oyster, Gideon and Angus are starting a band together. Phoebe asks Max to set her up with Oyster but Max refuses claiming that Oyster is a bad boy and Phoebe is too good. So, Phoebe puts on dark makeup and starts acting like a bad girl to impress Oyster. Max does n't want his bandmates dating his sister but Oyster insists that his guitar chose Phoebe. Oyster quits the band and takes Phoebe on a date. During the date, Phoebe realizes that Oyster is obsessed with his guitar. Even the cute lyrics he wrote were for his guitar. She wants to end the date but plays along to prove Max wrong. Max 's attempts to prove that Phoebe is not Oyster 's type fail. So, he hires a former prisoner to give both Phoebe and Oyster matching mohawks as a gift for their love. Phoebe freaks out and admits that Max was right: she and Oyster are not compatible. She helps Oyster rejoin Max 's Band.
When the Thundermans meet the Hathaways and Prestons, they befriend each other, but when Phoebe is possessed by the Green Ghoul, they have to work together. Meanwhile, Nora, Billy, and Frankie are in the city and get sweets. Frankie does n't want Louie 's help because he is n't as clever, but later discovers that she needs his help.
Guest stars: JT Neal (Scott Tomlinson), Chase Austin (Chad), David Ury (Green Ghoul), Daniele Gaither (Super President Kickbutt)
Phoebe wants to win tickets to an MKTO concert. Max 's crush Cassandra at Splatburger turns out to be a big fan of MKTO. Max pretends to be a fan too so that he can go to the concert with her. So, Max helps Phoebe win two concert tickets, one for him. When Phoebe misplaces the tickets, she assumes that they were shredded by their dad 's new shredder. Max finds the tickets but before giving them to Phoebe, he learns that Cassandra did n't win any ticket. So, he hides the tickets from Phoebe and gives Phoebe 's to Cassandra. Unfortunately, Max faces a series of misfortunes, making it impossible to get to the concert. Cassandra takes embarrassing video clips of Max. Meanwhile, back at Splatburger, Phoebe is surprised to see MKTO enter the room. After pretending that she does n't know them, she gives in and tells them that she 's big fan. They perform a private concert for her.
Max is on a date with Maddy at Splatburger when he mysteriously turns blue. Maddy freaks out and runs away. Max goes home and calls for an emergency family meeting to try to figure out who turned him blue. For each one of them, he lists reasons why they had the motive to turn him blue. During the interrogations, Phoebe turns blue too. So, they narrow their interrogations to Nora and Billy who fail to comply. The twins run out of ideas until Maddy comes back to apologize to Barb for losing her bracelet. Maddy 's allergies kick off again, which helps Max resolve the mystery. Max figures out that it was Dr. Colosso who turned him blue. Dr. Colosso admits to committing the crime but says he only did it because he loves Max and did n't want to lose him to Maddy.
Phoebe and Cherry 's friendship goes in jeopardy when only one of them makes the cheerleading squad. At the same time, when Max wins a contest at Mrs. Wong 's pizza shop, everyone believes he cheated, resulting in all of the deliveries containing fish heads as the topping. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy keep a stray cat as their pet.
Phoebe is jealous of Max 's art skills especially because their art teacher keeps praising Max 's master pieces while trashing Phoebe 's lack of skills. Phoebe later discovers that Max has been using Billy to steal paintings and other art pieces for him. She asks Billy to steal one for her so that she can present it for the class art auction. During the auction, Billy reveals that Phoebe 's vase is from the Hiddenville museum. Barb buys Phoebe 's vase after which Phoebe takes it to return it back to the museum. Phoebe, Max and Billy sneak to the museum while Nora tries to keep the auction going by pushing both Sarah and Barb to not give up bidding for Max 's painting. Max uses the opportunity at the museum to take an art thief selfie as part of his efforts to impress his followers on Evilgram. They return back to the auction just in time before they 're busted.
Phoebe and Max want to sneak to Winnie Lee 's unsupervised party but Barb and Hank bust them. So, Phoebe asks Max to use his BrainMelt - 3000 gadget to wipe their parents ' adult memory in order to remind them how it is being a teen. They successfully make Barb and Hank think they 're still teens. The twins leave for Winnie Lee 's party but on their way, they learn that the party has moved to the Thundermans house - Barb and Hank are throwing the party. It 's fun at first but Max and Phoebe quickly realize things are getting out of control and they can easily get exposed. They want to reverse the effects of the BrainMelt so that their parents can end the party but the BrainMelt is n't fully charged. So, they trick Hank and Barb into kissing, triggering electric sparks from Barb just like the first time Hank and Barb kissed. They use Barb 's electricity to recharge the BrainMelt. After being turned back to normal, Hank and Barb end the party and punish the twins.
Thunder Man 's old enemy Evilman moves next door to Hiddenville and Phoebe starts dating his son Link. When Hank brings this up to Super President Kickbutt, she tells him that the Hero League ca n't arrest Evilman since he is retired.
Max is using Nora and Billy to shoot an epic fail video to post for a contest on Chirper social media. Phoebe is making a video to invite people to buy tickets to the upcoming ballet recital. Billy accidentally lets the skateboard roll towards Phoebe, causing to trip and fall in a big epic fail. Max steals Phoebe 's phone and posts the video of Phoebe falling. The Epic Fallerina video becomes an instant hit, attracting a lot of people to buy Phoebe 's tickets to see her fall during the ballet performance. Phoebe 's ballet teacher kicks her out of the recital because of the video. So, Phoebe hacks Max 's computer to send an email as Max admitting that he faked the video. Phoebe gets accepted back to the ballet performance. Max is ready to make Phoebe fall on stage and record it on video but Phoebe anticipates all his moves. So, Max locks Phoebe in a closet so that he can be the epic fail for his video. Phoebe escapes from the closet and goes to the stage to humiliate Max. She then gets the video from Gideon and posts it on Chirper, winning the video contest.
Phoebe wants to have more activities in common with Link. So, she agrees to go to Lacroix country club for a tennis tournament. She blackmails Max intro training her how to play tennis but Max offers to help her cheat instead. During the doubles game at the country club, Max uses telekinesis to help Phoebe do well in the game. However, he gets distracted when President Lacroix 's brother shows Max how fancy country club life can be. Max mistakes him for the president of the club. So, he decides to play with Lacroix instead of helping Phoebe. Phoebe gets mad at Max for bailing on her. They both attack each other with their powers during the final game. Max 's team wins and he lets the pride takes control of him. He disrespects the real President Lacroix before realizing that his partner was just the president 's brother. The country club takes away the trophy from Max and kicks him out.
With rising summer heat, the Thundermans kids want to get a pool but Hank and Barb refuse to buy one. Phoebe suggests running a yard sale to make the money they need to buy the pool. During the day of the sale, Barb finds Phoebe going through her "Electress '' box which contains Electress comic books and her whip. She tells Phoebe she ca n't sell the content and must return it to the attic but Phoebe gets distracted by a cute boy app. Max sells the box and its contents to Cedric who loves comic books. After realizing that they were n't supposed to sell it, Max tries to get the box back but Cedric refuses to give back Electress 's whip - unless it 's to Electress herself. So, Max and Phoebe come up with a plan for Phoebe to pretend to be Elecress and get the whip back. At Cedric 's house, the Thunder Twins discover a lot of things they did n't know about their mom. Since Cedric is a big fan of Electress, he quickly figures out they 're lying. So, he ties them up with the Electress 's whip which starts to explode. Barb finally tracks the whip and teleports there to get the whip before it hurts someone. She saves Max and Phoebe and thanks Cedric for being a great fan. Back at home, the kids ask Barb to tell them her superhero stories as Electress.
In order to win a rat race with his band members to decide what costumes they should wear to the school dance, Max turns Billy into a rat using the Animalizer, but after being turned into a rat, Billy does n't want to be turned back into a human. At the same time, Phoebe and Cherry are in charge of the school dance, and Hank and Barb try to get Nora to face her fear of rats. However, when the exterminator catches Billy, Nora goes to extreme measures to save him.
The family is determined to not ruin yet another one of Hank 's birthdays, but when Phoebe and Max have been assigned to get Hank 's birthday present, they get distracted the way back causing them to lose the watch and they have to try and get it back in time for the surprise party. Meanwhile, Nora, Billy, and Barb try to stall and trick Hank into excruciating ambitions.
Phoebe becomes worried that her brother Max can never get along with her boyfriend, Link. So, she tries to set them up and tricks them into playing basketball together. Max is reluctant but when he sees Link using his superpowers to cheat on the game, he likes hanging out with him. When they start spending too much time together, Phoebe gets concerned Max will turn Link evil. She gets even more paranoid after hearing Max inviting Link to his "evil brotherhood '' and asking him to keep it a secret from Phoebe. Phoebe follows Max secretly and finds him with a group of kids planning how to use the ring of suffering to destroy their enemies. Phoebe attacks them only to realize that they were playing a live action role play game.
While attending a roof party with Max, Phoebe saves a boy from falling off a ladder. After Hank and Barb question Phoebe, Max takes the blame in order to keep Phoebe 's reputation so that she will be valid for being awarded the last cape of the year and Max will get a share in Phoebe 's weapons. However, when Max is honored as the new superhero, Max begins to turn into a good person. Meanwhile, when Nora and Billy try to break Hank 's record for the amount of time staying in the wilderness, Hank tries to sabotage their goals.
When Max confesses to Phoebe that he is the culprit of deliberately embarrassing Principal Bradford, she promises to protect his identity, causing her to become lunch lady at the school after being suspected of lying. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy believe that Mrs. Wong is an alien after watching an alien documentary.
Max 's Band wants to audition for a chance to perform every Saturday at Splatburger but they have trouble coming with good lyrics for a new song. So, Max sneaks into Phoebe 's bedroom to steal her diary for lyrics ideas. She finds an entry about Link 's bonus toe which Phoebe had promised Link to never tell a soul about it. Max uses it for lyrics inspiration. The band uses the song for audition at Splatburger and they get the gig. Unfortunately, Link who is now working at Splatburger hears the song and concludes that Link told Max the secret. He breaks up with Phoebe without telling her why. Phoebe goes into depression trying to figure out why Link broke up with her. At first, Max continues to read more of Phoebe 's diary entries for song inspirations but later realizes that Phoebe is really broken. So, he blows up a performance at Splatburger and admits that he 's the one who broke Link 's trust. Phoebe and Link get back together. Max Band gets kicked out of Splatburger.
Phoebe and Cherry 's friendship is tested when the Thundermans receive news that Barb is pregnant with a fifth child, who is later named Chloe. At the same time, Hank enlists Nora and Billy to buy baby essentials at the baby store, where Nora insists on participating at the cutest baby competition at store. Meanwhile, Max turns Dr. Colosso back into a human and accompanies him to receive an award from the Villain League, but it turns out that the villains King Crab, Lady Web, and Scalestro want to remove him from the Villain League due to his inactivity in the form of a rabbit. Dr. Colosso betrays Max and Max 's life is on the line. However, Phoebe saves him with help from Cherry, who watches, when she tickles Chloe and causes her to release bubbles, and Max defeats the Supervillain League.
Guest stars: Audrey Whitby, Dana Snyder (Dr. Colosso), Helen Hong, Alec Mapa (Cutest Baby judge)
After saving Max from King Crab, Lady Web, and Scalestro in the last episode, Phoebe earns her superhero cape and starts bragging about how she saved Max. The Hero League gives Phoebe an assignment, which is to protect her city Hiddenville, but the only bad guy she has to watch out for is her brother Max. Meanwhile, Billy gets an illness after not taking an important bug, and as Chloe has her final growth spurt, everybody is eager to find out what her new superpower is, which are narrowed down to teleportation, super strength, or sonic screaming.
Guest stars: Maya Le Clark, Audrey Whitby, Rizwan Manji (Dr. Ouch)
Cherry is taking advantage of Phoebe 's powers and Phoebe decides to stop letting Cherry use her powers for stupid things, so Max decides to use his powers to help Cherry. Meanwhile, Hank and Barb are having trouble with Chloe 's teleportation and get tired, thinking that it 's the weekend when it is n't, so Nora and Billy play along, but later try to gets things back to normal.
Phoebe is excited to meet Quinn, Link 's best friend from Metroburg. She thinks Quinn is a boy but is shocked to find out that Quinn is a girl. She learns that Quinn is the daughter of bug villains that Hank and Barb defeated. Link insists that Quinn is not a villain like her parents and that she does n't even have bug powers. When left alone with Phoebe, Quinn makes it clear that she likes Link and will do anything she can to get rid of Phoebe. This worries Phoebe but she fails to tell Link because Link wants her to get along with Quinn. Phoebe tricks Max into joining her, Link and Quinn for a double date so that Max can get Quinn to act mean to Phoebe in front of Link. Max instead falls for Quinn and tries to get her to date him but she just wants Link. During the double - date, Quinn and Phoebe keep fighting until Phoebe ca n't take anymore. Phoebe brings mangoes to Quinn since bug villains ca n't resist mangoes. Quinn morphs into a bug, making Phoebe realize that she is still a bug villain. Phoebe arrests Quinn and reports her to the Hero League.
When Cherry 's laptop gets stolen, Phoebe offers to help look for it. Meanwhile, Max ditches his band after getting advice from Dr. Colosso to look for more shady characters to hang out with in order to get material for his evil chronicle. He notices a group of girls holding Cherry 's laptop. He joins the gang and starts protecting the bad girls from Phoebe. Max and the bad girls sneak into the school talent show for their next heist. Max helps them steal his band 's equipment. He finds a new guitar strap and a note from Oyster, Wolfgang and Gideon which makes him realize that he cares about them too. However, when he tries to stop the girls from stealing the equipment, they beat him up and leave him on the floor. Phoebe and Cherry suspect that the thief will be at the school talent show. So, they try to get in by pretending to perform a magic show but Principal Bradford refuses to let them in. Phoebe enters backstage through the ceiling and finds Max having been beaten up by the girls. She helps Max up and they go after the girls together. After a huge, awkward fight, the twins defeat the bad girls and bring back Cherry 's laptop. Max rejoins his friends in the band.
Now that Nora is tall enough, she feels ready to go to Thunder Man the Ride and the whole family is excited to go for the ride - except Max and Phoebe. The Thunder Twins are afraid of the ride because it was very scary the first time they rode it. However, they do n't want anyone finding out that they are scared. So, they agree to sabotage it. On their way to the parks, they use telekinesis to trick Nora and Billy into fighting. In the chaos, Nora zaps Hank 's limited edition hat, which angers him so much that he cancels the trip. The twins celebrate their victory but it soon becomes a problem when Nora and Billy 's fights start affecting them. Nora forces Phoebe to play laser tag with her; and Billy makes Max think for him. The twins try to fix Billy and Nora but it proves impossible. After realizing that Chloe can teleport with other people, Max and Phoebe get her to teleport Nora and Billy to the ride. The twins tell Billy and Nora the truth and apologize for ruining their date. Nora and Billy quickly come up with an idea to trap Max and Phoebe into riding Thunder Man the Ride twenty times. Since the ride is very scary, they agree not to ride it.
Evilman is up to something at his mattress store and Phoebe has to figure out what, even if it messes with her and Link 's relationship. Max gets a job at the store as well, hoping to learn evil things from Evil Man. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy try to change how Chloe dresses. Later, Phoebe realizes it was a test to determine whether Phoebe was capable of becoming a full superhero.
Max and Phoebe are unable to defeat a video game villain on a video game developed by Cyrbon James, whose villains are impossible to beat. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy want to play the game and spend time with the twins but the twins push them away. The twins get tickets to GamerFest where Cybron James will be launching his new video game, but they 're forced to take Billy and Nora with them. So, the Thunder Twins ditch their little siblings at GamerFest. Nora and Billy are taken by twins Matt and Fefe, doppelgangers of Max and Phoebe. Meanwhile, Phoebe and Max are unable to get inside to talk to Cybron because they need to have a kid under 13. Nora and Billy get the wristbands for Fefe and Matt instead. The twins disguise themselves as employees in order to get inside. Mistaking Phoebe for an employee, Fefe and Matt reveal their plans to trick Nora and Billy into playing a rigged, live action version of Cybron 's new game, Spitballs. While Max is pitching his video game character to Cybron, he discovers that Cybron wants to humiliate Nora and Billy in the game. So, Max goes to help Phoebe save the kids and defeat the Spitballs game. Phoebe and Max apologize for ditching Billy and Nora and promise to spare more time for them.
Principal Bradford confiscates Max 's evil chronicle just before Max 's chronicle review with Dark Mayhem. On the way to his office, Bradford runs into Allison and the Green Teens club protecting a stink plant during its blooming season. After the confrontation, Bradford decides to cut down the plant. Allison asks Phoebe, Max and Cherry to join Green Teens to help protect the club. Max refuses to join the club but Dr. Colosso advises him to join the club in order to use their keys to get into the Principal 's office and steal his chronicle back. After joining the club, Max gives them the idea to get enough signatures to help stop Bradford. When Phoebe and Max go to photocopy the signatures, Max steals the diary back and ditches Phoebe. Principal Phoebe is busted by Principal Bradford who blames her and the Green Teens Club for giving Max access to his office. Bradford bans the club, making Phoebe very mad at Max. During the chronicle review, Max feels guilty for hurting Phoebe. So, he walks out on him and goes to help Phoebe and Allison 's Green Teenz to stop Bradford from destroying the tree. Phoebe thanks Max for saving them and says it will take time to forgive him. Back at home, Dark Mayhem tells Dr. Colosso that he 's impressed by Max because he had the guts to walk out on him.
Phoebe decides to babysit Link 's brother, Harris, so Link can get his surprise birthday party ready for him. Phoebe and Max run into a problem when Link 's brother wears Max 's evil eye patch and need to get him back to normal. Meanwhile, Nora almost hits Chloe when she is doing trick shots and is afraid to use her powers.
Phoebe is sick of hanging out with Link all the time and tries to find him a hobby. They finally find him being a superhero and is happy. However, Link is sent somewhere else and Phoebe does n't want Link to go, so she tries to have one final night to hopefully change his mind. Meanwhile, Max needs Nora and Billy to help him make chili better than Mrs. Wong 's chili on a TV show cook off.
Phoebe gets to work with a superhero to get her into full training. Hank thought that he was working with Phoebe even though Phoebe wanted to work with another hero. Meanwhile, when Nora and Billy keep losing their stuff and Barb does n't replace them with new ones, they decide to return the favor by hiding her stuff.
Phoebe distracts Max from interfering with her class project by convincing him that a girl at school wants to date him. Meanwhile, when Cousin Blobbin is chosen to babysit Billy, Nora and Chloe while Hank and Barb go out to dinner, a jealous Dr. Colosso tries to frame Cousin Blobbin for sending Chloe to space.
Hank and Barb take game night to the next level, as it is Chloe 's first game night. Max then invites Allison over to be his game partner over Phoebe. When everyone meets Allison, they assume that she is Max 's girlfriend, but Max says she is n't, while Allison thought they were dating and runs out of the house. The game wheel lands on "new car '' and Hank and Barb have to promise whoever wins a new car. After, Max goes out to comfort Allison and says that they are officially a couple. He goes into the house and the family sees that they made up after he kisses her on the cheek. They play the game, but it turns out that all the teams cheated except for Hank and Barb who now do n't have to promise the kids a new car.
Max gets insecure when he finds out that Allison is auditioning for the lead female role in a school play because the lead actor, Nate always falls for the leading female co-star. So, Phoebe and Max come up with a plan to make sure that Allison does n't get the role. Phoebe auditions for the lead role and gets it by mistake. Allison gets Angel Number 3, but to Max 's disappointment, it turns out that the angel kisses Nate 's character. Max and Phoebe decide to sabotage the play and make sure Allison does n't kiss Nate. However, after suspecting that Max is up to something, Allison assures him that she loves him and him alone and that the kiss in the play will not change that. This gives Max the strength he needs throughout the kiss scene.
When Nora and Billy get their mom 's tablet confiscated by their teacher, they enlist Phoebe and Max to help them get the tablet back without their parents finding out. Phoebe uses The Animalizer to turn Cousin Blobbin 's dog into a woman, pretending to be their mom. However, things go awry when they feed her meat.
After being told that she ca n't be with a guy who hurts people just for laughs, Max promises Allison that he will quit pranking. He later finds out that quitting pranking was easier said than done and ends up pranking Principal Bradford. Meanwhile, Phoebe tries to be nice to Mrs. Wong by fixing her fence, and Mrs. Wong returns the favour when she invites the Thundermans to her party. And at Hiddenville high, Wolfgang a German exchange student is being expelled after he gets blamed for Max 's prank and Max tries to protect his friend from Principal Bradford by hiding him in his Lair, but their cover gets blown when Dr. Colosso tips off Bradford. At the party, Phoebe, Billy, Nora and Chloe turn the tables on Mrs. Wong after discovering that the party was a set up. Despite being furious with his actions, Allison tries to stop Max from confessing about the prank and allows him to prank Principal Bradford once more after overhearing him insulting her bike. Then Bradford tells Max, Allison and Wolfgang that he wo n't be expelling Wolfgang anymore, because the school gets a monthly benefit for every exchange student enrolled.
Phoebe must babysit President Kickbutt 's daughter as her latest superhero assignment, and things are starting to get bad after Phoebe takes President Kickbutt 's daughter to Splatburger. Meanwhile, Nora and Billy want a pet, so Hank and Barb tell them to take care of Dr. Colosso to prove that they can take care of a pet, but later Nora and Billy decide they do not want a pet.
When Cherry and Phoebe post a selfie online exposing the Thundermans ' superhero family portrait and almost expose the family 's secret, the Hero league find out and ban Phoebe from being friends with Cherry much to her dismay.
Allison 's parents force Max to meet them, but Max must prevent himself from saying anything disrespectful to adults despite his cold - hearted nature. So, he brings Phoebe to Allison 's parents 's grand MA gym opening to help him impress them. However, when Phoebe ruins their whole opening, Allison 's parents force Max and Allison to break up. To get the two back together, Phoebe convinces Allison 's parents to work at the gym in exchange.
Phoebe and Cherry are eating at Splatburger where Phoebe meets a cute boy with many things alike with her. However, when he leaves and she realizes she likes him, she uses the Hero League 's system to find him and suffers consequences while Max uses Nora and Billy to help him make money for a hoverboard by being a group of ninjas for a birthday party.
Hank and Barb go out on a date night while Phoebe babysits Chloe. Phoebe is about to tell Chloe the story of Robin Hood, when Max appears and Chloe says he is her favorite, so Phoebe decides to tell her a different story, where Sheriff Maxingham steals things from people, including Chloe the Cute 's golden slippers. Phoebe Hood tries to get them back, together with her merry crew -- Barb Marian, Little Hank, Friar Billy and Beyoncé (Nora). The sheriff 's men run away, and Phoebe Hood and her merry crew give everyone back their things, but they can not find Chloe 's slippers, because they were stolen by Maxingham, who returns to King Colosso with no money. He uses the golden slippers to lure Phoebe Hood, and they capture her. Phoebe becomes Chloe 's new favorite, and when Max comes back, she teleports him to the North Pole, so Phoebe tells her an ending of the story where Maxingham turns against the king and joins Phoebe Hood 's merry crew. Chloe teleports him back and Phoebe uses her heat breath to unfreeze him. Then their parents come home from the date night with ice cream, which Max throws out of their hands with his telekinesis.
It 's Barb 's birthday but Max and Phoebe keep fighting because Phoebe ruined Max 's Band 's gig by throwing a party. Barb asks them to get along as a gift for her birthday. The twins refuse to do that but instead agree to track down their Aunt Mandy from Metroburg to attend Barb 's birthday. To their surprise, they discover that Aunt Mandy and her sister, Barb have n't been in speaking terms for years. A fight breaks between Mandy and the Thundermans. Mandy blames Barb for bailing on their band performance when she counted on her to be there. Max sides with Mandy against the Thundermans emphasizing how disappointing it is when your sister does n't show up to something that matters to you. This makes Phoebe realize that Max was only mad because she did n't show up for his band performance. She gets the rest of the family to make it up to Aunt Mandy and Max.
Phoebe and Hank lie to Barb about spending time alone for superhero training session but instead use the time to go see a movie. On returning from their movie, they 're shocked to find all the furniture in the house stolen. Max reveals that he 's hidden the furniture and takes the opportunity to blackmail Hank and Phoebe into becoming his personal servants or else he will tell Barb they lied. When Max finally goes to show them where he hid the furniture, they 're all shocked to find the furniture gone. Max figures out that Chainsaw must have taken the furniture by mistake after helping to hide it. They go to Chainsaw 's Game of Scones coffee house and are forced to play Chainsaw and his daughter in order to win the furniture back.
Super President Kickbutt forces Phoebe and Max to go back to fifth grade at the Secret Academy of Superpower Studies to retake their power assessment tests in Mr. Silver Eagle 's class, and failure to pass the test results in Phoebe being disqualified as a superhero and Max going to junior jail for hacking the school 's computers to do an authorized day off which was why Phoebe and Max missed a day of school. Mr. Silver Eagle 's assistant Leonard is left in charge after Mr. Silver Eagle has an accident and is determined to make Phoebe and Max fail as revenge against Max for pranking him back in middle school and makes it almost impossible for them to pass. In the final test, he exposes them to dangerous lasers, but when he gets stuck on a magnetized logo, the twins forfeit the test to save him. When Mr. Silver Eagle returns, he 's impressed with Phoebe and Max and tells them that they 've passed the test while reassigning Leonard to work with the third - graders for his actions. Meanwhile, Nora is unhappy with Hank for unfairly assigning chores and refusing to listen to her and Billy, so Nora challenges him by calling for an election. She ends up getting the most votes, but gives her vote to Hank after he promises to listen more.
When Max gets a call from Dark Mayhem, he is eager to finally meet him. Besides Max meeting Fairy Pinch - ess, Son of Scalestro, and Strongdor, Dark Mayhem has a task for Max which is to take Thunder Girl 's powers away with a special orb following Phoebe stopping Lady Web 's museum robbery. Phoebe discovers about Max 's involvement with Dark Mayhem and, after a struggle ensues, accidentally takes away Max 's powers. Max is then grounded for life and locked up in his lair until further notice; however, Colosso is able to break through and free Max and then gives him back the orb, which Max uses to take the family 's powers, and he then locks up his family inside before heading off to the prom where Phoebe is. Meanwhile, Mrs. Wong plans to expose the Thundermans after she notices Phoebe 's superhero costume in her bag, which is quickly encircled by the news once she announces it. Max arrives at the prom, about to take Phoebe 's powers, and Dark Mayhem arrives as well, waiting for Max to take her powers. However, after Phoebe explains to Max how much would happen if Dark Mayhem were to take over, Max finally relents and gives everyone back their powers; unfortunately, they do n't receive their proper powers. A fierce battle then ensues between the Thundermans and Dark Mayhem and his squad which ends up with Max taking Dark Mayhem 's powers. Later, Super President Kickbutt officially proclaims Max as a superhero.
Guest stars: Ryan Newman, Maya Le Clark, Audrey Whitby, Helen Hong, Barrett Carnahan, Tanner Stine, Kenny Ridwan, Jake Borelli, Gabrielle Elyse, Jeff Meacham, Camille Manning Hyde, Daniele Gaither
Note: An alternate ending was shown after a rerun on October 15, 2016, which features Super President Kickbutt announcing the new protectors of Hiddenville: The Thundermans. Most importantly, she promotes the addition of Phoebe and Max as "The Thunder Twins '', causing an argument to break out between them on who would be whose sidekick.
When a huge storm makes it impossible for the Thundermans to go out for Halloween and causes the house to lose power, Dr. Colosso offers to tell them spooky stories to scare them off. In the first story, Billy and Nora are turned into candy by a troll for stealing candy; and Hank eats them thinking they 're candy. The second story is about a family of monsters called "Monstermans. '' The Monstermans had moved to Humanville to live a normal life. But one day, they go to Splatburger for a Halloween party and get exposed as monsters. Everyone turns against them for being monsters. In the third story, "Phoebe the Vampire Slayer, '' Phoebe and Cherry realize that Max is a vampire and try to run away from him by going to school. However, at school, they realize that Max is turning a lot of the other students into vampires as well. To save themselves and the other students, Cherry and Phoebe must slay the original vampire. They think it 's Max but it turns out that Dr. Colosso is the original vampire. Colosso 's spooky stories scare everyone to bed except Phoebe and Max.
Due to Hank and Barbara 's show - off after the identities of the families are revealed and Phoebe and Max accidentally causing Mrs. Wong 's restaurant to get destroyed, Super President Kickbutt uses a wheel to decide where the Thundermans should be reassigned. After a long spin caused by Hank Thunderman, it lands on Antarctica as the Thundermans are sent there with Super President Kickbutt telling them that they will be depowered if they ever return. In their place, the Falconman family is placed there. Due to Candi Falconman 's evil plot to make everyone like her, Phoebe and Max risk returning to stop her plot. Afterwards, the rest of the Thundermans and Super President Kickbutt and her workers arrive where Phoebe had to explain their motives behind disobeying Super President Kickbutt 's warning. After a public power - removal, it turns out afterwards that the Thundermans still have their powers. Super President Kickbutt stated that she faked their depowering to fool the civilians and advises they be more careful from now on.
Guest stars: Ryan Newman, Audrey Whitby, Tanner Stine, Helen Hong, Daniele Gaither, Jake Borelli, Gabrielle Elyse, Jada Facer (Candi Falconman), JoJo Siwa (Nora 's fan)
While submitting their team 's special skills to the Z - Force, Max realizes that Phoebe is only planning to submit her skills and so he feels left out because he wants to contribute too. He asks Phoebe to include "gadgets '' as his special skills but Phoebe mocks him because most of his past gadgets failed. So, Max spends all night creating a gadget called CrimeCaster that can predict crimes before they happen. Since Max does n't believe in his own creation, he gets advice from Colosso to fake the crimes. This impresses Phoebe and she agrees to add gadgets to the list. Phoebe is disappointed when she learns that Max has been faking the crimes. But it turns out that the gadget still worked after all. The Twins officially include gadgets as one of their skills.
While preparing wedding anniversary gifts for their parents, the Thundermans kids realize that they 've never really seen any wedding photos from their parents. Hank then tells them about the story of how Dr. Colosso ruined their wedding by turning them into goats with the Animalizer. Hero League later found a way to turn Hank and Barb back to humans and after that Hank went after Colosso and used his animalizer invention to turn him into a bunny. After hearing the story, Phoebe tells her siblings to recreate Hank and Barb 's wedding to renew their vows as the anniversary present. However, Dr. Colosso learns about the plans and finds a way to get to the animalizer, turning himself human. During a mock wedding, Dr. Colosso shows up and turns Max, Phoebe, Billy and Nora into animals. Barb and Hank arrive later and defeat him.
After missing Chloe 's pre-school graduation, Phoebe and Max realize that they 've been spending so much time together training for Z - Force and not enough time with their family. So, Phoebe offers to make it up to them with a Phoebe Fun Night where she 'd take them to the park. Unfortunately, the park is closed but luckily Phoebe finds the guard 's key and steals them. The Thundermans enjoy playing at different places in the park including mini-golf, without realizing that they 're there illegally. Hank causes the malfunctioning mini-golf dinosaur to start breathing fire, just before the family is busted by the guards. They work quickly to save the guards without using their powers. Phoebe admitted that she lied about the park being reserved for them, just to spend time with them. Phoebe is banned from the parks for life.
Meanwhile, Dr. Colosso tricks Max into spending time with him by pretending that he is sick, suffering from Bunny Fever which is caused by loneliness and neglect. When Max finds out from the pet doctor that Colosso is lying and confronts him about it, Colosso admits that he misses Max. Max promises to spend more time with him.
When Cherry and Oyster announce that they are now a couple and plan on a double date with Max and Allison, Phoebe realizes that she 's the fifth wheel. Feeling left out by her friends, she tries to get herself a boyfriend so that she can triple date with Choyster and Mallison at the Heart Tree. Unfortunately, most of the boys at Hiddenville High are scared of going to the Heart Tree because of the scary Farmer Ted. Phoebe needs to look for a boy desperate enough to date her - so, she settles for Gideon. Unfortunately, Gideon turns out to be allergic to a lot of things, causing Phoebe to be left behind with him. They both fall into one of Farmer Ted 's traps. Max, worried about Phoebe goes back to check on her and finds them trapped. While trying to rescue them, he triggers other traps capturing him and Allison as well as Cherry and Oyster. Phoebe admits that she only asked Gideon out so that she is n't left out and Gideon admits that he only accepted because he wanted to get closer to Barb. Farmer Ted arrives and says that he just traps people so they can talk to him.
Super President Kickbutt assigns Max to Metroburg Prison in order to help set some young superpowered juveniles straight. Dr. Colosso convinces Phoebe that Max is going to turn back to evil after hanging out with those evil kids. This makes Phoebe paranoid and so she follows Max and tries to keep him in check. While talking to the kids, Max makes it sound as if being evil is fun which worries Phoebe further. She reminds Max and the kids that Max eventually turned good. She even give them pens to write down what they 've learned but they use the pens to unlock their anti-power ankle bracelets; leading to a fight between the Thunder Twins and the villain kids. Max pretends to turn against Phoebe to gain the kids ' trust but takes advantage of that to help stop them. Phoebe admits that she thought he would turn evil again but Max assures her that he was serious that he is no longer evil.
When Max misses a band practice due to Z - Force training, Phoebe and Cherry overhear his bandmates saying that they 're going to kick Max out for not taking the band seriously. Phoebe feels responsible because her intense Z - Force training may have cost Max a spot on the band. So, she tries to help Max get accepted back into the band and it works out. Unfortunately, it turns out that Max actually wanted to quit the band and was only missing the practice as part of his long term plan to be kicked out of the band. He tells Phoebe that he just wants to concentrate on Z - Force for now. So, Phoebe and Max work together to get Max kicked out of the band again by suggesting ridiculous ideas but it does n't work out. Max even tries to force the band to accept Phoebe in, but they actually want her in. When all fail, Max tells his bandmates the truth. Oyster reveals that he was also planning to leave the band to. So was Gideon. With this mutual agreement, Max 's Band breaks up and promise to remain friends.
Phoebe and Max prepare to be interviewed by the Z - Force interviewer D - Tail in order to see if they will make it to the finals of the Z - Force audition. When Phoebe goes to help Cherry at a ping - pong tournament, she is knocked down the school steps and breaks her neck; so, she and Max train Cherry take her place in the interview in disguise. Worried that Cherry might mess up, Phoebe dresses up as Cherry and joins the interview to help when needed. Cherry helps them pass the interview but when an emergency at the Proton Reactor needs both Phoebe and Max 's powers, Max finds it impossible to save the day without Phoebe. Luckily, Phoebe gets Chloe to teleport her to Metroburg. Cherry helps distract the interviewer while Phoebe and Max save the proton reactor. The interviewer tells the Thunder Twins that they 've passed the interview and he 's recommending them for the final phase in the Z - Force recruitment. Cherry is pleased to have finally saved Phoebe in a way.
After 3 months volunteering with the Earth Corps, Allison chooses to continue her mission and breaks up with Max. This breakup sends Max into a state of depression, which starts to affect Max 's health and superpowers. Phoebe tries to help him get over it by setting him up with Molly, the new head of the Green Teens who shares a lot of similarities with Allison. But when Molly comes over, she steals Dr. Colosso and takes him for pet adoption claiming that the Thundermans were mistreating the bunny. Dr. Colosso is adopted by Principal Bradford, forcing Phoebe and Max to work together to get Colosso back without Bradford finding out. After realizing that Bradford became miserable for failing to move on after his first breakup, Max gets the strength to get over Allison and move on.
Meanwhile, Nora and Billy ask their parents to start training them to become superheroes. Hank starts training them at the lowest level but Nora is impatient, believing that she 's better than that since they 've taken down real villains before. She levels up the Hero League 's Crime Buddy training robot to the highest level which causes the robot to start attacking them.
When Gideon reports Principal Bradford to the School Board for wearing inappropriate shorts to school, Bradford goes after Gideon. To boost Gideon 's confidence to face Bradford, Phoebe gives him a fake bracelet and tells him that if he wears it, it will boost his strength. Max and Phoebe escalate things further when they continue to help Gideon by using telekinesis to save him, making him believe that he has superpowers. Gideon declares himself a superhero, "The Giddler, '' forcing the Thunder Twins to secretly follow him and save him from getting hurt. To get the bracelet back, Max & Phoebe dress up as villains and tip Gideon to meet them. After the bracelet is stolen back, Gideon gets the confidence to confront Bradford.
Meanwhile, Nora accidentally zaps the Thunder Monitor with her lasers eyes while playing rock - paper - lasers with Billy. This causes the Thunder Monitor to malfunction. Dr. Colosso lies to them that he 's fixed it but the Thunder Monitor continues to malfunction, activating random modes. When things get out of control, Nora admits what she did, helping Hank identify and fix the problem.
Thunder Man and Electress have been selected to receive the Platinum Cape Lifetime Award during the upcoming 75th Supe Awards for their superhero work. While, the rest of the family is excited Max is concerned because he had set a big stink bomb prank to go off during the awards. But now that he 's good, he has to stop it because it would automatically get him and Phoebe disqualified for Z - Force. Phoebe is mad that she is still cleaning up Max 's mess even when he 's good. Max works to make a gadget that will generate an electro - plasma blast needed to disable the Thundertanium casing on the stink bomb. But Phoebe does n't have faith in it and she wants to get Dark Mayhem 's powers from the power - sapping orb but Max warns that the powers would turn anyone using them evil. Phoebe goes behind Max 's back and absorbs the powers anyway. Just in case. During the Supe Awards, she uses the powers to disable the stink bomb even though Max 's gadget could have worked as well.
After returning home, Phoebe tries to return Dark Mayhem 's powers into the orb. But the powers reject the orb and bounce right back into her body. The powers take control of her and her eyes glow red. She starts to turn evil.
After absorbing Dark Mayhem 's powers, Phoebe starts to have nightmares where she 's evil and destroying the world. She tries to talk to Max about it but he is still disappointed by her. So, she goes to visit Dark Mayhem in Metroburg SuperJail to figure out how to get rid of his powers. But Dark Mayhem tells her to embrace the powers and continue his masterplan to take over the world. He tells her to go to a cave at the bottom of the Weeping Volcano in Hawaii to get Dark Mayhem 's full plan. After talking to Dark Mayhem, she turns full - on evil. She tries to get Chloe to take her to Hawaii but the whole family decides to choose Hawaii for their vacation.
During their time in Hawaii, Phoebe puts Billy in danger and runs off to look for the cave. Max figures out that something is wrong with her and follows her. Phoebe defeats Max using Dark Mayhem 's powers forcing Max to go back to get his family as backup. At the cave Phoebe finds Destructo, Dark Mayhem 's sidekick who gives her the plans on how to use Malvezium to spread it through the earth 's atmosphere destroying all superpowers on the planet. Max, Billy and Nora try to stop her with the power sapping orb but she overpowers them and destroys the orb. She leaves them trapped in the cave and goes to Dark Mayhem 's lair to complete the plan. Max and his siblings are rescued later by Hank and Barb. They follow Phoebe to Dark Mayhem 's lair but she traps them inside a force - field, rendering them powerless as she waits for the volcano lava with Malvezium to erupt.
With time running out, Max figures out a way to make the broken pieces of the orb work. With the help of Nora 's heat vision and Barb 's electrokinesis, Max manages to power the orb pieces and absorb Dark Mayhem 's powers from Phoebe; saving her. Meanwhile, Destructo gets his body attached and decides to complete the plan. Hank fights to stop him while Max and Phoebe work together to freeze the boiling lava before it erupts. The Thunder Twins save the world and Phoebe apologizes to Max for not believing she needed him.
Guest stars: Chris Grace, Piotr Michael, Matthew Harris
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genus of tropical plants of the grass family (poaceae) that includes rice | Poaceae - wikipedia
Gramineae Juss.
Poaceae or Gramineae is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants known as grasses. Poaceae includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and cultivated lawns and pasture. Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf - sheath. With around 780 genera and around 12,000 species, Poaceae are the fifth - largest plant family, following the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae.
Grasslands such as savannah and prairie where grasses are dominant are estimated to constitute 40.5 % of the land area of the Earth, excluding Greenland and Antarctica. Grasses are also an important part of the vegetation in many other habitats, including wetlands, forests and tundra. The Poaceae are the most economically important plant family, providing staple foods from domesticated cereal crops such as maize, wheat, rice, barley, and millet as well as forage, building materials (bamboo, thatch, straw) and fuel (ethanol).
Though they are commonly called "grasses '', seagrasses, rushes, and sedges fall outside this family. The rushes and sedges are related to the Poaceae, being members of the order Poales, but the seagrasses are members of order Alismatales.
The name Poaceae was given by John Hendley Barnhart in 1895, based on the tribe Poeae described in 1814 by Robert Brown, and the type genus Poa described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek πόα (póa, "fodder '').
Grasses include some of the most versatile plant life - forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing phytoliths of a variety that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo. Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are currently the most widespread plant type; grass is a valuable source of food and energy for all sorts of wildlife and organics.
A cladogram shows subfamilies and approximate species numbers in brackets:
Chloridoideae (1600)
Danthonioideae (300)
Micrairoideae (200)
Arundinoideae (50)
Panicoideae (3250)
Aristidoideae (350)
Oryzoideae (110)
Bambusoideae -- bamboos (1450)
Pooideae (3850)
Puelioideae (11)
Pharoideae (13)
Anomochlooideae (4)
Before 2005, fossil findings indicated that grasses evolved around 55 million years ago. Recent findings of grass - like phytoliths in Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites have pushed this date back to 66 million years ago. In 2011, revised dating of the origins of the rice tribe Oryzeae suggested a date as early as 107 to 129 Mya. A multituberculate mammal with "grass - eating '' adaptations seems to suggest that grasses were already around at 120 mya.
Wu, You & Li (in press) described grass microfossils extracted from a specimen of the hadrosauroid dinosaur Equijubus normani from the Early Cretaceous (Albian) Zhonggou Formation (China). The authors noted that India became separated from Antarctica, and therefore also all other continents, approximately at the beginning of late Aptian, so the presence of grasses in both India and China during the Cretaceous indicates that the ancestor of Indian grasses must have existed before late Aptian. Wu, You & Li considered the Barremian origin for grasses to be probable
The relationships among the three subfamilies Bambusoideae, Oryzoideae and Pooideae in the BOP clade have been resolved: Bambusoideae and Pooideae are more closely related to each other than to Oryzoideae. This separation occurred within the relatively short time span of about 4 million years.
Grasses may be annual or perennial herbs, generally with the following characteristics (the image gallery can be used for reference): The stems of grasses, called culms, are usually cylindrical (more rarely flattened, but not 3 - angled) and are hollow, plugged at the nodes, where the leaves are attached. Grass leaves are nearly always alternate and distichous (in one plane), and have parallel veins. Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the stem and a blade with entire (i.e., smooth) margins. The leaf blades of many grasses are hardened with silica phytoliths, which discourage grazing animals; some, such as sword grass, are sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or fringe of hairs called the ligule lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing water or insects from penetrating into the sheath.
Flowers of Poaceae are characteristically arranged in spikelets, each having one or more florets. The spikelets are further grouped into panicles or spikes. The part of the spikelet that bears the florets is called the rachilla. A spikelet consists of two (or sometimes fewer) bracts at the base, called glumes, followed by one or more florets. A floret consists of the flower surrounded by two bracts, one external -- the lemma -- and one internal -- the palea. The flowers are usually hermaphroditic -- maize being an important exception -- and anemophilous or wind - pollinated. The perianth is reduced to two scales, called lodicules, that expand and contract to spread the lemma and palea; these are generally interpreted to be modified sepals. This complex structure can be seen in the image on the right, portraying a wheat (Triticum aestivum) spikelet. The fruit of grasses is a caryopsis, in which the seed coat is fused to the fruit wall. A tiller is a leafy shoot other than the first shoot produced from the seed.
Grass blades grow at the base of the blade and not from elongated stem tips. This low growth point evolved in response to grazing animals and allows grasses to be grazed or mown regularly without severe damage to the plant.
Three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses: bunch - type (also called caespitose), stoloniferous, and rhizomatous. The success of the grasses lies in part in their morphology and growth processes and in part in their physiological diversity. Most of the grasses divide into two physiological groups, using the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways for carbon fixation. The C4 grasses have a photosynthetic pathway, linked to specialized Kranz leaf anatomy, which allows for increased water use efficiency, rendering them better adapted to hot, arid environments and those lacking in carbon dioxide.
The C3 grasses are referred to as "cool - season '' grasses, while the C4 plants are considered "warm - season '' grasses.
The grass family is one of the most widely distributed and abundant groups of plants on Earth. Grasses are found on almost every continent, and are absent only from Antarctica.
Grasses are the dominant vegetation in many habitats, including grassland, salt - marsh, reedswamp and steppes. They also occur as a smaller part of the vegetation in almost every other terrestrial habitat. Grass - dominated biomes are called grasslands. If only large, contiguous areas of grasslands are counted, these biomes cover 31 % of the planet 's land. Grasslands include pampas, steppes, and prairies. Grasses provide food to many grazing mammals -- such as livestock, deer, and elephants -- as well as to many species of butterflies and moths. Many types of animals eat grass as their main source of food, and are called graminivores -- these include cattle, sheep, horses, rabbits and many invertebrates, such as grasshoppers and the caterpillars of many brown butterflies. Grasses are also eaten by omnivorous or even occasionally by primarily carnivorous animals.
Grasses are unusual in that the meristem is located near the bottom of the plant; hence, they can quickly recover from cropping at the top. The evolution of large grazing animals in the Cenozoic contributed to the spread of grasses. Without large grazers, fire - cleared areas are quickly colonized by grasses, and with enough rain, tree seedlings. Trees eventually outcompete most grasses. Trampling grazers kill seedling trees but not grasses.
There are about 12,000 grass species in about 771 genera that are classified into 12 subfamilies. See the full list of Poaceae genera.
Grasses are, in human terms, perhaps the most economically important plant family. Their economic importance stems from several areas, including food production, industry, and lawns. They have been grown as food for domesticated animals for up to 6,000 years and the grains of grasses such as wheat, rice, maize (corn) and barley have been the most important human food crops. Grasses are also used in the manufacture of thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, timber for fencing, furniture, scaffolding and construction materials, floor matting, sports turf and baskets.
Agricultural grasses grown for their edible seeds are called cereals or grains (although the latter term, agriculturally, refers to both cereals and legumes). Three cereals -- rice, wheat, and maize (corn) -- provide more than half of all calories eaten by humans. Of all crops, 70 % are grasses. Cereals constitute the major source of carbohydrates for humans and perhaps the major source of protein, and include rice in southern and eastern Asia, maize in Central and South America, and wheat and barley in Europe, northern Asia and the Americas.
Sugarcane is the major source of sugar production. Additional food uses include sprouted grain, shoots, rhizomes and sugar), drink (sugarcane juice, plant milk, rum, beer, whisky, vodka).
Lemongrass is used as a culinary herb for its scent.
Many species of grasses are grown as pasture for forage and fodder for livestock, particularly for sheep and cattle. They may be cut and stored in the form of hay, straw or silage for use during the winter. Hay and straw are used for animal bedding.
Grasses are used as raw material for a multitude of purposes, including construction and in the composition of building materials such as cob, for insulation, in the manufacture of paper and board such as Oriented structural straw board. Grass fiber can be used for making paper, and for biofuel production. Bamboo scaffolding is able to withstand typhoon - force winds that would break steel scaffolding. Larger bamboos and Arundo donax have stout culms that can be used in a manner similar to timber, Arundo is used to make reeds for woodwind instruments, and bamboo is used for innumerable implements.
Phragmites australis (common reed) is important for thatching and grass roots stabilize the sod of sod houses. Reeds are used in water treatment systems, in wetland conservation and land reclamation in Afro - Eurasia. Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria)
Grasses are the primary plant used in lawns, which themselves derive from grazed grasslands in Europe. They also provide an important means of erosion control (e.g., along roadsides), especially on sloping land. Grass lawns are an important covering of playing surfaces in many sports, including football (soccer), American football, tennis, golf, cricket, softball and baseball.
Ornamental grasses, such as perennial bunch grasses, are used in many styles of garden design for their foliage, inflorescences, seed heads. They are often used in natural landscaping, xeriscaping and slope stabilization in contemporary landscaping, wildlife gardening, and native plant gardening.
Grass playing fields, courses and pitches are the traditional playing surfaces for many sports, including American football, association football, baseball, cricket, golf, and rugby. Grass surfaces are also sometimes used for horse racing and tennis. Type of maintenance and species of grass used may be important factors for some sports, less critical for others. In some sports facilities, including indoor domes and other places where maintenance of a grass field would be difficult, grass may be replaced with artificial turf, a synthetic grass - like substitute.
In cricket, the pitch is the strip of carefully mowed and rolled grass where the bowler bowls. In the days leading up to the match it is repeatedly mowed and rolled to produce a very hard, flat surface for the ball to bounce off.
Grass on golf courses is kept in three distinct conditions: that of the rough, the fairway, and the putting green. Grass on the fairway is mown short and even, allowing the player to strike the ball cleanly. Playing from the rough is a disadvantage because the long grass may affect the flight of the ball. Grass on the putting green is the shortest and most even, ideally allowing the ball to roll smoothly over the surface. An entire industry revolves around the development and marketing of grass varieties for golf courses.
In tennis, grass is grown on very hard - packed soil, and the bounce of a tennis ball may vary depending on the grass 's health, how recently it has been mowed, and the wear and tear of recent play. The surface is softer than hard courts and clay (other tennis surfaces), so the ball bounces lower, and players must reach the ball faster resulting in a different style of play which may suit some players more than others. Among the world 's most prestigious court for grass tennis is Centre Court at Wimbledon, London which hosts the final of the annual Wimbledon Championships in England, one of the four Grand Slam tournaments.
Grasses have long had significance in human society. They have been cultivated as feed for people and domesticated animals for thousands of years. The primary ingredient of beer is usually barley or wheat, both of which have been used for this purpose for over 4,000 years.
In some places, particularly in suburban areas, the maintenance of a grass lawn is a sign of a homeowner 's responsibility to the overall appearance of their neighborhood. One work credits lawn maintenance to:
... the desire for upward mobility and its manifestation in the lawn. As Virginia Jenkins, author of The Lawn, put it quite bluntly, ' Upper middle - class Americans emulated aristocratic society with their own small, semi-rural estates. ' In general, the lawn was one of the primary selling points of these new suburban homes, as it shifted social class designations from the equity and ubiquity of urban homes connected to the streets with the upper - middle class designation of a "healthy '' green space and the status symbol that is the front lawn.
Many US municipalities and homeowners ' associations have rules which require lawns to be maintained to certain specifications, sanctioning those who allow the grass to grow too long. In communities with drought problems, watering of lawns may be restricted to certain times of day or days of the week.
The smell of the freshly cut grass is produced mainly by cis - 3 - Hexenal.
Some common aphorisms involve grass. For example:
A folk myth about grass is that it refuses to grow where any violent death has occurred.
Leaves of Poa trivialis showing the ligules
Bamboo stem and leaves, nodes are evident
A Chasmanthium latifolium spikelet
Wheat spike and spikelet
Spikelet opened to show caryopsis
Harestail grass
Grass
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Roots of Bromus hordeaceus
Barley mature spikes (Hordeum vulgare)
Illustration depicting both staminate and pistillate flowers of maize (Zea mays)
A grass flower head (meadow foxtail) showing the plain - coloured flowers with large anthers.
Anthers detached from a meadow foxtail flower
Setaria verticillata, bristly foxtail
Setaria verticillata, bristly foxtail
Oryza sativa, Kerala, India
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when's the last time the philadelphia phillies won the world series | Philadelphia Phillies - wikipedia
The Philadelphia Phillies are an American professional baseball team based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They are the oldest continuous, one - name, one - city franchise in all of professional American sports, dating back to 1883. The Phillies compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) East division. Since 2004, the team 's home has been Citizens Bank Park, located in South Philadelphia.
The Phillies have won two World Series championships (against the Kansas City Royals in 1980 and the Tampa Bay Rays in 2008) and seven National League pennants, the first of which came in 1915. The franchise has also experienced long periods of struggle. Since the first modern World Series was played in 1903, the Phillies played 77 consecutive seasons (and 97 seasons from the club 's establishment) before they won their first World Series -- longer than any other of the 16 teams that made up the major leagues for the first half of the 20th century. The 77 season drought is the fourth longest World Series drought in Major League Baseball history. The longevity of the franchise and its history of adversity have earned it the dubious distinction of having lost the most games of any team in the history of American professional sports. Despite the team 's lack of success historically, they are one of the more successful franchises since the start of the Divisional Era in Major League Baseball. The Phillies have won their division 11 times, which ranks 6th among all teams and 4th in the National League, including five consecutive division titles from 2007 to 2011.
The franchise was founded in Philadelphia in 1883, replacing the team from Worcester, Massachusetts in the National League. The team has played at several stadiums in the city, beginning with Recreation Park and continuing at Baker Bowl; Shibe Park, which was later renamed Connie Mack Stadium in honor of the longtime Philadelphia Athletics manager; Veterans Stadium; and now Citizens Bank Park.
The team 's spring training facilities are located in Clearwater, Florida, where its Class - A minor league affiliate Clearwater Threshers plays at Spectrum Field. Its Double - A affiliate is the Reading Fightin Phils, which plays in Reading, Pennsylvania, and its Triple - A affiliate is the Lehigh Valley IronPigs, which plays in Allentown, Pennsylvania.
After being founded in 1883 as the "Quakers '', the team changed its name to the "Philadelphias '', after the convention of the times. This was soon shortened to "Phillies ''. "Quakers '' continued to be used interchangeably with "Phillies '' from 1883 until 1890, when the team officially became known as the "Phillies ''. Though the Phillies moved into a permanent home at Baker Bowl in 1887, they did not win their first pennant until nearly 30 years later, after the likes of standout players Billy Hamilton, Sam Thompson, and Ed Delahanty had departed. Player defections to the newly formed American League, especially to the cross-town Philadelphia Athletics, would cost the team dearly over the next several years. A bright spot came in 1915, when the Phillies won their first pennant, thanks to the pitching of Grover Cleveland Alexander and the batting prowess of Gavvy Cravath, who set what was then the modern major - league single - season record for home runs with 24. Poor fiscal management after their appearance in the 1915 World Series, however, doomed the Phillies to sink back into relative obscurity; from 1918 to 1948 they only had one winning season. Though Chuck Klein won the Most Valuable Player Award in 1932 and the National League Triple Crown in 1933, the team continued to flounder at the bottom of the standings for years.
After lumber baron William B. Cox purchased the team in 1943, the Phillies rose out of the standings cellar for the first time in five years. As a result, the fan base and attendance at home games increased. But it soon became clear that not all was right in Cox 's front office. Eventually Cox revealed that he had been betting on the Phillies and he was banned from baseball. The new owner, Bob Carpenter, Jr., scion of the Delaware - based DuPont family, tried to polish the team 's image by unofficially changing its name to the "Bluejays ''. However, the new moniker did not take, and it was quietly dropped by 1949.
Instead, Carpenter turned his attention to the minor league affiliates, continuing an effort begun by Cox a year earlier; prior to Cox 's ownership, the Phillies had paid almost no attention to player development. This led to the advent of the "Whiz Kids '', led by a lineup of young players developed by the Phillies ' farm system that included future Hall of Famers Richie Ashburn and Robin Roberts. Their 1950 season was highlighted by a last - day, pennant - clinching home run by Dick Sisler to lead the Phillies over the Brooklyn Dodgers and into the World Series, where they were swept by the New York Yankees, four games to none (although each game was close).
In contrast, the Philadelphia Athletics finished last in 1950 and long - time manager Connie Mack retired. The team struggled on for four more years with only one winning season before abandoning Philadelphia under the Johnson brothers, who bought out Mack. They began play in Kansas City in 1955. As part of the deal selling that team to the Johnson brothers, the Phillies bought Shibe Park, where both teams had played since 1938.
Many thought that the Whiz Kids, with a young core of talented players, would be a force in the league for years to come. However, it was not to be, as the team finished with a 73 -- 81 record in 1951, and (except for 2nd - place tie in 1964) did not finish higher than third place again until 1975. Their lack of success was partly blamed on Carpenter 's unwillingness to integrate his team after winning a pennant with an all - white team. The Phillies were the last National League team to sign a black player, a full 10 years after Jackie Robinson made his debut for the Dodgers. Their competitive futility was highlighted by a record that still stands: in 1961, the Phillies lost 23 games in a row, the worst losing streak in the majors since 1900.
Though Ashburn and Roberts were gone, the 1964 Phillies still had younger pitchers Art Mahaffey, Chris Short, and rookie Ray Culp; veterans Jim Bunning and screwballer Jack Baldschun; and fan favorites Cookie Rojas, Johnny Callison, and NL Rookie of the Year Richie Allen. The team was 90 - 60 on September 20, good enough for a six - and - a-half - game lead in the pennant race with 12 games to play. However, the Phillies lost 10 games in a row and finished one game out of first, losing the pennant to the St. Louis Cardinals. The "Phold of ' 64 '' is frequently mentioned as the worst collapse in sports history.
One highlight of the season occurred on Father 's Day, when Jim Bunning pitched a perfect game against the New York Mets, the first in Phillies history.
At the end of the decade, in October 1970, the Phillies played their final game in Connie Mack Stadium and prepared to move into newly built Veterans Stadium, wearing new maroon uniforms to accentuate the change. While some members of the team performed admirably during the 1970s, the Phillies still clung to their position at the bottom of the National League standings. Ten years after "the Phold '', they suffered another minor collapse in August and September 1974, missing out on the playoffs yet again. But the futility would not last much longer. They had a run of three straight division titles from 1976 to 1978. That run was led by pitchers Steve Carlton, Gene Garber, outfielder Greg Luzinski, and infielders Mike Schmidt and Larry Bowa. The Phillies won the NL East in 1980 after the departure of Garber, but behind pitcher Steve Carlton, outfielder Greg Luzinski, and infielders Mike Schmidt, Larry Bowa, and recently acquired Pete Rose.
In a memorable NLCS, with four of the five games going into extra innings, they fell behind 2 -- 1 but battled back to squeeze past the Houston Astros on a tenth - inning, game - winning hit by center fielder Garry Maddox, and the city celebrated its first pennant in 30 years.
Facing the Kansas City Royals in the 1980 World Series, the Phillies won their first World Series championship ever in six games thanks to the timely hitting of Mike Schmidt and Pete Rose. Schmidt, who was the National League MVP that 1980 season, also won the World Series MVP award on the strength of his 8 - for - 21 hitting (. 381 average), including game - winning hits in Game 2 and the clinching Game 6. This sixth, final game was also significant because it remains "the most - watched game in World Series history '' with a television audience of 54.9 million viewers.
Thus, the Phillies became the last of the 16 teams that made up the major leagues from 1901 to 1961 to win a World Series.
After their Series win Ruly Carpenter, who was given control of the team in 1972 when his father stepped down as team president, sold the team to a group which was headed by long time Phillies executive Bill Giles for $32.5 million in 1981. The Phillies would return to the playoffs that season, in which the season was split in half due to a players ' strike. They were defeated in the first ever National League Division Series by the Montreal Expos in five games. Mike Schmidt won his second consecutive NL MVP award that year. In 1982 the team finished 3 games behind the St. Louis Cardinals in the East Division narrowly missing the playoffs. Steve Carlton would capture his fourth career NL Cy Young Award that year with 23 wins. For the 1983 season the Phillies returned to the playoffs beating the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLCS in four games to capture their fourth NL pennant. They lost to the Baltimore Orioles in the World Series in 5 games. John Denny was named the 1983 NL Cy Young Award winner.
Following their loss to the Orioles in the 1983 World Series the team would follow with near playoff misses and a rapid drop back into the basement of the National League over the next five seasons. In 1989 Mike Schmidt retired from the Phillies and thus the last member of the 1980 championship team was gone.
Over the next three seasons the Phillies would continue to miss the playoffs and finished dead last in the majors for the 1992 season.
The 1993 Phillies started the season by going 17 -- 5 in April and finishing with a 97 -- 65 season. They beat the Atlanta Braves in the 1993 National League Championship Series, four games to two, to earn the fifth NL pennant in franchise history, only to be defeated by the defending World Series champion Toronto Blue Jays in the 1993 World Series. Toronto 's Joe Carter hit a walk - off home run in Game 6 to clinch another Phillies loss.
The 1994 -- 95 Major League Baseball strike was a blow to the Phillies ' attendance and on - field success, as was the arrival of the Braves in the division due to league realignment. Several stars came through Philadelphia, though few would stay, and the minor league system continued to develop its young prospects, who would soon rise to Phillies fame.
In 2001, the Phillies had their first winning season in eight years under new manager Larry Bowa, and their season record would not dip below. 500 again from the 2003 season onward. In 2004, the Phillies moved to their new home, Citizens Bank Park, across the street from the Vet.
Charlie Manuel took over the reins of the club from Bowa after the 2004 season, and general manager Ed Wade was replaced by Pat Gillick in November 2005. Gillick reshaped the club as his own, sending stars away in trades and allowing the Phillies ' young core to develop. After the franchise lost its 10,000 th game in 2007, its core of young players, including infielders Chase Utley, Ryan Howard, and Jimmy Rollins and pitcher Cole Hamels, responded by winning the National League East division title, but they were swept by the Colorado Rockies in the Division Series. After the 2007 season, they acquired closer Brad Lidge.
In 2008, the Phillies clinched their second straight division title and defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in the Division Series to record the franchise 's first post-season victory since winning the 1993 NLCS. Behind strong pitching from the rotation and stellar offensive production from virtually all members of the starting lineup, the Phillies won the 2008 National League Championship Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers; Hamels was named the series ' Most Valuable Player. The Phillies would then go on to defeat the Tampa Bay Rays in 5 games for their second World Series title in their 126 - year history. Hamels was named both NLCS MVP as well as World Series MVP after going 4 -- 0 in the postseason that year.
Gillick retired as general manager after the 2008 season and was succeeded by one of his assistants, Rubén Amaro, Jr. After adding outfielder Raúl Ibañez to replace the departed Pat Burrell, the Phillies retained the majority of their core players for the 2009 season. In July, they signed three - time Cy Young Award winner Pedro Martínez and acquired 2008 American League Cy Young winner Cliff Lee before the trade deadline. On September 30, 2009, they clinched a third consecutive National League East Division title for the first time since the 1976 -- 78 seasons. The team continued this run of success with wins over the Colorado Rockies in the NLDS (3 games to 1) and the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLCS (4 games to 1), to become the first Phillies team to win back - to - back pennants and the first National League team since the 1996 Atlanta Braves to have an opportunity to defend their World Series title. The Phillies were unable to repeat the 2008 World Series victory; they were defeated in the 2009 series by the New York Yankees, 4 games to 2. In recognition of the team 's recent accomplishments, Baseball America named the Phillies as its Organization of the Year.
On December 16, 2009, they acquired starting pitcher Roy Halladay from the Toronto Blue Jays for three minor - league prospects, and traded Cliff Lee to the Seattle Mariners for three prospects. On May 29, 2010, Halladay pitched a perfect game against the Florida Marlins.
In June 2010, the team 's scheduled 2010 series against the Toronto Blue Jays at Rogers Centre was moved to Philadelphia, because of security concerns for the G - 20 Summit. The Blue Jays wore their home white uniforms and batted last as the home team, and the designated hitter was used. The game was the first occasion of the use of a designated hitter in a National League ballpark in a regular - season game; Ryan Howard was the first player to fill the role.
The 2010 Phillies won their fourth consecutive NL East Division championship despite a rash of significant injuries to key players, including Ryan Howard, Chase Utley, Jimmy Rollins, Shane Victorino, and Carlos Ruiz. After dropping seven games behind the Atlanta Braves on July 21, Philadelphia finished with an MLB - best record of 97 -- 65. The streak included a 20 -- 5 record in September, the Phillies ' best September since winning 22 games that month in 1983, and an 11 -- 0 run in the middle of the month. The acquisition of pitcher Roy Oswalt in early August was a key step, as Oswalt won seven consecutive games in just over five weeks from August 11 through September 17. The Phillies clinched the division on September 27, behind a two - hit shutout by Halladay.
In Game 1 of the 2010 National League Division Series, Halladay threw the second no - hitter in Major League baseball postseason history, leading the Phillies over the Cincinnati Reds, 4 -- 0. (The first was New York Yankee pitcher Don Larsen 's perfect game in the 1956 World Series.) Halladay 's no - hitter was the fifth time a pitcher has thrown two no - hitters in the same season, and was also the first time that one of the two occurred in the postseason. The Phillies went on to sweep the Reds in three straight games. In the 2010 National League Championship Series, the Phillies fell to the eventual World Series champion San Francisco Giants in six games.
On September 17, 2011, the Phillies won their fifth consecutive East Division championship, and on September 28, during the final game of the season, the team set a franchise record for victories in a season with 102 by beating the Atlanta Braves in 13 innings, denying their division rivals a potential wild card berth. Yet the Phillies lost in the NLDS to the St. Louis Cardinals -- the team that won the National League Wild Card as a result of the Phillies beating the Braves. The Cardinals subsequently beat the Brewers in the NLCS and won the 2011 World Series in 7 games over the Texas Rangers.
The 2012 Phillies experienced an up and down season. They played. 500 ball through the first two months, but then slumped through a 9 -- 19 stretch in June where they ended up at the bottom of the NL East by midseason. With any hope dimming, the Phillies traded key players Shane Victorino and Joe Blanton to the Los Angeles Dodgers, and Hunter Pence to the San Francisco Giants before the trade deadline. A hot start in the second half of the season put the Phillies back on the postseason hunt, but any hope was eventually extinguished with a loss to the Washington Nationals on September 28, costing the Phillies the postseason for the first time since 2006.
During the 2013 season, the team struggled again, and was unable to consistently play well for the majority of the season. On August 16, 2013, with the team 's record at 53 - 68, the Phillies fired manager Charlie Manuel, who had managed the team since 2005, and promoted third - base coach Ryne Sandberg to Interim manager. Manuel had spent over nine years as manager, leading Philadelphia to its first World Series victory in nearly 30 years and amassing an overall record of 780 - 636 to become the manager with the most wins in the franchise 's history. The 2013 Phillies ended up with a record of 73 - 89, their first losing season since 2002.
In 2015, Sandberg resigned as manager and bench coach Pete Mackanin was brought in as interim manager. Also in 2015 general manager Rubén Amaro, Jr. was fired and Andy MacPhail was brought in as the interim GM.
In the 2014 season, one of the few bright spots was the September 1 game against a division rival, the Atlanta Braves, when starter Cole Hamels and relievers Jake Diekman, Ken Giles, and Jonathan Papelbon combined for a no - hitter in Turner Field and a 7 - 0 victory over Atlanta.
On June 16, 2015, veteran outfielder Jeff Francoeur was called in to pitch in an interleague game against the Baltimore Orioles in which the Orioles were winning 17 - 3 going into the seventh inning. Francoeur pitched two innings while giving up one hit, two runs (earned), three walks, and struck out one. The Phillies were forced to use Francoeur because they had used all other pitchers available for the night.
On July 25, 2015, in what would be his final start for the Phillies before being traded, Cole Hamels no - hit the Chicago Cubs 5 -- 0 at Wrigley Field, striking out 13 and only giving up two walks, both to Dexter Fowler, and besting the Cubs ' Jake Arrieta -- himself a no - hit pitcher a month later, on August 30 of that season. It was the first no - hitter against the Cubs since Sandy Koufax 's perfect game in 1965, and first at Wrigley since the Cubs ' Milt Pappas in 1972.
On July 31, 2015, Cole Hamels was dealt to the Texas Rangers along with Jake Diekman and cash for Matt Harrison, Jerad Eickhoff, Jorge Alfaro, Nick Williams, Alec Asher, and Jake Thompson.
On October 14, 2015 Andy MacPhail was officially named the 17th President of Baseball Operations in Philadelphia Phillies history.
On September 29, 2017, Pete Mackannin was fired as manager of the Phillies. With only 3 games left, Mackannin would go on to finish managing the team until October 1, 2017.
On October 30, 2017, the Phillies announced Gabe Kapler as their new manager to succeed Mackanin. From November 2014 to the date he was hired as Phillies manager, Kapler was the Director of Player Development for the Los Angeles Dodgers.
The current team colors, uniform, and logo date to 1992. The main team colors are red and white, with blue serving as a prominent accent. The team name is written in red with a blue star serving as the dot over the "i '' s, and blue piping is often found in Phillies branded apparel and materials. The team 's home uniform is white with red pinstripes, lettering and numbering. The road uniform is traditional grey with red lettering / numbering. Both bear a script - lettered "Phillies '' logo, with the aforementioned star dotting the "i '' s across the chest, and the player name and number on the back. Hats are red with a single stylized "P ''. The uniforms and logo are very similar to those used during the "Whiz Kids '' era from 1950 to 1969.
The Phillies and their National League compadres the St. Louis Cardinals are the only teams in Major League baseball to utilize chain stitching in their chest emblem.
In 2008, the Phillies introduced an alternate, cream - colored uniform during home day games in tribute to their 125th anniversary. The uniforms are similar to those worn from 1946 through 1949, featuring red lettering bordered with blue piping and lacking pinstripes. The accompanying cap is blue with a red bill and a red stylized "P. '' The uniforms were announced on November 29, 2007, when Phillies shortstop Jimmy Rollins, pitcher Cole Hamels, and Hall of Fame pitcher Robin Roberts modeled the new uniforms.
For the 2009 season the Phillies added black, circular "HK '' patches to their uniforms over their hearts in honor of broadcaster Harry Kalas, who died April 13, 2009, just before he was to broadcast a Phillies game. From Opening Day through July 26, 2009, the Phillies wore 2008 World Champions patches on the right sleeve of their home uniforms. In 2010, the Phillies added a black patch with a white "36 '' on the sleeves of their jerseys to honor Roberts, who died on May 6. Roberts ' No. 36 had been previously retired by the team. In 2011, the Phillies added a black circular patch with a ' B ' in honor of minority owners Alexander and John Buck, who died in late 2010. In 2015, the Phillies added a black circular patch with a white "SLB '' in memory of minority owner Sara L. Buck, who died on August 23, 2014.
In 2016, the Phillies added a red alternate uniform, similar to their spring training uniforms, to be used for mid-week afternoon games.
The Phillies are one of four teams in Major League Baseball that do not display the name of their city, state, or region on their road jerseys, joining the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, St. Louis Cardinals, and the Tampa Bay Rays. The Phillies are the only team that also displays the player 's number on one sleeve except on the alternate jersey, in addition to the usual placement on the back of the jersey.
The Phillies were an early adopter of the batting practice jersey in 1977, wearing a maroon v - necked top with the "Phillies '' script name across the chest, as well as the player name and number on the back and a player number on the left sleeve, all in white. Larry Bowa, Pete Rose, and Mike Schmidt wore this maroon batting jersey in place of their road jersey during the 1979 All - Star Game in Seattle. Currently, during spring training, the Phillies wear solid red practice jerseys with pinstriped pants for Grapefruit League home games. The red jerseys are worn with grey pants on the road.
From 1970 to 1991, the Phillies sported colors, uniforms, and a logo that were noticeably different from what had come before, or since, but that were widely embraced by even traditionally minded fans. A dark burgundy was adopted as the main team color, with a classic pinstripe style for home uniforms. Blue was almost entirely dropped as part of the team 's official color scheme, except in one area; a pale blue (as opposed to traditional grey) was used as the base - color for away game uniforms from 1972 to 1988. Yet the most important aspect of the 1970 uniform change was the adoption of one of the more distinctive logos in sports; a Phillies "P '' that, thanks to its unique shape and "baseball stitched '' center swirl, remained instantly recognizable and admired, long after its regular use had ended. It was while wearing this uniform style and color motif that the club achieved its most enduring success, including a World Series title in 1980 and another World Series appearance in 1983. Its continued popularity with fans is still evident, as even today Phillies home games can contain many fans sporting caps, shirts, and / or jackets emblazoned with the iconic "P '' and burgundy color scheme. The current Phillies team has worn the burgundy and powder blue throwbacks whenever their opponents are wearing throwback uniforms from that era.
In 1979, the Phillies front office modified the uniform into an all - burgundy version with white trimmings, to be worn for Saturday games. They were called "Saturday Night Specials '' and were worn for the first and last time on May 19, 1979, a 10 -- 5 loss to the Expos. The immediate reaction of the media, fans, and players alike was negative, with many describing the despised uniforms as pajama - like. As such, the idea was hastily abandoned. Mike Schmidt did wear the uniform during the MLB All - Star Tour of Japan following the 1979 season. The final appearance on field (to date) of this uniform was during the closing ceremonies at Veterans Stadium on September 28, 2003. There was a rather large procession of players during the post game ceremony, most in uniform. Former pitcher Larry Christenson, the starting pitcher in the original game, came out wearing this old burgundy uniform, and was the only one to do so.
Another uniform controversy arose in 1994 when the Phillies introduced blue caps on Opening Day which were to be worn for home day games only. The caps were unpopular with the players, who considered them bad luck after two losses and wanted them discontinued. Management wanted to keep using the caps as planned, as they sold well among fans. A compromise was reached as the players agreed to wear them for weekday games while returning to the customary red caps for Sunday afternoon games. In all, the Phillies wore the "unlucky '' blue caps for seven games in 1994, losing six (the lone victory a 5 - 2 triumph over the Florida Marlins on June 29). A different blue cap was introduced in 2008 as part of the alternate home uniform for day games, a throwback to the late 1940s.
The rivalry between the New York Mets and the Phillies was said to be among the "hottest '' rivalries in the National League. The two National League East divisional rivals have met each other recently in playoff, division, and wild card races.
Aside from several brawls in the 1980s, the rivalry remained low - key before the 2006 season, as the teams had seldom been equally good at the same time. Since 2006, the teams have battled for playoff position. The Mets won the division in 2006 and contended in 2007 and 2008, while the Phillies won five consecutive division titles from 2007 to 2011. The Phillies ' 2007 Eastern Division Title was won on the last day of the season as the Mets lost a seven - game lead with seventeen games remaining.
Although the rivalry lacks the hatred of the Mets, it has been the more important one in the last decade. Since the realignment of the divisions, the Phillies and Braves have been the most consistent champions of the National League East. While rivalries are generally characterized by mutual hatred, the Braves and Phillies deeply respect each other. Each game played (18 games in 2011) is vastly important between these two NL East giants, but at the end of the day, they are very similar organizations. Overall, the Braves and the Phillies have the most National League East division titles, with the Braves having won 12 times, and the Phillies having won 11 times each since 1969, with the Braves holding it for eleven consecutive years from 1995 through 2005.
The rivalry between the Phillies and the Pittsburgh Pirates was considered by some to be one of the best rivalries in the National League. The rivalry started when the Pittsburgh Pirates entered National League play in their fifth season of 1887, four years after the Phillies.
The Phillies and the Pirates had remained together after the National League split into two divisions in 1969. During the period of two - division play (1969 to 1993), the two National League East division rivals won the two highest numbers of division championships, reigning exclusively as NL East champions in the 1970s and again in the early 1990s, the Pirates 9, the Phillies 6; together, the two teams ' 15 championships accounted for more than half of the 25 NL East championships during that span.
After the Pirates moved to the National League Central in 1994, the teams face each other only in two series each year and the rivalry has diminished. However, many fans, especially older ones, retain their dislike for the other team and regional differences between Eastern and Western Pennsylvania still fuel the rivalry. The rivalry between the Philadelphia Flyers and the Pittsburgh Penguins in the National Hockey League is also fiercely contested.
The City Series was the name of a series of baseball games played between the Philadelphia Athletics of the American League and the Phillies that ran from 1903 through 1955. After the A 's move to Kansas City, Missouri in 1955, the City Series rivalry came to an end. The teams have since faced each other in Interleague play (since its introduction in 1997) but the rivalry has effectively died in the intervening years since the A 's left Philadelphia. In 2014, when the A 's faced the Phillies in inter-league play at O.Co Coliseum, the Athletics did n't bother to mark the historical connection, going so far as to have a Connie Mack promotion the day before the series while the Texas Rangers were in Oakland.
The first City Series was held in 1883 between the Phillies and the American Association 's Athletics. When the Athletics first joined the American League, the two teams played each other in a spring and fall series. No City Series was held in 1901 and 1902 due to legal warring between the National and American Leagues.
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7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated March 29, 2018 Transactions Depth chart
Five Phillies have won MVP awards during their career with the team. Mike Schmidt leads with three wins, with back - to - back MVPs in 1980 and 1981, and in 1986 as well. Chuck Klein (1932), Jim Konstanty (1950), Ryan Howard (2006), and Jimmy Rollins (2007) all have one. Pitcher Steve Carlton leads the team in Cy Young Award wins with four (1972, 1977, 1980, and 1982), while John Denny (1983), Steve Bedrosian (1987), and Roy Halladay (2010) each have one. Four Phillies have won Rookie of the Year honors as well. Jack Sanford won in 1957, and Dick Allen won in 1964. Third baseman Scott Rolen brought home the honors in 1997, while Howard was the most recent Phillies winner in 2005. In doing so, Howard became only the second player in MLB history to win Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player in consecutive years, Cal Ripken, Jr. of the Baltimore Orioles being the first.
Of the 15 players who have hit four home runs in one game, three were Phillies at the time (more than any other team). Ed Delahanty was the first, hitting his four in Chicago 's West Side Park on July 13, 1896. Chuck Klein repeated the feat nearly 40 years later to the day, on July 10, 1936, at Pittsburgh 's Forbes Field. Forty years later, on April 17, 1976, Mike Schmidt became the third, also hitting his in Chicago, these coming at Wrigley Field.
From 1978 to 2003, the Phillies inducted one former Phillie and one former member of the Philadelphia Athletics per year. Since 2004 they have inducted one Phillie annually. Players must be retired and must have played at least four years with the Phillies or Athletics. The last ten years ' inductees to the Wall of Fame are listed below (note that there was no inductee for the 2017 season, as Pete Rose was intended to be inducted, but was not due to controversial allegations):
In 1983, rather than inducting a player into the Wall of Fame, the Phillies selected their Centennial Team, commemorating the best players of the first 100 years in franchise history.
Grover Cleveland Alexander * Sparky Anderson Richie Ashburn Dave Bancroft * Chief Bender * Dan Brouthers * * Jim Bunning
Steve Carlton Roger Connor * Ed Delahanty * * Hugh Duffy * * Johnny Evers * Elmer Flick * Jimmie Foxx Pat Gillick * *
Billy Hamilton Bucky Harris Ferguson Jenkins Hughie Jennings Tim Keefe * Chuck Klein Nap Lajoie *
Pedro Martinez Tommy McCarthy Joe Morgan Kid Nichols * Tony Pérez Eppa Rixey Robin Roberts
Ryne Sandberg Mike Schmidt Casey Stengel Jim Thome Sam Thompson * Lloyd Waner Hack Wilson Harry Wright *
Herb Carneal
Harry Kalas
Tim McCarver
By Saam
The Phillies have retired six numbers, and honored two additional players with the letter "P. '' Grover Cleveland Alexander played with the team in the era before Major League Baseball used uniform numbers, and Chuck Klein wore a variety of numbers with the team during his career. Of the six players with retired numbers, five were retired for their play with the Phillies and one, 42, was universally retired by Major League Baseball when they honored the 50th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's breaking the color barrier.
The Phillies have supported amyotrophic lateral sclerosis research (also known as Lou Gehrig 's disease) with the "Phillies Phestival '' since 1984. The team raised over US $750,000 for ALS research at their 2008 festival, compared with approximately $4,500 at the inaugural event in 1984; the event has raised a total of over $10 million in its history. The ALS Association of Philadelphia is the Phillies ' primary charity, and the hospitals they support include Pennsylvania Hospital, Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, and Hahnemann University Hospital. Former Phillies pitchers Geoff Geary (now with the Houston Astros), who lost a friend to the disease, and Curt Schilling, who retired with the Boston Red Sox, are both still involved with the Phillies ' cause.
Phanatic about Education
The Philadelphia Phillies have shown themselves to be a big supporter of reading and overall education, using baseball in a positive way to help support education for students. The Phillies have a reading incentive program called Phanatic About Reading, which is designed to encourage students from kindergarten to eighth grade to read for a minimum of 15 minutes a night. This reading program is to help students with their literacy skills and comprehension. Phillies Phundamentals is another educational program, offered through after - school and summer camps, that is designed to make learning fun and support academic skills by using baseball.
The Phillies celebrate teachers during their annual Teacher Appreciation Night.
Phillies fans have earned a reputation over the years for their occasional unruly behavior. In the 1960s, radio announcers for visiting teams would frequently report on the numerous fights breaking out in Connie Mack Stadium. Immediately after the final game at the old park, many fans ran onto the field or dislodged parts of the ballpark to take home with them. Later, at Veterans Stadium, the 700 Level gained a reputation for its "hostile taunting, fighting, public urination and general strangeness. '' Phillies fans famously are known for their reputation of being the "Meanest Fans in America ''.
Phillies fans are known for harsh criticism of their own stars such the 1964 Rookie of the Year Richie Allen and Hall of Fame third baseman Mike Schmidt. The fans, however, are just as well known for heckling the visiting team. Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Burt Hooton 's poor performance during game three of the 1977 NLCS has often been attributed to the crowd 's taunting. J.D. Drew, the Phillies ' first overall draft pick in the amateur draft of 1997, never signed with the Phillies following a contract dispute with the team, instead re-entering the draft the next year to be drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals. Phillies fans were angered over this disrespect and hurled debris, including two D batteries, at Drew during an August 1999 game. Subsequent visits by Drew to Philadelphia continue to be met with sustained booing from the Phillies fans.
Many sports writers have noted the passionate presence of Phillies fans, including Allen Barra, who wrote that the biggest roar he ever heard from Philadelphia fans was in 1980 when Tug McGraw, in the victory parade after the World Series, told New York fans they could "take this championship and shove it. ''
When the Phillies moved to Veteran 's Stadium, they hired a group of young ladies to serve as ushers. These women wore maroon - colored outfits featuring hot pants and were called the Hot Pants Patrol. The team also introduced a pair of mascots attired in colonial garb, named Philadelphia Phil and Phyllis. In addition to costumed characters, animated Phil and Phyllis figures mounted on the center field facade would "hit '' the Liberty Bell after a Phillie home run. This pair of mascots never achieved any significant level of popularity with fans and were eventually discontinued. In 1978, the team introduced a new mascot, the Phillie Phanatic, who has been called "baseball 's best mascot '', which has been much more successful and has become closely associated with the marketing of the team.
In Phillies fan culture, it is also not unusual to replace an "f '' with a "ph '' in words, such as the Phillie Phanatic.
The club surpassed 100 consecutive sellouts on August 19, 2010, selling out over 50 % of their home games and averaging an annual attendance of over 3.1 million fans since moving to Citizens Bank Park; on April 3, 2011, the team broke the three - game series attendance record at the ballpark, having 136,254 fans attend the opening weekend against the Houston Astros.
In 2011 and 2012, the Phillies led the league in attendance with 3,680,718 and 3,565,718 fans, respectively, coming out to watch Phillies baseball.
The records of the Phillies ' last ten seasons in Major League Baseball are listed below.
Eddie Sawyer (MOY)
Gene Mauch (MOY)
The following table describes the Phillies ' MLB win -- loss record by decade.
These statistics are from Baseball-Reference.com 's Philadelphia Phillies History & Encyclopedia, and are current as of October 18, 2016.
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7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated March 29, 2018 Transactions Depth chart
Over 126 seasons, the Phillies franchise has employed 51 managers. The duties of the team manager include team strategy and leadership on and off the field. Seven managers have taken the Phillies to the postseason, with Danny Ozark and Charlie Manuel each leading the team to three playoff appearances. Manuel and Dallas Green are the only Phillies managers to win a World Series: Green in 1980 against the Kansas City Royals; and Manuel in 2008 against the Tampa Bay Rays. Charlie Manuel is the longest - tenured manager in franchise history, with 1,416 games of service in parts of nine seasons (2005 -- 2013). The records and accomplishments of the last seven Phillies ' managers are shown below.
Statistics current through 2017 season
As of 2018, the Phillies ' flagship radio stations is WIP - FM (94.1 FM), formerly owned by CBS Radio but since November 2017, owned by Philadelphia - area company Entercom. The broadcasts were discontinued on the former AM flagship station WPHT 1210 in 2016. Scott Franzke and Jim Jackson provide play - by - play on the radio, with Larry Andersen as the color commentator. Meanwhile, NBCUniversal (a unit of Philadelphia - based Comcast) handles local television broadcasts through its properties NBC Sports Philadelphia and WCAU (NBC10). Tom McCarthy calls play - by - play for the television broadcasts, with Ben Davis, Mike Schmidt and John Kruk providing color commentary.
Spanish language broadcasts are on WTTM (1680 AM) with Danny Martinez on play - by - play, and Bill Kulik and Rickie Ricardo on color commentary.
Other popular Phillies broadcasters through the years include By Saam from 1939 to 1975, Bill Campbell from 1962 to 1970, Richie Ashburn from 1963 to 1997, and Harry Kalas from 1971 to 2009. Kalas, a 2002 recipient of the Ford Frick Award and an icon in the Philadelphia area, called play - by - play in the first three and last three innings on television and the fourth inning on the radio until his death on April 13, 2009.
At Citizens Bank Park, the restaurant built into the base of the main scoreboard is named "Harry the K 's '' in Kalas 's honor. After Kalas 's death, the Phillies ' TV - broadcast booth was renamed "The Harry Kalas Broadcast Booth ''. It is directly next to the radio - broadcast booth, which is named "The Richie ' Whitey ' Ashburn Broadcast Booth ''. When the Phillies win at home, Kalas ' rendition of the song "High Hopes '', which he would sing when the Phillies had clinched a playoff berth or advanced in the playoffs, is played as fans file out of the stadium. In addition, when a Phillies player hits a home run a recording of Kalas ' famous "That ball is outta here! '' home run call is played. The sole exception is Chase Utley, once the subject of another famous Kalas call, "Chase Utley, you are The Man! '', which is played when Utley hits a homer.
In 2011, the Phillies unveiled a statue of Harry Kalas at Citizens Bank Park. The statue was funded by Phillies fans and designed and constructed by a Phillies fan.
The Phillies ' public - address (PA) announcer is Dan Baker, who started in the 1972 season.
In 2011, the Phillies spent $10 million to upgrade the video system at Citizens Bank Park, including a new display screen in left field, the largest in the National League.
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provide a brief description of this company (msc) | MSC Cruises - wikipedia
MSC Cruises is a global cruise line that was founded in Italy, is registered in Switzerland, and has its headquarters in Geneva. MSC Cruises is the world 's largest privately owned cruise company, employing 16,300 people worldwide and having offices in 45 countries as of July 2014. MSC Cruises (Italian: MSC Crociere S. p.A.) is part of the Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A. (MSC), the world 's second biggest container shipping operator.
It was founded in Naples, Italy as Lauro Lines (also known as Flotta Lauro) by Achille Lauro. The company entered the cruise business in the 1960s, operating two ships, the Angelina Lauro and MS Achille Lauro. The Angelina Lauro burnt in the port of St. Thomas in 1979 and the Achille Lauro was hijacked by members of the Palestine Liberation Front in 1985. In 1989, Mediterranean Shipping Company bought Flotta Lauro and renamed it StarLauro Cruises. In 1994, the Achille Lauro caught fire and sank. In 1995, the company name was changed to MSC Cruises.
MSC Cruises is the fourth largest cruise company in the world, after Carnival Corporation & plc, Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. and Norwegian Cruise Line with a 5.2 % share of all passengers carried in 2015.
In 2014 MSC Cruises announced that the four Lirica class ships will undergo renovation under the "Renaissance Programme ''.
In 2015, MSC Cruises had four new ships on order from STX France and Fincantieri, with options for three more. The first two ships are due to be delivered in May 2017 (MSC Meraviglia) and November 2017 (MSC Seaside). There are four more diesel - powered ships on order for delivery in 2020s.
In September 2016, MSC Cruises announced children - oriented attractions and activities together with LEGO, Chicco, DOREBRO sports program, and with Michelin - starred chef Carlo Cracco.
In June 2017, MSC Cruises announced new World - class cruise ships. 4 cruise ships will have a tonnage of 200,000 GT and 2,760 staterooms to accommodate 6,850 passengers. They are scheduled for delivery in the years 2022, 2024, 2025, and 2026.
In January 2017, it was announced that MSC Cruises is going to present new exclusive Bahamian Ocean Cay MSC Marine Reserve. Company is going to include Ocean Cay to the itineraries at the end of 2018.
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who plays in the texas chainsaw massacre the beginning | The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: the Beginning - wikipedia
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning is a 2006 American slasher film and a prequel to the 2003 film The Texas Chainsaw Massacre. The sixth installment in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchise was directed by Jonathan Liebesman and co-produced by Kim Henkel and Tobe Hooper (co-creators of the original 1974 film). The film went into release in North America on October 6, 2006. The film 's story takes place four years before the timeline of the 2003 film. It stars Jordana Brewster, Diora Baird, Taylor Handley, Matt Bomer and R. Lee Ermey.
Originally, the film had the subtitle The Origin. New Line had to pay $3.1 million more than expected in order to keep the rights to the franchise after Dimension Films made a large offer to buy it from the original right - holders. The film grossed less than half of what its predecessor had and had poor critical reception.
In 1939, a woman dies while giving birth in a slaughterhouse, and the manager attempts to dispose of the baby by leaving him in a dumpster. A young woman, Luda Mae Hewitt, finds the child, takes him back to the Hewitt residence, names him Thomas, and decides to raise him as her own. Thirty years later, Thomas, also known as Tommy, is working in the slaughterhouse under the same manager. When the plant is shut down by the health department, he refuses to leave until the manager forces him to. Later, Tommy returns, murders the manager, and then finds a chainsaw. Luda Mae 's son, Charlie Hewitt, kills the sheriff "Hoyt '' to prevent him from arresting Tommy. He then assumes his identity and takes his body back home to use for stew meat.
Meanwhile, two brothers, Eric and Dean, are driving across the country with their girlfriends, Chrissie and Bailey, to enlist in the Vietnam War. At a diner, they meet a female biker named Alex, who follows them. Alex soon draws a shotgun and orders the group to pull over. In the ensuing chaos, the car crashes, with Chrissie being thrown out into a field out of sight. Hoyt arrives and immediately kills Alex. After making them put Alex 's body in his car, Hoyt forces the group in as well, and calls for Uncle Monty to tow the wreckage, where Chrissie has hidden. Hoyt drives them to the Hewitt house where he has Tommy butcher Alex 's body. He then holds Eric, Dean and Bailey hostage. As Monty brings the wrecked car back to the house, Chrissie escapes and flags down Holden, Alex 's boyfriend, who follows her back to the house.
At the house, Hoyt tortures Dean after finding out he had been intending to dodge the Vietnam War draft. When Hoyt leaves, Eric breaks free from his restraints and gets Dean to safety before sneaking into the house to free Bailey. In the process, Dean is caught in a bear trap and Hoyt knocks Eric unconscious. Bailey escapes in Monty 's truck, but Tommy stabs her in the shoulder with a meat hook and drags her back to the house. Meanwhile, Holden and Chrissie arrive at the house but part ways to search for their friends. Chrissie finds Dean, while Holden takes Hoyt hostage, ordering him to take him to Alex. Hoyt calls to Tommy for help; Tommy arrives and kills Holden with the chainsaw. Chrissie finds Eric in the basement but is unable to free him, and hides when Tommy returns. Tommy inspects Eric 's face before killing him with the chainsaw, skinning his face, and wearing it as a mask.
Chrissie is about to flee when she hears Bailey 's screams and decides to go back and save her. She finds her upstairs, but Hoyt catches her and brings her downstairs for dinner, along with Bailey and an unconscious Dean. Leatherface kills Bailey and tries to take Chrissie to the basement, but she stabs him in the back and jumps out of a window. Dean regains consciousness and beats Hoyt before heading off to find Chrissie. Chrissie enters the slaughterhouse, and after noticing that Leatherface has tracked her, she grabs a knife and cuts Leatherface 's face, but he overpowers her. Dean intervenes, but Leatherface kills him with the chainsaw. Chrissie escapes, hijacks an abandoned car, and drives off. She sees a state trooper in the distance, but as Chrissie pulls over, Leatherface appears in the backseat and impales her with the chainsaw, causing her to lose control and run over both the trooper and the man he pulled over. Leatherface then exits the car and walks along the road back towards the Hewitt house.
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning was released on October 6, 2006 in 2,820 theaters, debuting at # 2 at the box office, grossing $18,508,228 on its first weekend. Its second week saw a 59.6 % drop in attendance, grossing only $7,485,290 and coming in at # 5 at the box office. During its third week it grossed $3,779,829 and came in at # 10 at the box office. The film dropped out of the top ten and into eighteenth place with $1,269,942. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning would fail to regain a top ten spot at the box office for the remainder of its theatrical run, ending with $51,764,406 in total gross.
The film received largely negative reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 12 % "rotten '' rating, based on 83 reviews, with an average rating of 3.4 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning is full of blood and gore, but not enough scares or a coherent story to make for a successful horror film. '' Metacritic reports a 29 out of 100 rating, based on 18 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Peter Travers from Rolling Stone awarded the film zero stars, calling the film "putridly written, directed and acted '', also criticizing the film 's obvious plot turns. Nathan Lee from The New York Times panned the film calling it "an invitation to hard - core sadism ''. At the 27th Golden Raspberry Awards (2006), the film was nominated for a Worst Prequel or Sequel, but lost to Basic Instinct 2.
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what did rhea give cronus to eat in place of their youngest son | Cronus - Wikipedia
In Greek mythology, Cronus, Cronos, or Kronos (/ ˈkroʊnəs / or / ˈkroʊnɒs /, US: / - oʊ s /, from Greek: Κρόνος, Krónos), was the leader and youngest of the first generation of Titans, the divine descendants of Uranus, the sky, and Gaia, the earth. He overthrew his father and ruled during the mythological Golden Age, until he was overthrown by his own son Zeus and imprisoned in Tartarus. According to Plato, the deities Phorcys, Cronus, and Rhea were the eldest children of Oceanus and Tethys.
Cronus was usually depicted with a harpe, scythe or a sickle, which was the instrument he used to castrate and depose Uranus, his father. In Athens, on the twelfth day of the Attic month of Hekatombaion, a festival called Kronia was held in honour of Cronus to celebrate the harvest, suggesting that, as a result of his association with the virtuous Golden Age, Cronus continued to preside as a patron of the harvest. Cronus was also identified in classical antiquity with the Roman deity Saturn.
In an ancient myth recorded by Hesiod 's Theogony, Cronus envied the power of his father, the ruler of the universe, Uranus. Uranus drew the enmity of Cronus 's mother, Gaia, when he hid the gigantic youngest children of Gaia, the hundred - handed Hecatonchires and one - eyed Cyclopes, in Tartarus, so that they would not see the light. Gaia created a great stone sickle and gathered together Cronus and his brothers to persuade them to castrate Uranus.
Only Cronus was willing to do the deed, so Gaia gave him the sickle and placed him in ambush. When Uranus met with Gaia, Cronus attacked him with the sickle, castrating him and casting his testicles into the sea. From the blood that spilled out from Uranus and fell upon the earth, the Gigantes, Erinyes, and Meliae were produced. The testicles produced a white foam from which the goddess Aphrodite emerged. For this, Uranus threatened vengeance and called his sons Titenes (Τιτῆνες; according to Hesiod meaning "straining ones, '' the source of the word "titan '', but this etymology is disputed) for overstepping their boundaries and daring to commit such an act (in an alternate version of this myth, a more benevolent Cronus overthrew the wicked serpentine Titan Ophion and in doing so he released the world from bondage and for a time ruled it justly).
After dispatching Uranus, Cronus re-imprisoned the Hecatonchires, and the Cyclopes and set the dragon Campe to guard them. He and his sister Rhea took the throne of the world as king and queen. The period in which Cronus ruled was called the Golden Age, as the people of the time had no need for laws or rules; everyone did the right thing, and immorality was absent.
Cronus learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be overcome by his own sons, just as he had overthrown his father. As a result, although he sired the gods Demeter, Hestia, Hera, Hades and Poseidon by Rhea, he devoured them all as soon as they were born to prevent the prophecy. When the sixth child, Zeus, was born Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save them and to eventually get retribution on Cronus for his acts against his father and children.
Rhea secretly gave birth to Zeus in Crete, and handed Cronus a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, also known as the Omphalos Stone, which he promptly swallowed, thinking that it was his son.
Rhea kept Zeus hidden in a cave on Mount Ida, Crete. According to some versions of the story, he was then raised by a goat named Amalthea, while a company of Kouretes, armored male dancers, shouted and clapped their hands to make enough noise to mask the baby 's cries from Cronus. Other versions of the myth have Zeus raised by the nymph Adamanthea, who hid Zeus by dangling him by a rope from a tree so that he was suspended between the earth, the sea, and the sky, all of which were ruled by his father, Cronus. Still other versions of the tale say that Zeus was raised by his grandmother, Gaia.
Once he had grown up, Zeus used an emetic given to him by Gaia to force Cronus to disgorge the contents of his stomach in reverse order: first the stone, which was set down at Pytho under the glens of Mount Parnassus to be a sign to mortal men, and then his two brothers and three sisters. In other versions of the tale, Metis gave Cronus an emetic to force him to disgorge the children, or Zeus cut Cronus 's stomach open.
After freeing his siblings, Zeus released the Hecatoncheires, and the Cyclopes who forged for him his thunderbolts, Poseidon 's trident and Hades ' helmet of darkness. In a vast war called the Titanomachy, Zeus and his brothers and sisters, with the help of the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes, overthrew Cronus and the other Titans. Afterwards, many of the Titans were confined in Tartarus. However, Oceanus, Helios, Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus and Menoetius were not imprisoned following the Titanomachy. Gaia bore the monster Typhon to claim revenge for the imprisoned Titans.
Accounts of the fate of Cronus after the Titanomachy differ. In Homeric and other texts he is imprisoned with the other Titans in Tartarus. In Orphic poems, he is imprisoned for eternity in the cave of Nyx. Pindar describes his release from Tartarus, where he is made King of Elysium by Zeus. In another version, the Titans released the Cyclopes from Tartarus, and Cronus was awarded the kingship among them, beginning a Golden Age. In Virgil 's Aeneid, it is Latium to which Saturn (Cronus) escapes and ascends as king and lawgiver, following his defeat by his son Jupiter (Zeus).
One other account referred by Robert Graves, who claims to be following the account of the Byzantine mythographer Tzetzes, it is said that Cronus was castrated by his son Zeus just like he had done with his father Uranus before. However the subject of a son castrating his own father, or simply castration in general, was so repudiated by the Greek mythographers of that time that they suppressed it from their accounts until the Christian era (when Tzetzes wrote).
In a Libyan account related by Diodorus Siculus (Book 3), Uranus and Titaea were the parents of Cronus and Rhea and the other Titans. Ammon, a king of Libya, married Rhea (3.18. 1). However, Rhea abandoned Ammon and married her brother Cronus. With Rhea 's incitement, Cronus and the other Titans made war upon Ammon, who fled to Crete (3.71. 1 - 2). Cronus ruled harshly and Cronus in turn was defeated by Ammon 's son Dionysus (3.71. 3 - 3.73) who appointed Cronus ' and Rhea 's son, Zeus, as king of Egypt (3.73. 4). Dionysus and Zeus then joined their forces to defeat the remaining Titans in Crete, and on the death of Dionysus, Zeus inherited all the kingdoms, becoming lord of the world (3.73. 7 - 8).
Cronus is mentioned in the Sibylline Oracles, particularly in book three, which makes Cronus, ' Titan ' and Iapetus, the three sons of Uranus and Gaia, each to receive a third division of the Earth, and Cronus is made king over all. After the death of Uranus, Titan 's sons attempt to destroy Cronus 's and Rhea 's male offspring as soon as they are born, but at Dodona, Rhea secretly bears her sons Zeus, Poseidon and Hades and sends them to Phrygia to be raised in the care of three Cretans. Upon learning this, sixty of Titan 's men then imprison Cronus and Rhea, causing the sons of Cronus to declare and fight the first of all wars against them. This account mentions nothing about Cronus either killing his father or attempting to kill any of his children.
During antiquity, Cronus was occasionally interpreted as Chronos, the personification of time. The Roman philosopher Cicero (1st century BCE) elaborated on this by saying that the Greek name Cronus is synonymous to chronos (time) since he maintains the course and cycles of seasons and the periods of time, whereas the Latin name Saturn denotes that he is saturated with years since he was devouring his sons, which implies that time devours the ages and gorges. The Greek historian and biographer Plutarch (1st century CE) asserted that the Greeks believed that Cronus was an allegorical name for χρόνος (time). The philosopher Plato (3rd century BCE) in his Cratylus gives two possible interpretations for the name of Cronus. The first is that his name denotes "κόρος '' (koros), the pure (καθαρόν) and unblemished (ἀκήρατον) nature of his mind. The second is that Rhea and Cronus were given names of streams (Rhea -- ῥοή (rhoē) and Cronus -- Xρόνος (chronos)). Proclus (5th century CE), the Neoplatonist philosopher, makes in his Commentary on Plato 's Cratylus an extensive analysis on Cronus; among others he says that the "One cause '' of all things is "Chronos '' (time) that is also equivocal to Cronus. In addition to the name, the story of Cronus eating his children was also interpreted as an allegory to a specific aspect of time held within Cronus ' sphere of influence. As the theory went, Cronus represented the destructive ravages of time which devoured all things, a concept that was illustrated when the Titan king ate the Olympian gods -- the past consuming the future, the older generation suppressing the next generation.
During the Renaissance, the identification of Cronus and Chronos gave rise to "Father Time '' wielding the harvesting scythe. H. J. Rose in 1928 observed that attempts to give "Κρόνος '' a Greek etymology had failed. Recently, Janda (2010) offers a genuinely Indo - European etymology of "the cutter '', from the root * (s) ker - "to cut '' (Greek κείρω (keirō), cf. English shear), motivated by Cronus 's characteristic act of "cutting the sky '' (or the genitals of anthropomorphic Uranus). The Indo - Iranian reflex of the root is kar, generally meaning "to make, create '' (whence karma), but Janda argues that the original meaning "to cut '' in a cosmogonic sense is still preserved in some verses of the Rigveda pertaining to Indra 's heroic "cutting '', like that of Cronus resulting in creation:
RV 10. 104.10 ārdayad vṛtram akṛṇod ulokaṃ he hit Vrtra fatally, cutting (> creating) a free path.
RV 6. 47.4 varṣmāṇaṃ divo akṛṇod he cut (> created) the loftiness of the sky.
This may point to an older Indo - European mytheme reconstructed as * (s) kert wersmn diwos "by means of a cut he created the loftiness of the sky ''. The myth of Cronus castrating Uranus parallels the Song of Kumarbi, where Anu (the heavens) is castrated by Kumarbi. In the Song of Ullikummi, Teshub uses the "sickle with which heaven and earth had once been separated '' to defeat the monster Ullikummi, establishing that the "castration '' of the heavens by means of a sickle was part of a creation myth, in origin a cut creating an opening or gap between heaven (imagined as a dome of stone) and earth enabling the beginning of time (chronos) and human history. A theory debated in the 19th century, and sometimes still offered somewhat apologetically, holds that Κρόνος is related to "horned '', assuming a Semitic derivation from qrn. Andrew Lang 's objection, that Cronus was never represented horned in Hellenic art, was addressed by Robert Brown, arguing that, in Semitic usage, as in the Hebrew Bible, qeren was a signifier of "power ''. When Greek writers encountered the Semitic deity El, they rendered his name as Cronus.
Robert Graves remarks that "cronos probably means ' crow ', like the Latin cornix and the Greek corōne '', noting that Cronus was depicted with a crow, as were the deities Apollo, Asclepius, Saturn and Bran.
When Hellenes encountered Phoenicians and, later, Hebrews, they identified the Semitic El, by interpretatio graeca, with Cronus. The association was recorded c. AD 100 by Philo of Byblos ' Phoenician history, as reported in Eusebius ' Præparatio Evangelica I. 10.16. Philo 's account, ascribed by Eusebius to the semi-legendary pre-Trojan War Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, indicates that Cronus was originally a Canaanite ruler who founded Byblos and was subsequently deified. This version gives his alternate name as Elus or Ilus, and states that in the 32nd year of his reign, he emasculated, slew and deified his father Epigeius or Autochthon "whom they afterwards called Uranus ''. It further states that after ships were invented, Cronus, visiting the ' inhabitable world ', bequeathed Attica to his own daughter Athena, and Egypt to Taautus the son of Misor and inventor of writing.
While the Greeks considered Cronus a cruel and tempestuous force of chaos and disorder, believing the Olympian gods had brought an era of peace and order by seizing power from the crude and malicious Titans, the Romans took a more positive and innocuous view of the deity, by conflating their indigenous deity Saturn with Cronus. Consequently, while the Greeks considered Cronus merely an intermediary stage between Uranus and Zeus, he was a larger aspect of Roman religion. The Saturnalia was a festival dedicated in his honour, and at least one temple to Saturn already existed in the archaic Roman Kingdom.
His association with the "Saturnian '' Golden Age eventually caused him to become the god of "time '', i.e., calendars, seasons, and harvests -- not now confused with Chronos, the unrelated embodiment of time in general. Nevertheless, among Hellenistic scholars in Alexandria and during the Renaissance, Cronus was conflated with the name of Chronos, the personification of "Father Time '', wielding the harvesting scythe.
As a result of Cronus 's importance to the Romans, his Roman variant, Saturn, has had a large influence on Western culture. The seventh day of the Judaeo - Christian week is called in Latin Dies Saturni ("Day of Saturn ''), which in turn was adapted and became the source of the English word Saturday. In astronomy, the planet Saturn is named after the Roman deity. It is the outermost of the Classical planets (those that are visible with the naked eye).
A star (HD 240430) was named after him in 2017 when it was reported to have swallowed its planets.
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name the type of binding force in dry ice | Dry ice - wikipedia
Dry ice, sometimes referred to as "cardice '' (chiefly by British chemists), is the solid form of carbon dioxide. It is used primarily as a cooling agent. Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue (other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere). It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable.
Dry ice sublimates at 194.65 K (− 78.5 ° C; − 109.3 ° F), at Earth atmospheric pressures. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.
Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO), a molecule consisting of a single carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. Dry ice is colorless, non-flammable, with a sour zesty odor, and can lower the pH of a solution when dissolved in water, forming carbonic acid (H CO).
At pressures below 5.13 atm and temperatures below − 56.4 ° C (− 69.5 ° F) (the triple point), CO changes from a solid to a gas with no intervening liquid form, through a process called sublimation. The opposite process is called deposition, where CO changes from the gas to solid phase (dry ice). At atmospheric pressure, sublimation / deposition occurs at − 78.5 ° C (− 109.3 ° F) or 194.65 K.
The density of dry ice varies, but usually ranges between about 1.4 and 1.6 g / cm (87 and 100 lb / cu ft). The low temperature and direct sublimation to a gas makes dry ice an effective coolant, since it is colder than water ice and leaves no residue as it changes state. Its enthalpy of sublimation is 571 kJ / kg (25.2 kJ / mol).
Dry ice is non-polar, with a dipole moment of zero, so attractive intermolecular van der Waals forces operate. The composition results in low thermal and electrical conductivity.
It is generally accepted that dry ice was first observed in 1835 by French inventor Adrien - Jean - Pierre Thilorier (1790 -- 1844), who published the first account of the substance. In his experiments, it was noted that when opening the lid of a large cylinder containing liquid carbon dioxide, most of the liquid carbon dioxide quickly evaporated. This left only solid dry ice in the container. In 1924, Thomas B. Slate applied for a US patent to sell dry ice commercially. Subsequently, he became the first to make dry ice successful as an industry. In 1925, this solid form of CO was trademarked by the DryIce Corporation of America as "Dry ice '', thus leading to its common name. That same year the DryIce Co. sold the substance commercially for the first time; marketing it for refrigerating purposes.
The alternative name "Cardice '' is a registered trademark of Air Liquide UK Ltd. It is sometimes written as "card ice ''.
Dry ice is easily manufactured. First, gases with a high concentration of carbon dioxide are produced. Such gases can be a byproduct of another process, such as producing ammonia from nitrogen and natural gas, oil refinery activities or large - scale fermentation. Second, the carbon dioxide - rich gas is pressurized and refrigerated until it liquefies. Next, the pressure is reduced. When this occurs some liquid carbon dioxide vaporizes, causing a rapid lowering of temperature of the remaining liquid. As a result, the extreme cold causes the liquid to solidify into a snow - like consistency. Finally, the snow - like solid carbon dioxide is compressed into small pellets or larger blocks of dry ice.
Dry ice is typically produced in three standard forms: large blocks, cylindrical small (⁄ or ⁄ in (13 or 16 mm) diameter) pellets and cylindrical tiny (⁄ inch (3.2 mm) diameter), high surface to volume pellets that float on oil or water and do not stick to skin because of their high radii of curvature. Tiny dry ice pellets are used primarily for ice blasting, quick freezing, fire fighting, oil solidifying and have been found to be safe for experimentation by middle school students wearing appropriate personal protective equipment such as gloves and safety glasses. A standard block weighing approximately 30 kg (66 lb) covered in a taped paper wrapping is most common. These are commonly used in shipping, because they sublime relatively slowly due to a low ratio of surface area to volume. Pellets are around 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter and can be bagged easily. This form is suited to small scale use, for example at grocery stores and laboratories where it is stored in a thickly insulated chest.
The most common use of dry ice is to preserve food, using non-cyclic refrigeration.
It is frequently used to package items that must remain cold or frozen, such as ice cream or biological samples, without the use of mechanical cooling.
Dry ice can be used to flash - freeze food or laboratory biological samples, carbonate beverages, make ice cream, solidify oil spills and stop ice sculptures and ice walls from melting.
Dry ice can be used to arrest and prevent insect activity in closed containers of grains and grain products, as it displaces oxygen, but does not alter the taste or quality of foods. For the same reason, it can prevent or retard food oils and fats from becoming rancid.
When dry ice is placed in water, sublimation is accelerated, and low - sinking, dense clouds of smoke - like fog are created. This is used in fog machines, at theaters, haunted house attractions, and nightclubs for dramatic effects. Unlike most artificial fog machines, in which fog rises like smoke, fog from dry ice hovers near the ground. Dry ice is useful in theater productions that require dense fog effects. The fog originates from the bulk water into which the dry ice is placed, and not from atmospheric water vapor (as is commonly assumed).
It is occasionally used to freeze and remove warts. However, liquid nitrogen performs better in this role, since it is colder so requires less time to act, and less pressure. Dry ice has fewer problems with storage, since it can be generated from compressed carbon dioxide gas as needed.
Plumbers use equipment that forces pressurised liquid CO into a jacket around a pipe. The dry ice formed causes the water to freeze, forming an ice plug, allowing them to perform repairs without turning off the water mains. This technique can be used on pipes up to 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter.
Dry ice can be used as bait to trap mosquitoes, bedbugs, and other insects, due to their attraction to carbon dioxide.
It can be used to exterminate rodents. This is done by dropping pellets into rodent tunnels in the ground and then sealing off the entrance, thus suffocating the animals as the dry ice sublimates.
Tiny dry ice pellets can be used to fight fire by both cooling fuel and suffocating the fire by excluding oxygen.
The extreme temperature of dry ice can cause viscoelastic materials to change to glass phase. Thus it is useful for removing many types of pressure sensitive adhesives.
Dry ice can be used for loosening asphalt floor tiles or car sound deadening material making it easy to prise off, as well as freezing water in valveless pipes to enable repair.
One of the largest mechanical uses of dry ice is blast cleaning. Dry ice pellets are shot from a nozzle with compressed air, combining the power of the speed of the pellets with the action of the sublimation. This can remove residues from industrial equipment. Examples of materials removed include ink, glue, oil, paint, mold and rubber. Dry ice blasting can replace sandblasting, steam blasting, water blasting or solvent blasting. The primary environmental residue of dry ice blasting is the sublimed CO, thus making it a useful technique where residues from other blasting techniques are undesirable. Recently, blast cleaning has been introduced as a method of removing smoke damage from structures after fires.
Dry ice is also useful for the de-gassing of flammable vapours from storage tanks -- the sublimation of dry ice pellets inside an emptied and vented tank causes an outrush of CO that carries with it the flammable vapours.
The removal and fitting of cylinder liners in large engines requires the use of dry ice to chill and thus shrink the liner so that it freely slides into the engine block. When the liner then warms up, it expands, and the resulting interference fit holds it tightly in place. Similar procedures may be used in fabricating mechanical assemblies with a high resultant strength, replacing the need for pins, keys or welds.
Dry - ice blasting, a form of carbon dioxide cleaning, is used in a number of industrial applications.
It is also useful as a cutting fluid.
In laboratories, a slurry of dry ice in an organic solvent is a useful freezing mixture for cold chemical reactions and for condensing solvents in rotary evaporators. Dry ice and acetone forms a cold bath of − 78 ° C (− 108 ° F; 195 K), which can be used for instance to prevent thermal runaway in a Swern oxidation.
The process of altering cloud precipitation can be done with the use of dry ice. It was widely used in experiments in the US in the 1950s and early 1960s before it was replaced by silver iodide. Dry ice has the advantage of being relatively cheap and completely non-toxic. Its main drawback is the need to be delivered directly into the supercooled region of clouds being seeded.
A "dry ice bomb '' is a balloon - like device using dry ice in a sealed container such as a plastic bottle. Water is usually added to accelerate the sublimation of the dry ice. As the dry ice sublimes, pressure increases, causing the bottle to burst causing a loud noise that can be avoided when a # 3 rubber stopper replaces the screw - on cap to make a water rocket with a two - liter bottle.
The dry ice bomb device was featured on MythBusters, episode 57 Mentos and Soda, which first aired on August 9, 2006. It was also featured in an episode of Time Warp, as well as in an episode of Archer.
Following the Mars flyby of the Mariner 4 spacecraft in 1966, scientists concluded that Mars ' polar caps consist entirely of dry ice. However, findings made in 2003 by researchers at the California Institute of Technology have shown that Mars ' polar caps are almost completely made of water ice, and that dry ice only forms a thin surface layer that thickens and thins seasonally. A phenomenon named dry ice storms was proposed to occur over the polar regions of Mars. They are comparable to Earth 's thunderstorms, with crystalline CO taking the place of water in the clouds.
In 2012, the European Space Agency 's Venus Express probe detected a cold layer in the atmosphere of Venus where temperatures are close to the triple point of carbon dioxide and it is possible that flakes of dry ice precipitate.
Prolonged exposure to dry ice can cause severe skin damage through frostbite, and the fog produced may also hinder attempts to withdraw from contact in a safe manner. Because it sublimes into large quantities of carbon dioxide gas, which could pose a danger of hypercapnia, dry ice should only be exposed to open air in a well - ventilated environment. For this reason, dry ice is assigned the S - phrase S9 in the context of laboratory safety. Industrial dry ice may contain contaminants that make it unsafe for direct contact with foodstuffs. Tiny dry ice pellets used in dry ice blast cleaning do not contain oily residues.
Although dry ice is not classified as a dangerous substance by the European Union, or as a hazardous material by the United States Department of Transportation for ground transportation, when shipped by air or water, it is regulated as a dangerous good and IATA packing instruction 954 (IATA PI 954) requires that it be labeled specially, including a diamond - shaped black - and white label, UN 1845. Also, arrangements must be in place to ensure adequate ventilation so that pressure build - up does not rupture the packaging. The Federal Aviation Administration in the US allows airline passengers to carry up to 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) per person either as checked baggage or carry - on baggage, when used to refrigerate perishables.
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when does gods not dead three come out | God 's Not Dead (film) - wikipedia
God 's Not Dead is a 2014 American Christian drama film directed by Harold Cronk and starring Kevin Sorbo, Shane Harper, David A.R. White, and Dean Cain. The film was released theatrically on March 21, 2014 by Pure Flix Entertainment.
Written by Cary Solomon and Chuck Konzelman, and based on Rice Broocks ' book God 's Not Dead: Evidence for God in an Age of Uncertainty, the film follows a Christian college student (Harper) whose faith is challenged by a philosophy professor (Sorbo) who declares God a pre-scientific fiction. It received mostly negative reviews, but grossed over $62 million on a $2 million budget.
The film is followed by the 2016 film God 's Not Dead 2 and the 2018 film God 's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness.
Josh Wheaton (Shane Harper), an evangelical college student, enrolls in a philosophy class taught by Professor Jeffrey Radisson (Kevin Sorbo), an atheist, who demands his students sign a declaration that "God is dead '' to pass. Josh is the only student who refuses to sign. Radisson requires Josh to debate the topic with him but agrees to let the class members decide the winner. Josh 's girlfriend Kara (Cassidy Gifford) demands Josh either sign the statement "God is dead '' or drop Radisson 's class, because standing up to Radisson will jeopardize their academic future. Kara breaks up with Josh for insisting on confessing his belief in God.
Radisson gives Josh twenty minutes at the end of the first three lecture sessions to argue that God exists. In the first session, Josh presents his evidence that God created the universe. In the second session, Josh argues that macroevolution is not as solid of a theory as it is usually presented. In the first two sessions, Radisson has counter-arguments for some of Josh 's points. Ultimately, it comes down to the third and final debate between Radisson and Josh, who again both make compelling points. Josh then halts his line of debate to pose a question to Radisson: "Why do you hate God? '' After Josh repeats the question twice more, Radisson explodes in rage, confirming he hates God for his mother 's death that left him alone despite his prayers. Josh then casually asks Radisson how he can hate someone that does not exist. In the end, Martin (Paul Kwo), a student from China whose father had forbidden him from even talking about God to avoid jeopardizing Martin 's brother 's chance at overseas study, stands up and says, "God 's not dead. '' Almost the entire class follows Martin 's lead, and Radisson leaves the room in defeat.
Radisson dates Mina, an evangelical whom he belittles in front of his fellow atheist colleagues. Her brother Mark (Dean Cain), a successful businessman and atheist, refuses to visit their mother, who suffers from dementia. Mark 's girlfriend Amy is a left - wing blogger who writes articles critical of Duck Dynasty. When she is diagnosed with cancer, Mark dumps her. A Muslim student named Ayisha (Hadeel Sittu) secretly converts to Christianity and is disowned by her infuriated father when he finds out.
After the final debate, Josh invites Martin to attend a concert by Christian pop rock group the Newsboys. Radisson reads a letter from his late mother, and is moved to reconcile with Mina. Amy confronts the Newsboys in their dressing room, only to ask them to help guide her in converting to Christianity. While on his way to find Mina, Radisson is struck by a car and fatally injured. Reverend Dave, who is waiting at the intersection, tends to Radisson and helps him become a Christian as he dies.
The film 's main characters all convene at the Newsboys concert, where they play a video clip of Willie Robertson congratulating Josh. The Newsboys play their song "God 's Not Dead '', dedicating it to Josh.
The film was shot from October to November 2012, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, with the concert scene done in Houston, Texas.
Russell Wolfe, the CEO of Pure Flix Entertainment, stated that:
the inspiration behind the setting of the movie dates back a few years ago. I was in a meeting at Pinnacle Forum and Alan Sears from Alliance Defending Freedom, was speaking. He was speaking about a young girl who was asked to do some things that went against her faith and got in trouble for not doing them. That story put my jaw on the floor and made me think about how many students go to college as a Christian and how few stay a Christian after they finish their four years. It was that story that inspired me to set the movie on a college campus.
The film soundtrack was released on March 3, 2014, by Inpop Records.
The film became a surprise success at the box office. In its first weekend of release, the film earned $8.6 million from 780 theaters, causing Entertainment Weekly 's Adam Markovitz to refer to it as "the biggest surprise of the weekend ''. During that week, it finished third behind Divergent and Muppets Most Wanted in the box office, with $9.2 million.
The film began its international roll out in Mexico on April 4, 2014, where the movie grossed $89,021 its opening weekend. God 's Not Dead grossed $60.8 million in North America and $3.9 million in other territories for a total of $64.7 million, against a budget of $2 million. At the end of 2014, God 's Not Dead was ranked 93rd in terms of worldwide gross, and finished with $64.7 million worldwide.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film received a rating of 15 %, based on 20 reviews, with an average rating of 2.8 / 10. On Metacritic, the film received a score of 16 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike ''.
Writing for The A.V. Club, Todd Van Der Werff gave the film a "D --, '' saying, "Even by the rather lax standards of the Christian film industry, God 's Not Dead is a disaster. It 's an uninspired amble past a variety of Christian - email - forward bogeymen that feels far too long at just 113 minutes ''. Reviewer Scott Foundas of Variety wrote "... even grading on a generous curve, this strident melodrama about the insidious efforts of America 's university system to silence true believers on campus is about as subtle as a stack of Bibles falling on your head... '' Some sources and blogs have cited the film 's similarities to a popular urban legend. The basic premise of an evangelical student debating an atheist professor and winning in front of the class (who then applauds) has been the subject of a popular Chick tract.
The Alliance Defending Freedom, American Heritage Girls, Faith Driven Consumer, Denison Forum on Truth and Culture, Trevecca Nazarene University, The Dove Foundation and Ratio Christi have all endorsed the film.
On the other hand, the young Earth creationist apologetics ministry, Answers in Genesis, would not endorse the film because of the promotion of several elements which they deemed to be "unbiblical ''.
Dave Hartline of The American Catholic gave God 's Not Dead a positive review and hoped that other films like it will follow. Nick Olszyk of Catholic World Report gave it his highest rating of five reels, calling the film "a tremendously entertaining film that leads to God, not in addition to its quality but through its quality. '' Vincent Funaro of The Christian Post praised the film for being "a hit for believers and may even appeal to skeptics searching for answers. ''
Evangelical Michael Gerson, however, was highly critical of the film and its message, writing "The main problem with God 's Not Dead is not its cosmology or ethics but its anthropology. It assumes that human beings are made out of cardboard. Academics are arrogant and cruel. Liberal bloggers are preening and snarky. Unbelievers disbelieve because of personal demons. It is characterization by caricature. '' John Mulderig echoed similar concerns in his review for the Catholic News Service, stating: "There might be the kernel of an intriguing documentary buried within director Harold Cronk 's stacked - deck drama, given the extent of real - life academic hostility toward religion. But even faith - filled moviegoers will sense the claustrophobia of the echo chamber within which this largely unrealistic picture unfolds. ''
Writing for Christian Reviews, Roger Patterson of Answers in Genesis gave the film 3 1 / 2 out of 5 stars and noted that "clichés die hard '', but concluded that "an astute and mature Christian can use the film as a teaching opportunity ''.
Pure Flix Entertainment produced a sequel, God 's Not Dead 2, with a release date of April 1, 2016, several days after Easter. A third God 's Not Dead film, God 's Not Dead: A Light in Darkness, has been announced.
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who plays the daughter in the movie the house | The House (2017 film) - wikipedia
The House is a 2017 American comedy film directed by Andrew J. Cohen, and co-written by Cohen and Brendan O'Brien. The film stars Will Ferrell, Amy Poehler, Jason Mantzoukas, Ryan Simpkins, Nick Kroll, Allison Tolman, Rob Huebel, Michaela Watkins, and Jeremy Renner, and follows a couple that opens an underground casino in their friend 's house in order to pay for their daughter 's college tuition.
Principal photography began on September 14, 2015 in Los Angeles. The film was released on June 30, 2017, by Warner Bros. Pictures, received negative reviews from critics and grossed $34 million worldwide against its $40 million budget.
During their visit to Bucknell University, husband and wife Scott (Ferrell) and Kate Johansen (Poehler) warn their daughter of the dangers of being in college. Alex (Simpkins) acknowledges her parents ' warnings and expresses her interest in attending the same University her parents went to. Alex gets accepted to the University, which the Johansens expect to be funded by their community 's scholarship program.
Unfortunately during a community town hall meeting, city councilor Bob Schaeffer (Kroll) announces that they will not be doing the scholarship program in favor of building a community pool, to which everyone but the Johansens agrees. The Johansens try to find funding through asking for a loan, a salary raise for Scott, and getting Kate 's job back, but are denied. They reluctantly agree to go with their friend and neighbor, Frank Theodorakis (Mantzoukas), who is going through a divorce with wife Raina (Watkins) due to his gambling and porn addiction, to a previously planned trip to Las Vegas. After numerous wins playing craps they lose their winnings after Scott jinxes the table by telling Frank not to roll a seven.
Back home, Frank convinces the Johansens to start an underground casino in his own house to raise money for their daughter 's tuition and to help him get his wife back. The casino operation proves to be running smoothly as they gain more customers. In another community town hall meeting, Bob becomes suspicious, as there are only a few attendees, and suspends the meeting until after launching an investigation. Back to the Johansens ' casino, Frank discovers that one of the gamblers, Carl (Zissis), is counting cards. The Johansens and Frank confront him, but he brags that he works for mob boss Tommy Papouli (Renner). Scott accidentally chops off Carl 's middle finger, earning him the nickname "The Butcher '', and makes the community afraid of him, which inadvertently increases their profits.
Several thousand dollars away from reaching their goal, they are caught by Bob and officer Chandler (Huebel), who confiscate their money and order them to close down the casino. Nonetheless, they continue their business. The house burns down after being invaded by Tommy Papouli, whom the Johansens accidentally set on fire. Having admitted their plot to Alex, they team up with officer Chandler, who had let them loose, to steal the money back from Bob. Officer Chandler convinces Bob that the three still continued the casino even after he had ordered them to stop and shows a video of the people mocking him. Bob asks Officer Chandler to go with him to arrest the Johansens at the casino, which gives the Johansens the chance to steal their money back. Dawn (Tolman) alerts Bob that the Johansens are in the town hall, which convinces Bob to go back. Bob tries to make Officer Chandler drive faster, but gets into an accident himself. Bob runs back on foot to the town hall to find the Johansens with the money. After chasing the Johansens, Bob reveals his personal interest with the casino money as well as his plot to steal money from the city budget for himself and Dawn, who leaves him and returns to her husband (Scovel). Bob is arrested, while Scott and Kate use the money they took back from him to pay for their daughter 's college tuition.
On February 25, 2015, it was announced that New Line Cinema had won an auction for the comedy script The House, written by Brendan O'Brien and Andrew J. Cohen, and that Cohen would make his directorial debut with the film. Will Ferrell would star as a husband who teams up with his wife and neighbors to start an illegal casino in his basement, to earn money, after their daughter 's college scholarship is lost. Ferrell and Adam McKay produced through Gary Sanchez Productions, along with Good Universe and O'Brien. Amy Poehler joined the cast on June 12, 2015, to play Ferrell 's character 's wife. On June 16, 2015, Jason Mantzoukas joined to play Ferrell 's character 's best friend, who is dealing with a gambling problem, and who gives the couple the idea to start a casino. On August 28, 2015, Ryan Simpkins was added to the cast, to play Ferrell and Poehler 's characters ' daughter. On September 15, 2015, Cedric Yarbrough signed on to play Reggie Henderson, a hardworking suburban resident who starts gambling in the new casino to de-stress. Frank Gerrish also joined the film. On September 18, 2015, Rob Huebel was added to the cast, and on September 21, 2015, Allison Tolman and Michaela Watkins were added to the cast, with Tolman playing a financial advisor, and Watkins playing Mantzoukas ' character 's wife, who wants him to sign divorce papers. Nick Kroll also joined the cast. Mariah Carey was supposed to have a cameo in the film, but had what co-star Rob Huebel called "multiple unrealistic demands ''.
Principal photography on the film began on September 14, 2015, in Los Angeles.
Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin is credited as executive producer.
The House was released on June 30, 2017, by Warner Bros. The original date was June 2, 2017.
The House grossed $25.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $8.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $34.2 million, against a production budget of $40 million.
In North America, The House opened alongside Despicable Me 3 and Baby Driver, as well as the wide expansion of The Beguiled, and was projected to gross $10 -- 14 million from 3,134 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $3.4 million on its first day (including $800,000 from Thursday night previews). It went on to open to $8.7 million, marking the lowest studio debut of Ferrell 's career as a lead actor. In its second weekend the film made $4.8 million (a drop of 45.2 %), finishing 7th at the box office.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 18 % based on 74 reviews, and has an average rating of 3.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The House squanders a decent premise and a talented cast on thin characterizations and a shortage of comic momentum. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a weighted average score of 30 out of 100 based on 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B − '' on an A+ to F scale.
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when was the last time rangers were in the champions league | Rangers F.C. in European football - wikipedia
Rangers played their first official match in competitive European football on 2 October 1956.
To date, the club has featured in over 300 matches and played in three UEFA sanctioned tournaments as well as an additional two other European competitions, namely the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and the European Super Cup.
The club 's first ever match against European opponents, however, was a friendly match against Austrian side First Vienna in the 1903 -- 04 season during a tour of Austria and Czechoslovakia which resulted in six victories from six matches. They won the match 7 -- 2. The club 's first competitive match was a European Cup second - round game against OGC Nice of France. The match ended in a 2 -- 1 home victory for Rangers thanks to goals from Max Murray (Rangers ' first European goal scorer) and Billy Simpson.
In season 1960 -- 61, Rangers took part in the inaugural European Cup Winners Cup. In this season they became the second British club to reach a European final, (emulating Birmingham City who had reached the final of the Inter-cities Fairs Cup the previous year), eventually losing 4 -- 1 on aggregate to Fiorentina. Rangers were also runners - up to Bayern Munich in 1966 -- 67. However, they did go on to win the trophy in 1972 after defeating Dynamo Moscow.
The 1982 -- 83 season saw Rangers play in the UEFA Cup for the first time. They defeated German side Borussia Dortmund in the first round but were knocked out in the following round by another side from Germany, 1. FC Köln. Over a quarter of a century after their first appearance they reached the 2008 UEFA Cup Final. They played Russian side Zenit Saint Petersburg at the City of Manchester Stadium, but lost 2 -- 0 after an exhausting season of football, where Rangers were aiming for four trophies, but ultimately ended up with only two - the Scottish League Cup and Scottish Cup.
Rangers became the first British club to appear in the UEFA Champions League, when in 1992 they defeated Leeds United in a tie dubbed the Battle of Britain due to the clubs being the respective champions of Scotland and England. In this, the inaugural season of the Champions League, the tournament was open only to national champions, with knock - out rounds leading to a group stage of eight teams in two groups of four, and only the winners of each group progressing to a one - off final match. Although unbeaten, Rangers finished second in Group A, one point behind French champions Marseille, who defeated A.C. Milan in the final. The French club were later involved in a match - fixing scandal and were stripped of their national title. It is not clear whether the group stage of the 1992 -- 93 Champions League should be considered as a semi-final, given that the winners of each group went into the final, or as a quarter - final, given that it was contested by the last eight teams in the competition. However, Rangers ' second - placed finish in their group made them one of the top four teams in that season 's tournament -- their highest ever finish in the UEFA Champions League and equalling their 1959 -- 60 run to the semi-finals in its predecessor format of the competition, the European Cup.
Rangers became the first Scottish club to qualify from both the Champions League group stage in 2005 -- 06 and the UEFA Cup group stage in 2006 -- 07.
Season 2011 -- 12 was Rangers ' 51st European campaign. However, due to entering administration in 2012 and the subsequent liquidation of Rangers Football Club PLC, the club was barred from European competition by UEFA for three seasons. Rangers was not eligible for participation in European competition until 2015 - 16.
P -- Played; W -- Won; D -- Drawn; L -- Lost
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when can a player be substituted in basketball | Free substitution - wikipedia
Free substitution is a rule in some sports that allows players to enter and leave the game for other players many times during the course of the game; and for coaches to bring in and take out players an unlimited number of times.
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who made the whip and nae nae song | Watch Me (Whip / Nae Nae) - wikipedia
"Watch Me (Whip / Nae Nae) '' is the debut single by the American rapper Silentó. In March 2015, he was signed to Capitol Records, which released the track as a single with an accompanying music video. The song peaked at # 3 on the Billboard Hot 100, where it has spent 6 non-consecutive weeks. With a viral clip on YouTube, the song was popular for its dance, a combination of 2 popular moves cited in the title: the "Whip '' and the "Nae Nae '' as well as other hip hop dances from various songs "Crank That (Soulja Boy) '' and "Stanky Legg ''.
The song was released on May 5, 2015. Starting August 28 until September 6, 2015, Silentó performed a remixed version for Nickelodeon to help advertise their Labor Day weekend line - up of shows (SpongeBob SquarePants, ALVINNN!!! and the Chipmunks, Harvey Beaks, Sanjay and Craig, and Pig Goat Banana Cricket) under the title "Epic Dance Party ''. In the promos, portions of Silentó 's original music video are used, although there are new shots featuring him dancing with the Nick characters and rapping the remix.
The music video was uploaded online on Silentó 's Vevo channel on YouTube on June 25, 2015 and shot in Atlanta, Georgia. It was directed by Marc Klasfeld. Set in a high school gymnasium, Silentó performs the dance moves mentioned in the song with dance crews, high school and university cheerleaders, fans, even a trio of conservative women who later join in on the dance, and also incorporates videos sent in by viewers. Lil Scrappy and Rich White Ladies make guest appearances in the video. As of August 2017, it has surpassed 1.3 billion views on YouTube, making it the site 's 36th most - watched video.
"Watch Me (Whip / Nae Nae) '' peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, where it has spent six non-consecutive weeks being kept from number one on the chart by songs such as "Cheerleader '' by Omi and "Ca n't Feel My Face '' by The Weeknd. It spent eighteen weeks in the top ten of that chart before dropping out on October 14, 2015. Internationally, the song has peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, as well as the top twenty of the charts in Denmark, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Due to its success, the song was featured on the 2015 compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music! 56. The song reached over 2 million in sales by November 2015, and has sold 2,365,000 copies as of April 2016.
The song also received a nomination for Song of the Summer at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards and another nomination for R&B / Hip - Hop Song at the Teen Choice Awards. On the other hand, Australian site Irkitated named it one of the absolute "worst songs ''.
The song is featured in the television shows South Park, The $100,000 Pyramid, and The Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt. It can also be heard in the film The Emoji Movie.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who has scored 4 tries in super rugby | List of Super Rugby records - Wikipedia
This list of Super Rugby records is a list of records from the Super Rugby rugby union competition (including its previous names as Super 12 and Super 14), which began in 1996, following a deal with SANZAR and News Limited.
4 Tries in a match
N.B.: Team records are for the regular season, individual records include finals.
* (Note: Prior to 2014, teams received 4 points per bye)
(Players in bold are included in 2017 Super Rugby squads)
(Players in bold were included in 2015 Super Rugby squads)
(Players in bold were included in 2015 Super Rugby squads)
(Players in bold were included in 2018 Super Rugby squads)
(Players in bold were included in 2018 Super Rugby squads)
(Players in bold were included in 2015 Super Rugby squads)
(Players in bold were included in 2015 Super Rugby squads)
(Players in bold were included in 2015 Super Rugby squads)
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whats the standard size of a business card | Credit card - wikipedia
A credit card is a payment card issued to users (cardholders) to enable the cardholder to pay a merchant for goods and services based on the cardholder 's promise to the card issuer to pay them for the amounts so paid plus the other agreed charges. The card issuer (usually a bank) creates a revolving account and grants a line of credit to the cardholder, from which the cardholder can borrow money for payment to a merchant or as a cash advance. In other words, credit cards combine payment services with extensions of credit. Complex fee structures in the credit card industry may limit customers ' ability to comparison shop, help ensure that the industry is not price - competitive and help maximize industry profits. Because of this, legislatures have regulated credit card fees.
A credit card is different from a charge card, where it requires the balance to be repaid in full each month. In contrast, credit cards allow the consumers a continuing balance of debt, subject to interest being charged. A credit card also differs from a cash card, which can be used like currency by the owner of the card. A credit card differs from a charge card also in that a credit card typically involves a third - party entity that pays the seller and is reimbursed by the buyer, whereas a charge card simply defers payment by the buyer until a later date.
The size of most credit cards is 85.60 mm × 53.98 mm (3.370 in × 2.125 in) and rounded corners with a radius of 2.88 -- 3.48 mm, conforming to the ISO / IEC 7810 ID - 1 standard, the same size as ATM cards and other payment cards, such as debit cards.
Credit cards have a printed or embossed bank card number complying with the ISO / IEC 7812 numbering standard. The card number 's prefix, called the Bank Identification Number, is the sequence of digits at the beginning of the number that determine the bank to which a credit card number belongs. This is the first six digits for MasterCard and Visa cards. The next nine digits are the individual account number, and the final digit is a validity check code.
Both of these standards are maintained and further developed by ISO / IEC JTC 1 / SC 17 / WG 1. Credit cards have a magnetic stripe conforming to the ISO / IEC 7813. Many modern credit cards have a computer chip embedded in them as a security feature.
In addition to the main credit card number, credit cards also carry issue and expiration dates (given to the nearest month), as well as extra codes such as issue numbers and security codes. Not all credit cards have the same sets of extra codes nor do they use the same number of digits.
The concept of using a card for purchases was described in 1887 by Edward Bellamy in his utopian novel Looking Backward. Bellamy used the term credit card eleven times in this novel, although this referred to a card for spending a citizen 's dividend from the government, rather than borrowing.
Charge coins and other similar items were used from the late 19th century to the 1930s. They came in various shapes and sizes; with materials made out of celluloid (an early type of plastic), copper, aluminum, steel, and other types of whitish metals. Each charge coin usually had a little hole, enabling it to be put in a key ring, like a key. These charge coins were usually given to customers who had charge accounts in department stores, hotels, and so on. A charge coin usually had the charge account number along with the merchant 's name and logo.
The charge coin offered a simple and fast way to copy a charge account number to the sales slip, by imprinting the coin onto the sales slip. This sped the process of copying, previously done by handwriting. It also reduced the number of errors, by having a standardised form of numbers on the sales slip, instead of various kind of handwriting style.
Because the customer 's name was not on the charge coin, almost anyone could use it. This sometimes led to a case of mistaken identity, either accidentally or intentionally, by acting on behalf of the charge account owner or out of malice to defraud both the charge account owner and the merchant. Beginning in the 1930s, merchants started to move from charge coins to the newer Charga - Plate.
The Charga - Plate, developed in 1928, was an early predecessor of the credit card and was used in the U.S. from the 1930s to the late 1950s. It was a 21⁄2 '' × 11⁄4 '' rectangle of sheet metal related to Addressograph and military dog tag systems. It was embossed with the customer 's name, city, and state. It held a small paper card on its back for a signature. In recording a purchase, the plate was laid into a recess in the imprinter, with a paper "charge slip '' positioned on top of it. The record of the transaction included an impression of the embossed information, made by the imprinter pressing an inked ribbon against the charge slip. Charga - Plate was a trademark of Farrington Manufacturing Co. Charga - Plates were issued by large - scale merchants to their regular customers, much like department store credit cards of today. In some cases, the plates were kept in the issuing store rather than held by customers. When an authorized user made a purchase, a clerk retrieved the plate from the store 's files and then processed the purchase. Charga - Plates speeded back - office bookkeeping and reduced copying errors that were done manually in paper ledgers in each store.
In 1934, American Airlines and the Air Transport Association simplified the process even more with the advent of the Air Travel Card. They created a numbering scheme that identified the issuer of the card as well as the customer account. This is the reason the modern UATP cards still start with the number 1. With an Air Travel Card, passengers could "buy now, and pay later '' for a ticket against their credit and receive a fifteen percent discount at any of the accepting airlines. By the 1940s, all of the major US airlines offered Air Travel Cards that could be used on 17 different airlines. By 1941 about half of the airlines ' revenues came through the Air Travel Card agreement. The airlines had also started offering installment plans to lure new travelers into the air. In October 1948, the Air Travel Card became the first internationally valid charge card within all members of the International Air Transport Association.
The concept of customers paying different merchants using the same card was expanded in 1950 by Ralph Schneider and Frank McNamara, founders of Diners Club, to consolidate multiple cards. The Diners Club, which was created partially through a merger with Dine and Sign, produced the first "general purpose '' charge card and required the entire bill to be paid with each statement. That was followed by Carte Blanche and in 1958 by American Express which created a worldwide credit card network (although these were initially charge cards that later acquired credit card features).
Until 1958, no one had been able to successfully establish a revolving credit financial system in which a card issued by a third - party bank was being generally accepted by a large number of merchants, as opposed to merchant - issued revolving cards accepted by only a few merchants. There had been a dozen attempts by small American banks, but none of them were able to last very long. In September 1958, Bank of America launched the BankAmericard in Fresno, California, which would become the first successful recognizably modern credit card. This card succeeded where others failed by breaking the chicken - and - egg cycle in which consumers did not want to use a card that few merchants would accept and merchants did not want to accept a card that few consumers used. Bank of America chose Fresno because 45 % of its residents used the bank, and by sending a card to 60,000 Fresno residents at once, the bank was able to convince merchants to accept the card. It was eventually licensed to other banks around the United States and then around the world, and in 1976, all BankAmericard licensees united themselves under the common brand Visa. In 1966, the ancestor of MasterCard was born when a group of banks established Master Charge to compete with BankAmericard; it received a significant boost when Citibank merged its own Everything Card, launched in 1967, into Master Charge in 1969.
Early credit cards in the U.S., of which BankAmericard was the most prominent example, were mass - produced and mass mailed unsolicited to bank customers who were thought to be good credit risks. They have been mailed off to unemployables, drunks, narcotics addicts and to compulsive debtors, a process President Johnson 's Special Assistant Betty Furness found very like "giving sugar to diabetics ''. These mass mailings were known as "drops '' in banking terminology, and were outlawed in 1970 due to the financial chaos they caused. However, by the time the law came into effect, approximately 100 million credit cards had been dropped into the U.S. population. After 1970, only credit card applications could be sent unsolicited in mass mailings.
Before the computerization of credit card systems in America, using a credit card to pay at a merchant was significantly more complicated than it is today. Each time a consumer wanted to use a credit card, the merchant would have to call their bank, who in turn had to call the credit card company, which then had to have an employee manually look up the customer 's name and credit balance. This system was computerized in 1973 under the leadership of Dee Hock, the first CEO of Visa, allowing transaction time to decrease substantially to less than one minute. However, until always - connected payment terminals became ubiquitous at the beginning of the 21st century, it was common for a merchant to accept a charge, especially below a threshold value or from a known and trusted customer, without verifying it by phone. Books with lists of stolen card numbers were distributed to merchants who were supposed in any case to check cards against the list before accepting them, as well as verifying the signature on the charge slip against that on the card. Merchants who failed to take the time to follow the proper verification procedures were liable for fraudulent charges, but because of the cumbersome nature of the procedures, merchants would often simply skip some or all of them and assume the risk for smaller transactions.
The fractured nature of the U.S. banking system under the Glass -- Steagall Act meant that credit cards became an effective way for those who were traveling around the country to move their credit to places where they could not directly use their banking facilities. There are now countless variations on the basic concept of revolving credit for individuals (as issued by banks and honored by a network of financial institutions), including organization - branded credit cards, corporate - user credit cards, store cards and so on.
In 1966, Barclaycard in the United Kingdom launched the first credit card outside the United States.
Although credit cards reached very high adoption levels in the US, Canada and the UK during the latter 20th century, many cultures were more cash - oriented or developed alternative forms of cashless payments, such as Carte bleue or the Eurocard (Germany, France, Switzerland, and others). In these places, adoption of credit cards was initially much slower. Due to strict regulations regarding bank overdrafts, some countries, France in particular, were much quicker to develop and adopt chip - based credit cards which are seen as major anti-fraud credit devices. Debit cards and online banking (using either ATMs or PCs) are used more widely than credit cards in some countries. It took until the 1990s to reach anything like the percentage market penetration levels achieved in the US, Canada, and UK. In some countries, acceptance still remains low as the use of a credit card system depends on the banking system of each country; while in others, a country sometimes had to develop its own credit card network, e.g. UK 's Barclaycard and Australia 's Bankcard. Japan remains a very cash - oriented society, with credit card adoption being limited mainly to the largest of merchants; although stored value cards (such as telephone cards) are used as alternative currencies, the trend is toward RFID - based systems inside cards, cellphones, and other objects.
The design of the credit card itself has become a major selling point in recent years. The value of the card to the issuer is often related to the customer 's usage of the card, or to the customer 's financial worth. This has led to the rise of Co-Brand and Affinity cards, where the card design is related to the "affinity '' (a university or professional society, for example) leading to higher card usage. In most cases a percentage of the value of the card is returned to the affinity group.
A growing field of numismatics (study of money), or more specifically exonumia (study of money - like objects), credit card collectors seek to collect various embodiments of credit from the now familiar plastic cards to older paper merchant cards, and even metal tokens that were accepted as merchant credit cards. Early credit cards were made of celluloid plastic, then metal and fiber, then paper, and are now mostly polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic. However the chip part of credit cards is not made from plastic but from metals.
A credit card issuing company, such as a bank or credit union, enters into agreements with merchants for them to accept their credit cards. Merchants often advertise which cards they accept by displaying acceptance marks -- generally derived from logos -- or this may be communicated in signage in the establishment or in company material (e.g., a restaurant 's menu may indicate which credit cards are accepted). Merchants may also communicate this orally, as in "We take (brands X, Y, and Z) '' or "We do n't take credit cards ''.
The credit card issuer issues a credit card to a customer at the time or after an account has been approved by the credit provider, which need not be the same entity as the card issuer. The cardholders can then use it to make purchases at merchants accepting that card. When a purchase is made, the cardholder agrees to pay the card issuer. The cardholder indicates consent to pay by signing a receipt with a record of the card details and indicating the amount to be paid or by entering a personal identification number (PIN). Also, many merchants now accept verbal authorizations via telephone and electronic authorization using the Internet, known as a card not present transaction (CNP).
Electronic verification systems allow merchants to verify in a few seconds that the card is valid and the cardholder has sufficient credit to cover the purchase, allowing the verification to happen at time of purchase. The verification is performed using a credit card payment terminal or point - of - sale (POS) system with a communications link to the merchant 's acquiring bank. Data from the card is obtained from a magnetic stripe or chip on the card; the latter system is called Chip and PIN in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and is implemented as an EMV card.
For card not present transactions where the card is not shown (e.g., e-commerce, mail order, and telephone sales), merchants additionally verify that the customer is in physical possession of the card and is the authorized user by asking for additional information such as the security code printed on the back of the card, date of expiry, and billing address.
Each month, the cardholder is sent a statement indicating the purchases made with the card, any outstanding fees, and the total amount owed. In the US, after receiving the statement, the cardholder may dispute any charges that he or she thinks are incorrect (see 15 U.S.C. § 1643, which limits cardholder liability for unauthorized use of a credit card to $50). The Fair Credit Billing Act gives details of the US regulations. The cardholder must pay a defined minimum portion of the amount owed by a due date, or may choose to pay a higher amount. The credit issuer charges interest on the unpaid balance if the billed amount is not paid in full (typically at a much higher rate than most other forms of debt). In addition, if the cardholder fails to make at least the minimum payment by the due date, the issuer may impose a late fee or other penalties. To help mitigate this, some financial institutions can arrange for automatic payments to be deducted from the cardholder 's bank account, thus avoiding such penalties altogether, as long as the cardholder has sufficient funds.
Many banks now also offer the option of electronic statements, either in lieu of or in addition to physical statements, which can be viewed at any time by the cardholder via the issuer 's online banking website. Notification of the availability of a new statement is generally sent to the cardholder 's email address. If the card issuer has chosen to allow it, the cardholder may have other options for payment besides a physical check, such as an electronic transfer of funds from a checking account. Depending on the issuer, the cardholder may also be able to make multiple payments during a single statement period, possibly enabling him or her to utilize the credit limit on the card several times.
Credit card advertising regulations in the US include the Schumer box disclosure requirements. A large fraction of junk mail consists of credit card offers created from lists provided by the major credit reporting agencies. In the United States, the three major US credit bureaus (Equifax, TransUnion and Experian) allow consumers to opt out from related credit card solicitation offers via its Opt Out Pre Screen program.
Credit card issuers usually waive interest charges if the balance is paid in full each month, but typically will charge full interest on the entire outstanding balance from the date of each purchase if the total balance is not paid.
For example, if a user had a $1,000 transaction and repaid it in full within this grace period, there would be no interest charged. If, however, even $1.00 of the total amount remained unpaid, interest would be charged on the $1,000 from the date of purchase until the payment is received. The precise manner in which interest is charged is usually detailed in a cardholder agreement which may be summarized on the back of the monthly statement. The general calculation formula most financial institutions use to determine the amount of interest to be charged is (APR / 100 x ADB) / 365 x number of days revolved. Take the annual percentage rate (APR) and divide by 100 then multiply to the amount of the average daily balance (ADB). Divide the result by 365 and then take this total and multiply by the total number of days the amount revolved before payment was made on the account. Financial institutions refer to interest charged back to the original time of the transaction and up to the time a payment was made, if not in full, as a residual retail finance charge (RRFC). Thus after an amount has revolved and a payment has been made, the user of the card will still receive interest charges on their statement after paying the next statement in full (in fact the statement may only have a charge for interest that collected up until the date the full balance was paid, i.e. when the balance stopped revolving).
The credit card may simply serve as a form of revolving credit, or it may become a complicated financial instrument with multiple balance segments each at a different interest rate, possibly with a single umbrella credit limit, or with separate credit limits applicable to the various balance segments. Usually this compartmentalization is the result of special incentive offers from the issuing bank, to encourage balance transfers from cards of other issuers. In the event that several interest rates apply to various balance segments, payment allocation is generally at the discretion of the issuing bank, and payments will therefore usually be allocated towards the lowest rate balances until paid in full before any money is paid towards higher rate balances. Interest rates can vary considerably from card to card, and the interest rate on a particular card may jump dramatically if the card user is late with a payment on that card or any other credit instrument, or even if the issuing bank decides to raise its revenue.
A credit card 's grace period is the time the cardholder has to pay the balance before interest is assessed on the outstanding balance. Grace periods may vary, but usually range from 20 to 55 days depending on the type of credit card and the issuing bank. Some policies allow for reinstatement after certain conditions are met.
Usually, if a cardholder is late paying the balance, finance charges will be calculated and the grace period does not apply. Finance charges incurred depend on the grace period and balance; with most credit cards there is no grace period if there is any outstanding balance from the previous billing cycle or statement (i.e. interest is applied on both the previous balance and new transactions). However, there are some credit cards that will only apply finance charge on the previous or old balance, excluding new transactions.
The flow of information and money between these parties -- always through the card associations -- is known as the interchange, and it consists of a few steps.
A credit card register is a transaction register used to ensure the increasing balance owed from using a credit card is enough below the credit limit to deal with authorization holds and payments not yet received by the bank and to easily look up past transactions for reconciliation and budgeting.
The register is a personal record of banking transactions used for credit card purchases as they affect funds in the bank account or the available credit. In addition to check number and so forth the code column indicates the credit card. The balance column shows available funds after purchases. When the credit card payment is made the balance already reflects the funds were spent. In a credit card 's entry, the deposit column shows the available credit and the payment column shows total owed, their sum being equal to the credit limit.
Each check written, debit card transaction, cash withdrawal, and credit card charge is entered manually into the paper register daily or several times per week. Credit card register also refers to one transaction record for each credit card. In this case the booklets readily enable the location of a card 's current available credit when ten or more cards are in use.
As well as convenient credit, credit cards offer consumers an easy way to track expenses, which is necessary for both monitoring personal expenditures and the tracking of work - related expenses for taxation and reimbursement purposes. Credit cards are accepted in larger establishments in almost all countries, and are available with a variety of credit limits, repayment arrangements. Some have added perks (such as insurance protection, rewards schemes in which points earned by purchasing goods with the card can be redeemed for further goods and services or cashback).
Some countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, limit the amount for which a consumer can be held liable in the event of fraudulent transactions with a lost or stolen credit card.
Business credit cards are specialized credit cards issued in the name of a registered business, and typically they can only be used for business purposes. Their use has grown in recent decades. In 1998, for instance, 37 % of small businesses reported using a business credit card; by 2009, this number had grown to 64 %.
Business credit cards offer a number of features specific to businesses. They frequently offer special rewards in areas such as shipping, office supplies, travel, and business technology. Most issuers use the applicant 's personal credit score when evaluating these applications. In addition, income from a variety of sources may be used to qualify, which means these cards may be available to businesses that are newly established. In addition, most major issuers of these cards do not report account activity to the owner 's personal credit unless there is a default. This may have the effect of protecting the owner 's personal credit from the activity of the business.
Business credit cards are offered by almost all major card issuers -- like American Express, Visa, and MasterCard in addition to local banks and credit unions. Charge cards for businesses, however, are currently only offered by American Express.
A secured credit card is a type of credit card secured by a deposit account owned by the cardholder. Typically, the cardholder must deposit between 100 % and 200 % of the total amount of credit desired. Thus if the cardholder puts down $1,000, they will be given credit in the range of $500 -- 1,000. In some cases, credit card issuers will offer incentives even on their secured card portfolios. In these cases, the deposit required may be significantly less than the required credit limit, and can be as low as 10 % of the desired credit limit. This deposit is held in a special savings account. Credit card issuers offer this because they have noticed that delinquencies were notably reduced when the customer perceives something to lose if the balance is not repaid.
The cardholder of a secured credit card is still expected to make regular payments, as with a regular credit card, but should they default on a payment, the card issuer has the option of recovering the cost of the purchases paid to the merchants out of the deposit. The advantage of the secured card for an individual with negative or no credit history is that most companies report regularly to the major credit bureaus. This allows building a positive credit history.
Although the deposit is in the hands of the credit card issuer as security in the event of default by the consumer, the deposit will not be debited simply for missing one or two payments. Usually the deposit is only used as an offset when the account is closed, either at the request of the customer or due to severe delinquency (150 to 180 days). This means that an account which is less than 150 days delinquent will continue to accrue interest and fees, and could result in a balance which is much higher than the actual credit limit on the card. In these cases the total debt may far exceed the original deposit and the cardholder not only forfeits their deposit but is left with an additional debt.
Most of these conditions are usually described in a cardholder agreement which the cardholder signs when their account is opened.
Secured credit cards are an option to allow a person with a poor credit history or no credit history to have a credit card which might not otherwise be available. They are often offered as a means of rebuilding one 's credit. Fees and service charges for secured credit cards often exceed those charged for ordinary non-secured credit cards. For people in certain situations, (for example, after charging off on other credit cards, or people with a long history of delinquency on various forms of debt), secured cards are almost always more expensive than unsecured credit cards.
Sometimes a credit card will be secured by the equity in the borrower 's home.
A "prepaid credit card '' is not a true credit card, since no credit is offered by the card issuer: the cardholder spends money which has been "stored '' via a prior deposit by the cardholder or someone else, such as a parent or employer. However, it carries a credit - card brand (such as Discover, Visa, MasterCard, American Express, or JCB) and can be used in similar ways just as though it were a credit card. Unlike debit cards, prepaid credit cards generally do not require a PIN. An exception are prepaid credit cards with an EMV chip. These cards do require a PIN if the payment is processed via Chip and PIN technology.
After purchasing the card, the cardholder loads the account with any amount of money, up to the predetermined card limit and then uses the card to make purchases the same way as a typical credit card. Prepaid cards can be issued to minors (above 13) since there is no credit line involved. The main advantage over secured credit cards (see above section) is that the cardholder is not required to come up with $500 or more to open an account. With prepaid credit cards purchasers are not charged any interest but are often charged a purchasing fee plus monthly fees after an arbitrary time period. Many other fees also usually apply to a prepaid card.
Prepaid credit cards are sometimes marketed to teenagers for shopping online without having their parents complete the transaction. Teenagers can only use funds that are available on the card which helps promote financial management to reduce the risk of debt problems later in life.
Prepaid cards can be used globally. The prepaid card is convenient for payees in developing countries like Brazil, Russia, India, and China, where international wire transfers and bank checks are time consuming, complicated and costly.
Because of the many fees that apply to obtaining and using credit - card - branded prepaid cards, the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada describes them as "an expensive way to spend your own money ''. The agency publishes a booklet entitled Pre-paid Cards which explains the advantages and disadvantages of this type of prepaid card.
A digital card is a digital cloud - hosted virtual representation of any kind of identification card or payment card, such as a credit card.
The main benefit to the cardholder is convenience. Compared to debit cards and checks, a credit card allows small short - term loans to be quickly made to a cardholder who need not calculate a balance remaining before every transaction, provided the total charges do not exceed the maximum credit line for the card.
Different countries offer different levels of protection. In the UK, for example, the bank is jointly liable with the merchant for purchases of defective products over £ 100.
Many credit cards offer rewards and benefits packages, such as enhanced product warranties at no cost, free loss / damage coverage on new purchases, various insurance protections, for example, rental car insurance, common carrier accident protection, and travel medical insurance.
Credit cards can also offer a loyalty program, where each purchase is rewarded with points, which may be redeemed for cash or products. Research has examined whether competition among card networks may potentially make payment rewards too generous, causing higher prices among merchants, thus actually impacting social welfare and its distribution, a situation potentially warranting public policy interventions.
Currently, there are credit cards with 0 % intro APR on Balance Transfers and no late fees.
The table below contains a list of benefits offered in the United States for consumer credit cards. Benefits may vary in other countries or business credit cards.
Low introductory credit card rates are limited to a fixed term, usually between 6 and 12 months, after which a higher rate is charged. As all credit cards charge fees and interest, some customers become so indebted to their credit card provider that they are driven to bankruptcy. Some credit cards often levy a rate of 20 to 30 percent after a payment is missed. In other cases, a fixed charge is levied without change to the interest rate. In some cases universal default may apply: the high default rate is applied to a card in good standing by missing a payment on an unrelated account from the same provider. This can lead to a snowball effect in which the consumer is drowned by unexpectedly high interest rates. Further, most card holder agreements enable the issuer to arbitrarily raise the interest rate for any reason they see fit. First Premier Bank at one point offered a credit card with a 79.9 % interest rate; however, they discontinued this card in February 2011 because of persistent defaults.
Complex fee structures in the credit card industry limit customers ' ability to comparison shop, help ensure that the industry is not price - competitive and help maximize industry profits.
Research shows that a substantial fraction of consumers (about 40 percent) choose a sub-optimal credit card agreement, with some incurring hundreds of dollars of avoidable interest costs.
Several studies have shown that consumers are likely to spend more money when they pay by credit card. Researchers suggest that when people pay using credit cards, they do not experience the abstract pain of payment. Furthermore, researchers have found that using credit cards can increase consumption of unhealthy food.
Merchants that accept credit cards must pay interchange fees and discount fees on all credit - card transactions. In some cases merchants are barred by their credit agreements from passing these fees directly to credit card customers, or from setting a minimum transaction amount (no longer prohibited in the United States, United Kingdom or Australia). The result is that merchants are induced to charge all customers (including those who do not use credit cards) higher prices to cover the fees on credit card transactions. The inducement can be strong because the merchant 's fee is a percentage of the sale price, which has a disproportionate effect on the profitability of businesses that have predominantly credit card transactions, unless compensated for by raising prices generally. In the United States in 2008 credit card companies collected a total of $48 billion in interchange fees, or an average of $427 per family, with an average fee rate of about 2 % per transaction.
For merchants, a credit card transaction is often more secure than other forms of payment, such as cheques, because the issuing bank commits to pay the merchant the moment the transaction is authorized, regardless of whether the consumer defaults on the credit card payment (except for legitimate disputes, which are discussed below, and can result in charges back to the merchant). In most cases, cards are even more secure than cash, because they discourage theft by the merchant 's employees and reduce the amount of cash on the premises. Finally, credit cards reduce the back office expense of processing checks / cash and transporting them to the bank.
Prior to credit cards, each merchant had to evaluate each customer 's credit history before extending credit. That task is now performed by the banks which assume the credit risk. Credit cards can also aid in securing a sale especially if the customer does not have enough cash on hand or in a checking account. Extra turnover is generated by the fact that the customer can purchase goods and services immediately and is less inhibited by the amount of cash in pocket and the immediate state of the customer 's bank balance. Much of merchants ' marketing is based on this immediacy.
For each purchase, the bank charges the merchant a commission (discount fee) for this service and there may be a certain delay before the agreed payment is received by the merchant. The commission is often a percentage of the transaction amount, plus a fixed fee (interchange rate).
Merchants are charged several fees for accepting credit cards. The merchant is usually charged a commission of around 1 to 4 percent of the value of each transaction paid for by credit card. The merchant may also pay a variable charge, called a merchant discount rate, for each transaction. In some instances of very low - value transactions, use of credit cards will significantly reduce the profit margin or cause the merchant to lose money on the transaction. Merchants with very low average transaction prices or very high average transaction prices are more averse to accepting credit cards. In some cases merchants may charge users a "credit card supplement '' (or surcharge), either a fixed amount or a percentage, for payment by credit card. This practice was prohibited by most credit card contracts in the United States until 2013, when a major settlement between merchants and credit card companies allowed merchants to levy surcharges. Most retailers have not started using credit card surcharges, however, for fear of losing customers.
Merchants in the United States have been fighting what they consider to be unfairly high fees charged by credit card companies in a series of lawsuits that started in 2005. Merchants charged that the two main credit card processing companies, MasterCard and Visa, used their monopoly power to levy excessive fees in a class - action lawsuit involving the National Retail Federation and major retailers such as Wal - Mart. In December 2013, a federal judge approved a $5.7 billion settlement in the case that offered payouts to merchants who had paid credit card fees, the largest antitrust settlement in U.S. history. Some large retailers, such as Wal - Mart and Amazon, chose to not participate in this settlement, however, and have continued their legal fight against the credit card companies.
Merchants are also required to lease or purchase processing equipment, in some cases this equipment is provided free of charge by the processor. Merchants must also satisfy data security compliance standards which are highly technical and complicated. In many cases, there is a delay of several days before funds are deposited into a merchant 's bank account. Because credit card fee structures are very complicated, smaller merchants are at a disadvantage to analyze and predict fees.
Finally, merchants assume the risk of chargebacks by consumers.
Credit card security relies on the physical security of the plastic card as well as the privacy of the credit card number. Therefore, whenever a person other than the card owner has access to the card or its number, security is potentially compromised. Once, merchants would often accept credit card numbers without additional verification for mail order purchases. It 's now common practice to only ship to confirmed addresses as a security measure to minimise fraudulent purchases. Some merchants will accept a credit card number for in - store purchases, whereupon access to the number allows easy fraud, but many require the card itself to be present, and require a signature. A lost or stolen card can be cancelled, and if this is done quickly, will greatly limit the fraud that can take place in this way. European banks can require a cardholder 's security PIN be entered for in - person purchases with the card.
The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) is the security standard issued by the Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council (PCI SSC). This data security standard is used by acquiring banks to impose cardholder data security measures upon their merchants.
The goal of the credit card companies is not to eliminate fraud, but to "reduce it to manageable levels ''. This implies that fraud prevention measures will be used only if their cost are lower than the potential gains from fraud reduction, whereas high - cost low - return measures will not be used -- as would be expected from organizations whose goal is profit maximisation.
Internet fraud may be by claiming a chargeback which is not justified ("friendly fraud ''), or carried out by the use of credit card information which can be stolen in many ways, the simplest being copying information from retailers, either online or offline. Despite efforts to improve security for remote purchases using credit cards, security breaches are usually the result of poor practice by merchants. For example, a website that safely uses SSL to encrypt card data from a client may then email the data, unencrypted, from the webserver to the merchant; or the merchant may store unencrypted details in a way that allows them to be accessed over the Internet or by a rogue employee; unencrypted card details are always a security risk. Even encrypted data may be cracked.
Controlled payment numbers (also known as virtual credit cards or disposable credit cards) are another option for protecting against credit card fraud where presentation of a physical card is not required, as in telephone and online purchasing. These are one - time use numbers that function as a payment card and are linked to the user 's real account, but do not reveal details, and can not be used for subsequent unauthorised transactions. They can be valid for a relatively short time, and limited to the actual amount of the purchase or a limit set by the user. Their use can be limited to one merchant. If the number given to the merchant is compromised, it will be rejected if an attempt is made to use it a second time.
A similar system of controls can be used on physical cards. Technology provides the option for banks to support many other controls too that can be turned on and off and varied by the credit card owner in real time as circumstances change (i.e., they can change temporal, numerical, geographical and many other parameters on their primary and subsidiary cards). Apart from the obvious benefits of such controls: from a security perspective this means that a customer can have a Chip and PIN card secured for the real world, and limited for use in the home country. In this eventuality a thief stealing the details will be prevented from using these overseas in non chip and pin EMV countries. Similarly the real card can be restricted from use on - line so that stolen details will be declined if this tried. Then when card users shop online they can use virtual account numbers. In both circumstances an alert system can be built in notifying a user that a fraudulent attempt has been made which breaches their parameters, and can provide data on this in real time.
Additionally, there are security features present on the physical card itself in order to prevent counterfeiting. For example, most modern credit cards have a watermark that will fluoresce under ultraviolet light. Most major credit cards have a hologram. A Visa card has a letter V superimposed over the regular Visa logo and a MasterCard has the letters MC across the front of the card. Older Visa cards have a bald eagle or dove across the front. In the aforementioned cases, the security features are only visible under ultraviolet light and are invisible in normal light.
The United States Secret Service, Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and U.S. Postal Inspection Service are responsible for prosecuting criminals who engage in credit card fraud in the United States. However, they do not have the resources to pursue all criminals, and in general they only prosecute cases exceeding $5,000.
Three improvements to card security have been introduced to the more common credit card networks, but none has proven to help reduce credit card fraud so far. First, the cards themselves are being replaced with similar - looking tamper - resistant smart cards which are intended to make forgery more difficult. The majority of smart card (IC card) based credit cards comply with the EMV (Europay MasterCard Visa) standard. Second, an additional 3 or 4 digit card security code (CSC) is now present on the back of most cards, for use in card not present transactions. Stakeholders at all levels in electronic payment have recognized the need to develop consistent global standards for security that account for and integrate both current and emerging security technologies. They have begun to address these needs through organisations such as PCI DSS and the Secure POS Vendor Alliance.
Code 10 calls are made when merchants are suspicious about accepting a credit card.
The operator then asks the merchant a series of YES or NO questions to find out whether the merchant is suspicious of the card or the cardholder. The merchant may be asked to retain the card if it is safe to do so. The merchant may receive a reward for returning a confiscated card to the issuing bank, especially if an arrest is made.
Credit card issuers (banks) have several types of costs:
Banks generally borrow the money they then lend to their customers. As they receive very low - interest loans from other firms, they may borrow as much as their customers require, while lending their capital to other borrowers at higher rates. If the card issuer charges 15 % on money lent to users, and it costs 5 % to borrow the money to lend, and the balance sits with the cardholder for a year, the issuer earns 10 % on the loan. This 10 % difference is the "net interest spread '' and the 5 % is the "interest expense ''.
This is the cost of running the credit card portfolio, including everything from paying the executives who run the company to printing the plastics, to mailing the statements, to running the computers that keep track of every cardholder 's balance, to taking the many phone calls which cardholders place to their issuer, to protecting the customers from fraud rings. Depending on the issuer, marketing programs are also a significant portion of expenses.
When a cardholder becomes severely delinquent on a debt (often at the point of six months without payment), the creditor may declare the debt to be a charge - off. It will then be listed as such on the debtor 's credit bureau reports. (Equifax, for instance, lists "R9 '' in the "status '' column to denote a charge - off.)
A charge - off is considered to be "written off as uncollectable ''. To banks, bad debts and fraud are part of the cost of doing business.
However, the debt is still legally valid, and the creditor can attempt to collect the full amount for the time periods permitted under state law, which is usually three to seven years. This includes contacts from internal collections staff, or more likely, an outside collection agency. If the amount is large (generally over $1,500 -- 2,000), there is the possibility of a lawsuit or arbitration.
Many credit card customers receive rewards, such as frequent flyer points, gift certificates, or cash back as an incentive to use the card. Rewards are generally tied to purchasing an item or service on the card, which may or may not include balance transfers, cash advances, or other special uses. Depending on the type of card, rewards will generally cost the issuer between 0.25 % and 2.0 % of the spread. Networks such as Visa or MasterCard have increased their fees to allow issuers to fund their rewards system. Some issuers discourage redemption by forcing the cardholder to call customer service for rewards. On their servicing website, redeeming awards is usually a feature that is very well hidden by the issuers. With a fractured and competitive environment, rewards points cut dramatically into an issuer 's bottom line, and rewards points and related incentives must be carefully managed to ensure a profitable portfolio. Unlike unused gift cards, in whose case the breakage in certain US states goes to the state 's treasury, unredeemed credit card points are retained by the issuer.
In relative numbers the values lost in bank card fraud are minor, calculated in 2006 at 7 cents per 100 dollars worth of transactions (7 basis points). In 2004, in the UK, the cost of fraud was over £ 500 million. When a card is stolen, or an unauthorized duplicate made, most card issuers will refund some or all of the charges that the customer has received for things they did not buy. These refunds will, in some cases, be at the expense of the merchant, especially in mail order cases where the merchant can not claim sight of the card. In several countries, merchants will lose the money if no ID card was asked for, therefore merchants usually require ID card in these countries. Credit card companies generally guarantee the merchant will be paid on legitimate transactions regardless of whether the consumer pays their credit card bill. Most banking services have their own credit card services that handle fraud cases and monitor for any possible attempt at fraud. Employees that are specialized in doing fraud monitoring and investigation are often placed in Risk Management, Fraud and Authorization, or Cards and Unsecured Business. Fraud monitoring emphasizes minimizing fraud losses while making an attempt to track down those responsible and contain the situation. Credit card fraud is a major white collar crime that has been around for many decades, even with the advent of the chip based card (EMV) that was put into practice in some countries to prevent cases such as these. Even with the implementation of such measures, credit card fraud continues to be a problem.
Offsetting the costs are the following revenues:
In addition to fees paid by the card holder, merchants must also pay interchange fees to the card - issuing bank and the card association. For a typical credit card issuer, interchange fee revenues may represent about a quarter of total revenues.
These fees are typically from 1 to 6 percent of each sale, but will vary not only from merchant to merchant (large merchants can negotiate lower rates), but also from card to card, with business cards and rewards cards generally costing the merchants more to process. The interchange fee that applies to a particular transaction is also affected by many other variables including: the type of merchant, the merchant 's total card sales volume, the merchant 's average transaction amount, whether the cards were physically present, how the information required for the transaction was received, the specific type of card, when the transaction was settled, and the authorized and settled transaction amounts. In some cases, merchants add a surcharge to the credit cards to cover the interchange fee, encouraging their customers to instead use cash, debit cards, or even cheques.
Interest charges vary widely from card issuer to card issuer. Often, there are "teaser '' rates in effect for initial periods of time (as low as zero percent for, say, six months), whereas regular rates can be as high as 40 percent. In the U.S. there is no federal limit on the interest or late fees credit card issuers can charge; the interest rates are set by the states, with some states such as South Dakota, having no ceiling on interest rates and fees, inviting some banks to establish their credit card operations there. Other states, for example Delaware, have very weak usury laws. The teaser rate no longer applies if the customer does not pay their bills on time, and is replaced by a penalty interest rate (for example, 23.99 %) that applies retroactively.
The major fees are for:
In the U.S., the Credit CARD Act of 2009 specifies that credit card companies must send cardholders a notice 45 days before they can increase or change certain fees. This includes annual fees, cash advance fees, and late fees.
Consumers who keep their account in good order by always staying within their credit limit, and always making at least the minimum monthly payment will see interest as the biggest expense from their card provider. Those who are not so careful and regularly surpass their credit limit or are late in making payments are exposed to multiple charges that were typically as high as £ 25 -- 35 until a ruling from the Office of Fair Trading that they would presume charges over £ 12 to be unfair which led the majority of card providers to reduce their fees to £ 12.
The Credit CARD Act of 2009 requires that consumers opt into over-limit charges. Some card issuers have therefore commenced solicitations requesting customers to opt into overlimit fees, presenting this as a benefit as it may avoid the possibility of a future transaction being declined. Other issuers have simply discontinued the practice of charging overlimit fees. Whether a customer opts into the overlimit fee or not, banks will in practice have discretion as to whether they choose to authorize transactions above the credit limit or not. Of course, any approved over limit transactions will only result in an overlimit fee for those customers who have opted into the fee. This legislation took effect on 22 February 2010. Following this Act, the companies are now required by law to show on a customer 's bills how long it would take them to pay off the balance.
The higher fees originally charged were claimed to be designed to recoup the card operator 's overall business costs and to try to ensure that the credit card business as a whole generated a profit, rather than simply recovering the cost to the provider of the limit breach, which has been estimated as typically between £ 3 -- £ 4. Profiting from a customer 's mistakes is arguably not permitted under UK common law, if the charges constitute penalties for breach of contract, or under the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999.
Subsequent rulings in respect of personal current accounts suggest that the argument that these charges are penalties for breach of contract is weak, and given the Office of Fair Trading 's ruling it seems unlikely that any further test case will take place.
Whilst the law remains in the balance, many consumers have made claims against their credit card providers for the charges that they have incurred, plus interest that they would have earned had the money not been deducted from their account. It is likely that claims for amounts charged in excess of £ 12 will succeed, but claims for charges at the OFT 's £ 12 threshold level are more contentious.
The Government of Canada maintains a database of the fees, features, interest rates and reward programs of nearly 200 credit cards available in Canada. This database is updated on a quarterly basis with information supplied by the credit card issuing companies. Information in the database is published every quarter on the website of the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC).
Information in the database is published in two formats. It is available in PDF comparison tables that break down the information according to type of credit card, allowing the reader to compare the features of, for example, all the student credit cards in the database.
The database also feeds into an interactive tool on the FCAC website. The interactive tool uses several interview - type questions to build a profile of the user 's credit card usage habits and needs, eliminating unsuitable choices based on the profile, so that the user is presented with a small number of credit cards and the ability to carry out detailed comparisons of features, reward programs, interest rates, etc.
Credit card debt has increased steadily. Since the late 1990s, lawmakers, consumer advocacy groups, college officials and other higher education affiliates have become increasingly concerned about the rising use of credit cards among college students. The major credit card companies have been accused of targeting a younger audience, especially college students, many of whom are already in debt with college tuition fees and college loans and who typically are less experienced at managing their own finances. Credit card debt may also negatively affect their grades as they are likely to work more both part and full - time positions.
Another controversial area is the universal default feature of many North American credit card contracts. When a cardholder is late paying a particular credit card issuer, that card 's interest rate can be raised, often considerably. With universal default, a customer 's other credit cards, for which the customer may be current on payments, may also have their rates and credit limit changed. The universal default feature allows creditors to periodically check cardholders ' credit portfolios to view trade, allowing these other institutions to decrease the credit limit or increase rates on cardholders who may be late with another credit card issuer. Being late on one credit card will potentially affect all the cardholder 's credit cards. Citibank voluntarily stopped this practice in March 2007 and Chase stopped the practice in November 2007.
The fact that credit card companies can change the interest rate on debts that were incurred when a different rate of interest was in place is similar to adjustable rate mortgages where interest rates on current debt may rise. However, in both cases, this is agreed to in advance, and is a trade off that allows a lower initial rate as well as the possibility of an even lower rate (mortgages, if interest rates fall) or perpetually keeping a below - market rate (credit cards, if the user makes their debt payments on time). The universal default practice was encouraged by federal regulators, particularly those at the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), as a means of managing the changing risk profiles of cardholders.
Another controversial area is the trailing interest issue. Trailing interest is the practice of charging interest on the entire bill no matter what percentage of it is paid. US Senator Carl Levin raised the issue of millions of Americans affected by hidden fees, compounding interest and cryptic terms. Their woes were heard in a Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations hearing which was chaired by Senator Levin, who said that he intends to keep the spotlight on credit card companies and that legislative action may be necessary to purge the industry. In 2009, the C.A.R.D. Act was signed into law, enacting protections for many of the issues Levin had raised.
In the United States, some have called for Congress to enact additional regulations on the industry to expand the disclosure box clearly disclosing rate hikes, use plain language, incorporate balance payoff disclosures, and also to outlaw universal default. At a congress hearing around 1 March 2007, Citibank announced it would no longer practice this, effective immediately. Opponents of such regulation argue that customers must become more proactive and self - responsible in evaluating and negotiating terms with credit providers. Some of the nation 's influential top credit card issuers, which are among the top fifty corporate contributors to political campaigns, successfully opposed it.
In the United Kingdom, merchants won the right through The Credit Cards (Price Discrimination) Order 1990 to charge customers different prices according to the payment method. As of 2007, the United Kingdom was one of the world 's most credit card - intensive countries, with 2.4 credit cards per consumer, according to the UK Payments Administration Ltd.
In the United States until 1984, federal law prohibited surcharges on card transactions. Although the federal Truth in Lending Act provisions that prohibited surcharges expired that year, a number of states have since enacted laws that continue to outlaw the practice; California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Kansas, Massachusetts, Maine, New York, Oklahoma, and Texas have laws against surcharges. As of 2006, the United States probably had one of the world 's highest if not the top ratio of credit cards per capita, with 984 million bank - issued Visa and MasterCard credit card and debit card accounts alone for an adult population of roughly 220 million people. The credit card per US capita ratio was nearly 4: 1 as of 2003 and as high as 5: 1 as of 2006.
Many credit cards can also be used in an ATM to withdraw money against the credit limit extended to the card, but many card issuers charge interest on cash advances before they do so on purchases. The interest on cash advances is commonly charged from the date the withdrawal is made, rather than the monthly billing date. Many card issuers levy a commission for cash withdrawals, even if the ATM belongs to the same bank as the card issuer. Merchants do not offer cashback on credit card transactions because they would pay a percentage commission of the additional cash amount to their bank or merchant services provider, thereby making it uneconomical. Discover is a notable exception to the above. A customer with a Discover card may get up to $120 cash back if the merchant allows it. This amount is simply added to the card holder 's cost of the transaction and no extra fees are charged as the transaction is not considered a cash advance.
Many credit card companies will also, when applying payments to a card, do so, for the matter at hand, at the end of a billing cycle, and apply those payments to everything before cash advances. For this reason, many consumers have large cash balances, which have no grace period and incur interest at a rate that is (usually) higher than the purchase rate, and will carry those balances for years, even if they pay off their statement balance each month.
Credit cards are a risky way for entrepreneurs to acquire capital for their start ups when more conventional financing is unavailable. Len Bosack and Sandy Lerner used personal credit cards to start Cisco Systems. Larry Page and Sergey Brin 's start up of Google was financed by credit cards to buy the necessary computers and office equipment, more specifically "a terabyte of hard disks ''. Similarly, filmmaker Robert Townsend financed part of Hollywood Shuffle using credit cards. Director Kevin Smith funded Clerks in part by maxing out several credit cards. Actor Richard Hatch also financed his production of Battlestar Galactica: The Second Coming partly through his credit cards. Famed hedge fund manager Bruce Kovner began his career (and, later on, his firm Caxton Associates) in financial markets by borrowing from his credit card. UK entrepreneur James Caan (as seen on Dragons ' Den) financed his first business using several credit cards.
Travellers from the U.S. had encountered problems abroad because many countries have introduced smart cards, but the U.S. had not. As of 2010, the U.S. banking system had not updated the cards and associated readers in the U.S., stating that the costs were prohibitive. As of 2015, the smart cards had been introduced and put into use in the United States. Other problems with credit cards have involved mis - sold policies on top of the products, such as the additional mis - sold policies which is still causing problems for clients in the UK.
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tom hanks son in that thing you do | That Thing You Do! - Wikipedia
That Thing You Do! is a 1996 American musical comedy - drama film written and directed by Tom Hanks in his directorial debut; he also co-stars in it. Set in the summer of 1964, the film tells the story of the rise and fall of a one - hit wonder pop band. The film also resulted in a musical hit with the song "That Thing You Do ''.
In 1964, in Erie, Pennsylvania, aspiring jazz drummer Guy Patterson (Tom Everett Scott) is asked by Jimmy Mattingly (Johnathon Schaech) and Lenny Haise (Steve Zahn) to sit in with their band at an annual talent show, after their regular drummer breaks his arm trying to jump over a parking meter. The band, which also includes bassist T.B. Player (Ethan Embry), adopts the name "The Oneders '' (pronounced "wonders '', but often mispronounced "oh - NEE - ders ''). At the talent show, Guy launches into a faster tempo than intended for Jimmy 's ballad, "That Thing You Do '', and the band wins the competition. The Oneders ' performance at the talent show earns them a paying gig at a local restaurant, where they begin to sell recordings of "That Thing You Do '' and are noticed by talent promoter Phil Horace (Chris Ellis), whom they hire as their manager.
Horace achieves radio airplay for the song and books the band at a rock & roll showcase concert in Pittsburgh, after which they are offered a contract by Play - Tone Records A&R representative Mr. White (Hanks). White changes the band 's name to "The Wonders '' as they join a Midwestern Play - Tone tour, taking along Jimmy 's girlfriend, Faye (Liv Tyler), as their official "costume mistress ''. During the tour, "That Thing You Do '' garners national radio airplay and becomes a bona - fide hit. As the band 's popularity soars, Jimmy grows frustrated that the group is not focused on creating more music, while the remainder of the band enjoys their time in the spotlight. All the while, Guy and Faye grow closer as friends. When the song enters the top ten on the Billboard charts, the band is taken off the tour and sent to Los Angeles.
Faye falls ill on the trip and is nursed by Guy. Jimmy is seemingly uninterested in her well - being, being preoccupied with trying to convince White to let the band record more of his original songs. After a publicity tour, the band is set to appear on The Hollywood Television Showcase, a nationally televised live variety show. They begin to show signs of discord. Jimmy continues to vent frustration at White over the band 's direction. T.B. (who was leaving to join the United States Marine Corps in a few weeks) goes to Disneyland with a group of Marines and never returns; he is replaced in the broadcast by a session bassist. During the performance, as the band is being visually introduced to the viewing audience, the caption "Careful girls, he 's engaged! '' appears under Jimmy 's name. Jimmy becomes upset with Faye in the dressing room afterward, and says that he has no intention of marrying her. Heartbroken and weary with his arrogant personality and lack of devotion, Faye terminates their relationship.
The next day at a scheduled recording session, Lenny is missing and Jimmy 's grievances with White reach a boiling point and he quits the band. Guy is sorry to see the end of the band. White confronts him, and declares the band a one - hit wonder, but commends Guy for his smarts and integrity. After an impromptu jam session with his idol, jazz pianist Del Paxton (Bill Cobbs), Guy returns to the band 's hotel, where he meets Faye and shares a long kiss with her. In an epilogue, it is revealed that Jimmy went back to Play - Tone and forms another band and has a successful career as an artist and producer, Lenny becomes a casino manager, and T.B. earns a Purple Heart for injuries suffered at Khe Sanh. Guy and Faye start a family in Washington, where Guy teaches jazz composition at a music conservatory that he and Faye open.
The movie features original music by Tom Hanks, Adam Schlesinger, Rick Elias, Scott Rogness, Mike Piccirillo, Gary Goetzman and Howard Shore. In the movie, The Wonders rise to brief stardom on the strength of "That Thing You Do '', a song written as a wistful ballad but which becomes an uptempo rocker during the band 's first performance at a talent show. Written and composed for the film by Adam Schlesinger, bassist for Fountains of Wayne and Ivy and released on the film 's soundtrack, the song became a genuine hit for The Wonders in 1996 (the song peaked at # 41 on the Billboard Hot 100, # 22 on the Adult Contemporary charts, # 18 on the Adult Top 40, and # 24 on the Top 40 Mainstream charts). The track was nominated for a 1996 Golden Globe Award as well as a 1996 Academy Award for Best Original Song. Mike Viola of The Candy Butchers provided the lead vocals for the Wonders.
In the film, the title song is referenced with "All My Only Dreams '' as the B - side. The actual 45 RPM single, released to record stores in North America, features "Dance With Me Tonight '' as its B - side. The song has since been recorded by The Knack and Bubblegum Lemonade. The Wonders are also seen playing the song "Little Wild One. '' This was written by the band Gigolo Aunts as a "faux - Beatles '' - style tune at the request of their record label to be submitted for consideration for inclusion in the film.
For the purpose of being able to convincingly perform The Wonders ' songs on - camera, Scott, Schaech, Zahn and Embry took several weeks of individual lessons, followed by daily practice as a group. Of the four, only Zahn and Embry had any prior experience of playing their assigned instruments. They eventually honed their performance to the point where extras on the set thought they were actually playing the songs, when in reality they were miming along to recordings by professional musicians.
The song that plays during the film 's opening credits, "Lovin ' You Lots and Lots, '' is credited to the fictitious Norm Wooster Singers and was actually written by Hanks. This song is a parody of Ray Conniff, Mitch Miller, and other practitioners of the "beautiful music '' or proto - Muzak formats that were a staple of adult radio during the early ' 60s such as on KPOL (AM) 1540 in Los Angeles. Hanks also composed Guy 's jazzy signature drum solo, "I Am Spartacus. ''
The ballad "My World Is Over '' by Diane Dane seems inspired by the compositions of Burt Bacharach and Hal David, and the vocal performance is strongly reminiscent of Jackie DeShannon.
The Wonders ' bassist (played by Ethan Embry) is unnamed in the film; his name, T.B. Player (literally, "The Bass Player ''), is revealed only in the end credits. This is a joke based on the perception that bass players are often unknown and unappreciated. Embry would later provide his own take on the character 's real name: "I just said my name was Tobias, because he 's such a Tobias. You just take the vowels out (and it 's T.B.) His nickname was Toby, but his mom calls him Tobias. And his last name actually was Player, because he was a player, dude! That carousel ride with the Chantrellines? Total player. ''
Some music was written for the film by Lee Hartney from The Smith Street Band but did n't make the final cut.
The tour and TV appearance are done in the authentic style of rock bands of the mid-1960s, including Go - Go girls, elaborate sharing of microphones, and formal clothing in various matching colors.
The character of fictional Pittsburgh disc jockey "Boss Vic Koss '' whose actual last name was "Kosslovich '' may be inspired by real - life Pittsburgh radio personality "Mad Mike Metro, '' who worked at WZUM in the 60s. His actual last name was "Metrovich.
The song "Voyage Around the Moon '' by the fictional band Saturn 5 closely resembles "Pipeline '' by The Chantays. The scene where The Wonders are miming the instrumental tune "Shrimp Shack '' during the filming of a beach party film titled Weekend at Party Pier is an overt reference to the scene in Pajama Party wherein The Nooney Rickett 4 play the instrumental song Beach Ball.
There were at least two real bands named the Wonders who made the record charts at various radio stations in the early ' 60s. One had a ballad titled "With These Hands '' (b / w "Please Do n't Cry ''; Bamboo 523) that was played by KCRG in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, in the fall of 1962.
The other Wonders had a regional hit record called "Say There '' (b / w "Marilyn ''; Colpix 699), released by Colpix Records in August 1963. Little is known about these Wonders, except that they were probably from Ohio or Pennsylvania; "Say There '' hit the Top 20 at WCOL in Columbus, Ohio, and made the Top 30 at KQV in Pittsburgh. (There is a scene in the film in which a disc jockey at WCOL is seen playing "That Thing You Do! '')
There are numerous references to The Beatles in the storyline:
The soundtrack album (released under the Play - Tone name in conjunction with Epic Records) was also a hit, peaking at # 21 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The CD artwork is a replica of the fictional Play - Tone label used in the movie, and the liner notes are done in a mockumentary style, as if the Wonders had been a real group and the events of the film had actually happened. Hanks later used the success of That Thing You Do! as a spring - board to launch the actual Playtone Records label, through which the soundtracks of all his subsequent films, and other films like Bring It On and television programs like The Sopranos were released as albums.
The film was well received by critics and currently holds a 93 % fresh rating at the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 56 reviews with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "A light, sweet, and thoroughly entertaining debut for director Tom Hanks, That Thing You Do! makes up in charm what it lacks in complexity ''. The film debuted at No. 3. It was moderately successful at the box office, grossing $25,857,416 domestically and $8,728,000 abroad for a worldwide gross of $34,585,416.
The film is recognized by the American Film Institute in this list:
That Thing You Do! was first released in mid-1997 on VHS. In 1998, the film became available in the DIVX format (as with all 20th Century Fox films), rather than DVD.
After DIVX failed, the film was released onto DVD on June 5, 2001. It included the featurette "The Making of That Thing You Do!, '' and two music videos.
On May 8, 2007, Tom Hanks ' Extended Edition was released on DVD. The film 's theatrical cut and an extended cut with 39 additional minutes of deleted scenes are included.
Many of the deleted scenes are devoted to character development. A tastefully steamy look at Guy 's "make - out '' session with Tina at his apartment is included. The extended version also goes more in - depth with Guy 's developing relationship with Faye (via mild flirting) and his deteriorating relationship with Tina, as well as Tina 's budding relationship with her dentist, Dr. Collins. It also suggests that the character portrayed by Tom Hanks (Mr. White) is not only gay but in a relationship with a man played by former NFL defensive lineman Howie Long.
More camera time is also devoted to the romance between the bass player and one of the singers of the Chantrellines. In the theatrical cut, this romance was depicted mainly as an unrequited crush on the part of the bass player; in the extended cut it is clearly shown that his efforts were successful.
At the end of the Extended Edition, rather than becoming a studio drummer on the recommendation of Del Paxton, Guy becomes a disc jockey for the jazz station KJZZ and records a documentary series of interviews with legendary jazz musicians.
That Thing You Do! was packaged with Bachelor Party and The Man with One Red Shoe in the Tom Hanks Triple Feature DVD anthology set. The actual DVD appears to be the original 2001 disc, with the featurette and music videos.
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray on April 2, 2013. The Blu - ray includes the Theatrical and Extended cuts as well as all of the bonus features found on the 2 - Disc DVD.
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when was the john hancock building in chicago built | John Hancock Center - wikipedia
The John Hancock Center is a 100 - story, 1,128 - foot (343.7 m) supertall skyscraper at 875 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Illinois, United States. It was constructed under the supervision of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, with chief designer Bruce Graham and structural engineer Fazlur Khan. When the building topped out on May 6, 1968, it was the second tallest building in the world and the tallest outside New York City. It is currently the fourth - tallest building in Chicago and the eighth - tallest in the United States, after One World Trade Center, the Willis Tower, 432 Park Avenue, the Trump Tower Chicago, the Empire State Building, the Bank of America Tower, and the Aon Center. When measured to the top of its antenna masts, it stands at 1,500 feet (457 m). The building is home to offices and restaurants, as well as about 700 condominiums, and contains the third highest residence in the world, after the Burj Khalifa in Dubai and the Trump Tower in Chicago. The building was named for John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company, a developer and original tenant of the building.
From the 95th floor restaurant, diners can look out at Chicago and Lake Michigan. The Observatory (360 Chicago), which competes with the Willis Tower 's Skydeck, has a 360 ° view of the city, up to four states, and a distance of over 80 miles (130 km). The Observatory has Chicago 's only open - air SkyWalk and also features a free multimedia tour in six languages. The 44th - floor sky lobby features America 's highest indoor swimming pool.
The project, which would at that time become the world 's second tallest building, was originally conceived of and owned by Jerry Wolman in late 1964, the project being financed by John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Co. Construction of the tower was interrupted in 1967 due to a flaw in an innovative engineering method used to pour concrete in stages that was discovered when the building was 20 stories high. The engineers were getting the same soil settlements for the 20 stories that had been built as what they had expected for the entire 99 stories. This forced the owner to stop development until the engineering problem could be resolved, and resulted in a credit crunch. This situation is similar to the one faced during the construction of 111 West Wacker, then known as the Waterview Tower. Wolman 's bankruptcy resulted in John Hancock taking over the project, which retained the original design, architect, engineer, and main contractor.
The building 's first resident was Ray Heckla, the original building engineer, responsible for the residential floors from 44 to 92. Heckla moved his family in April 1969, before the building was completed.
On November 11, 1981, Veterans Day, high - rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin, for the purpose of calling attention to the inability to rescue people trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers, successfully climbed the building 's exterior wall. Wearing a wetsuit and using a climbing device that enabled him to ascend the I - beams on the building 's side, Goodwin battled repeated attempts by the Chicago Fire Department to knock him off. Fire Commissioner William Blair ordered Chicago firemen to stop Goodwin by directing a fully engaged fire hose at him and by blasting fire axes through nearby glass from the inside. Fearing for Goodwin 's life, Mayor Jane Byrne intervened and allowed him to continue to the top.
The John Hancock Center was featured in the 1988 movie Poltergeist III.
On December 18, 1997, comedian Chris Farley was found dead in his apartment on the 60th floor of the John Hancock Center.
On March 9, 2002, part of a scaffold fell 43 stories after being torn loose by wind gusts around 60 mph (100 km / h) crushing several cars, killing three people in two of them. The remaining part of the stage swung back - and - forth in the gusts repeatedly slamming against the building, damaging cladding panels, breaking windows, and sending pieces onto the street below.
On December 10, 2006, the non-residential portion of the building was sold by San Francisco based Shorenstein Properties LLC for $385 million and was purchased by a joint venture of Chicago - based Golub & Company and the Whitehall Street Real Estate Funds. Shorenstein had bought the building in 1998 for $220 million.
Golub defaulted on its debt and the building was acquired in 2012 by Deutsche Bank AG who subsequently carved up the building. The venture of Deutsche Bank AG and New York - based NorthStar Realty Finance Corp. paid an estimated $325 million for debt on the Hancock in 2012 after its previous owners defaulted on $400 million in loans. The observation deck was sold to Paris - based Montparnasse 56 Group for $35 million and $45 in July 2012. That same month, Prudential Real Estate Investors acquired the retail and restaurant space for almost $142 million. In November 2012, Boston - based American Tower Corp affiliate paid $70 million for the antennas. In June 2013, a venture of Chicago - based real estate investment firm Hearn Co., New York - based investment firm Mount Kellett Capital Management L.P. and San Antonio - based developer Lynd Co. closed on the expected acquisition of the Hancock 's 856,000 square feet of office space and 710 - car parking deck. The Chicago firm did not disclose a price, but sources said it was about $145 million. This was the last step in that piecemeal sale process. In May 2016, Hearn Co. announced that they were seeking buyers for the naming rights with possible signage rights for the building.
Hustle up the Hancock is an annual stair climb race up the 94 floors from the Michigan Avenue level to the observation deck. It is held on the last Sunday of February. The climb benefits Respiratory Health Association. The record time as of 2007 is 9 minutes 30 seconds.
On April 16, 2009 at 6: 00AM CDT, WYCC - TV transmitting off the John Hancock switched to all - digital broadcasting, becoming Chicago 's first television station to stop broadcasting in an analog signal. WYCC - TV is one of only two Chicago market full - power television stations which broadcast from the top of the John Hancock Center. The other is WGBO - DT, while all of the other area stations broadcast from the top of the Willis Tower.
On November 21, 2015, a fire broke out in an apartment on the 50th floor of the building. The Chicago Fire Department was able to extinguish the fire after an hour and a half; five people suffered minor injuries.
One of the most famous buildings of the structural expressionist style, the skyscraper 's distinctive X-braced exterior shows that the structure 's skin is part of its ' tubular system '. This is one of the engineering techniques which the designers used to achieve a record height (the tubular system is the structure that keeps the building upright during wind and earthquake loads). This X-bracing allows for both higher performance from tall structures and the ability to open up the inside floorplan. Such original features have made the John Hancock Center an architectural icon. It was pioneered by Bangladeshi - American structural civil engineer Fazlur Khan and chief architect Bruce Graham.
The interior was remodeled in 1995, adding to the lobby travertine, black granite, and textured limestone surfaces. The elliptical - shaped plaza outside the building serves as a public oasis with seasonal plantings and a 12 - foot (3.7 m) waterfall. A band of white lights at the top of the building is visible all over Chicago at night, and changes colors for different events. For example, at Christmas time the colors are green and red. When a Chicago - area sports team goes far in the playoffs, the colors are changed to match the team 's colors.
The building is a member of the World Federation of Great Towers. It has won various awards for its distinctive style, including the Distinguished Architects Twenty - five Year Award from the American Institute of Architects in May 1999.
The building is only partially protected by a fire sprinkler system, as the residential floors do not have sprinklers.
Including two antennas, the John Hancock Center has a height of 1,499 feet (457 m), making it the thirty - third tallest building in the world when measured to pinnacle height. The Observatory elevators of the John Hancock center, manufactured by Otis, travel 96 floors at a top speed of 1,800 ft / min (20 mph; 9.1 m / s). It has been said the elevators to the observation deck are the fastest in North America, reaching from ground floor to the 95th floor at a top speed of 38 seconds. The fact about the speed record is also mentioned in the voice announcement recording which is played every time the elevator is going up from ground floor to observation deck. Today, it has been said the building is one of the oldest skyscrapers in the world with 100 floors or more.
Located on the 94th floor, 360 ° Chicago is the John Hancock Center 's observatory. The floor of the observatory is 1,030 feet (310 m) off of street - level below. The entrance can be found on the concourse level of the John Hancock Center; mainly accessible by the Michigan Avenue side of the building. The observatory, previously called the John Hancock Observatory, has been independently owned and operated since 2014 by the Montparnasse 56 Group out of Paris, France. The elevators are credited to be the fastest in the Western Hemisphere, at a top speed of 1,800 ft / min (20.5 mph). The observatory boasts larger floor space than its direct competitor, Skydeck at the Willis Tower. In addition, 360 ° Chicago has a cafe by Lavazza Coffee which stocks alcoholic beverages as well. In the summer of 2014, 360 ° Chicago added its TILT attraction. The TILT platform is an additional fee, and is a series of floor to ceiling windows that slowly tilt outside the building to 30 °. The platform is on the observatory level, and faces south over the city. This observatory sees less attendance than the Skydeck at the Willis Tower, leading to a quieter and quicker experience.
Separate from its observatory, John Hancock Center has a restaurant on its 95th floor named the Signature Room.
A view of the Hancock Center at sunset
Side view of the Hancock Center
A view of Lake Michigan from the observatory in the Hancock Center
A detailed view of the two antenna spires atop the John Hancock Center
A view of the Hancock Center as seen from Lincoln Park Zoo
John Hancock Center from Lake Michigan.
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what is the first story in the old testament | Old Testament - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The Old Testament (abbreviated OT) is the first part of Christian Bibles, based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious writings by the Israelites believed by most Christians and religious Jews to be the sacred Word of God. The second part of the Christian Bible is the New Testament.
The books that comprise the Old Testament canon, as well as their order and names, differ between Christian denominations. The Catholic canon comprises 46 books, and the canons of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches comprise up to 51 books and the most common Protestant canon comprises 39 books. The 39 books in common to all the Christian canons correspond to the 24 books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The additional number reflects the splitting of several texts (Kings, Samuel and Chronicles, Ezra -- Nehemiah and the minor prophets) into separate books in Christian bibles. The books which are part of a Christian Old Testament but which are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described as deuterocanonical. In general, Protestant Bibles do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions of Anglican and Lutheran bibles place such books in a separate section called Apocrypha. These extra books are ultimately derived from the earlier Greek Septuagint collection of the Hebrew scriptures and are also Jewish in origin. Some are also contained in the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The Old Testament consists of many distinct books by various authors produced over a period of centuries. Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: (1) the first five books or Pentateuch (Torah); (2) the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; (3) the poetic and "Wisdom books '' dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and (4) the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.
The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the Pentateuch (Torah), the historical books, the "wisdom '' books and the prophets.
The table uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the Catholic New American Bible Revised Edition and the Protestant Revised Standard Version and English Standard Version. The spelling and names in both the 1609 -- 10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582 Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision by Bishop Challoner (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew Masoretic text.
For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias '' (for Isaiah).
In the spirit of ecumenism more recent Catholic translations (e.g. the New American Bible, Jerusalem Bible, and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition) use the same "standardized '' (King James Version) spellings and names as Protestant Bibles (e.g. 1 Chronicles as opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon, 1 -- 2 Samuel and 1 -- 2 Kings instead of 1 -- 4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical, the protocanonicals.
The Talmud (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in Bava Batra 14b gives a different order for the books in Nevi'im and Ketuvim. This order is also cited in Mishneh Torah Hilchot Sefer Torah 7: 15. The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.
The disputed books, included in one canon but not in others, are often called the Biblical apocrypha, a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern Protestant Bibles. Catholics, following the Canon of Trent (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while Greek Orthodox Christians, following the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), use the traditional name of anagignoskomena, meaning "that which is to be read. '' They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German Luther Bible included such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version.
Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.
Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
The first five books -- Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy -- reached their present form in the Persian period (538 -- 332 BC), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the Temple at that time. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, forming a history of Israel from the Conquest of Canaan to the Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BC. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so - called "Deuteronomistic history '') during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC. The two Books of Chronicles cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC. Chronicles, and Ezra -- Nehemiah, were probably finished during the 3rd century BC. Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) Books of Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets -- Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel and the twelve "minor prophets '' -- were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of Jonah and Daniel, which were written much later. The "wisdom '' books -- Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, Song of Solomon -- have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332 - 198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BC.
God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as the only God who exists, he is always depicted as the only God whom Israel is to worship, or the one "true God '', that only Yahweh is Almighty, and both Jews and Christians have always interpreted the Bible (both the "Old '' and "New '' Testaments) as an affirmation of the oneness of Almighty God.
The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel, but includes instructions for proselytes as well. This relationship is expressed in the biblical covenant (contract) between the two, received by Moses. The law codes in books such as Exodus and especially Deuteronomy are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel 's special protector and supporter.
Further themes in the Old Testament include salvation, redemption, divine judgment, obedience and disobedience, faith and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on ethics and ritual purity, both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands social justice above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament 's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many sexual misdemeanors. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.
The problem of evil plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the Babylonian exile) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.
The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing. '' He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC Jews saw the five books of the Torah (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books.
Hebrew texts commenced to be translated into Greek in Alexandria in about 280 and continued until about 130 BC. These early Greek translations -- supposedly commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus -- were called the Septuagint (Latin: "Seventy '') from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "LXX ''). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the Eastern Orthodox Church.
It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions: 1 and 2 Esdras, Judith, Tobit, 3 and 4 Maccabees, the Book of Wisdom, Sirach, and Baruch. Early modern Biblical criticism typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the Masoretes in their work.
The Septuagint was originally used by Hellenized Jews whose knowledge of Greek was better than Hebrew. But the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being the lingua franca of the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus the Ebionite, and Theodotion; in his Hexapla, Origen placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside its transcription in Greek letters and four parallel translations: Aquila 's, Symmachus 's, the Septuagint 's, and Theodotion 's. The so - called "fifth '' and "sixth editions '' were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of Jericho and Nicopolis: these were added to Origen 's Octapla.
In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon, however, Jerome (347 -- 420), in his Prologue to Judith, makes the claim that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures ''.
In Western Christianity or Christianity in the Western half of the Roman Empire, Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 AD Pope Damasus I commissioned Jerome, the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin bible to replace the Vetus Latina, which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome 's work, called the Vulgate, was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of the Hebrew texts in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds. His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the Sixto - Clementine Vulgate, while the Churches in the East continued, and still continue, to use the Septuagint.
Jerome, however, in the Vulgate 's prologues describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha); for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon ''. The Synod of Hippo (in 393), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, they have them in the order of the Greek Bible.
Rome then officially adopted a canon, the Canon of Trent, which is seen as following Augustine 's Carthaginian Councils or the Council of Rome, and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint (3 Ezra and 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded); the Anglicans after the English Civil War adopted a compromise position, restoring the 39 Articles and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the Westminster Confession of Faith, but only for private study and for reading in churches, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as Biblical Apocrypha.
While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the language of Jesus: these are called the Aramaic Targums, from a word meaning "translation '', and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.
For Aramaic Christians there was a Syriac translation of the Hebrew Bible called the Peshitta, as well as versions in Coptic (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from ancient Egyptian), Ethiopic (for use in the Ethiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches), Armenian (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and Arabic.
Christianity is based on the belief that the historical Jesus is also the Christ, as in the Confession of Peter. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term messiah, which, like the Greek "Christ '', means "anointed ''. In the Hebrew Scriptures it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The LORD 's anointed '' or Yahweh 's Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh and blood descendant of David (the "Son of David '') would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the Roman province.
Others stressed the Son of Man, a distinctly other - worldly figure who would appear as a judge at the end of time; and some harmonised the two by expecting a this - worldly messianic kingdom which would last for a set period and be followed by the other - worldly age or World to Come. Some thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel 's sins; some thought that the Messiah would be announced by a fore - runner, probably Elijah (as promised by the prophet Malachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes Mark 's account of John the Baptist). None predicted a Messiah who suffers and dies for the sins of all the people. The story of Jesus ' death therefore involved a profound shift in meaning from the tradition of the Old Testament.
The name "Old Testament '' reflects Christianity 's understanding of itself as the fulfillment of Jeremiah 's prophecy of a New Covenant (which is similar to "testament '' and often conflated) to replace the existing covenant between God and Israel (Jeremiah 31: 31). The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism 's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally - based contract between God and Jews to one between God and any person of faith who is "in Christ ''.
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when will fifty shades freed air on tv | Fifty Shades Freed (film) - Wikipedia
Fifty Shades Freed is a 2018 American erotic romantic drama film directed by James Foley and written by Niall Leonard, and based on the novel of the same name by E.L. James. It is the third and final installment in the Fifty Shades film series, following Fifty Shades of Grey (2015) and Fifty Shades Darker (2017). The film stars Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan as Anastasia Steele and Christian Grey, respectively, and follows the couple as they marry, and must deal with Ana 's former boss (Eric Johnson), who begins to stalk them.
Principal photography on Fifty Shades Freed began simultaneously with Darker in February 2016, in Paris and Vancouver. The film was released in the United States on February 9, 2018, including a limited IMAX release. It has grossed $368 million worldwide, making it the 5th highest - grossing film of 2018, and, like its two predecessors, received negative reviews, with criticism aimed at its screenplay and performances.
The newly married, Christian and Anastasia, cut short their exotic honeymoon and return to Seattle after receiving news of a break - in at Christian 's corporate headquarters. Some computer files were stolen and security camera tapes identify the perpetrator as Jack Hyde, Ana 's former boss who was fired for sexual assault. Meanwhile, Ana is introduced to her new personal security team.
Christian surprises Ana with a new house and has hired architect Gia Matteo to rebuild it. Ana is dismayed when Gia, an attractive young woman, openly flirts with Christian in Ana 's presence. Ana, jealous, privately threatens to dismiss Gia if she continues her flirtatious behavior, forcing her to stop.
When Christian is away on a business trip, Ana disregards his wishes that she stay at home, and goes out for a drink with her friend, Kate Kavanagh. Kate, who is dating Christian 's older brother, Elliot, confides to Ana that their relationship may be fizzling; Elliot is working closely with Gia, the architect, and Kate is suspicious about their relationship. When Ana returns home, she encounters Jack Hyde, who attempts to kidnap her. Ana 's security team subdue him as he holds Ana hostage and he is arrested. After an argument with Christian about her having sneaked out to see Kate, Ana berates Christian for being overly controlling and possessive and demands more freedom. Soon after, Christian surprises Ana with a trip to Aspen, bringing along Kate, Elliot, Mia, and José.
Christian and Ana continue with their erotic sexual experimentation, but matters become complicated when Ana announces she is pregnant. Christian is deeply disturbed, saying he had other plans for their early years together. He leaves, going on a night - long drunken bender. The next day, Ana discovers that Christian had recently contacted his ex-lover and former BDSM dominant, Elena Lincoln.
Shortly after, Jack Hyde, released on a $500,000 bond, phones Ana demanding a ransom for Mia, Christian 's abducted sister. Hyde demands $5,000,000 in cash in two hours or Mia will be killed. He warns Ana to tell no one and to bring the money alone. Ana takes some cash and a revolver from the house safe, then goes to the bank to withdraw the full amount. The suspicious bank manager calls Christian. He thinks Ana is leaving him but then notices the coincidence of Hyde 's recent release and Ana 's sudden large cash withdrawal. Hyde instructs Ana to get into a car parked in the alley and to hand over her phone to the driver to discard. Ana tricks Hyde by taking the bank manager 's phone. She exits the back entrance to discover that the driver and Jack 's accomplice is her co-worker, Liz.
Ana arrives at the drop - off site with the money. Hyde, psychotic and vengeful, attacks Ana, kicking her abdomen. Liz tries to stop Jack as Ana pulls out the revolver and shoots Hyde in the leg. Christian and his security team, who electronically tracked Ana 's cell phone, arrive and apprehend Hyde and Liz. Ana blacks out as she hears Christian 's voice.
Ana awakens three days later in the hospital with Christian at her side. Though angry at Ana 's recklessness and still anxious about fatherhood, Christian realizes how important their baby is to her, and they reconcile. Christian 's adoptive mother, Grace, assures Christian that Ana will not leave him. Ana returns home the next day. Christian 's private investigator, Welch, reports that Christian and Hyde shared the same foster family. It is also learned that Hyde blackmailed Liz into being his accomplice. Christian and Ana later locate where Christian 's birth mother is buried; they visit and Christian lays flowers on her grave.
Two years later, Christian and Ana have a son called Theodore, and Ana is pregnant with their second child.
A film adaptation of the first book was produced by Michael De Luca Productions, with Universal Pictures and Focus Features securing the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. At a fan screening in New York City on February 6, director Sam Taylor - Johnson announced that the book sequels Fifty Shades Darker and Fifty Shades Freed would also be adapted, with the first to be released in 2016. Right after the announcement, Taylor - Johnson told Digital Spy that, "It 's not my decision (to return), and I have n't been privy to any of the discussions. '' On November 12, 2015, TheWrap confirmed that James Foley would direct both sequels which would be shot back - to - back in 2016, with Niall Leonard writing the script and Michael De Luca and Dana Brunetti returning to produce along with E.L. James and Marcus Viscidi. Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan would also return for lead roles. On February 8, 2016, Arielle Kebbel was cast in the film to play Gia Matteo, a beautiful architect who is hired by Christian to build his home. On February 12, 2016, Eric Johnson was cast to play Jack Hyde, Ana 's boss at SIP and stalker. On February 20, 2016, Brant Daugherty signed on to play Sawyer, the personal body guard for Anastasia Steele.
In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that Fifty Shades Darker and this film would be shot back - to - back with principal photography scheduled to commence in early 2016. Filming began in Paris and Vancouver from February 9, 2016, to July 12, 2016, under the working title, "Further Adventures of Max and Banks 2 & 3. ''
Fifty Shades Freed was released on February 9, 2018, by Universal Pictures. A teaser trailer was released on September 10, 2017, with a theatrical trailer being released later on November 6.
The lead single from the film 's soundtrack, "For You '', performed by Rita Ora and Liam Payne, was released on January 5, 2018. The soundtrack 's track list was released on January 8, 2018, including artists Julia Michaels, Sia, Jessie J, Black Atlass, Ellie Goulding, Hailee Steinfeld, Dua Lipa, and Miike Snow on the 22 - song album.
Fifty Shades Freed has grossed $100.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $267.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $368.3 million, against a production budget of $55 million.
In the United States and Canada, Fifty Shades Freed was released alongside Peter Rabbit and The 15: 17 to Paris, and was projected to gross $37 -- 40 million from 3,768 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $5.6 million from Thursday night previews, down 2 % from the $5.7 million made by Fifty Shades Darker the previous year. It ended up making $38.6 million over the weekend, the lowest of the trilogy but still enough to take first place at the box office. The film grossed $10.8 million on Valentine 's Day, marking the third - highest amount for when the holiday fell on a weekday, behind The Vow ($11.6 million in 2012) and Darker ($11 million), bringing its five - day gross to $56.1 million. In its second weekend the film made $17.3 million, dropping 55.1 % (a slightly better hold than the previous film) and finishing third behind newcomer Black Panther and Peter Rabbit.
Worldwide, the film was expected to make $80 -- 90 million from 57 countries, including France, Germany, the UK, Australia, Brazil, Mexico and Japan, in its first three days for a worldwide debut of $113 -- 130 million. It ended up grossing $98.1 million from overseas for global debut of $136.9 million; it marked a 7 % decrease from the previous film but still finished first in 54 of the 57 markets. Its leading countries were Germany ($10.7 million), the United Kingdom ($8.8 million) and France ($8.7 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 13 % based on 144 reviews, and an average rating of 3.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Fifty Shades Freed brings its titillating trilogy to a clumsy conclusion, making for a film franchise that adds up to a distinctly dissatisfying ménage à trois. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 32 out of 100 based on 41 critics, meaning "generally unfavorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by Darker, while comScore reported that 56 % of females (who made up 81 % of the opening weekend) gave the film a "definite recommend ''.
Writing for Variety, Guy Lodge was critical of the film, saying "Indeed, a sex - free, PG - 13 version of Freed could be cut without shedding a second of narrative coherence, such as it is; one could ask what the point of that would be, though similar queries might be leveled at the film as it stands. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers gave the film zero out of four, stating "With this last entry, we have officially hit the bottom of the barrel. Whips, chains, butt plugs and nipple clips are nothing compared to the sheer torture of watching this movie. '' Robbie Collin from The Telegraph gave the film one out of five stars, and wrote "This is a film in which one of the more emotionally detailed performances is given by a product - placement Audi. ''
Jeannette Catsoulis, writing for The New York Times, found the film to be significantly inferior to Kim Basinger 's 91⁄2 Weeks, stating: "Layering a damp - squib thriller subplot beneath what appears to be an ad campaign for the one - percent lifestyle, the returning director and screenwriter test the newly married couple with an inconvenient pregnancy and an unconvincing car chase. There 's an out - of - left - field abduction and a marital tiff over email addresses; but these narrative fragments, lazily tossed together alongside a neglected supporting cast, are no more than a flimsy causeway connecting bonking sessions. ''
Conversely, IndieWire reviewer Manuela Lazic gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Finally, the Fifty Shades phenomenon has yielded a disarming comedy that makes this ridiculous material fun to watch. ''
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what is the movie it's a wonderful life about | It 's a Wonderful Life - wikipedia
It 's a Wonderful Life is a 1946 American Christmas fantasy comedy - drama film produced and directed by Frank Capra, based on the short story and booklet The Greatest Gift, which Philip Van Doren Stern wrote in 1939 and published privately in 1945.
The film stars James Stewart as George Bailey, a man who has given up his dreams in order to help others, and whose imminent suicide on Christmas Eve brings about the intervention of his guardian angel, Clarence Odbody (Henry Travers). Clarence shows George all the lives he has touched, and how different life in his community of Bedford Falls would be if he had never been born.
Despite initially performing poorly at the box office because of stiff competition at the time of its release, the film has become regarded as a classic, and is a staple of Christmas television around the world. The film is considered one of the most loved films in American cinema, and has become traditional viewing during the Christmas season. Theatrically, the film 's break - even point was $6.3 million, approximately twice the production cost, a figure it never came close to achieving in its initial release. An appraisal in 2006 reported: "Although it was not the complete box office failure that today everyone believes... it was initially a major disappointment and confirmed, at least to the studios, that Capra was no longer capable of turning out the populist features that made his films the must - see, money - making events they once were. ''
It 's a Wonderful Life is considered one of the greatest films ever made. It was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and has been recognized by the American Film Institute as one of the 100 best American films ever made, placing number 11 on its initial 1998 greatest movie list, number 20 on its revised 2007 greatest movie list, and placing number one on its list of the most inspirational American films of all time. Capra revealed that this was his personal favorite among the films he directed, and that he screened it for his family every Christmas season.
On Christmas Eve 1945, in Bedford Falls, New York, George Bailey contemplates suicide. Prayers for him reach Heaven, where Clarence Odbody, Angel 2nd Class, is assigned to save George, in return for which he will earn his angel wings. To prepare him for his mission, Clarence is shown flashbacks of George 's life. The first is from 1919, when 12 - year - old George saves his younger brother Harry from drowning at a frozen lake; George loses his hearing in one ear as a result. At his after - school job, George realizes that the druggist, Mr. Gower, distraught over his son 's death from the flu, has accidentally added poison to a child 's prescription, and intervenes to stop it from causing harm.
In 1928, George plans to leave on a world tour and then attend college. At Harry 's high - school graduation party, he is reintroduced to Mary Hatch, who has had a crush on him from childhood. Their walk home is interrupted by news that George 's father, Peter, has died of a stroke. George postpones his travel so he can sort out the family business, Bailey Brothers ' Building and Loan. Henry F. Potter, the richest man in town, wishes to dissolve the Building and Loan to eliminate it as a competitor. The board of directors votes to keep the Building and Loan open, on condition that George stay to run it (along with his absent - minded uncle Billy). George gives his college tuition to Harry on the condition that Harry take over the Building and Loan when he returns.
Four years later, Harry returns from college with a job offer from his father - in - law. George tells Harry to take the job, and he will keep running the Building and Loan. George and Mary get married. On their way to their honeymoon, they witness a run on the bank and use their honeymoon savings to keep the Building and Loan solvent until the bank re-opens.
Eventually, George establishes Bailey Park, a housing development with small houses financed by the Building and Loan, so that people can own their own homes, rather than paying rent to live in Potter 's overpriced slums. Potter attempts to lure George into becoming his assistant, offering him $20,000 (equivalent to $270,000 in 2017) a year; George is momentarily tempted, but rebukes him.
During World War II, George is ineligible for service because of his bad ear. Harry becomes a Navy pilot, and earns the Medal of Honor by shooting down a kamikaze plane headed for a troop transport. On Christmas Eve morning 1945, as the town prepares a hero 's welcome for Harry, Uncle Billy goes to the bank to deposit $8,000 of the Building and Loan 's cash. Potter enters, and Billy taunts Potter by grabbing the newspaper and reading the front - page headline about Harry aloud. Billy gives Mr. Potter his newspaper back, unintentionally wrapping the envelope with the cash in the newspaper. Billy discovers that he has misplaced $8,000 of the Building and Loan 's cash when the teller asks him for the cash to complete the deposit (equivalent to $110,000 in 2017). Mr. Potter discovers the envelope with the Building and Loan 's $8,000. He says nothing, knowing it will cause problems for the company. When a bank examiner arrives to review the Building and Loan 's records, George realizes that criminal charges are possible; he berates Uncle Billy, then goes home and takes out his frustration on his family. He soon apologizes to his wife and children, then leaves.
George desperately appeals to Potter for a loan. When George offers his life insurance policy as collateral, Potter, aware of the misplaced currency, says George is worth more dead than alive, and phones the police to have him arrested. George gets drunk at a local bar, and is involved in a fight before he leaves and goes to a nearby bridge, thinking of suicide. The film 's narrative catches up to the time of the opening scene. Before he can jump, Clarence dives into the river just before George does, causing George to rescue Clarence, rather than killing himself. George does not believe Clarence 's subsequent claim that he is George 's guardian angel.
When George says he wishes he had never been born, Clarence decides to grant his wish and show George an alternate timeline in which he never existed. Bedford Falls is named Pottersville, and is a less congenial place. Mr. Gower has recently been released from prison for manslaughter, because George was not there to stop him from putting poison in the pills. The Building and Loan has closed down, as George never took over after Peter 's passing.
George 's mother does not recognize him; she reveals that Uncle Billy was institutionalized after the collapse of the Building and Loan. In the cemetery where Bailey Park would have been, George discovers the grave of his brother. Clarence tells him all the soldiers on the transport died, as Harry was never there to save them, because George had never saved Harry from drowning. Mary, who works at the library, never married; when George says he is her husband, she screams for the police, causing George to flee and the local policeman to give chase.
George, now convinced that Clarence is really his guardian angel, runs back to the bridge and begs for his life back; the alternate timeline changes back to the original reality. George runs home to await his arrest. Mary and Uncle Billy arrive, having rallied the townspeople, who donate more than enough to cover the missing $8,000 and for Potter 's warrant to be torn up. Harry arrives and toasts George calling him "The richest man in town ''. A bell on the Christmas tree rings, and his daughter recalls a story that says the sound means that an angel has just earned his wings, signifying Clarence 's promotion.
Credited cast
Uncredited cast
The contention that James Stewart is often referred to as Capra 's only choice to play George Bailey is disputed by film historian Stephen Cox, who indicates that "Henry Fonda was in the running ''. Cary Grant was also considered for the role when RKO still had the rights to the film, before they were sold to Capra.
Although it was stated that Jean Arthur, Ann Dvorak, and Ginger Rogers were all considered for the role of Mary before Donna Reed won the part, this list is also disputed by Cox as he indicates that Jean Arthur was first offered the part, but had to turn it down for a prior commitment on Broadway before Capra turned to Olivia de Havilland, Martha Scott, and Ann Dvorak. Ginger Rogers was offered the female lead, but turned it down because she considered it "too bland ''. In Chapter 26 of her autobiography Ginger: My Story, she questioned her decision by asking her readers: "Foolish, you say? ''
A long list of actors were considered for the role of Potter (originally named Herbert Potter): Edward Arnold, Charles Bickford, Edgar Buchanan, Louis Calhern, Victor Jory, Raymond Massey, Vincent Price, and even Thomas Mitchell. However, Lionel Barrymore, who eventually won the role, was a famous Ebenezer Scrooge in radio dramatizations of A Christmas Carol at the time, and was a natural choice for the role. Barrymore had also worked with Capra and Stewart on his 1938 Best Picture Oscar winner, You Ca n't Take It with You.
H.B. Warner, who was cast as the drugstore owner Mr. Gower, actually studied medicine before going into acting. He was also in some of Capra 's other films, including Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, Lost Horizon, You Ca n't Take It with You, and Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. In the silent era, he had played the role of Jesus Christ in Cecil B. DeMille 's The King of Kings (1927). The name Gower came from Capra 's employer Columbia Pictures, which had been located on Gower Street for many years. Also on Gower Street was a drugstore that was a favorite for the studio 's employees.
Charles Williams, who was cast as Eustace Bailey, and Mary Treen, who was cast as Matilda "Tilly '' Bailey, were both B - list actors, as they both had appeared in 90 films each before filming It 's a Wonderful Life.
Jimmy the raven (Uncle Billy 's pet) appeared in You Ca n't Take It with You and each subsequent Capra film.
The original story "The Greatest Gift '' was written by Philip Van Doren Stern in November 1939. After being unsuccessful in getting the story published, he decided to make it into a Christmas card, and mailed 200 copies to family and friends in December 1943. The story came to the attention of RKO producer David Hempstead, who showed it to Cary Grant 's Hollywood agent, and in April 1944, RKO Pictures bought the rights to the story for $10,000, hoping to turn the story into a vehicle for Grant. RKO created three unsatisfactory scripts before shelving the planned movie, and Grant went on to make another Christmas movie staple, The Bishop 's Wife.
At the suggestion of RKO studio chief Charles Koerner, Frank Capra read "The Greatest Gift '', and immediately saw its potential. RKO, anxious to unload the project, in 1945 sold the rights to Capra 's production company, Liberty Films, which had a nine - film distribution agreement with RKO, for $10,000, and threw in the three scripts for free. Capra, along with writers Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett, with Jo Swerling, Michael Wilson, and Dorothy Parker brought in to "polish '' the script, turned the story and what was worth using from the three scripts into a screenplay that Capra would rename It 's a Wonderful Life. The script underwent many revisions throughout pre-production and during filming. Final screenplay credit went to Goodrich, Hackett, and Capra, with "additional scenes '' by Jo Swerling. Capra produced the film with his independent motion picture production company Liberty Films.
Dalton Trumbo had written a draft that was different from the final film. In Trumbo 's draft, George Bailey is an idealistic politician that slowly grows more cynical as the story progresses, then tries to commit suicide after losing an election. The angel shows him Bedford Falls as it would have been not if he had never been born, but as it would have been if he had gone into business instead of politics.
Seneca Falls, New York claims that when Frank Capra visited their town in 1945, he was inspired to model Bedford Falls after it. The town has an annual "It 's a Wonderful Life Festival '' in December. In mid-2009, The Hotel Clarence opened in Seneca Falls, named for George Bailey 's guardian angel. On December 10, 2010, the "It 's a Wonderful Life '' Museum opened in Seneca Falls, with Karolyn Grimes, who played Zuzu in the movie, cutting the ribbon. Philip Van Doren Stern said in a 1946 interview, "Incidentally, the movie takes place in Westchester County. Actually, the town I had in mind was Califon, N.J. '' The historic iron bridge in Califon is similar to the bridge that George Bailey considered jumping from in the movie.
Both James Stewart (from Indiana, Pennsylvania) and Donna Reed (from Denison, Iowa) came from small towns. Stewart 's father ran a small hard - ware store where James worked for years. Reed demonstrated her rural roots by winning an impromptu bet with Lionel Barrymore when he challenged her to milk a cow on set.
thumb James Stewart and Gloria Grahame as George Bailey and Violet Bick: "The compassion of Jesus for Mary Magdalene. ''))
It 's a Wonderful Life was shot at RKO Radio Pictures Studio in Culver City, California, and the 89 acre RKO movie ranch in Encino, where "Bedford Falls '' consisted of Art Director Max Ree 's Oscar - winning sets originally designed for the 1931 epic film Cimarron that covered 4 acres (1.6 ha), assembled from three separate parts, with a main street stretching 300 yards (three city blocks), with 75 stores and buildings, and a residential neighborhood. For It 's a Wonderful Life Capra built a working bank set, added a tree - lined center parkway, and planted 20 full grown oak trees to existing sets.
Pigeons, cats, and dogs were allowed to roam the mammoth set to give the "town '' a lived - in feel. Due to the requirement to film in an "alternate universe '' setting as well as during different seasons, the set was extremely adaptable. RKO created "chemical snow '' for the film to avoid the need for dubbed dialogue when actors walked across an earlier movie snow that was made of crushed cornflakes. Filming started on April 15, 1946 and ended on July 27, 1946, exactly on deadline for the 90 - day principal photography schedule.
RKO 's movie ranch in Encino, a filming location of Bedford Falls, was razed in 1954. There are only two surviving locations from the film. The first is the swimming pool that was unveiled during the famous dance scene where George courts Mary. It is located in the gymnasium at Beverly Hills High School and is still in operation as of 2013. The second is the "Martini home '' in La Cañada Flintridge, California.
During filming, in the scene where Uncle Billy gets drunk at Harry and Ruth 's welcome home / newlyweds ' party, George points him in the right direction home. As the camera focuses on George, smiling at his uncle staggering away, a crash is heard in the distance and Uncle Billy yells, "I 'm all right! I 'm all right! '' Equipment on the set had actually been accidentally knocked over; Capra left in Thomas Mitchell 's impromptu ad lib (although the "crashing '' noise was augmented with added sound effects).
According to Bobby Anderson, H.B. Warner slapped him for real in the scene between Mr. Gower and little George and made his ear bleed, reducing him to tears, but hugged him after the scene was shot.
Dimitri Tiomkin had written "Death Telegram '' and "Gower 's Deliverance '' for the drugstore scenes, but in the editing room, Capra elected to go with no music for those scenes. Those changes, along with others, led to a falling out between Tiomkin and Capra. Tiomkin had worked on a lot of Capra 's previous films, and was saddened that Capra decided to have the music pared or toned down, moved, or cut entirely. He felt as though his work was being seen as a mere suggestion. In his autobiography Please Do n't Hate Me, he said of the incident, "an all around scissors job ''.
The products and advertisements featured in Mr. Gower 's drugstore include Coca - Cola, Paterson tobacco pipes, La Unica cigars, Camel cigarettes, Lucky Strike cigarettes, Chesterfield cigarettes, Sweet Caporal cigarettes (with a sign that says "Ask Dad, he knows '', which plays a role in the plot), Vaseline hair tonic, Penetro cough syrup, Pepto - Bismol, Bayer Aspirin ("for colds and influenza ''), and The Saturday Evening Post.
In an earlier draft of the script, the scene where George saves his brother Harry as a child was different. The scene had the boys playing ice hockey on the river (which is on Potter 's property) as Potter watches with disdain. George shoots the puck, but it goes astray and breaks the "No Trespassing '' sign and lands in Potter 's yard. Potter becomes irate, and the gardener releases the attack dogs, which causes the boys to flee. Harry falls in the ice, and George saves him with the same results.
Another scene that was in an earlier version of the script had young George visiting his father at his work. After George tells off Mr. Potter and closes the door, he considers asking Uncle Billy about his drugstore dilemma. Billy is talking on the phone to the bank examiner, and lights his cigar and throws his match in the wastebasket. This scene explains that Tilly (short for Matilda) and Eustace are both his cousins (not Billy 's kids, though), and Tilly is on the phone with her friend Martha and says, "Potter 's here, the bank examiner 's coming. It 's a day of judgement. '' As George is about to interrupt Tilly on the phone, Billy cries for help and Tilly runs in and puts the fire out with a pot of coffee. George decides he is probably better off dealing with the situation by himself.
Capra had filmed a number of sequences that were subsequently cut, the only remnants remaining being rare stills that have been unearthed. A number of alternative endings were considered, with Capra 's first script having Bailey falling to his knees reciting "The Lord 's Prayer '' (the script also called for an opening scene with the townspeople in prayer). Feeling that an overly religious tone did not have the emotional impact of the family and friends rushing to rescue George Bailey, the closing scenes were rewritten.
Capra found the film 's original cinematographer Victor Milner slow and pretentious and re-hired Joseph Walker, who was warned by Harry Cohn to return to Columbia Pictures to shoot a film for one of the studio 's female stars. Joseph Biroc was trained by Walker himself to be his replacement. Although having worked with three cinematographers had been difficult for Capra, it turned out very well in Walker 's opinion, because the scenes each had shot were so different that he felt that Biroc 's did n't have to match his or Milner 's visual style.
According to a 2006 book, "A spate of movies appeared just after the ending of the Second World War, including It 's a Wonderful Life (1946) and Stairway to Heaven (1946), perhaps tapping into so many people 's experience of loss of loved ones and offering a kind of consolation. '' It 's a Wonderful Life premiered at the Globe Theatre in New York on December 20, 1946, to mixed reviews. While Capra thought the contemporary critical reviews were either universally negative, or at best dismissive, Time said, "It 's a Wonderful Life is a pretty wonderful movie. It has only one formidable rival (Goldwyn 's The Best Years of Our Lives) as Hollywood 's best picture of the year. Director Capra 's inventiveness, humor, and affection for human beings keep it glowing with life and excitement. ''
Bosley Crowther, writing for The New York Times, complimented some of the actors, including Stewart and Reed, but concluded that "the weakness of this picture, from this reviewer 's point of view, is the sentimentality of it -- its illusory concept of life. Mr. Capra 's nice people are charming, his small town is a quite beguiling place and his pattern for solving problems is most optimistic and facile. But somehow, they all resemble theatrical attitudes, rather than average realities. ''
The film, which went into general release on January 7, 1947, placed 26th ($3.3 million) in box office revenues for 1947 (out of more than 400 features released), one place ahead of another Christmas film, Miracle on 34th Street. The film was supposed to be released in January 1947, but was moved up to December 1946 to make it eligible for the 1946 Academy Awards. This move was seen as worse for the film, as 1947 did not have quite the stiff competition as 1946. If it had entered the 1947 Awards, its biggest competition would have been Miracle on 34th Street. The number one grossing movie of 1947, The Best Years of Our Lives, made $11.5 million.
The film recorded a loss of $525,000 at the box office for RKO.
On May 26, 1947, the FBI issued a memo stating, "With regard to the picture ' It 's a Wonderful Life ', (redacted) stated in substance that the film represented rather obvious attempts to discredit bankers by casting Lionel Barrymore as a ' scrooge - type ' so that he would be the most hated man in the picture. This, according to these sources, is a common trick used by Communists. (In) addition, (redacted) stated that, in his opinion, this picture deliberately maligned the upper class, attempting to show the people who had money were mean and despicable characters. '' Film historian Andrew Sarris points out as "curious '' that "the censors never noticed that the villainous Mr. Potter gets away with robbery without being caught or punished in any way ''.
In 1990, It 's a Wonderful Life was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in their National Film Registry.
In 2002, Britain 's Channel 4 ranked It 's a Wonderful Life as the seventh greatest film ever made in its poll "The 100 Greatest Films ''.
In June 2008, AFI revealed its 10 Top 10, the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres, after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. It 's a Wonderful Life was acknowledged as the third - best film in the fantasy genre.
Somewhat more iconoclastic views of the film and its content are occasionally expressed. In 1947, film critic Manny Farber wrote, "To make his points (Capra) always takes an easy, simple - minded path that does n't give much credit to the intelligence of the audience '', and adds that there are only a "few unsentimental moments here and there ''. Wendell Jamieson, in a 2008 article for The New York Times which was generally positive in its analysis of the film, noted that far from being simply a sweet sentimental story, it "is a terrifying, asphyxiating story about growing up and relinquishing your dreams, of seeing your father driven to the grave before his time, of living among bitter, small - minded people. It is a story of being trapped, of compromising, of watching others move ahead and away, of becoming so filled with rage that you verbally abuse your children, their teacher, and your oppressively perfect wife. ''
In a 2010 Salon.com piece, Richard Cohen described It 's a Wonderful Life as "the most terrifying Hollywood film ever made ''. In the "Pottersville '' sequence, he wrote, George is not seeing the world that would exist had he never been born, but rather "the world as it does exist, in his time and also in our own ''. Nine years earlier, another Salon writer, Gary Kamiya, had expressed the opposing view that "Pottersville rocks! '', adding: "The gauzy, Currier - and - Ives veil Capra drapes over Bedford Falls has prevented viewers from grasping what a tiresome and, frankly, toxic environment it is... We all live in Pottersville now. ''
The film 's elevation to the status of a beloved classic came three decades after its initial release, when it became a television staple during Christmas season in 1976. This came as a welcome surprise to Frank Capra and others involved with its production. "It 's the damnedest thing I 've ever seen '', Capra told The Wall Street Journal in 1984. "The film has a life of its own now, and I can look at it like I had nothing to do with it. I 'm like a parent whose kid grows up to be president. I 'm proud... but it 's the kid who did the work. I did n't even think of it as a Christmas story when I first ran across it. I just liked the idea. '' In a 1946 interview, Capra described the film 's theme as "the individual 's belief in himself '' and that he made it "to combat a modern trend toward atheism ''.
The film 's positive reception has continued into the present. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 94 % based on 71 reviews, with an average rating of 8.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The holiday classic to define all holiday classics, It 's a Wonderful Life is one of a handful of films worth an annual viewing. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a score 89 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Prior to the Los Angeles release of It 's a Wonderful Life, Liberty Films mounted an extensive promotional campaign that included a daily advertisement highlighting one of the film 's players, along with comments from reviewers. Jimmy Starr wrote, "If I were an Oscar, I 'd elope with It 's a Wonderful Life lock, stock and barrel on the night of the Academy Awards ''. The New York Daily Times published an editorial that declared the film and James Stewart 's performance to be worthy of Academy Award consideration.
It 's a Wonderful Life received five Academy Award nominations:
It 's a Wonderful Life won just the one Academy Award, in the Technical Achievement category for developing a new method of creating artificial snow. Before It 's a Wonderful Life, fake movie snow was mostly made from cornflakes painted white. And it was so loud when stepped on that any snow - filled scenes with dialogue had to be re-dubbed afterwards. RKO studio 's head of special effects, Russell Shearman, developed a new compound, utilizing water, soap flakes, foamite and sugar.
The Best Years of Our Lives, a drama about servicemen attempting to return to their pre-World War II lives, won most of the awards that year, including four of the five for which It 's a Wonderful Life was nominated. (The award for "Best Sound Recording '' was won by The Jolson Story.) The Best Years of Our Lives was also an outstanding commercial success, ultimately becoming the highest - grossing film of the decade, in contrast to the more modest initial box office returns of It 's a Wonderful Life.
It 's a Wonderful Life received a Golden Globe Award:
Capra won the "Best Motion Picture Director '' award from the Golden Globes, and a "CEC Award '' from the Cinema Writers Circle in Spain, for Mejor Película Extranjera (Best Foreign Film). Jimmy Hawkins won a "Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award '' from the Young Artist Awards in 1994; the award recognized his role as Tommy Bailey as igniting his career, which lasted until the mid-1960s.
American Film Institute lists
Liberty Films was purchased by Paramount Pictures, and remained a subsidiary until 1951. In 1955, M. & A. Alexander purchased the movie. This included key rights to the original television syndication, the original nitrate film elements, the music score, and the film rights to the story on which the film is based, "The Greatest Gift ''. National Telefilm Associates (NTA) took over the rights to the film soon thereafter.
A clerical error at NTA prevented the copyright from being renewed properly in 1974. Despite the lapsed copyright, television stations that aired it still had to pay royalties because -- though the film 's images had entered the public domain -- the film 's story was still restricted as a derivative work of the published story The Greatest Gift, whose copyright Philip Van Doren Stern had renewed in 1971. The film became a perennial holiday favorite in the 1980s, possibly due to its repeated showings each holiday season on hundreds of local television stations. It was mentioned during the deliberations on the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998.
In 1993, Republic Pictures, which was the successor to NTA, relied on the 1990 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Stewart v. Abend (which involved another Stewart film, Rear Window) to enforce its claim to the copyright. While the film 's copyright had not been renewed, Republic still owned the film rights to "The Greatest Gift ''; thus the plaintiffs were able to argue its status as a derivative work of a work still under copyright. NBC, since 1996, is licensed to show the film on U.S. network television, and traditionally shows it twice during the holidays, with one showing on Christmas Eve. Paramount (via parent company Viacom 's 1998 acquisition of Republic 's then - parent, Spelling Entertainment) once again has distribution rights for the first time since 1955.
Due to all the above actions, this is one of the few RKO films not controlled by Turner Entertainment / Warner Bros. in the USA. It is also one of two Capra films Paramount owns despite not having originally released it -- the other is Broadway Bill (originally from Columbia, remade by Paramount as Riding High in 1950).
Director Capra met with Wilson Markle about having Colorization, Inc., colorize It 's a Wonderful Life based on an enthusiastic response to the colorization of Topper from actor Cary Grant. The company 's art director Brian Holmes prepared 10 minutes of colorized footage from It 's a Wonderful Life for Capra to view, which resulted in Capra signing a contract with Colorization, Inc., and his "enthusiastic agree (ment) to pay half the $260,000 cost of colorizing the movie and to share any profits '' and giving "preliminary approval to making similar color versions of two of his other black - and - white films, Meet John Doe (1941) and Lady for a Day (1933) ''. However, the film was believed to be in the public domain at the time, and as a result, Markle and Holmes responded by returning Capra 's initial investment, eliminating his financial participation, and refusing outright to allow the director to exercise artistic control over the colorization of his films, leading Capra to join in the campaign against the process.
Three colorized versions have been produced. The first was released by Hal Roach Studios in 1986. The second was authorized and produced by the film 's permanent owner, Republic Pictures, in 1989. Both Capra and Stewart took a critical stand on the colorized editions. The Hal Roach color version was re-released in 1989 to VHS through the cooperation of Video Treasures. A third colorized version was produced by Legend Films and released on DVD in 2007 with the approval of Capra 's estate.
Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, when the film was still under public domain status, It 's A Wonderful Life was released on VHS by a variety of home video companies. Among the companies that released the film on home video before Republic Pictures stepped in were Meda Video (which would later become Media Home Entertainment), Kartes Video Communications (under its Video Film Classics label), GoodTimes Home Video and Video Treasures (now Anchor Bay Entertainment). After Republic reclaimed the rights to the film, all unofficial VHS copies of the film in print were destroyed. Artisan Entertainment (under license from Republic) took over home video rights in the mid-1990s. Artisan was later sold to Lions Gate Entertainment, which continued to hold US home video rights until late 2005 when they reverted to Paramount, who also owns video rights throughout Region 4 (Latin America and Australia) and in France. Video rights in the rest of the world are held by different companies; for example, the UK rights are with Universal Studios.
In 1993, due in part to the confusion of the ownership and copyright issues, Kinesoft Development, with the support of Republic Pictures, released It 's a Wonderful Life as one of the first commercial feature - length films on CD - ROM for the Windows PC (Windows 3.1). Predating commercial DVDs by several years, it included such features as the ability to follow along with the complete shooting script as the film was playing.
Given the state of video playback on the PC at the time of its release, It 's a Wonderful Life for Windows represented another first, as the longest running video on a computer. Prior to its release, Windows could only play back approx. 32,000 frames of video, or about 35 minutes at 15 frames per second. Working with Microsoft, Kinesoft was able to enhance the video features of Windows to allow for the complete playback of the entire film -- all of this on a PC with a 486SX processor and only 8 MB of RAM.
Computer Gaming World said in April 1994 that, "The picture quality still has a way to go before it reaches television standards '', but was "... a noble effort '' that would "please fans of the film ''.
The film has seen multiple DVD releases since the availability of the format. In the autumn of 2001, Republic issued the movie twice, once in August, and again with different packaging in September of that same year. On October 31, 2006, Paramount released a newly restored "60th Anniversary Edition ''. On November 13, 2007, Paramount released a two - disc "special edition '' DVD of the film that contained both the original theatrical black - and - white version, and a new, third colorized version, produced by Legend Films using the latest colorization technology. On November 3, 2009, Paramount released a DVD version with a "Collector 's Edition '' ornament, and a Blu - ray edition.
Viewers of the home video and TV special Elmo Saves Christmas know that from It 's A Wonderful Life, some of the footage appears. It appears after the credits on a TV. Elmo then appears on the TV and says "Have a Merry Christmas! ''
The film was twice adapted for radio in 1947, first on Lux Radio Theater (March 10) and then on The Screen Guild Theater (December 29), then again on the Screen Guild Theater broadcast of March 15, 1951. James Stewart and Donna Reed reprised their roles for all three radio productions. Stewart also starred in the May 8, 1949 radio adaptation presented on the Screen Director 's Playhouse.
A musical stage adaptation of the film, titled A Wonderful Life, was written by Sheldon Harnick and Joe Raposo. This version was first performed at the University of Michigan in 1986, but a planned professional production was stalled by legal wrangling with the estate of Philip Van Doren Stern. It was eventually performed in Washington, D.C., by Arena Stage in 1991, and had revivals in the 21st century, including a staged concert version in New York City in 2005 and several productions by regional theatres.
Another musical stage adaptation of the film, titled It 's a Wonderful Life -- The Musical, was written by Bruce Greer and Keith Ferguson. This version premiered at the Majestic Theatre, Dallas, Texas, in 1998. It was an annual Christmas show at the theatre for five years. It has since been performed at venues all around the United States.
The film was also adapted into a play in two acts by James W. Rodgers. It was first performed on December 15, 1993 at Paul Laurence Dunbar High School. The play opens with George Bailey contemplating suicide and then goes back through major moments in his life. Many of the scenes from the movie are only alluded to or mentioned in the play rather than actually dramatized. For example, in the opening scene Clarence just mentions George having saved his brother Harry after the latter had fallen through the ice.
It 's a Wonderful Life: A Live Radio Play, a stage adaptation presented as a 1940s radio show, was adapted by Joe Landry and has been produced around the United States since 1997. The script is published by Playscripts, Inc.
In 1997, PBS aired Merry Christmas, George Bailey, taped from a live performance of the 1947 Lux Radio Theatre script at the Pasadena Playhouse. The presentation, which benefited the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, featured an all - star cast, including Bill Pullman as George, Nathan Lane as Clarence, Martin Landau as Mr. Potter, Penelope Ann Miller as Mary, and Sally Field as Mother Bailey.
Philip Grecian 's 2006 radio play based on the film It 's a Wonderful Life is a faithful adaptation, now in its third incarnation, that has been performed numerous times by local theatres in Canada.
The Last Temptation of Clarence Odbody is a novel written by John Pierson. The novel imagines the future lives of various characters if George had not survived his jump into the river.
The film was remade as the 1977 television movie It Happened One Christmas. Lionel Chetwynd based the screenplay on the original Van Doren Stern short story and the 1946 screenplay. This remake employed gender - reversal, with Marlo Thomas as the protagonist Mary Bailey, Wayne Rogers as George Hatch, and Cloris Leachman as the angel Clara Oddbody. Leachman received her second Emmy nomination for this role. In a significant departure from his earlier roles, Orson Welles was cast as Mr. Potter. Following initial positive reviews, the made - for - television film was rebroadcast twice in 1978 and 1979, but has not been shown since on national re-broadcasts, nor issued in home media.
In 1990, another made - for - television film called Clarence starred Robert Carradine in a new tale of the helpful angel.
A purported sequel was in development for a 2015 release, and was to be called It 's a Wonderful Life: The Rest of the Story. It was to be written by Bob Farnsworth and Martha Bolton and follow the angel of George Bailey 's daughter Zuzu (played once again by Karolyn Grimes), as she teaches Bailey 's evil grandson how different the world would have been if he had never been born. Producers were considering directors and hoped to shoot the film with a $25 -- $35 million budget in Louisiana early in 2014.
The film had been announced as being produced by Star Partners and Hummingbird Productions, neither of which are affiliated with Paramount, owners of the original film (Farnsworth claimed that It 's a Wonderful Life was in the public domain). Later, a Paramount spokesperson claimed that they were not granting permission to make the film, "To date, these individuals have not obtained any of the necessary rights, and we would take all appropriate steps to protect those rights '', the spokesperson said. No further developmental plans have since arisen.
In a 1997 review, film historian James Berardinelli commented on the parallels between this film and the classic Charles Dickens tale A Christmas Carol. In both stories, a man revisits his life and potential death (or non-existence) with the help of supernatural agents, culminating in a joyous epiphany and a renewed view of his life.
It is commonly believed that the characters of Bert and Ernie on Sesame Street were named after Bert the cop and Ernie the cabdriver; however, in a correction for the 1999 "Annual Xmas Quiz '' in the San Francisco Chronicle, which made this claim, series writer Jerry Juhl confirmed that, as per producer Jon Stone, the shared names were merely a coincidence. Despite this, the 1996 holiday special Elmo Saves Christmas references the rumor, during a scene where Bert and Ernie walk by a TV set, which is playing the movie. The pair are surprised by the line: "Bert! Ernie! What 's the matter with you two guys? You were here on my wedding night! ''
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which is not a characteristic of mediated transport | Membrane transport - wikipedia
In cellular biology, membrane transport refers to the collection of mechanisms that regulate the passage of solutes such as ions and small molecules through biological membranes, which are lipid bilayers that contain proteins embedded in them. The regulation of passage through the membrane is due to selective membrane permeability - a characteristic of biological membranes which allows them to separate substances of distinct chemical nature. In other words, they can be permeable to certain substances but not to others.
The movements of most solutes through the membrane are mediated by membrane transport proteins which are specialized to varying degrees in the transport of specific molecules. As the diversity and physiology of the distinct cells is highly related to their capacities to attract different external elements, it is postulated that there is a group of specific transport proteins for each cell type and for every specific physiological stage. This differential expression is regulated through the differential transcription of the genes coding for these proteins and its translation, for instance, through genetic - molecular mechanisms, but also at the cell biology level: the production of these proteins can be activated by cellular signaling pathways, at the biochemical level, or even by being situated in cytoplasmic vesicles.
While studies on membrane permeability and osmosis dates back to the 18th century, works on membrane transporters or carriers begun in the 1930s.
Thermodynamically the flow of substances from one compartment to another can occur in the direction of a concentration or electrochemical gradient or against it. If the exchange of substances occurs in the direction of the gradient, that is, in the direction of decreasing potential, there is no requirement for an input of energy from outside the system; if, however, the transport is against the gradient, it will require the input of energy, metabolic energy in this case. For example, a classic chemical mechanism for separation that does not require the addition of external energy is dialysis. In this system a semipermeable membrane separates two solutions of different concentration of the same solute. If the membrane allows the passage of water but not the solute the water will move into the compartment with the greatest solute concentration in order to establish an equilibrium in which the energy of the system is at a minimum. This takes place because the water moves from a high solvent concentration to a low one (in terms of the solute, the opposite occurs) and because the water is moving along a gradient there is no need for an external input of energy.
The nature of biological membranes, especially that of its lipids, is amphiphilic, as they form bilayers that contain an internal hydrophobic layer and an external hydrophilic layer. This structure makes transport possible by simple or passive diffusion, which consists of the diffusion of substances through the membrane without expending metabolic energy and without the aid of transport proteins. If the transported substance has a net electrical charge, it will move not only in response to a concentration gradient, but also to an electrochemical gradient due to the membrane potential.
As few molecules are able to diffuse through a lipid membrane the majority of the transport processes involve transport proteins. These transmembrane proteins possess a large number of alpha helices immersed in the lipid matrix. In bacteria these proteins are present in the beta lamina form. This structure probably involves a conduit through hydrophilic protein environments that cause a disruption in the highly hydrophobic medium formed by the lipids. These proteins can be involved in transport in a number of ways: they act as pumps driven by ATP, that is, by metabolic energy, or as channels of facilitated diffusion.
A physiological process can only take place if it complies with basic thermodynamic principles. Membrane transport obeys physical laws that define its capabilities and therefore its biological utility. A general principle of thermodynamics that governs the transfer of substances through membranes and other surfaces is that the exchange of free energy, ΔG, for the transport of a mole of a substance of concentration C in a compartment to another compartment where it is present at C is:
Where C is less than C ΔG is negative, and the process is thermodynamically favorable. As the energy is transferred from one compartment to another, except where other factors intervene, an equilibrium will be reached where C = C, and where ΔG = 0. However, there are three circumstances under which this equilibrium will not be reached, circumstances which are vital for the in vivo functioning of biological membranes:
Where F is Faraday 's constant and ΔP the membrane potential in volts. If ΔP is negative and Z is positive, the contribution of the term ZFΔP to ΔG will be negative, that is, it will favor the transport of cations from the interior of the cell. So, if the potential difference is maintained, the equilibrium state ΔG = 0 will not correspond to an equimolar concentration of ions on both sides of the membrane.
Where ΔG corresponds to a favorable thermodynamic reaction, such as the hydrolysis of ATP, or the co-transport of a compound that is moved in the direction of its gradient.
As mentioned above, passive diffusion is a spontaneous phenomenon that increases the entropy of a system and decreases the free energy. The transport process is influenced by the characteristics of the transport substance and the nature of the bilayer. Membrane proteins (with the exception of channels - facilitated diffusion) are not involved in passive diffusion. The diffusion velocity of a pure phospholipid membrane will depend on:
In active transport a solute is moved against a concentration or electrochemical gradient; in doing so the transport proteins involved consume metabolic energy, usually ATP. In primary active transport the hydrolysis of the energy provider (e.g. ATP) takes place directly in order to transport the solute in question, for instance, when the transport proteins are ATPase enzymes. Where the hydrolysis of the energy provider is indirect as is the case in secondary active transport, use is made of the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient. For example, in co-transport use is made of the gradients of certain solutes to transport a target compound against its gradient, causing the dissipation of the solute gradient. It may appear that, in this example, there is no energy use, but hydrolysis of the energy provider is required to establish the gradient of the solute transported along with the target compound. The gradient of the co-transported solute will be generated through the use of certain types of proteins called biochemical pumps.
The discovery of the existence of this type of transporter protein came from the study of the kinetics of cross-membrane molecule transport. For certain solutes it was noted that the transport velocity reached a plateau at a particular concentration above which there was no significant increase in uptake rate, indicating a log curve type response. This was interpreted as showing that transport was mediated by the formation of a substrate - transporter complex, which is conceptually the same as the enzyme - substrate complex of enzyme kinetics. Therefore, each transport protein has an affinity constant for a solute that is equal to the concentration of the solute when the transport velocity is half its maximum value. This is equivalent in the case of an enzyme to the Michaelis - Menten constant.
Some important features of active transport in addition to its ability to intervene even against a gradient, its kinetics and the use of ATP, are its high selectivity and ease of selective pharmacological inhibition
Secondary active transporter proteins move two molecules at the same time: one against a gradient and the other with its gradient. They are distinguished according to the directionality of the two molecules:
Both can be referred to as co-transporters.
A pump is a protein that hydrolyses ATP to transport a particular solute through a membrane, and in doing so, generating an electrochemical gradient membrane potential. This gradient is of interest as an indicator of the state of the cell through parameters such as the Nernst potential. In terms of membrane transport the gradient is of interest as it contributes to increased system entropy in the co-transport of substances against their gradient. One of the most important pumps in animal cells is the sodium potassium pump, that operates through the following mechanism:
As the main characteristic of transport through a biological membrane is its selectivity and its subsequent behavior as a barrier for certain substances, the underlying physiology of the phenomenon has been studied extensively. Investigation into membrane selectivity have classically been divided into those relating to electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
The ionic channels define an internal diameter that permits the passage of small ions that is related to various characteristics of the ions that could potentially be transported. As the size of the ion is related to its chemical species, it could be assumed a priori that a channel whose pore diameter was sufficient to allow the passage of one ion would also allow the transfer of others of smaller size, however, this does not occur in the majority of cases. There are two characteristics alongside size that are important in the determination of the selectivity of the membrane pores: the facility for dehydration and the interaction of the ion with the internal charges of the pore. In order for an ion to pass through a pore it must dissociate itself from the water molecules that cover it in successive layers of solvation. The tendency to dehydrate, or the facility to do this, is related to the size of the ion: larger ions can do it more easily that the smaller ions, so that a pore with weak polar centres will preferentially allow passage of larger ions over the smaller ones. When the interior of the channel is composed of polar groups from the side chains of the component amino acids, the interaction of a dehydrated ion with these centres can be more important than the facility for dehydration in conferring the specificity of the channel. For example, a channel made up of histidines and arginines, with positively charged groups, will selectively repel ions of the same polarity, but will facilitate the passage of negatively charged ions. Also, in this case, the smallest ions will be able to interact more closely due to the spatial arrangement of the molecule (stericity), which greatly increases the charge - charge interactions and therefore exaggerates the effect.
Non-electrolytes, substances that generally are hydrophobic and lipophylic, usually pass through the membrane by dissolution in the lipid bilayer, and therefore, by passive diffusion. For those non-electrolytes whose transport through the membrane is mediated by a transport protein the ability to diffuse is, generally, dependent on the partition coefficient K. Partially charged non-electrolytes, that are more or less polar, such as ethanol, methanol or urea, are able to pass through the membrane through aqueous channels immersed in the membrane. It is interesting to note that there is no effective regulation mechanism that limits this transport, which indicates an intrinsic vulnerability of the cells to the penetration of these molecules.
There are several databases which attempt to construct phylogenetic trees detailing the creation of transporter proteins. One such resource is the Transporter Classification database
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how much area is covered by forest in india | Forestry in India - wikipedia
Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental resource. India is one of the ten most forest - rich countries of the world along with Russia, Brazil, Canada, United States of America, China, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Australia, Indonesia and Sudan. Together, India and these countries account for 67 percent of total forest area of the world. India 's forest cover grew at 0.20 % annually over 1990 - 2000, and has grown at the rate of 0.7 % per year over 2000 - 2010, after decades where forest degradation was a matter of serious concern.
As of 2010, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates India 's forest cover to be about 68 million hectares, or 22 % of the country 's area and by 2015 FAO Global assessment observers the forest cover increasing to 70.68 million hectares occupying 23.8 % of the total land area of the country. The 2013 Forest Survey of India states its forest cover increased to 69.8 million hectares by 2012, per satellite measurements; this represents an increase of 5,871 square kilometers of forest cover in 2 years. However, the gains were primarily in northern, central and southern Indian states, while northeastern states witnessed a net loss in forest cover over 2010 to 2012.
In 2002, forestry industry contributed 1.7 % to India 's GDP. In 2010, the contribution to GDP dropped to 0.9 %, largely because of rapid growth of the economy in other sectors and the government 's decision to reform and reduce import tariffs to let imports satisfy the growing Indian demand for wood products. India produces a range of processed forest (wood and non-wood) products ranging from wood panel products and wood pulp to make bronze, rattazikistan ware and pern resin. India 's paper industry produces over 3,000 metric tonnes annually from more than 400 mills. The furniture and craft industry is another consumer of wood. India 's wood - based processing industries consumed about 30 million cubic metres of industrial wood in 2002. India annually consumes an additional 270 million tonnes of fuelwood, 2800 million tonnes of fodder, and about 102 million cubic meter of forest products - valued at about ₹ 27,500 crore (US $4.2 billion) a year. India is one of the world 's largest consumer of fuel - wood. India 's consumption of fuel - wood is about five times higher than what can be sustainably removed from forests. However, a large percentage of this fuel - wood is grown as biomass remaining from agriculture, and is managed outside forests. Fuel - wood meets about 40 % of the energy needs of the country. Around 80 % of rural people and 48 % of urban people use fuel - wood. Unless India makes major, rapid and sustained effort to expand electricity generation and power plants, the rural and urban poor in India will continue to meet their energy needs through unsustainable destruction of forests and fuel wood consumption. India 's dependence on fuel - wood and forestry products as a primary energy source is not only environmentally unsustainable, it is a primary cause of India 's near - permanent haze and air pollution.
Forestry in India is more than just about wood and fuel. India has a thriving non-wood forest products industry, which produces latex, gums, resins, essential oils, flavours, fragrances and aroma chemicals, incense sticks, handicrafts, thatching materials and medicinal plants. About 60 % of non-wood forest products production is consumed locally. About 50 % of the total revenue from the forestry industry in India is in non-wood forest products category. In 2002, non-wood forest products were a source of significant supplemental income to over 400 million people in India, mostly rural.
In 1840, the British colonial administration promulgated an ordinance called Crown Land (Encroachment) Ordinance. This ordinance targeted forests in Britain 's Asian colonies, and vested all forests, wastes, unoccupied and uncultivated lands to the crown. The Imperial Forest Department was established in India in 1864. The British state monopoly over Indian forests was first asserted through the Indian Forest Act of 1865. This law simply established the government 's claims over forests. The British colonial administration then enacted a further far - reaching Forest Act of 1878, thereby acquiring the sovereignty of all wastelands which in its definition included all forests. This Act also enabled the administration to demarcate reserved and protected forests. In the former, all local rights were abolished while in the latter some existing rights were accepted as a privilege offered by the British government to the local people which can be taken away if necessary. These colonial laws brought the forests under the centralised sovereignty of the state. Sir Dietrich Brandis, the Inspector General of Forests in India from 1864 to 1883, is regarded as the father not only of modern scientific forestry in India, but also as the "father of tropical forestry. ''
An FAO report claims it was believed in colonial times that the forest is a national resource which should be utilised for the interests of the government. Like coal and gold mines, it was believed that forests belonged to the state for exploitation. Forest areas became a source of revenue. For example, teak was extensively exploited by the British colonial government for ship construction, sal and pine in India for railway sleepers and so on. Forest contracts, such as that of biri pata (leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon), earned so much revenue that it was often used by the people involved in this business as a leverage for political power. These contracts also created forest zamindars (government recognised forest landowners). Additionally, as in Africa, some forests in India were earmarked by the government officials and the rulers with the sole purpose of using them for hunting and sport for the royalty and the colonial officials.
In 1952, the government nationalised the forests which were earlier with the zamindars. India also nationalised most of the forest wood industry and non-wood forest products industry. Over the years, many rules and regulations were introduced by India. In 1980, the Conservation Act was passed, which stipulated that the central permission is required to practice sustainable agro-forestry in a forest area. Violations or lack of permits was made a criminal offense. These nationalisation wave and laws intended to limit deforestation, conserve biodiversity, and save wildlife. However, the intent of these regulations was not matched by reality that followed. Neither investment aimed at sustainable forestry nor knowledge transfer followed once India had nationalised and heavily regulated forestry. Deforestation increased, biodiversity diminished and wildlife dwindled. India 's rural population and impoverished families continued to ignore the laws passed in Delhi, and use the forests near them for sustenance.
India launched its National Forest Policy in 1988. This led to a programme named Joint Forest Management, which proposed that specific villages in association with the forest department will manage specific forest blocks. In particular, the protection of the forests would be the responsibility of the people. By 1992, seventeen states of India participated in Joint Forest Management, bringing about 2 million hectares of forests under protection. The effect of this initiative has been claimed to be positive. The growth rates have been slow through these years.
Since 1991, India has reversed the deforestation trend. Specialists of the United Nations report India 's forest as well as woodland cover has increased. A 2010 study by the Food and Agriculture Organisation ranks India amongst the 10 countries with the largest forest area coverage in the world (the other nine being Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, United States of America, China, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Australia, Indonesia and Sudan). India is also one of the top 10 countries with the largest primary forest coverage in the world, according to this study.
From 1990 to 2000, FAO finds India was the fifth largest gainer in forest coverage in the world; while from 2000 to 2010, FAO considers India as the third largest gainer in forest coverage.
Some 500,000 square kilometres, about 17 % of India 's land area, were regarded as Forest Area in the early 1990s. In FY 1987, however, actual forest cover was 640,000 square kilometres. Some claim, that because more than 50 % of this land was barren or bushland, the area under productive forest was actually less than 350,000 square kilometres, or approximately 10 % of the country 's land area.
India 's 0.6 % average annual rate of deforestation for agricultural and non-lumbering land uses in the decade beginning in 1981 was one of the lowest in the world and on a par with Brazil.
India is a large and diverse country. Its land area includes regions with some of the world 's highest rainfall to very dry deserts, coast line to alpine regions, river deltas to tropical islands. The variety and distribution of forest vegetation is large: there are 600 species of hardwoods, including sal (Shorea robusta). India is one of the 17 mega biodiverse regions of the world.
Indian forests types include tropical evergreens, tropical deciduous, swamps, mangroves, sub-tropical, montane, scrub, sub-alpine and alpine forests. These forests support a variety of ecosystems with diverse flora and fauna.
Prior to the 1980s, India deployed a bureaucratic method to estimate forest coverage. A land was notified as covered under Indian Forest Act, and then officials deemed this land area as recorded forest even if it was devoid of vegetation. By this forest - in - name - only method, the total amount of recorded forest, per official Indian records, was 71.8 million hectares. Any comparison of forest coverage number of a year before 1987 for India, to current forest coverage in India, is thus meaningless; it is just bureaucratic record keeping, with no relation to reality or meaningful comparison.
In the 1980s, space satellites were deployed for remote sensing of real forest cover. Standards were introduced to classify India 's forests into the following categories:
The first satellite recorded forest coverage data for India became available in 1987. India and the United States cooperated in 2001, using Landsat MSS with spatial resolution of 80 metres, to get accurate forest distribution data. India thereafter switched to digital image and advanced satellites with 23 metres resolution and software processing of images to get more refined data on forest quantity and forest quality. India now assesses its forest distribution data biennially.
The 2015 forest census data thus obtained and published by the Government of India suggests the five states with largest area under forest cover as the following:
According to India 's 2013 forest survey report, the forest cover in top five states has increased, with the exception of Arunachal Pradesh:
In the 1970s, India declared its long - term strategy for forestry development to compose of three major objectives: to reduce soil erosion and flooding; to supply the growing needs of the domestic wood products industries; and to supply the needs of the rural population for fuelwood, fodder, small timber, and miscellaneous forest produce. To achieve these objectives, the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 recommended the reorganisation of state forestry departments and advocated the concept of social forestry. The commission itself worked on the first two objectives, emphasising traditional forestry and wildlife activities; in pursuit of the third objective, the commission recommended the establishment of a new kind of unit to develop community forests. Following the leads of Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, a number of other states also established community - based forestry agencies that emphasized programmes on farm forestry, timber management, extension forestry, reforestation of degraded forests, and use of forests for recreational purposes.
In the 1980s, such socially responsible forestry was encouraged by state community forestry agencies. They emphasized such projects as planting wood lots on denuded communal cattle - grazing grounds to make villages self - sufficient in fuelwood, to supply timber needed for the construction of village houses, and to provide the wood needed for the repair of farm implements. Both individual farmers and tribal communities were also encouraged to grow trees for profit. For example, in Gujarat, one of the more aggressive states in developing programmes of socioeconomic importance, the forestry department distributed 200 million tree seedlings in 1983. The fast - growing eucalyptus is the main species being planted nationwide, followed by pine and poplar.
In 2002, India set up a National Forest Commission to review and assess India 's policy and law, its effect on India 's forests, its impact of local forest communities, and to make recommendations to achieve sustainable forest and ecological security in India. The report made over 300 recommendations including the following:
India 's national forest policy expects to invest US $26.7 billion by 2020, to pursue nationwide afforestation coupled with forest conservation, with the goal of increasing India 's forest cover from 20 % to 33 %.
Due to faster tribal population growth in forest / tribal areas, naturally available forest resources (NTFP) in a sustainable manner are becoming inadequate for their basic livelihood. Many tribal are giving up their traditional livelihood and taking up farming and cattle rearing in the forest areas causing irreparable damage to forests. The erstwhile protectors of forests are slowly turning into the bane of forests and its wildlife. The government should devise schemes to avert this process and save the dwindling forest area and its flora and fauna. Tribal people have extraordinary understanding of forest flora and fauna which can be productively utilized. All the tribal peoples shall be employed by the government in the expansion and protection of forests and its wildlife till their descendants get educated and diversify into industrial and service sectors.
Significant forest products of India include paper, plywood, sawnwood, timber, poles, pulp and matchwood, fuelwood, sal seeds, tendu leaves, gums and resins, cane and rattan, bamboo, grass and fodder, drugs, spices and condiments, herbs, cosmetics, tannins.
India is a significant importer of forest products. Logs account for 67 % of all wood and wood products imported into India due to local preference for unprocessed wood. This preference is explained by the availability of inexpensive labor and the large number of productive sawmills. In trade year 2008 - 2009, India imported logs worth $1.14 billion, an increase of about 70 % in just 4 years.
Indian market for unprocessed wood is mostly fulfilled with imports from Malaysia, Myanmar, Côte d'Ivoire, China and New Zealand.
India is growing market for partially finished and ready - to - assemble furniture. China and Malaysia account for 60 % of this imported furniture market in India followed by Italy, Germany, Singapore, Sri Lanka, the United States, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.
The Indian market is accustomed to teak and other hardwoods that are perceived to be more resistant to termites, decay and are able to withstand the tropical climate. Teak wood is typically seen as a benchmark with respect to grade and prices of other wood species. Major imported wood species are tropical woods such as mahogany, garjan, marianti, and sapeli. Plantation timber includes teak, eucalyptus, and poplar, as well as spruce, pine, and fir. India imports small quantities of temperate hardwoods such as ash, maple, cherry, oak, walnut, beech, etc. as squared logs or as lumber. India is the world 's third largest hardwood log importer.
In 2009, India imported 332 million cubic metres of roundwood mostly for fuel wood application, 17.3 million cubic metres of sawnwood and wood - based panels, 7.6 million metric tonnes of paper and paperboard and about 4.5 million metric tonnes of wood and fiber pulp.
Indian forests are more than trees and an economic resource. They are home to some of earth 's unique flora and fauna.
Indian forests represent one of the 12 mega biodiverse regions of the world. India 's Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are amongst the 32 biodiversity hotspots on earth.
India is home to 12 % of world 's recorded flora, some 47000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants. Over 59000 species of insects, 2500 species of fishes, 17000 species of angiosperms live in Indian forests. About 90000 animal species, representing over 7 % of earth 's recorded faunal species have been found in Indian forests. Over 4000 mammal species are found here. India has one of the richest variety of bird species on earth, hosting about 12.5 % of known species of birds. Many of these flora and fauna species are endemic to India.
Indian forests and wetlands serve as temporary home to many migrant birds.
India was, until 1991, one of the largest exporters of wild birds to international bird markets. Most of the birds traded were parakeets and munias. Most of these birds were exported to countries in Europe and the Middle East.
In 1991, India passed a law that banned all trade and trapping of indigenous birds in the country. The passage of the law stopped the legal exports, but illegal trafficking has continued. In 2001, for example, an attempt to smuggle some 10,000 wild birds was discovered, and these birds were confiscated at the Mumbai international airport.
According to a WWF - India published report, trapping and trading of some 300 species of birds continues in India, representing 25 % of known species in the country. Tens of thousands of birds are trapped from the forests of India, and traded every month to serve the demand for bird pets. Another market driver for bird trapping and trade is the segment of Indians who on certain religious occasions, buy birds in captivity and free them as an act of kindness to all living beings of the world. Trappers and traders know of the need for piety in these people, and ensure a reliable supply of wild birds so that they can satisfy their urge to do good.
The trappers, a detailed survey and investigation reveals are primarily tribal communities. The trappers lead a life of poverty and migrate over time. Their primary motivation was economics and the need to financially support their families.
Trapping and transport of trapped birds from India 's forests has high injury and losses, as in other parts of the world. For every bird that reaches the market for a sale, many more die.
Abrar Ahmed, the WWF - India and TRAFFIC - India ornithologist, suggests the following as potentially effective means of stopping the harm caused by illegal trading of wild birds in India:
The role of forests in the national economy and in ecology was further emphasized in the 1988 National Forest Policy, which focused on ensuring environmental stability, restoring the ecological balance, and preserving the remaining forests. Other objectives of the policy were meeting the need for fuelwood, fodder, and small timber for rural and tribal people while recognising the need to actively involve local people in the management of forest resources. Also in 1988, the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was amended to facilitate stricter conservation measures. A new target was to increase the forest cover to 33 % of India 's land area from the then - official estimate of 23 %. In June 1990, the central government adopted resolutions that combined forest science with social forestry, that is, taking the sociocultural traditions of the local people into. The cumulative area afforested during the 1951 - 91 period was nearly 179,000 square kilometres. However, despite large - scale tree planting programmes, forestry is one arena in which India has actually regressed since independence. Annual fellings at about four times the growth rate are a major cause. Widespread pilfering by villagers for firewood and fodder also represents a major decrement. In addition, the 1988 National Forest Policy noted, the forested area has been shrinking as a result of land cleared for farming and development programmes.
Between 1990 and 2010, as evidenced by satellite data, India has reversed the deforestation trend. FAO reports India 's rate of forest addition has increased in recent years, and as of 2010, it is the third fastest in the world in increasing forest cover.
The 2009 Indian national forest policy document emphasizes the need to combine India 's effort at forest conservation with sustainable forest management. India defines forest management as one where the economic needs of local communities are not ignored, rather forests are sustained while meeting nation 's economic needs and local issues through scientific forestry.
Chipko movement in India started in the 1970s around a dispute on how and who should have a right to harvest forest resources. Although the Chipko movement is now practically non-existent in Uttarakhand, the Indian state of its origin, it remains one of the most frequently deployed examples of an environmental and a people 's movement in developing countries such as India. What caused Chipko is now a subject of debate; some neopopulists theorise Chipko as an environmental movement and an attempt to save forests, while others suggest that Chipko movement had nothing to do with eco-conservation, but was driven primarily to demand equal rights to harvest forests by local communities.
According to one set of writers: Since the early 1970s, as they realised that deforestation threatened not only the ecology but their livelihood in a variety of ways, people have become more interested and involved in conservation. The best known popular activist movement is the Chipko Movement, in which local women under the leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna, decided to fight the government and the vested interests to save trees. The residents declared that they would embrace -- literally "to stick to '' (chipkna in Hindi) -- trees to prevent cutting of ash trees in their district.
According to those who critique the ecological awareness and similar theories, Chipko had nothing to do with protecting forests, rather it was an economic struggle using the traditional Indian way of non-violence. These scientists point out that very little is left of the Chipko movements today in its region of origin save for its memory, even though the quality of forests and its use remains a critical issue for India. To explain the cause of Chipko movement, they find that government officials had ignored the subsistence issues of the local communities, who depended on forests for fuel, fodder, fertiliser and sustenance resources. These researchers claim that local interviews and fact finding confirms that local communities had filed complaints requesting the right to commercially exploit the forests around them. Their requests were denied, while permits to fell trees and exploit those same forests were granted to government - favoured non-resident contractors including a sporting company named Symonds. A protest that became Chipko movement followed. The movement grew and Indian government responded by imposing a 15 - year ban on felling all trees above 1000 metres in the region directly as a result of the Chipko agitations. This legislation was deeply resented by many communities supporting Chipko because, the regulation further excluded the local people from the forest around them. Opposition to the legislation resulted in so - called ' Ped Katao Andolan ' in the same region, a movement to cut the trees down in order to defy the new legislation. The people behind Chipko movement felt that the government did not understand or care about their economic situation.
Chipko movement, at the very least, suggests that forests in India are an important and integral resource for communities that live within these forests, or survive near the fringes of these forests.
A major threat to forests of India are in its northeastern states. From ancient times, the locals have practiced slash - and - burn shifting cultivation to grow food. Locally called Jhum, it supports about 450,000 families in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Assam and Meghalaya. Approximately 15,000 square kilometers of forest land is under jhum cultivation, and just a sixth of this land is actually producing any crop at any given year. The tribal people consider it a tradition, and economic ecosystem. However, the slash and burn causes damage to a dense forest, to soil, to flora and fauna, as well as pollution. The crop yields are very poor with jhum cultivation. Between 2010 and 2012, satellite studies confirmed a net loss of forest cover over these northeastern states. The lost forest includes primary dense forests. There is a concerted effort by the state government officials to educate, incentivize and train jhum dependent families to horticulture and other high value crops, along with an offer of food supply security. Bamboo - based textiles and value added forest products industries are also being encouraged by the local officials. States such as Arunachal Pradesh reported reduction in Jhum cultivation practice in 2013.
A 1999 publication claimed that protected forest areas in several parts of India, such as Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka and Jharkhand, were vulnerable to illegal logging by timber mafias that have coopted or intimidated forestry officials, local politicians, businesses and citizenry.
Despite these local criminal and corruption issues, satellite data analysis and a 2010 FAO report finds India has added over 4 million hectares of forest cover, a 7 % increase, between 1990 and 2010.
In 1969, forestry in India underwent a major change with the passage of the Forest Rights Act, a new legislation that sought to address the needs of forest dwelling communities that resulted from the failure to record their rights over forest land and resources. It also sought to bring in new forms of community conservation.
Indian peafowl spotted at Kambalakonda Wildlife Sanctuary in Visakhapatnam
Chestnut headed bee - eaters, found in Himalayan forests of India
Hinglajgarh Forest in Madhya Pradesh
Forest cover of Aravalli range in Rajasthan
Mahua seeds, a forest product, are a rich oil source, used for skin care, to make soap, veggie butter and fuel oil.
Tendu leaf, used to make rural cigarettes
Forests of Kerala near Athirappalli Waterfalls
Dry Forests in Andhra Pradesh
Mangrove forests of West Bengal
Tea plantations of Munnar Kerala amidst its forests
Forest cover in Lakshadweep
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who is touring with red hot chili peppers | The Getaway world tour - wikipedia
The Getaway World Tour is an ongoing concert tour by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers that is in support of their eleventh studio album, The Getaway which was released on June 17, 2016. It marked the first time since June 2014 that the band has toured. The tour began with benefit shows and North American festival dates in February 2016 followed by a summer festival tour with dates in Europe, Asia and North America starting in May 2016 and ending in August 2016. The headlining tour to support the album began in Europe in September 2016 and lasted until the end of the year with the North American tour beginning in January 2017 and concluded in July 2017. Another European leg and dates in South American will follow along with rescheduled shows and festival dates in North America in October 2017. Chad Smith said that the entire tour would last for 18 months. The tour placed 32nd at Pollstar 's Year - end top 100 worldwide tours for 2016, grossing a total of $46.2 million from 40 shows.
Prior the summer festival dates in June 2016 and start of their headlining tour in September 2016, the band performed at a few benefit and North American festivals. On February 5, 2016, the band performed in Los Angeles at the FEEL THE BERN political fund - raiser in support of 2016 presidential candidate Bernie Sanders. "Nobody Weird Like Me '' made its return to the set list for the first time since the 2006 -- 07 Stadium Arcadium World Tour. The following night, they performed at a private, invitation - only Super Bowl 50 party in San Francisco called "DirecTV Super Saturday Night Co-Hosted by Mark Cuban 's AXS TV '' where they played "Aeroplane '' for the first time since July 1997. The band also performed covers of "Cracked Actor '' and "Starman '' in tribute to their friend David Bowie, who died the previous month. On April 13, Flea played the national anthem before Kobe Bryant 's final NBA game. That night, the Chili Peppers played four song set at a unannounced private show in Los Angeles, CA in support of Sean Parker and The Parker Foundation Launch for The Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy The band performed a sixteen - song set at the Jazz & Heritage Festival on April 24 where they were joined by The Meters for a jam. On April 29, 2016, Chad Smith and Will Ferrell will host the Red Hot Benefit Comedy + Music Show & Quinceanera. The benefit will featured a performance by the Chili Peppers along with comedy acts selected by Ferrell and Funny or Die. A portion of the proceeds will go to Ferrell 's Cancer for College and Smith 's Silverlake Conservatory of Music. It was announced in March 2016 that the band headline the 25th anniversary Lollapalooza festival in July. The band 's May 14, 2016 performance at the KROQ Weenie Roast was suddenly cancelled prior to them going on stage due to Kiedis suffering stomach pains. The following show, an album preview show for The Getaway on May 17, 2016, was postponed until May 26, 2016. "Dark Necessities '', the lead single from The Getaway, made its live debut on May 22, 2016. New songs "Go Robot '' (the band was joined by Thundercat on bass), "Sick Love '', "The Ticonderoga '' all made their live debuts on May 26, 2016 at the album preview show for iHeartRadio which aired on DirectTV on June 17, 2016. "The Getaway '', the title track to the new album, was released by the band on May 26, 2016 however unknown at the time to fans, the band had teased the song live during their performance of "Give It Away '' at Super Bowl 50 party in San Francisco back in February. The song made its full live debut on May 29, 2016.
On May 14, the band were forced to cancel their headlining slot at the annual KROQ Weenie Roast as Kiedis was rushed to the hospital prior to the band appearing on stage due to severe stomach pain. Flea alongside, Smith and Klinghoffer made an announcement on the stage as they were due to appear. It is unknown whether upcoming shows would be affected as a result Kiedis ' mother Peggy posted the following morning on Facebook that "Anthony will be OK. No surgery is needed. I will keep you updated, I promise '' It was confirmed that Kiedis was suffering from intestinal flu and was expected to make a full recovery soon however the band was forced to postpone their iHeartRadio album preview show on May 17, 2016 and has rescheduled it for May 26, 2016. The band returned to the stage on May 22, 2016 in Columbus, OH. According to Chad Smith, Kiedis had suffered from the stomach flu a few weeks earlier as well. In a May 20, 2016 interview with Entertainment Tonight Canada, his first since being released from the hospital, Kiedis said that his illness was brought on by an "inflammation in my guts '' which he said was complicated by a recent stomach virus and existing scar tissue from previous hernia operations which required his stomach being pumped at the hospital due to his food not being able to properly digest. "That becomes an incredibly painful situation where you get a fever and pass out... Lo an behold, I 'm on the mend '' He went on to say "so it turned out to be a good thing, albeit painful and very sad to have to cancel a show. We do n't really do that. I 'd rather play deathly ill than not play at all, but in this particular instance, I was starting to go down, as in to the ground, so I got rushed to the hospital, got some help, and now I get to figure things out. ''
Singer Anthony Kiedis in a May 5, 2016 interview discussed touring and said they were very excited to have a lot of new songs to play. Kiedis said "this being our second record with Josh, it feels a lot more fulfilling. And, it 's always great to have a job as a musician. It 's great to be in this band. We love seeing the world. But to have all these new songs at our disposal for live shows makes it feel like ' Let 's go. Let 's go. We have a mission now. You do this incredible thing in the studio and then you go practice and rehearse and make sure you can play this stuff live and then you go see the world. You know everywhere; from Asia to South America to Europe and Eastern Europe and hopefully the Middle East and Africa and you know, you give this music life to people far far away that it means something to and you have this communal experience together. And when you just ca n't take it for another day and you 're beat and you 're haggard and you 're tired and you want to collapse and you come home and you gather some new life experience and start writing a little bit and Flea sits down at the piano and says, ' Hey, I have these chords. What do you think about these chords? And I say, hmmm, I hear melody in there and you start it all over again. '' Drummer Chad Smith said on May 17, 2016 that the band would be playing in Europe for pretty much the remainder of the year once the tour starts with the North American tour not happening until 2017.
All purchases of tickets through the band 's website include a free download or physical copy of The Getaway. The production for the arena tour featured over 800 tube lights that stretched out across the audience. Throughout the show they would move up and down and change colour to create different patterns and effects.
The Getaway World Tour got underway on June 4, 2016 with festival dates in Europe, Asia and North America which will last until August 2016.
A day after its release, "We Turn Red '' made its live debut on June 10, 2016 at the Pinkpop festival while "Wet Sand '' was performed for the first time in over two years. Flea, Anthony and Chad also teased George Clinton 's "Bullet Proof '', a song they have n't performed in 23 years. During the opening encore jam, Kiedis took over Flea 's bass while Flea played keyboards and Klinghoffer played piano. The jam included a tease of The Beatles ' "Hey Bulldog ''. After over three years not being performed, "Tell Me Baby '' returned to the setlist on June 12, 2016 at Novarock. The rarely performed "She 's Only 18 '' also made its return after a two - year absence. On June 13, 2016, in a pre-taped segment on The Late Late Show with James Corden, the band appeared in the show 's popular Carpool Karaoke segment. During the filming of the segment, Kiedis saved the life of a baby. "a woman came out of her house, holding a child saying ' My baby, my baby, my baby ca n't breathe! ' We all ran across the street, the woman thrust the baby into my arms, the baby was not breathing and I thought ' I 'm gon na try and do a little baby CPR real quick, see if I can get some air in this kid. ' Tried to open the mouth, (it was) like locked shut. So I started rubbing the belly, bubbles came out of the mouth, the eyes rolled back into place, the ambulance showed up and I handed the baby over, who was now breathing and fine, and we went back to Carpool Karaoke. The little baby looked at me the entire time until the ambulance came, little baby Nina. '' Kiedis said On June 14, 2016, the band performed eight songs at Studios SFP in France. "Dark Necessities '' and "Give it Away '' appeared on the television show Le Grand Journal while the remaining six songs, which included the live debut of "The Longest Wave '', were recorded for radio station RTL2 's "Très Très Privé '' concert series. The Live in Paris EP was released on July 1, 2016 and features five songs from the Canal+ performance in Paris. The EP was released exclusively through the music streaming website Deezer. "Detroit '' made its live debut on June 29, 2016 at the Roskilde Festival while "Goodbye Angels '' made its live debut on July 10, 2016. "Dreams of a Samurai '' made its live debut on July 24, 2016 at the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan.
In an August 2016 interview, Flea discussed touring and playing the same songs saying "Has there ever been a night where I 've been like ' If I play fucking ' Give It Away ' again my cock 's gon na fall off '? Yes. There are moments of having a hard time finding the essence and spirit of a song, but in general it 's all about the people in the end. It 's all about connecting with the people. I try to keep myself in a place of being completely selfless about it and doing my best to use every song, whether it 's one I 've heard a million times or a new one, as a vehicle for connecting with people and making them feel less alone in the world. ''
The band 's European headlining tour began on September 1, 2016 and lasted until mid-December 2016. Deap Vally and Babymetal served as the opening acts. "Feasting on the Flowers '' made its live debut on September 8, 2016 in Oslo, followed by "The Longest Wave '' second time ever played on September 14 in Helsinki. "Search and Destroy '' was performed for the first time since 2003 on September 10, 2016 in Sweden and for the first time with Klinghoffer. At the band 's show of October 11, 2016 in Italy, Anthony 's 9 - year - old son Everly Bear joined his father in singing "Dreams of a Samurai ''. "Do n't Forget Me '' was briefly teased in tribute to a fan from Peru who died the previous year. The band 's show of October 13, 2016 in Montpellier was cancelled due to weather conditions. The band is trying to reschedule the show. "The Zephyr Song '' (which was in the band 's setlist on November 1, 2016 but dropped in favor of "Soul to Squeeze '') was performed for the first time since 2004 and first time with Josh on November 3, 2016. At the band 's show of November 9, 2016 in Amsterdam they performed "Mommy Where 's Daddy? ''. This was only the third time since 1999 the song has been performed. They had previously performed the song acoustically in September 2016 and once in September 2015. "Emit Remmus '' was performed for the first time since 2012 while "Catholic School Girls Rule '' and "Freaky Styley '' were for teased at during the band 's show of November 16, 2016 in Denmark. On November 17, 2016 in Germany the band performed "Yertle the Turtle '' for the first time since 2001. The song was dedicated to one of the band 's longtime fans who had been following them on the tour. Due to Kiedis suffering from flu like symptoms, the band was forced to postpone their December 20 and 21 shows in Ireland until September 20 and 21, 2017.
The band performed two songs before the opening home game of the Los Angeles Rams at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum on September 18, 2016. The Rams made their return to Los Angeles after 22 years in St. Louis. "Since I was a little boy, I 've taken joy in the beauty of the Rams. When I moved to Los Angeles in 1972, I was getting uprooted from my home and I thought, ' Well, where I 'm going they 've got the Rams. It 's going to be all right ' '' Flea said. On September 23, 2016, the band performed a short acoustic set at a benefit for the Silverlake Conservatory of Music. "Mommy, Where 's Daddy? '' from the band 's debut album was performed for only the second time in the past 17 years (it was last performed in late 2015) and for the first time ever acoustically.
The band 's 51 date North American leg began on January 5, 2017 will conclude on July 1, 2017. Due to overwhelming demand for tickets after selling out quickly and in response to scalpers, second shows in Boston and Philadelphia were added while second and third shows in New York City and Los Angeles were also added. Jack Irons, the band 's original drummer and founding member of the band, will serve as opening act on all North American dates while Trombone Shorty and Orleans Avenue, Babymetal, IRONTOM and Deerhoof will serve as opening acts at various dates on the leg. At the opening show on the North American leg in San Antonio on January 5, 2017, the band performed "Breaking the Girl '' for the first time since October 2012. "The Zephyr Song '' was performed for the first time in the United States since July 2004 during the band 's show of January 8, 2017 in Dallas, TX. At that same show, Josh teased a cover of David Bowie 's "The Bewlay Brothers '' as a tribute to Bowie who died a year earlier on January 9, 2016. Members of The Meters, The Rebirth Brass Band and Trombone Shorty joined the band on "Give it Away '' during their show of January 10, 2017 in New Orleans. The band was forced to postpone their Wichita show on January 15, 2017 to the following night due to inclement weather. On February 13, at their Philadelphia gig band teased 50 seconds version of "Out in L.A '', in honor of their 34th anniversary. It was first time that song was performed since 1992 (according to some sources 2004) and first time with Josh. On March 2, 2017, the band announced that they were going to postpone their March 2, 4, 5 shows in Glendale, Denver and San Diego due to Anthony suffering from bronchitis. The San Diego date was rescheduled for later in the month while the other two dates were pushed back to October 2017. On March 17, 2017 at their show in Seattle, the band performed "Charlie '' for the first time since 2012. On April 24, 2017 at their show in Jacksonville, "Encore '' made its live debut, after some teases throughout the previous tours. At the band 's show in Pittsburgh on May 11, 2017 they performed a cover of the Looking Glass song "Brandy (You 're a Fine Girl) ''. The song was last performed in 2005 and played at most shows during their Roll on the Red tour. It also appeared on their Live in Hyde Park album. Following the band 's performance of May 14, 2017 in Columbus, OH, Chad Smith sang the University of Michigan fight song "The Victors ''. Smith 's singing of the fight song made national news as the University of Michigan and Ohio State University are longtime sports rivals and Smith was born in Detroit, MI. Smith 's drumset also like at past shows in Ohio featured the Michigan Wolverines logo. At the band 's show of May 16, 2017 in Louisville, KY, "Mommy, Where 's Daddy? '' was performed. The song, which is very rarely played, was last performed in November 2016 has been performed just four times since 1992 and only three times in the United States since then. "This Ticonderoga '' was also performed for just the third time and first time since September 2016. At the band 's show of May 18, 2017 in Indianapolis, Josh performed a cover of "Seasons '' by Chris Cornell. Cornell, the front man for Soundgarden and Audioslave, was found dead earlier that day. At the band 's show on May 28, 2017 in Edmonton they performed "Dosed '' for the first time ever. It was teased in the past but the song had never been performed in its entirety since it was released in 2002. Zach Irons, son of founding Chili Peppers member Jack Irons and guitarist for opening act IRONTOM, provided a second guitar on the song. At this same show, Flea also briefly teased "Deep Kick '', a song that has n't been performed since 1996. On June 20, at band 's gig in Montreal, band 's cover of Jimi Hendrix 's song, a rarely performed "Fire '' was played for the first time since November 2016 and for the second time in United States since By the Way Tour in 2003 (first time in September 2015, not counting Silverlake charity event in following month where it was performed acoustically). During the band 's show on June 25, 2017 in Grand Rapids, Anthony Kiedis dedicated "Soul to Squeeze '' to his father, Blackie Dammett, who was the long time manager of the band 's fanclub and ran their website. Kiedis said "If you could be so kind. My father is fixin ' to die and that 's OK. He 's had a wild, great journey and a helluva colourful badass life but he 's sick and he 's gon na to die now... He 's pretty lost; he 's just a spirit but I would like for everyone just to take ten seconds to send him some love, to send his spirit some love because pretty soon he will be sailing on and I would appreciate it if his home town could send him love for a whole ten seconds of love. Let 's give it up. Ten! Thank you. Let 's do this tune. Appreciate it. '' Flea also during the show asked for a moment of silence for Hillel Slovak, the band 's founding guitarist who died 29 years earlier. Following the moment of silence, Jack Irons joined his former band on stage to perform Jimi Hendrix 's "Fire '' as a tribute to Slovak.
Dave Rat, who has been with the band since February 1991 as the band 's sound engineer, announced on January 12, 2017 that he would no longer be working with the band following their show of January 22, 2017 in Minnesota.
At the band 's show in Atlanta on April 14, 2017 they shot the music video for their song "Goodbye Angels ''. Chad Smith told the fans on Twitter to "wear something colorful. '' The video was released on May 9, 2017.
The band returned to Europe for a second leg starting on July 13, 2017. The leg will consist of mostly festivals along with some headlining dates with the leg expected to conclude on July 31, 2017. The second date on the leg saw the band perform for the first time ever in Benicassim. The show featured a rare performance of "Fire '' which was performed for only the fifth time on this tour. Mauro Refosco, who was a touring member of the band for their previous tour and also a studio musician on their two most recent albums, joined the band on percussion for "The Adventures of Rain Dance Maggie '' at their July 20, 2017 show in Rome. Kiedis ' young son Everly Bear also joined the band onstage to provide some vocals for "Goodbye Angels '' which he also would do at the band 's very first show in Latvia seven days later.
Due to Anthony Kiedis suffering from the flu, the band 's shows on December 20 and 21, 2016 in Dublin at 3Arena were forced to be postponed and were rescheduled for September 20 and 21, 2017 at the same venue. During the band 's show on September 21 in Dublin they performed "Get on Top '' for the first time with Josh and for the first time since August 2007.
On September 24, 2016, the first date of the leg was confirmed for September 24, 2017 at Rock in Rio. On February 20, 2017 it was announced that the band will perform in Mexico City on October 10, 2017.
Due to Anthony Kiedis suffering from bronchitis, the band was forced to postpone three shows in March 2017 with two of the shows in Denver and Glendale being rescheduled for October 16 and 18, 2017. The band will also perform at the Austin City Limits Music Festival that month.
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when was the the bill of rights written | United States Bill of Rights - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787 -- 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). In practice, the amendments had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 150 years after ratification.
On June 8, 1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the constitution in the House of Representatives. Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, each consisting of one one - sentence paragraph, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty - seventh Amendment. Article One is technically still pending before the states.
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation.
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded.
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi - gods. '' Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention.
On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers '' that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84. Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion -- introduced five days before the end of the convention -- may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author David O. Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude '' while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification ''.
Thirty - nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification.
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism ''. Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections '', which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we can not secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. '' The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus '' wrote,
We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion -- that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed -- that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.
He continued with this observation:
Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I can not help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage.
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations. '' Patrick Henry criticized the federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication. '' Other anti-federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:
Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John.
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states -- Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut -- ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment.
Following Massachusetts ' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights. The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade.
A minority of the Constitution 's critics, such as Maryland 's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. However, Martin 's allies, such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was, '' seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. The New York Anti-Federalist "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before '', but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it.
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year. On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating.
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City 's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison 's victory in that battle at Virginia 's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him. Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments comprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress.
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, he had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. '' He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability ''. Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion ''. Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights -- useful -- not essential -- ''.
On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble. Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one '', limited to protecting individual rights.
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment.
The greatest influence on Madison 's text, however, was existing state constitutions. Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. '' He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions.
First. That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from the people. That government is instituted, and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution. Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made; '' and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to --, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than --, nor more than --, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto. '' Thirdly. That in article 2nd, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit, "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of representatives. '' Fourthly. That in article 2nd, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit, The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in any manner, or on any pretext infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good, nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed, and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same office; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. Fifthly. That in article 2nd, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases Sixthly. That article 3rd, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2nd, these words to wit: but no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to -- dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law. Seventhly. That in article 3rd, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the classes following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence. In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate. Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this constitution, are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the legislative department shall never exercise the powers vested in the executive or judicial; nor the executive exercise the powers vested in the legislative or judicial; nor the judicial exercise the powers vested in the legislative or executive departments. The powers not delegated by this constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively. Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th.
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government. The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution '' before the galleries could shake public confidence. A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789.
The eleven - member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press ''. The House debated the amendments for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would "remain inviolate '', rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed. The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789.
The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789. The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble.
On September 21, 1789, a House - Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28.
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights. ''
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
Having been approved by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. President Washington informed Congress of this on December 30, 1791.
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996.
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution. As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still technically pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted.
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter - writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon. Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two. All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19. Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively.
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931. Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance '' to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment -- a process known as incorporation -- beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments. Through the incorporation process the United States Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. ''
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms. The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights. First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of 2016, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally can not be introduced into a criminal trial. The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left - leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right - leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist.
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self - incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self - incrimination prior to interrogation by police.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:
In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts.
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v. Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states).
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive '' open to interpretation. The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency '' as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976) and Brown v. Plata (2011).
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy. This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government.
Congress has sometimes gotten around the Tenth Amendment by invoking the Commerce Clause in Article One or by threatening to withhold funding for a federal program from noncooperative States, as in South Dakota v. Dole (1987).
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire. Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library. North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003. The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952.
After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved. Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true (American) revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. ''
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.
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what is the name of america capital city | List of capitals in the United States - wikipedia
Washington, D.C. is the current federal capital city of the United States, as it has been since 1800. Each U.S. state has its own capital city, as do many of its Insular areas. Historically, most states have not changed their capital city since becoming a state, but the capital cities of their respective preceding colonies, territories, kingdoms, and republics typically changed multiple times. There have also been other governments within the current borders of the United States with their own capitals, such as the Republic of Texas, Native American nations, and other unrecognized governments.
The dates listed in the following table indicate the year in which the city started to continuously serve as the state 's sole capital. Most states have changed their capital city at least once -- see Historical state, colonial, and territorial capitals for details. In the case of the thirteen original states, "statehood '' in the table refers to date of ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
An insular area is a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Those insular areas with territorial capitals are listed below.
From 1774 to 1800, Congress met in numerous locations; therefore, the following cities can be said to have once been the United States capital:
Prior to becoming a territory of the United States in 1898, Hawaii was an independent country. Five sites served as its capital:
Before joining the United States under the Texas Annexation in 1845, Texas was an independent nation known as the Republic of Texas. Seven cities served as its capital:
Some Native American tribes, in particular the Five Civilized Tribes, organized their states with constitutions and capitals in Western style. Others, like the Iroquois, had long - standing, pre-Columbian traditions of a ' capitol ' longhouse where wampum and council fires were maintained with special status. Since they did business with the U.S. Federal Government, these capitals can be seen as officially recognized in some sense.
New Echota, now near Calhoun, Georgia was founded in 1825, realizing the dream and plans of Cherokee Chief Major Ridge. Major Ridge chose the site because of its centrality in the historic Cherokee Nation which spanned parts of Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Alabama, and because it was near the confluence of the Conasauga and Coosawattee rivers. The town 's layout was partly inspired by Ridge 's many visits to Washington D.C. and to Baltimore, but also invoked traditional themes of the Southeastern ceremonial complex. Complete with the Council House, Supreme Court, Cherokee syllabary printing press, and the houses of several of the Nation 's constitutional officers, New Echota served as the capital until 1832 when the state of Georgia outlawed Native American assembly in an attempt to undermine the Nation. Thousands of Cherokee would gather in New Echota for the annual National Councils, camping along the nearby rivers and holding long stomp dances in the park - like woods that were typical of many Southeastern Native American settlements.
The Cherokee National council grounds were moved to Red Clay, Tennessee on the Georgia state line in order to evade the Georgia state militia. The log cabins, limestone springs and park - like woods of Red Clay served as the capital until the Cherokee Nation was removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) on the Trail of Tears.
Tahlequah, in present - day Oklahoma, served as the capital of the original Cherokee Nation after Removal. After the Civil War, a turbulent period for the Nation which was involved in its own civil war resulting from pervasive anger and disagreements over removal from Georgia, the Cherokee Nation built a new National Capitol in Tahlequah out of brick. The building served as the capitol until 1907, when the Dawes Act finally dissolved the Cherokee Nation and Tahlequah became the county seat of Cherokee County, Oklahoma. The Cherokee National government was re-established in 1938 and Tahlequah remains the capital of the modern Cherokee Nation; it is also the capital of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians.
Approximately four to eight hundred Cherokees escaped removal because they lived on a separated tract, purchased later with the help of Confederate Colonel William Holland Thomas, along the Oconaluftee river deep in the Smoky Mountains of North Carolina. Some Cherokees fleeing the Federal Army sent for the "round up, '' fled to the remote settlements separated from the rest of the Cherokee Territory in Georgia and North Carolina in order to remain in their homeland. In the 20th century, their descendants organized as the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians; its capital is at Cherokee, North Carolina, in the tribally - controlled Qualla Boundary.
After Removal from their Alabama - Georgia homeland, the Creek national government met near Hot Springs which was then part of their new territory as prescribed in the Treaty of Cusseta. However, the Union forced the Creeks to cede over three million acres (half of their land) of what is now Arkansas, after some Creeks fought with the Confederacy in the American Civil War.
Served as the National capital after the American Civil War. It was probably named after Ocmulgee, on the Ocmulgee river in Macon, a principle Coosa and later Creek town built with mounds and functioning as part of the Southeastern ceremonial complex. However, there were other traditional Creek "mother - towns '' before removal. The Ocmulgee mounds were ceded illegally in 1821 with the Treaty of Indian Springs.
The Iroquois Confederacy or Haudenosaunee, which means "People of the Longhouse, '' was an alliance between the Five and later Six - Nations of Iroquoian language and culture of upstate New York. These include the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk, and, after 1722, the Tuscarora Nations. Since the Confederacy 's formation around 1450, the Onondaga Nation has held privilege of hosting the Iroquois Grand Council and the status of Keepers of the Fire and the Wampum -- which they still do at the official Longhouse on the Onondaga Reservation. Now spread over reservations in New York and Ontario, the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee preserve this arrangement to this day in what they claim to be the "world 's oldest representative democracy. ''
The Seneca Nation republic was founded in 1848 and has two capitals that rotate responsibilities every two years. Jimerson Town was founded in the 1960s following the formation of the Allegheny Reservoir. The Senecas also have an administrative longhouse in Steamburg but do not consider that location to be a capital.
Window Rock (Navajo: Tségháhoodzání), Arizona, is a small city that serves as the seat of government and capital of the Navajo Nation (1936 -- present), the largest territory of a sovereign Native American nation in North America. It lies within the boundaries of the St. Michaels Chapter, adjacent to the Arizona and New Mexico state line. Window Rock hosts the Navajo Nation governmental campus which contains the Navajo Nation Council, Navajo Nation Supreme Court, the offices of the Navajo Nation President and Vice President, and many Navajo government buildings.
There have been a handful of nations within the current borders of the United States which were never officially recognized as legally independent sovereign entities; however, these nations did have de facto control over their respective regions during their existence.
Before joining the United States as the fourteenth state, Vermont was an independent republic known as the Vermont Republic. Two cities served as the capital of the Republic:
The current capital of the State of Vermont is Montpelier.
The State of Franklin was an autonomous, secessionist United States territory created, not long after the end of the American Revolution, from territory that later was ceded by North Carolina to the federal government. Franklin 's territory later became part of the state of Tennessee. Franklin was never officially admitted into the Union of the United States and existed for only four years.
The State of Muskogee was a short - lived Native American state in Florida. It consisted of several tribes of Creeks and Seminoles. It existed from 1799 to 1803. It had one capital:
The Republic of West Florida was a short - lived republic involving the area known today as Louisiana 's Florida Parishes -- at the time the westernmost portion of Spanish West Florida. The area was soon seized by the United States under President James Madison and incorporated into the Territory of Orleans.
The Republic of Indian Stream was an unrecognized independent nation within the present state of New Hampshire.
Before being annexed by the United States in 1848 (following the Mexican -- American War), a small portion of north - central California declared itself the California Republic, in an act of independence from Mexico, in 1846 (see Bear Flag Revolt). The republic only existed a month before it disbanded itself, to join the advancing American army and therefore became part of the United States.
The very short - lived California Republic was never recognized by the United States, Mexico or any other nation. There was one de facto capital of the California Republic:
The Confederate States of America (C.S.A.) had two capitals during its existence. The first capital was established February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, Alabama, and remained there until it was moved to Richmond, Virginia, on May 29, 1861.
The individual state capitals remained the same in the Confederacy as they had been in the Union (U.S.A.), although as the advancing Union Army used those cities for military districts, some of the Confederate governments were relocated or moved out of state, traveling along with secessionist armies.
Most of the original Thirteen Colonies had their capitals occupied or attacked by the British during the American Revolutionary War. State governments operated where and as they could. The City of New York was occupied by British troops from 1776 to 1783. A similar situation occurred during the War of 1812, during the American Civil War in many Confederate states, and during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 -- 1692 in New Mexico.
Twenty - two state capitals have been a capital longer than their state has been a state, since they served as the capital of a predecessor territory, colony, or republic. Boston, Massachusetts, has been a capital city since 1630; it is the oldest continuously - running capital in the United States. Santa Fe, New Mexico, is the oldest capital city, having become capital in 1610 and interrupted only by the aforementioned Pueblo Revolt. An even older Spanish city, St. Augustine, Florida, served as a colonial capital from 1565 until about 1820, more than 250 years.
The table below includes the following information:
^ (a) Even though the urbanized area of Carson City is about 15 miles (24 km) from the California border, the larger Consolidated Municipality of Carson City does form part of the Nevada state border. Similarly, the City and Borough of Juneau extends eastward to British Columbia, although the urbanized area of Juneau is about 35 miles (56 km) from the Canada -- US border. ^ (b) Congress was forced to move from Philadelphia due to a riot of angry soldiers. See: Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 ^ (c) President James Madison fled to the home of Caleb Bentley in Brookeville, Maryland following the burning of Washington on August 24 -- 25, 1814. As such, the town claims to have been the "U.S. Capital for a Day '' despite the fact that Congress never met there. See: "A Brief History ''. Town of Brookeville, Maryland. 2006. Archived from the original on 2008 - 12 - 07. Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 07. ^ (d) Due to flooding in Sacramento, San Francisco served as a temporary capital from January 24, 1862 to May 15, 1862. See "California 's State Capitols 1850 -- present '' (PDF)... ^ (e) The District of Columbia was formed February 27, 1801, with the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801. The city of Washington was founded in 1791 and construction of the new capital began while it was still part of Maryland. President John Adams moved to the White House on November 1, 1800 and the 6th United States Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17, 1800.
Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.
And, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.
Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the Native Americans and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final "s '' silent, the "a '' in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of "a '' in "man '' and the sounding of the terminal "s '' is an innovation to be discouraged.
Citizens of the State of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River / ɑːr ˈkænzəs / in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.
Nation:
States:
Territories:
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which type of volcano has explosive eruptions due to thick magma | Types of volcanic eruptions - wikipedia
Several types of volcanic eruptions -- during which lava, tephra (ash, lapilli, volcanic bombs and volcanic blocks), and assorted gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure -- have been distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series.
There are three different types of eruptions. The most well - observed are magmatic eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward. Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma, the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The third eruptive type is the phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma; these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of existing rock.
Within these wide - defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian, followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest eruptions are called "Ultra-Plinian. '' Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types.
Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms:
There are two types of eruptions in terms of activity, explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas - driven explosions that propels magma and tephra. Effusive eruptions, meanwhile, are characterized by the outpouring of lava without significant explosive eruption.
Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength. On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions, which are characterized by lava fountains and fluid lava flows, which are typically not very dangerous. On the other extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent, and highly dangerous explosive events. Volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style, and frequently display many different types, both passive and explosive, even in the span of a single eruptive cycle. Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak, either. Some volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure eruptions. Notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start from rift zones, and some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along fracture zones. Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the chamber before climbing upward -- a process estimated to take several thousands of years. But Columbia University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica 's Irazú Volcano in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the mantle over just a few months.
The volcanic explosivity index (commonly shortened to VEI) is a scale, from 0 to 8, for measuring the strength of eruptions. It is used by the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program in assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows. It operates in a way similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes, in that each interval in value represents a tenfold increasing in magnitude (it is logarithmic). The vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2.
Volcanic eruptions by VEI index
Magmatic eruptions produce juvenile clasts during explosive decompression from gas release. They range in intensity from the relatively small lava fountains on Hawaii to catastrophic Ultra-Plinian eruption columns more than 30 km (19 mi) high, bigger than the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 that buried Pompeii.
Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the Hawaiian volcanoes with which this eruptive type is hallmark. Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic events, characterized by the effusive eruption of very fluid basalt - type lavas with low gaseous content. The volume of ejected material from Hawaiian eruptions is less than half of that found in other eruptive types. Steady production of small amounts of lava builds up the large, broad form of a shield volcano. Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other volcanic types, and often occur at vents around the summit and from fissure vents radiating out of the center.
Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a fissure vent, a so - called "curtain of fire. '' These die down as the lava begins to concentrate at a few of the vents. Central - vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery scoria fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with clasts, they can not cool off fast enough due to the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, the accumulation of which forms spatter cones. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter - fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived; Puʻu ʻŌʻō, a cinder cone of Kilauea, has been erupting continuously since 1983. Another Hawaiian volcanic feature is the formation of active lava lakes, self - maintaining pools of raw lava with a thin crust of semi-cooled rock; there are currently only 6 such lakes in the world, and the one at Kīlauea 's Kupaianaha vent is one of them.
Flows from Hawaiian eruptions are basaltic, and can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics. Pahoehoe lava is a relatively smooth lava flow that can be billowy or ropey. They can move as one sheet, by the advancement of "toes, '' or as a snaking lava column. A'a lava flows are denser and more viscous than pahoehoe, and tend to move slower. Flows can measure 2 to 20 m (7 to 66 ft) thick. A'a flows are so thick that the outside layers cools into a rubble - like mass, insulating the still - hot interior and preventing it from cooling. A'a lava moves in a peculiar way -- the front of the flow steepens due to pressure from behind until it breaks off, after which the general mass behind it moves forward. Pahoehoe lava can sometimes become A'a lava due to increasing viscosity or increasing rate of shear, but A'a lava never turns into pahoehoe flow.
Hawaiian eruptions are responsible for several unique volcanological objects. Small volcanic particles are carried and formed by the wind, chilling quickly into teardrop - shaped glassy fragments known as Pele 's tears (after Pele, the Hawaiian volcano deity). During especially high winds these chunks may even take the form of long drawn - out strands, known as Pele 's hair. Sometimes basalt aerates into reticulite, the lowest density rock type on earth.
Although Hawaiian eruptions are named after the volcanoes of Hawaii, they are not necessarily restricted to them; the largest lava fountain ever recorded formed on the island of Izu Ōshima (on Mount Mihara) in 1986, a 1,600 m (5,249 ft) gusher that was more than twice as high as the mountain itself (which stands at 764 m (2,507 ft)).
Volcanoes known to have Hawaiian activity include:
Strombolian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano Stromboli, which has been erupting continuously for centuries. Strombolian eruptions are driven by the bursting of gas bubbles within the magma. These gas bubbles within the magma accumulate and coalesce into large bubbles, called gas slugs. These grow large enough to rise through the lava column. Upon reaching the surface, the difference in air pressure causes the bubble to burst with a loud pop, throwing magma in the air in a way similar to a soap bubble. Because of the high gas pressures associated with the lavas, continued activity is generally in the form of episodic explosive eruptions accompanied by the distinctive loud blasts. During eruptions, these blasts occur as often as every few minutes.
The term "Strombolian '' has been used indiscriminately to describe a wide variety of volcanic eruptions, varying from small volcanic blasts to large eruptive columns. In reality, true Strombolian eruptions are characterized by short - lived and explosive eruptions of lavas with intermediate viscosity, often ejected high into the air. Columns can measure hundreds of meters in height. The lavas formed by Strombolian eruptions are a form of relatively viscous basaltic lava, and its end product is mostly scoria. The relative passivity of Strombolian eruptions, and its non-damaging nature to its source vent allow Strombolian eruptions to continue unabated for thousands of years, and also makes it one of the least dangerous eruptive types.
Strombolian eruptions eject volcanic bombs and lapilli fragments that travel in parabolic paths before landing around their source vent. The steady accumulation of small fragments builds cinder cones composed completely of basaltic pyroclasts. This form of accumulation tends to result in well - ordered rings of tephra.
Strombolian eruptions are similar to Hawaiian eruptions, but there are differences. Strombolian eruptions are noisier, produce no sustained eruptive columns, do not produce some volcanic products associated with Hawaiian volcanism (specifically Pele 's tears and Pele 's hair), and produce fewer molten lava flows (although the eruptive material does tend to form small rivulets).
Volcanoes known to have Strombolian activity include:
Vulcanian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano Vulcano. It was named so following Giuseppe Mercalli 's observations of its 1888 -- 1890 eruptions. In Vulcanian eruptions, intermediate viscous magma within the volcano make it difficult for vesiculate gases to escape. Similar to Strombolian eruptions, this leads to the buildup of high gas pressure, eventually popping the cap holding the magma down and resulting in an explosive eruption. However, unlike Strombolian eruptions, ejected lava fragments are not aerodynamic; this is due to the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma and the greater incorporation of crystalline material broken off from the former cap. They are also more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts, with eruptive columns often reaching between 5 and 10 km (3 and 6 mi) high. Lastly, Vulcanian deposits are andesitic to dacitic rather than basaltic.
Initial Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short - lived explosions, lasting a few minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of volcanic bombs and blocks. These eruptions wear down the lava dome holding the magma down, and it disintegrates, leading to much more quiet and continuous eruptions. Thus an early sign of future Vulcanian activity is lava dome growth, and its collapse generates an outpouring of pyroclastic material down the volcano 's slope.
Deposits near the source vent consist of large volcanic blocks and bombs, with so - called "bread - crust bombs '' being especially common. These deeply cracked volcanic chunks form when the exterior of ejected lava cools quickly into a glassy or fine - grained shell, but the inside continues to cool and vesiculate. The center of the fragment expands, cracking the exterior. However the bulk of Vulcanian deposits are fine grained ash. The ash is only moderately dispersed, and its abundance indicates a high degree of fragmentation, the result of high gas contents within the magma. In some cases these have been found to be the result of interaction with meteoric water, suggesting that Vulcanian eruptions are partially hydrovolcanic.
Volcanoes that have exhibited Vulcanian activity include:
Peléan eruptions (or nuée ardente) are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano Mount Pelée in Martinique, the site of a massive Peléan eruption in 1902 that is one of the worst natural disasters in history. In Peléan eruptions, a large amount of gas, dust, ash, and lava fragments are blown out the volcano 's central crater, driven by the collapse of rhyolite, dacite, and andesite lava dome collapses that often create large eruptive columns. An early sign of a coming eruption is the growth of a so - called Peléan or lava spine, a bulge in the volcano 's summit preempting its total collapse. The material collapses upon itself, forming a fast - moving pyroclastic flow (known as a block - and - ash flow) that moves down the side of the mountain at tremendous speeds, often over 150 km (93 mi) per hour. These massive landslides make Peléan eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world, capable of tearing through populated areas and causing massive loss of life. The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée caused tremendous destruction, killing more than 30,000 people and completely destroying the town of St. Pierre, the worst volcanic event in the 20th century.
Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the incandescent pyroclastic flows that they drive. The mechanics of a Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a Vulcanian eruption, except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano 's structure is able to withstand more pressure, hence the eruption occurs as one large explosion rather than several smaller ones.
Volcanoes known to have Peléan activity include:
Pyroclastic flows at Mayon Volcano, Philippines, 1984.
The lava spine that developed after the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée
Mount Lamington following the devastating 1951 eruption.
Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian) are a type of volcanic eruption, named for the historical eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD that buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and, specifically, for its chronicler Pliny the Younger. The process powering Plinian eruptions starts in the magma chamber, where dissolved volatile gases are stored in the magma. The gases vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the magma conduit. These bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size (about 75 % of the total volume of the magma conduit) they explode. The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated magma up, forming an eruptive column. Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas contents of the column, and low - strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of the eruption, forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster.
These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up 2 to 45 km (1 to 28 mi) into the atmosphere. The densest part of the plume, directly above the volcano, is driven internally by gas expansion. As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense, convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even further up into the stratosphere. At the top of the plume, powerful prevailing winds drive the plume in a direction away from the volcano.
These highly explosive eruptions are associated with volatile - rich dacitic to rhyolitic lavas, and occur most typically at stratovolcanoes. Eruptions can last anywhere from hours to days, with longer eruptions being associated with more felsic volcanoes. Although they are associated with felsic magma, Plinian eruptions can just as well occur at basaltic volcanoes, given that the magma chamber differentiates and has a structure rich in silicon dioxide.
Plinian eruptions are similar to both Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions, except that rather than creating discrete explosive events, Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns. They are also similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in that both eruptive types produce sustained eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as the magma surrounding them.
Regions affected by Plinian eruptions are subjected to heavy pumice airfall affecting an area 0.5 to 50 km (0 to 12 cu mi) in size. The material in the ash plume eventually finds its way back to the ground, covering the landscape in a thick layer of many cubic kilometers of ash.
However the most dangerous eruptive feature are the pyroclastic flows generated by material collapse, which move down the side of the mountain at extreme speeds of up to 700 km (435 mi) per hour and with the ability to extend the reach of the eruption hundreds of kilometers. The ejection of hot material from the volcano 's summit melts snowbanks and ice deposits on the volcano, which mixes with tephra to form lahars, fast moving mudslides with the consistency of wet concrete that move at the speed of a river rapid.
Major Plinian eruptive events include:
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are eruptions that arise from interactions between water and magma. They are driven from thermal contraction (as opposed to magmatic eruptions, which are driven by thermal expansion) of magma when it comes in contact with water. This temperature difference between the two causes violent water - lava interactions that make up the eruption. The products of phreatomagmatic eruptions are believed to be more regular in shape and finer grained than the products of magmatic eruptions because of the differences in eruptive mechanisms.
There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions, and some scientists believe that fuel - coolant reactions may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal contraction. Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by propagating stress waves, widening cracks and increasing surface area that ultimately leads to rapid cooling and explosive contraction - driven eruptions.
A Surtseyan eruption (or hydrovolcanic) is a type of volcanic eruption caused by shallow - water interactions between water and lava, named so after its most famous example, the eruption and formation of the island of Surtsey off the coast of Iceland in 1963. Surtseyan eruptions are the "wet '' equivalent of ground - based Strombolian eruptions, but because of where they are taking place they are much more explosive. This is because as water is heated by lava, it flashes in steam and expands violently, fragmenting the magma it is in contact with into fine - grained ash. Surtseyan eruptions are the hallmark of shallow - water volcanic oceanic islands, however they are not specifically confined to them. Surtseyan eruptions can happen on land as well, and are caused by rising magma that comes into contact with an aquifer (water - bearing rock formation) at shallow levels under the volcano. The products of Surtseyan eruptions are generally oxidized palagonite basalts (though andesitic eruptions do occur, albeit rarely), and like Strombolian eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous or otherwise rhythmic.
A distinct defining feature of a Surtseyan eruption is the formation of a pyroclastic surge (or base surge), a ground hugging radial cloud that develops along with the eruption column. Base surges are caused by the gravitational collapse of a vaporous eruptive column, one that is denser overall then a regular volcanic column. The densest part of the cloud is nearest to the vent, resulting a wedge shape. Associated with these laterally moving rings are dune - shaped depositions of rock left behind by the lateral movement. These are occasionally disrupted by bomb sags, rock that was flung out by the explosive eruption and followed a ballistic path to the ground. Accumulations of wet, spherical ash known as accretionary lapilli is another common surge indicator.
Over time Surtseyan eruptions tend to form maars, broad low - relief volcanic craters dug into the ground, and tuff rings, circular structures built of rapidly quenched lava. These structures are associated with a single vent eruption, however if eruptions arise along fracture zones a rift zone may be dug out; these eruptions tend to be more violent then the ones forming a tuff ring or maars, an example being the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera. Littoral cones are another hydrovolcanic feature, generated by the explosive deposition of basaltic tephra (although they are not truly volcanic vents). They form when lava accumulates within cracks in lava, superheats and explodes in a steam explosion, breaking the rock apart and depositing it on the volcano 's flank. Consecutive explosions of this type eventually generate the cone.
Volcanoes known to have Surtseyan activity include:
Surtsey, erupting 13 days after breaching the water. A tuff ring surrounds the vent.
The fissure formed by the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera, an example of a fracture zone eruption.
Submarine eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption that occurs underwater. An estimated 75 % of the total volcanic eruptive volume is generated by submarine eruptions near mid ocean ridges alone, however because of the problems associated with detecting deep sea volcanics, they remained virtually unknown until advances in the 1990s made it possible to observe them.
Submarine eruptions may produce seamounts which may break the surface to form volcanic islands and island chains.
Submarine volcanism is driven by various processes. Volcanoes near plate boundaries and mid-ocean ridges are built by the decompression melting of mantle rock that rises on an upwelling portion of a convection cell to the crustal surface. Eruptions associated with subducting zones, meanwhile, are driven by subducting plates that add volatiles to the rising plate, lowering its melting point. Each process generates different rock; mid-ocean ridge volcanics are primarily basaltic, whereas subduction flows are mostly calc - alkaline, and more explosive and viscous.
Spreading rates along mid-ocean ridges vary widely, from 2 cm (0.8 in) per year at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, to up to 16 cm (6 in) along the East Pacific Rise. Higher spreading rates are a probably cause for higher levels of volcanism. The technology for studying seamount eruptions did not exist until advancements in hydrophone technology made it possible to "listen '' to acoustic waves, known as T - waves, released by submarine earthquakes associated with submarine volcanic eruptions. The reason for this is that land - based seismometers can not detect sea - based earthquakes below a magnitude of 4, but acoustic waves travel well in water and long periods of time. A system in the North Pacific, maintained by the United States Navy and originally intended for the detection of submarines, has detected an event on average every 2 to 3 years.
The most common underwater flow is pillow lava, a circular lava flow named after its unusual shape. Less common are glassy, marginal sheet flows, indicative of larger - scale flows. Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks are common in shallow - water environments. As plate movement starts to carry the volcanoes away from their eruptive source, eruption rates start to die down, and water erosion grinds the volcano down. The final stages of eruption caps the seamount in alkalic flows. There are about 100,000 deepwater volcanoes in the world, although most are beyond the active stage of their life. Some exemplary seamounts are Loihi Seamount, Bowie Seamount, Davidson Seamount, and Axial Seamount.
Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized by interactions between lava and ice, often under a glacier. The nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of high latitude and high altitude. It has been suggested that subglacial volcanoes that are not actively erupting often dump heat into the ice covering them, producing meltwater. This meltwater mix means that subglacial eruptions often generate dangerous jökulhlaups (floods) and lahars.
The study of glaciovolcanism is still a relatively new field. Early accounts described the unusual flat - topped steep - sided volcanoes (called tuyas) in Iceland that were suggested to have formed from eruptions below ice. The first English - language paper on the subject was published in 1947 by William Henry Mathews, describing the Tuya Butte field in northwest British Columbia, Canada. The eruptive process that builds these structures, originally inferred in the paper, begins with volcanic growth below the glacier. At first the eruptions resemble those that occur in the deep sea, forming piles of pillow lava at the base of the volcanic structure. Some of the lava shatters when it comes in contact with the cold ice, forming a glassy breccia called hyaloclastite. After a while the ice finally melts into a lake, and the more explosive eruptions of Surtseyan activity begins, building up flanks made up of mostly hyaloclastite. Eventually the lake boils off from continued volcanism, and the lava flows become more effusive and thicken as the lava cools much more slowly, often forming columnar jointing. Well - preserved tuyas show all of these stages, for example Hjorleifshofdi in Iceland.
Products of volcano - ice interactions stand as various structures, whose shape is dependent on complex eruptive and environmental interactions. Glacial volcanism is a good indicator of past ice distribution, making it an important climatic marker. Since they are imbedded in ice, as ice retracts worldwide there are concerns that tuyas and other structures may destabalize, resulting in mass landslides. Evidence of volcanic - glacial interactions are evident in Iceland and parts of British Columbia, and it is even possible that they play a role in deglaciation.
Glaciovolcanic products have been identified in Iceland, the Canadian province of British Columbia, the U.S. states of Hawaii and Alaska, the Cascade Range of western North America, South America and even on the planet Mars. Volcanoes known to have subglacial activity include:
Viable microbial communities have been found living in deep (− 2800 m) geothermal groundwater at 349 K and pressures > 300 bar. Furthermore, microbes have been postulated to exist in basaltic rocks in rinds of altered volcanic glass. All of these conditions could exist in polar regions of Mars today where subglacial volcanism has occurred.
Phreatic eruptions (or steam - blast eruptions) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of steam. When cold ground or surface water come into contact with hot rock or magma it superheats and explodes, fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of steam, water, ash, volcanic bombs, and volcanic blocks. The distinguishing feature of phreatic explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit; no new magma is erupted. Because they are driven by the cracking of rock strata under pressure, phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption; if the rock face is strong enough to withstand the explosive force, outright eruptions may not occur, although cracks in the rock will probably develop and weaken it, furthering future eruptions.
Often a precursor of future volcanic activity, phreatic eruptions are generally weak, although there have been exceptions. Some phreatic events may be triggered by earthquake activity, another volcanic precursor, and they may also travel along dike lines. Phreatic eruptions form base surges, lahars, avalanches, and volcanic block "rain. '' They may also release deadly toxic gas able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption.
Volcanoes known to exhibit phreatic activity include:
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who wrote i was jack you were diane | I Was Jack (You Were Diane) - wikipedia
"I Was Jack (You Were Diane) '' is a song written by David Ray, Tommy Cecil, Jody Stevens, Craig Wiseman, and John Mellencamp and recorded by American country music singer Jake Owen. This was Owen 's first single release for Big Loud Records.
The song is a tribute to John Mellencamp 's 1982 single "Jack & Diane '', and credits Mellencamp as a co-writer for incorporating that song 's guitar riff. Rolling Stone writer Chris Parton described the song as "Owen 's updated version highlights the original 's impact on present - day America, while a regular Joe reminisces about falling in love to the tune years before. '' Owen said that he asked Mellencamp personally for permission to incorporate portions of "Jack & Diane '' into the song, and recorded it after receiving Mellencamp 's permission. Owen said that he wanted to record it because of the feelings of nostalgia that the lyrics evoked in him.
The song is Owen 's first release on Big Loud Records, following a decade on RCA Records Nashville.
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top country and western songs of the 70's | List of Billboard number - one country hits - wikipedia
This is a list of number - one country songs in the United States by year from the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart.
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the pyramid of kukulcan was used as a tomb | El Castillo, Chichen Itza - wikipedia
El Castillo (Spanish pronunciation: (el kas'tiʎo), Spanish for "the castle ''), also known as the Temple of Kukulcan (or sometimes Kukulkan), is a Mesoamerican step - pyramid that dominates the center of the Chichen Itza archaeological site in the Mexican state of Yucatán. The building is more formally designated by archaeologists as Chichen Itza Structure 5B18.
Built by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization sometime between the 9th and 12th centuries CE, El Castillo served as a temple to the god Kukulkan, the Yucatec Maya Feathered Serpent deity closely related to the god Quetzalcoatl known to the Aztecs and other central Mexican cultures of the Postclassic period.
The pyramid consists of a series of square terraces with stairways up each of the four sides to the temple on top. Sculptures of plumed serpents run down the sides of the northern balustrade. During the spring and autumn equinoxes, the late afternoon sun strikes off the northwest corner of the pyramid and casts a series of triangular shadows against the northwest balustrade, creating the illusion of a feathered serpent "crawling '' down the pyramid. The event has been very popular, but it is questionable whether it is a result of a purposeful design. Each of the pyramid 's four sides has 91 steps which, when added together and including the temple platform on top as the final "step '', produces a total of 365 steps (which is equal to the number of days of the Haab ' year).
The structure is 24 m (79 ft) high, plus an additional 6 m (20 ft) for the temple. The square base measures 55.3 m (181 ft) across.
In 1566, the pyramid was described by Friar Diego de Landa in the manuscript known as Yucatán at the Time of the Spanish Encounter (Relación de las cosas de Yucatán). Almost three centuries later, John Lloyd Stephens described with even more detail the architecture of the pyramid in his book Incidents of Travel in Yucatán (Incidentes del viaje Yucatán), published in 1843. At that time, the archaeological site of Chichén Itzá was located on an estate, also called Chichén Itzá, owned by Juan Sosa. Frederick Catherwood illustrated the book with lithographs depicting the pyramid covered in abundant vegetation on all sides. There are some photographs taken in the beginning of the 20th century that also show the pyramid partially covered by said vegetation.
In 1924, the Carnegie Institution for Science in Washington, D.C. requested permission from the Mexican government to carry out explorations and restoration efforts in and around the area of Chichen Itza. In 1927, with the assistance of Mexican archaeologists they started the task. In April 1931, looking to confirm the hypothesis that the structure of the pyramid of Kukulkan was built on top of a much older pyramid, the work of excavation and exploration began in spite of generalized beliefs contrary to that hypothesis. On June 7, 1932, a box with coral, obsidian, and turquoise encrusted objects was found alongside human remains, which are exhibited in the National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City.
After extensive work, in April 1935, a Chac Mool statue, with its nails, teeth, and eyes inlaid with mother of pearl was found inside the pyramid. The room where the discovery was made was nicknamed the hall of offerings or the north chamber. After more than a year of excavation, in August 1936, a second room was found, only meters away from the first. Inside this room, nicknamed the chamber of sacrifices, archaeologists found two parallel rows of human bone set into the back wall, as well as a red jaguar statue with 74 jade inlays for spots, jade crescents for eyes, and white painted flint for teeth and fangs. On its back was found a turquoise disc apparently used for burning incense. Both figures were found facing north - northeast. Researchers concluded that there must be an inner pyramid approximately 33 m (108 ft) wide, shaped similarly to the outer pyramid, with nine steps and a height of 17 m (56 ft) up to the base of the temple where the Chac Mool and the jaguar were found. It is estimated that this construction dates to the eleventh century CE. After all of the work was completed, an entryway was cut into the balustrade of the northeastern exterior staircase to provide access to tourists. The older, inner pyramid is referred to as the "substructure ''.
El Castillo before excavation, 1860
Situation map of El Castillo
North side of El Castillo
Plumed Serpent (Kukulkan)
Chichen Itza Equinox
Ballcourt
The north (main) face of the pyramid has an azimuth of 111.72 °, corresponding to sunsets on May 20 and July 24.
The NE and SW corners are together aligned to the rising and setting of the sun on each of the two days of the solar zenith passage (approximately May 24 and July 19).
In recent years, the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), which manages the archaeological site of Chichen Itza, has been closing monuments to public. While visitors can walk around them, they can no longer climb them or go inside their chambers. Climbing El Castillo was stopped in 2006, after a woman fell to her death. At the same time INAH closed the public access to the interior throne room.
Today "El Castillo '' is one of the most recognized and widely visited pre-Columbian structures in present - day Mexico.
Additionally, researchers have discovered an enormous cenote (also known as a sinkhole) beneath the 1,000 - year - old temple of Kulkulkan. The forming sinkhole beneath the temple is around 82 by 114 feet (25 by 35 meters) and up to 65 feet (20 meters) deep. The water filling the cavern is thought to run from north to south.
Researchers also found a layer of limestone about 16 feet (4.9 meters) thick at the top of the cenote, on which the pyramid is sitting.
The discovery was made using new technology that involved placing electrodes in the area surrounding the structure, and delivering an electrical current to the ground. While the current was being emitted measurements were taken to determine whether there were sub-surface elements that impede or increased electrical potential. The measurements would then be processed by software, and three - dimensional maps of the underground area were created from the results.
Gray, Richard. "Sacred Sinkhole Discovered 1,000 - year - old - Mayan - Temple - Eventually - Destroy - Pyramid. '' Science & tech August 17, 2015. Dailymail. Web. August 17, 2015.
Justice, Adam. "Scientists discover sacred sinkhole cave under Chichen Itza pyramid. '' Science (2015). Ibtimes. Web. August 14, 2015.
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when is the next tales game coming out | Tales (series) - wikipedia
The Tales series, known in Japan as the Tales of series (Japanese: 「 テイルズ オブ 」 シリーズ, Hepburn: "Teiruzu Obu '' Shirīzu), is a franchise of fantasy role - playing video games published by Bandai Namco Entertainment (formerly Namco), and developed by its subsidiary, Namco Tales Studio until 2011 and presently by Bandai Namco. First begun in 1995 with the development and release of Tales of Phantasia for the Super Famicom, the series currently spans sixteen main titles, multiple spin - off games and supplementary media in the form of manga series, anime series, and audio dramas.
While entries in the series generally stand independent of each other with different characters and stories, they are commonly linked by their gameplay, themes and high fantasy settings. The series is characterized by its art style, which draws from Japanese manga and anime, and its action - based fighting system called the "Linear Motion Battle System ''. Multiple people have become linked with the series, including character designers Kōsuke Fujishima and Mutsumi Inomata, producers Hideo Baba and Makoto Yoshizumi, and composer Motoi Sakuraba. The series was created by Yoshiharu Gotanda.
Most of the main Tales games have been localized for North America and Europe, although almost all of the spinoff titles have not been released abroad. While generally seen as a niche series in English speaking regions, Tales is considered a high - profile property in Japan, just behind other series such as Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest. The series has been gaining popularity in the West since the release of Tales of Symphonia, which is still considered one of its most popular titles. As of December 2013, the series has sold 16 million units worldwide.
Since the first installment was released in 1995, the Tales series has grown to include the main entries and multiple spin - offs that derive multiple gameplay and narrative elements from the main entries. Except when indicated by naming, the main Tales entries are separate from each other apart from gameplay mechanics and themes. While Tales titles are often ported to new consoles after their original release, these remakes are rarely localized. The 2006 Nintendo DS game Tales of the Tempest was originally seen as a main entry in the series, but in 2007 was classified as a spin - off, possibly due to poor reception of that particular title.
The series debuted on the Super Famicom with Tales of Phantasia in 1995, and introduced multiple elements that would become staples of the Tales series. It was released in the west on the Game Boy Advance in 2006. It was also ported to the PlayStation, PlayStation Portable and iOS. The PlayStation received two original Tales games: Tales of Destiny in 1997, which was the first title to be released in North America, and Tales of Eternia in 2000, which was released in North America as Tales of Destiny 2 in 2001.
Five titles have been released on the PlayStation 2. The true direct sequel to Destiny, Tales of Destiny 2, was released on the PlayStation 2 in 2001 across Asian territories, and ported to the PlayStation Portable in Japan in 2007; both versions have yet to receive a western release. Tales of Symphonia was released in Japan on the PS2 and Nintendo GameCube. The GameCube version was also released North America and Europe. It was the first entry to feature 3D graphics for its characters and environments and the first to be released in Europe. Tales of Rebirth was released in 2004, ported to the PlayStation Portable in 2008, and has yet to receive a western localization. Tales of Legendia and Tales of the Abyss were both released in Japan in 2005, with both being released in North America the following year. Legendia was the first and only Tales game developed by Namco internal development team "Project Melfes '', while Abyss was developed by the same team that developed Symphonia, and used its same graphics engine. Abyss was later ported to the Nintendo 3DS and released in Japan, North America and Europe.
Tales of Innocence was released in Japan on the Nintendo DS in 2007. A remake of the game, Innocence R was released on the PlayStation Vita in 2012. Neither version has been released in the west. The first release on seventh - generation consoles, Tales of Vesperia for Xbox 360, was released in Japan and North America in 2008 and in Europe in 2009. A Japan - exclusive PlayStation 3 port was released in 2009 as well. Tales of Hearts was released on the Nintendo DS in 2008. A remake, Hearts R, was released in 2013 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe.
The twelfth entry, Tales of Graces, released on the Wii in Japan in 2009. A PlayStation 3 port, Graces f, was released in 2009 in Japan, and in 2012 in North America and Europe. Tales of Xillia, the series ' 15th anniversary title, was released in Japan for PlayStation 3 in 2011, and in North America and Europe in 2013. Xillia 's direct sequel and the fourteenth main title, Tales of Xillia 2, was released in 2012 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe. The fifteenth main title, Tales of Zestiria, was released in January 2015 in Japan and it was released in North America on October 20, 2015. The sixteenth main title, Tales of Berseria, was released in Japan for PS3 and PlayStation 4 in August 2016. While both Tales of Symphonia and Tales of Zestiria had received ports to Microsoft Windows after their initial releases, Tales of Berseria is the first game in the series to receive a simultaneous Windows release with the console versions in Western markets.
The series has received a small number of sequels, and a large amount of spin - off titles and subseries. With the exception of Tempest, worked on by multiple staff from the main series and treated as a precursor to Innocence, they are derivative rather than original works. Three direct sequels have been produced: Destiny 2, Xillia 2 and Tales of Symphonia: Dawn of the New World. Eternia received an MMORPG spin - off for PC platforms titled Tales of Eternia Online. Multiple crossover games have been made for mobile platforms, including Tales of Link, the Tales of Mobile series, Tales of Card Evolve, Tales of Kizna and Tales of Asteria. Two titles for the PlayStation Portable have been released in Japan: Tales of VS. in 2009, and Tales of the Heroes: Twin Brave in 2012. The main spin - off subseries is Tales of the World, which has grown to include ten games beginning with Tales of Phantasia: Narikiri Dungeon, released in Japan on the Game Boy Color in 2000. Only Tales of the World: Radiant Mythology has been released in the west. A second subseries, Tales of Fandom, includes two games released respectively for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2 in 2002 and 2007.
The Tales series has expanded into other media, including CD dramas, manga and anime. Multiple Tales games have been adapted into anime OVAs and TV series. The Symphonia OVA was released in three parts between 2007 and 2011, and released as a single collection in 2013. Abyss was adapted into a 26 - episode TV series between October 2008 and March 2009. Phantasia and Eternia have also received anime adaptations. The series ' first theatrical film, a prequel to Vesperia called Tales of Vesperia: The First Strike, was released in 2009 in Japan and 2012 in North America. A made - for - television anime based on the opening sections of Zestiria, Dawn of the Shepard, was produced as part of the 20th anniversary celebrations related to the title. It was also released on the game disc. A full series based on Zestiria began airing in July 2016.
Books and audio dramas have also been made. Phantasia received multiple CD dramas, including four collected into anthologies in January and March 2000. and a stand - alone drama in December 2001. Symphonia received seven audio dramas following the game 's plot. Two CD dramas for Legendia were respectively released in August and September 2005. A manga of Phantasia was written and serialized in 2008 and 2009, while Abyss received three manga adaptations in the years after its release. Symphonia was adapted in both novelizations and a manga serial. Others to receive adaptations of these kinds are Destiny, Graces and Xillia.
The Tales series is classified as a role - playing video game series. Multiple gameplay elements carry over from entry to entry. The main unifying element is the combat system, the Linear Motion Battle System (LMBS for short). Considered as one of the mainstays and building blocks for every main entry in the series, it undergoes multiple incremental changes and alterations from one installment to the next. Introduced in Phantasia, it is a real - time fighting system similar to a brawler, as opposed to the majority of RPGs at the time of Phantasia 's release, which primarily used turn - based battle systems.
Some features introduced in certain games have proven popular enough to remain in future installments like "Free Running '' (the ability for a character to freely roam the battlefield). Elements of turn - based combat are also present, though to a lesser degree: an example of this is Destiny 's "Chain Capacity '' feature (the number of skills a character can perform), which appears in later games in the series. The battle system for Legendia was deliberately designed to be similar to a brawler: the stated reason was that the team wished to combine brawler combat with the story and leveling mechanics of a Tales game. Characters generally use Artes, which are special attacks characters can perform in battle. Players can usually only control one character, though a multiplayer option was implemented for Destiny and has reappeared in later Tales games.
The battle system 's name for each installment is augmented with descriptive titles representative of features of that game 's battle system: examples are the "Style Shift '' system from Graces (characters shifting between two types of Artes) and the "Fusionic - Chain '' system from Zestiria (a human character merging with a magical character for a brief period to deal greater damage). Characters are awarded with "Titles '', nicknames that sometimes grant benefits to them in battle when assigned to them. In the majority of Tales games, when navigating the overworld or environment and encountering an enemy, combat took place on a separate battle screen. For Zestiria, combat took place in the same space as exploration.
Most Tales games have skits, side conversations between different characters that can be both dramatic and comedic in nature. They are commonly portrayed as character portraits or profiles, with text along the bottom of the screen. They were first introduced in Tales of Destiny, though the majority were cut from the English release. In the original English GameCube release of Symphonia, the voice track for the skits was removed, but for its HD re-release, the Japanese voice track, and consequently the skit voice tracks, were included. The first English release to include fully voiced skits was Vesperia: they had been planned for Abyss, but were cut due to space issues. Another recurring feature is the Cooking system, where characters learn and prepare dishes to restore health and forms of experience points.
The prominent narrative theme of the Tales series is the issue of coexistence between different races. A particular example of this is Tales of Rebirth, which extensively explores themes of racism. Scenario writer Hiramatsu Masaki was inspired by the ethnic conflicts seen in Yugoslavia. Another recurring feature is the plot and characters, which are often rooted in and revolve around themes such as justice or faith. The theme for each entry in the series is decided by the series producer based on current world events. The chosen theme helps dictate what the game will be called: once the theme is decided, the team search through various languages to find a suitable representative word. The narratives of each story were described by Gamasutra as "very typical '' during a 2008 interview with staff members, although it was not elaborated upon by the interviewer. The interviewers suggested that this point of view was based on the fact that western fans were not generally experienced in Japanese culture, and so would see the stories in each entry as similar. The writers for each game are hired on a per - project basis, with both freelancers and in - house story writers being involved. Two of the recurring writers are Takumi Miyajima (Symphonia and Abyss), and Naoki Yamamoto (Hearts, Xillia, Zestiria). There are very few mainline games that share a setting: Symphonia takes place along the same "time axis '' as Phantasia, while Zestiria and Berseria take place on the same world at different time periods.
The settings for the stories are primarily high fantasy worlds, with the producers opting not to use a dark or science fiction - based setting. An exception is Xillia 2, which mostly took place in a modern setting, and explored darker themes than usual. This direction was confirmed as a one - off experiment for the series. The main characters play a key role in the Tales games, as it is partially through them that the main theme of each entry is depicted. For Abyss, it was decided to take a risk and create an unorthodox protagonist that would be initially unlikable. For Vesperia, the team opted to raise the age limit of the target audience, showing this in the game by making the main protagonist a more mature type. A female main protagonist was included for the first time in Xillia in the form of Milla Maxwell alongside male protagonist Jude Mathis, although at the time it was stated that there were no solid plans to create a game with a single female protagonist. A sole main female character, called Velvet, was eventually included in Berseria. The way the characters interact with each other during the narrative forms one of the core aspects of designing each game. Another main priority is for players to see a part of themselves in the characters.
Unique terminology is used when referring to games within the series. In 2007, Yoshizumi announced two classes of Tales games, "Mothership Titles '' and "Escort Titles ''. "Mothership '' essentially means "Main series '', where as "Escort '' essentially means "Spinoff ''. One of the recurring differences between the two game types internally is that "Escort '' titles do n't supply inspiration for main entries in the series, but draw the most popular elements from them. The games are also frequently given what is called a "Characteristic Genre Name '', which is essentially a short subtitle or phrase that outlines the game 's overall theme. The main reason for this, as stated by Yoshizumi, was that the series was not seen as a role - playing series by the development team, but rather "Character Playing Game '', with the player learning about the game 's characters and watching them grow rather than using them as avatars: the genre names are meant to distinguish them from other role - playing games. The terms, however, are largely removed from the English localized versions. There are also terms that are used in remakes or ports of games: "R '' stands for "remake '' or "Re-imagination '' (as in Hearts R), while "F '' in Graces f stood for "future '', in reference to the game 's extra story content.
The Tales series originated when Phantasia began production, based on an unpublished novel titled Tale Phantasia (テイル ファンタジア, Teiru Fantajia), written by the game 's scenario writer and lead programmer Yoshiharu Gotanda. During the story development process, several elements of the original novel were dropped or changed. The game was developed by Wolf Team, an independent game development studio founded in 1986. Due to bad experiences at Telenet Japan, the previous employer of multiple Wolf Team members, the staff sought an independent publisher for the game. After an unsuccessful pitch to Enix, they entered a publishing contract with Bandai Namco (then Namco). Phantasia had a troubled development cycle for the original Super Famicom version, with many creative disagreements between Wolf Team and Namco. The disagreements led to most of the Wolf Team staff leaving after the game in order to start a new company, tri-Ace, which would go on to make the Star Ocean series. Remaining members would continue to develop games in the Tales series.
The studio remained independent until 2003, when it was acquired by Bandai Namco and renamed Namco Tales Studio. The studio 's shares were divided between Bandai Namco, Telenet Japan and series director Eiji Kikuchi. In 2006, Namco bought Telenet 's shares, then later Kikuchi 's, giving them full control over the studio. In mid 2011, a financial report indicated that Namco Tales was in serious financial trouble, having a debt of 21 million dollars and posting a loss for the previous financial year. The studio 's absorption into its parent company was formally announced in November of that year. After the absorption of Namco Tales, former series brand manager Hideo Baba was appointed as series producer. He had previously been the producer of the original version of Hearts. Alongside Baba, the chief series producer is Makoto Yoshizumi, who had produced multiple titles including Destiny and Innocence.
The series is distinguished by its art style, which emulates manga and anime. According to Baba, the character designs are created once the main character 's story, personality, and environment are determined by the rest of the production team. Beyond that, the artist is allowed to use their imagination, though they can be asked to alter things like costume details, and facial expressions. One of the main designers for the series is manga artist Kōsuke Fujishima. He was first brought in to design the characters for Phantasia, and has since designed for multiple entries including Abyss and Xillia. Another designer, Mutsumi Inomata, first designed for the series with Destiny, and has contributed designs for multiple entries including Eternia, Rebirth and Xillia. A third regular artist is Daigo Okumura, who designed characters for Vesperia and Xillia 2, as well as Dawn of the New World. Other designers to work on the series include Kazuto Nakazawa (Legendia), Kouichi Kimura (Xillia 2), and Minoru Iwamoto (Zestiria). The art design for each game 's world and characters has ranged between a cel - shaded anime style (Vesperia) to a more realistic style (Xillia 2). Skit character images are also directly inspired by anime art. The art style for each title is determined by the theme and story decided upon by the developers.
Anime cutscenes are included in each game, and are a primary focus for the production team as they help make the first impression on players. The series aims to avoid standard anime tropes and common narrative elements with each installment. The first game to feature such cutscenes was Destiny. The cutscenes were animated by Production I.G, which has provided cutscenes for the series until Xillia. For Xillia, aiming to demonstrate a new artistic direction for the series, production of the anime cutscenes was given to Ufotable. For the Nintendo DS release of Hearts, two identical versions of the game were released as an experiment by the production team, with one featuring traditional anime animation by Production I.G., and one featuring computer - generated cutscenes by Shirogumi Ltd. The CGI cutscenes proved less popular with fans than the established anime style.
The engines for the games are generally developed in - house: the cited reasons for this included problems with outsourced development. Until Vesperia, the team worked on a by - project basis, creating new development tools and engines for each installment. Due to cost increases, the development process was altered and streamlined as more user - friendly software engines became available. The studio was divided into two teams: Team Destiny worked on 2D Tales titles such as Tales of Destiny, while Team Symphonia developed 3D titles. In - house, major distinctions were made between the two studios except for some core staff Namco Tales produced the majority of the mainline Tales games until its absorption in 2011. The notable exceptions are Legendia, which was developed by an internal staff group at Bandai Namco, and Innocence, which was developed by Alfa System. Alfa System also developed many of the portable spin - off titles. After the absorption of Namco Tales by Bandai Namco, the teams and staff transferred to the new in - house development studio called Bandai Namco Studios. The size of the teams was reduced and the previous studio 's main divisions were merged. This allowed production to be streamlined, but also meant that the team could only focus on one game at a time, rather than working on two games simultaneously as they had done before.
The regular main composer for the Tales series is Motoi Sakuraba. His first work on the series was for Phantasia, and has since contributed to nearly every main entry since there in the capacity of a freelance composer. Sakuraba has become noted for his signature musical style, which is present in the majority of his Tales scores. He also frequently collaborates with Shinji Tamura. The entries Sakuraba has not worked on are Legendia, which was composed by Go Shiina, an in - house composer, and Innocence, whose composer was Kazuhiro Nakamura. Sakuraba and Shiina had collaborated on the score for Zestiria. Multiple titles in the series use licensed theme songs by multiple Japanese artists: among the artists are Garnet Crow (Eternia), Deen (Destiny / Hearts), Kokia (Innocence), Ayumi Hamasaki (Xillia / Xillia 2) and FLOW (Berseria). One recurring aspect of many earlier localizations was the removal of the Japanese theme song, such as with Symphonia, which had its theme song replaced with an orchestral version. The first western release of a Tales title to feature the theme song used in Japan was Vesperia.
Multiple Tales titles, the majority of which are spin - offs, have not been localized for the west or have only been released in North America: two examples of the former case for entries in the main series are Rebirth and Innocence, while an example of the latter is Legendia. Speaking in 2013, Baba explained that the main priority for localizations was for the main series rather than spin - offs. In addition to this, he stated that their localization team was limited and they needed to "pick and choose '' which game to bring to the west. For its western release, Eternia 's name was changed to "Destiny 2 '': this was due to a possible trademark conflict and the wish to exploit the popularity of Destiny. The 2006 PSP port of Eternia retained its original title. With Zestiria, Bandai Namco planned to attempt releasing the game in the west in the same year it was released in Japan. The deciding factor in this resolution was the delayed release of Xillia and its sequel, and the reaction of western fans to this. Fan localizations have also been created, such as for the original versions of Phantasia and Innocence. While the option of the Japanese voice tracks have been heavily requested for western releases by fans, licensing issues have mostly prevented Bandai Namco from implementing it. Localization for mobile titles is also a low priority due to them being co-developed by Japan - based mobile developers.
The series has generally sold well during its lifetime. The series ' strongest sales base has been Japan: in 2007, sales distribution was 87 % in Japan, 8 % in North America, 3 % in Europe and 2 % in mainland Asia. The best - selling titles of the series at the time were Symphonia (953,000 copies for the GameCube, 486,000 for PlayStation 2), Destiny (1.1 million copies for PlayStation), Xillia (1 million copies for PlayStation 3) and Destiny 2 (977,000 copies for PlayStation 2). The sales data did not include mobile and online games. The success of entries has also been linked with the consoles they are released on: Vesperia 's release on the Xbox 360 caused the console to sell out for the first time in Japan, while Namco decided to release Zestiria on the PlayStation 3 due to the low sales prospects for next - gen consoles in their target audience. As of December 2013, the series has shipped 16 million units worldwide across 100 different countries.
While keeping a lower profile in English - speaking regions, in Japan, it is regarded as one of the biggest role - playing video game series. 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish, speaking in 2001, referred to it as the third biggest RPG series in Japan behind Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest. Gamasutra 's Brandon Sheffield echoed these sentiments, stating that "While the series does n't have quite the cultural cache of Final Fantasy in the West or Dragon Quest in Japan, it 's still a very popular brand worldwide ''. IGN 's Anoop Gantayat additionally referred to it as the third biggest Japanese role - playing series in regards to sales. Multiple entries in the series, notably Destiny and Legendia have been favorably compared with fighting games and brawlers, especially the Street Fighter series. GameTrailers ranked the Linear Motion Battle System, with particular reference to Graces, as one of the top five JRPG battle systems. Their stories and characters have generally received a more mixed response from western critics: opinions on entries such as Legendia, Abyss, Xillia were mixed to positive, while others such as Symphonia, Graces and Xillia 2 were criticized. The main criticism for these games and Legendia was that the story was either predictable or cliché. The in - game graphics have also drawn mixed responses for several games in the series, including Destiny, Eternia, Graces and Xillia.
In 2013, leading up to the release of Tales of Symphonia Chronicles, Baba called Symphonia the most successful title in the series in the west thus far, although the series ' main target audience was still in Japan. In an earlier interview, Baba commented that the team behind the series put a large amount of effort and development in keeping the series fresh while retaining the base elements across each installment. The positive reaction of gamers in the US to Symphonia influenced the way the various teams developed titles after that point. Speaking in 2014, production manager Denis Lee said that, since Symphonia 's release, the popularity of the series has grown. In response, Bandai Namco have focused on getting more entries out in western territories. Much of their research about what titles to release or develop in the future revolves around direct conversation with Tales series fans at gaming conventions and special events.
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when does round of 16 world cup start | 2018 FIFA World Cup knockout stage - wikipedia
The knockout stage of the 2018 FIFA World Cup was the second and final stage of the competition, following the group stage. It began on 30 June with the round of 16 and ended on 15 July with the final match, held at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. The top two teams from each group (16 in total) advanced to the knockout stage to compete in a single - elimination style tournament. A third place play - off was also played between the two losing teams of the semi-finals.
France won the final 4 -- 2 against Croatia for their second title.
All times listed are local time.
In the knockout stage, if a match was level at the end of 90 minutes of normal playing time, extra time was played (two periods of 15 minutes each), where each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution. If still tied after extra time, the match was decided by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
The top two placed teams from each of the eight groups qualified for the knockout stage.
The teams had faced each other in 11 previous matches, including two World Cup group stage matches, both won by Argentina (1 -- 0 in 1930, and 2 -- 1 in 1978).
After nine minutes, Antoine Griezmann 's 25 - yard free - kick crashed back off Franco Armani 's crossbar. After picking the ball up deep inside his own half, Kylian Mbappé set off on a run that was halted when Marcos Rojo hauled him down just inside the area. Griezmann stepped up and converted from the spot, sending the ball low to Armani 's right. Four minutes before the interval, Ángel Di María shot from distance with his left foot to beat Hugo Lloris into the top right corner of the net. Three minutes after the restart, Éver Banega 's free - kick was headed out towards Lionel Messi whose effort towards goal from the right was diverted past Lloris by Gabriel Mercado with his left leg. Nine minutes later, Lucas Hernández 's cross from the left found Benjamin Pavard, who shot a half - volley from outside the area, sending it into Armani 's top - right corner. Mbappé put France ahead again in the 64th minute when he picked up a loose ball in the left of the area, found a yard of space and fired in low with his left foot under Armani. His second -- a first - time low finish from the right of the penalty area with his right foot -- followed just four minutes later. Sergio Agüero nodded home in the third minute of stoppage time from a Messi cross from the right. Argentina had a final chance to score, but the ball was deflected, dumping them out of the World Cup. This game was hailed as "one of the greatest World Cup games of all time '' by The Independent.
Didier Deschamps is now the longest - serving coach in the history of the French national team, with his 80th game in charge of France, moving ahead of his predecessor Raymond Domenech. Mbappé became the first teenager to score at least twice in a World Cup tournament since Michael Owen in 1998, and the first teenager to score at least twice in a single World Cup match since Pelé netted twice for Brazil against Sweden in the 1958 final. Argentina are the first team to score at least three goals but still lose a World Cup match since the Soviet Union vs Belgium in 1986. Pavard 's strike was later voted as goal of the tournament.
Man of the Match: Kylian Mbappé (France)
Assistant referees: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Mohammadreza Mansouri (Iran) Fourth official: Julio Bascuñán (Chile) Reserve assistant referee: Christian Schiemann (Chile) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had met in two previous matches, most recently in Brazil Independence Cup in 1972, the match ending in a 1 -- 1 draw.
In the seventh minute, Edinson Cavani switched play from right to left with a sweeping pass out to Luis Suárez, who delivered a cross which the former crashed home at the back post from six yards out. In the 55th minute, Raphaël Guerreiro delivered a cross from a short corner on the left, which Pepe finished with a downward header. Just seven minutes later, Rodrigo Bentancur collected the ball around 30 yards out and slipped a pass out to Cavani on the left side of the penalty area, Cavani then shot a curling right - foot strike into the right corner of the net to reclaim the lead for Uruguay. Bernardo Silva shot off - target with the goal gaping after Fernando Muslera 's mistake, with Cavani seeming to pick up an injury in the scramble.
Pepe, aged 35 years and 124 days, became Portugal 's oldest goal - scorer at a FIFA World Cup. This is the first time Uruguay have won their opening four games at a World Cup tournament since 1930, with the fourth game in that run being their 4 -- 2 victory over Argentina in the final.
Man of the Match: Edinson Cavani (Uruguay)
Assistant referees: Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Miguel Hernández (Mexico) Fourth official: Jair Marrufo (United States) Reserve assistant referee: Corey Rockwell (United States) Video assistant referee: Mark Geiger (United States) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
The teams had met in six previous games, most recently in a friendly in 2017, which ended in a 3 -- 3 draw. Playing as the Soviet Union, the teams had faced each other five times. Russia has only had one victory over Spain.
In the 12th minute, Isco 's free - kick from deep on the right saw Sergei Ignashevich grappling with Sergio Ramos at the back post, the ball bouncing past Igor Akinfeev off the defender 's heel. Russia were then awarded a penalty when Gerard Piqué handled in the box after a corner from the right. Artem Dzyuba shot home to the right of the net from 12 yards to send the sides into half - time level. In the 85th minute, Akinfeev got down low to his right to save a shot from Andrés Iniesta, the goalkeeper then denied Iago Aspas on the rebound. Piqué and Ramos both appeared to be held from a set - piece but, after a VAR check, the referee waved away Spain 's appeals. In the penalties, Akinfeev kept out a Koke effort and saw Aspas ' effort diverted away by his leg to give Russia the win; as all Russia 's penalty kicks ended up successful.
Spain have now lost three of their four World Cup penalty shootouts (after losing to Belgium in 1986, beating the Republic of Ireland in 2002 and losing to South Korea in 2002), and still have never defeated a host nation at FIFA World Cup, after losing to Italy 0 -- 1 in 1934, Brazil 1 -- 6 in 1950, and South Korea after penalties in 2002. Russia have reached the quarter - final of the World Cup for the first time since the break - up of the Soviet Union. Ignashevich became the oldest player to score an own goal at the World Cup, aged 38 years and 352 days. The match marked the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup in which a fourth substitution was made during extra time, after Aleksandr Yerokhin of Russia entered the pitch in the 97th minute.
Man of the Match: Igor Akinfeev (Russia)
Assistant referees: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Fourth official: Clément Turpin (France) Reserve assistant referee: Nicolas Danos (France) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Mark Borsch (Germany) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had met in five matches, which includes two matches played in 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification, the first fixture ending in a 1 -- 1 draw and the reverse fixture a 3 -- 1 Denmark win.
In the first minute, a long throw into the Croatia penalty area by Jonas Knudsen, allowed a run to Thomas Delaney who touched the ball on to Mathias Jørgensen, who side - footed it into the net via deflections off goalkeeper Danijel Subašić and the post. After three minutes, Šime Vrsaljko 's ball into the box reached Henrik Dalsgaard, whose clearance hit Andreas Christensen in the face and saw Mario Mandžukić tucking the ball between Kasper Schmeichel and the left post with a shot on the turn from six yards. During extra time, Ante Rebić burst clear of the Denmark defence and was felled by Mathias Jørgensen when he was clean through on goal, only for Schmeichel to save Luka Modrić 's spot - kick by diving down to his left and clutching the ball to his chest. In the shoot - out, Subašić tipped off Christian Eriksen 's penalty onto the post but Schmeichel saved from Milan Badelj to bring the sides level. Lasse Schöne 's shot was saved by Subašić and Josip Pivarić was denied by an acrobatic Schmeichel stop. On the final spot kicks for both the teams, Nicolai Jørgensen took a shot from a staggered run - up which Subašić saved with his feet, before Ivan Rakitić slotted the ball into the bottom left corner of the net.
Croatia have qualified for their first World Cup quarter - final since 1998.
Man of the Match: Kasper Schmeichel (Denmark)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Enrique Cáceres (Paraguay) Reserve assistant referee: Eduardo Cardozo (Paraguay) Video assistant referee: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Assistant video assistant referees: Gery Vargas (Bolivia) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Daniele Orsato (Italy)
The teams had met in 40 previous matches including two games at CONCACAF Gold Cup finals (1996 and 2003, both won by Mexico), the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup Final (won 4 -- 3 by Mexico), and four times in the FIFA World Cup group stage, three won by Brazil and one ending in a draw (4 -- 0 in 1950, 5 -- 0 in 1954, 2 -- 0 in 1962 and 0 -- 0 in 2014).
Hirving Lozano 's half - volley was well blocked by Miranda, while at the other end, Guillermo Ochoa saved Neymar 's drive from just outside the penalty area. After 25 minutes, Neymar raced past Edson Álvarez in the area and forced Ochoa into a save with his left hand. Gabriel Jesus went close in the 33rd minute, finding space in a crowded area and drilling in a left - footed strike that Ochoa palmed away. In the 51st minute, Neymar 's back - heel on the edge of the area teed up Willian for a burst into the box and his scuffed cross from the left was slid into an empty net by Neymar from close range. With two minutes remaining, Neymar powered through on the left and his low effort was diverted by Ochoa 's foot into the path of Roberto Firmino, who tapped the ball into an empty net from close range.
Since the introduction of the round of 16 in 1986, Mexico have been eliminated at this stage of the World Cup seven times -- more than twice as many as any other nation. This was also Mexico 's fourth defeat on the hand of Brazil, and moreover, Mexico had never scored a single goal against Brazil in the FIFA World Cup.
Man of the Match: Neymar (Brazil)
Assistant referees: Elenito Di Liberatore (Italy) Mauro Tonolini (Italy) Fourth official: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) Reserve assistant referee: Pau Cebrián Devís (Spain) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Daniele Orsato (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in 5 previous matches, including one World Cup group stage match in 2002, which ended in a 2 -- 2 draw. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2017, a 1 -- 0 Belgium win and also Belgium 's first victory over Japan.
In the 48th minute, Gaku Shibasaki slipped a pass through to Genki Haraguchi, who rifled a shot across Thibaut Courtois from the right which went into the left corner of the net. After 4 minutes, Japan scored a second, Shinji Kagawa collecting a loose ball and feeding Takashi Inui, the midfielder working himself a yard of space before arrowing home from 25 - yards into the bottom right corner of the net. Jan Vertonghen 's looping header from the left eluded goalkeeper Eiji Kawashima and landed in the right corner of the net after a corner caused chaos in the Japan penalty area -- and five minutes later they were back on level terms. Eden Hazard twisted and turned to create space on the left wing, his cross delivered for Marouane Fellaini to climb above his marker and crash in a downward header. In the last minute of stoppage time, Courtois found Kevin De Bruyne with a long throw, who freed Thomas Meunier with a pass, Meunier squared a low cross from the right and, when Romelu Lukaku dummied the ball, substitute Nacer Chadli was on hand to complete the comeback for Belgium with a low finish.
Belgium are the first team to come from two or more goals down to win a World Cup knockout stage match within 90 minutes since Portugal beat North Korea in the 1966 quarter - final (3 -- 0 down, 5 -- 3 win); and for the first time comeback from two goals down since West Germany 's comeback 3 -- 2 victory over England at 1970. Japan scored six goals at Russia 2018, their highest ever tally in a single World Cup tournament. Belgium have reached the World Cup quarter - finals in successive tournaments for the first time.
Man of the Match: Eden Hazard (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Djibril Camara (Senegal) El Hadji Samba (Senegal) Fourth official: Bakary Gassama (Gambia) Reserve assistant referee: Jean Claude Birumushahu (Burundi) Video assistant referee: Felix Zwayer (Germany) Assistant video assistant referees: Clément Turpin (France) Mark Borsch (Germany) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
The teams had faced each other in 28 previous matches, which includes three matches in 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification, Switzerland winning twice (3 -- 2 and 2 -- 1) and Sweden winning once (4 -- 0), and also twice in 1978 FIFA World Cup qualification, both matches ending in a 2 -- 1 Sweden win.
Stephan Lichtsteiner and Fabian Schär were both ruled out through suspension. Albin Ekdal 's volley missed the target prior to the break from a Mikael Lustig cross. Ola Toivonen fired over when well positioned inside the penalty area before Emil Forsberg finally broke the deadlock, his right foot shot from just outside the penalty area clipping Manuel Akanji to beat Yann Sommer. Switzerland sent on forwards Breel Embolo and Haris Seferović, and the latter tested Sweden goalkeeper Robin Olsen with a header in the closing stages. Sweden were denied the chance to double their lead from the spot following Michael Lang 's late dismissal for taking out Martin Olsson, with Sommer beating away Toivonen 's driven free - kick after a lengthy delay.
Sweden have qualified for their first World Cup quarter - final since 1994. Sweden have won back - to - back World Cup matches for the first time since 1958, when they won the quarter - final and semi-final on their way to the final as host nation that year. Olsen has kept three clean sheets at Russia 2018, a joint - record for a Swedish goalkeeper in World Cup finals history (also three clean sheets for Ronnie Hellström in 1974 and Kalle Svensson in 1958).
Man of the Match: Emil Forsberg (Sweden)
Assistant referees: Jure Praprotnik (Slovenia) Robert Vukan (Slovenia) Fourth official: Nawaf Shukralla (Bahrain) Reserve assistant referee: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain) Video assistant referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Massimiliano Irrati (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in five previous matches, including one World Cup group stage match in 1998, a 2 -- 0 England win. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2005, a 3 -- 2 England win.
In the 16th minute, Harry Kane arrived beyond the back post to meet a Kieran Trippier cross, but was unable to direct his header on target. Wílmar Barrios was booked when he appeared to headbutt Jordan Henderson in the build - up to a free - kick Trippier bent narrowly wide. Colombia gave away a penalty early in the second half when Carlos Sánchez dragged Kane down in the box after a corner from the right. Kane scored from 12 yards, shooting down the middle to give England the lead. Colombia forced their way into extra-time, Yerry Mina scoring a downward header from a Juan Cuadrado corner from the right. Eric Dier scored the final penalty in the shoot - out, England came from 3 -- 2 down after Mateus Uribe and Carlos Bacca failed to convert their spot - kicks.
This was the first time that England had won a penalty shoot - out at the FIFA World Cup, and only the second time they had won on penalties at any major tournament (the previous occasion being against Spain at Euro 1996). Kane became the first player to score in six consecutive England appearances since Tommy Lawton did so in 1939. England conceded in injury time at the end of the second half for the first time in World Cup history, with Mina 's goal coming after 92 minutes and 33 seconds.
Man of the Match: Harry Kane (England)
Assistant referees: Joe Fletcher (Canada) Frank Anderson (United States) Fourth official: Matthew Conger (New Zealand) Reserve assistant referee: Tevita Makasini (Tonga) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Mauro Vigliano (Argentina)
The teams had met in eight previous matches including three times in the FIFA World Cup group stage, one won by Uruguay and the other two ending in a draw (2 -- 1 in 1966, 0 -- 0 in 2002 and 0 -- 0 in 2010).
In the 15th minute, after latching on to Olivier Giroud 's knockdown in the box, Kylian Mbappé headed the ball over Fernando Muslera 's crossbar. Five minutes before the break, Antoine Griezmann 's inswinging free - kick from the right was met by Raphaël Varane, who headed the ball into the bottom left corner. Four minutes later, Martín Cáceres ' header was saved by Hugo Lloris low to his right and Diego Godín shot the rebound over. In the 61st minute, Griezmann 's left footed shot from outside the penalty area slipped through Muslera 's hands and into the net as France doubled their lead. Mbappé went down softly under a challenge from Cristian Rodríguez, prompting angry confrontations involving Godín, Nahitan Nández and Paul Pogba. In the 73rd minute, Corentin Tolisso 's shot curled over, while Griezmann also flashed a late free - kick over the top.
France have become only the second team to beat three different South American sides in a single World Cup tournament, after the Netherlands in 1974. France are unbeaten in 10 World Cup matches against South American sides (W6 D4), since a 2 -- 1 loss v Argentina in 1978 -- the joint longest run alongside Italy (1982 to 2010).
Man of the Match: Antoine Griezmann (France)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Alireza Faghani (Iran) Reserve assistant referee: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had met in four previous matches. Their most recent meeting came in a World Cup knockout stage match in 2002, Brazil winning 2 -- 0 to advance to the quarter - finals. That match was also the only time the two sides had previously met in a World Cup.
Belgium scored from their first corner of the game in the 13th minute, Vincent Kompany flicked on Eden Hazard 's left - wing delivery but the decisive touch came from Fernandinho, who turned the ball past Alisson via his arm. Belgium doubled their lead by breaking from a Brazil corner in the 31st minute, Kevin De Bruyne arrowed a right foot drive across Alisson and into the left corner of the net from the edge of the penalty area after Romelu Lukaku collected the ball, turned and embarked on a 40 - yard run with a pass at the end to free De Bruyne. Brazil 's third change yielded a goal three minutes and 14 seconds after his introduction, Renato Augusto gliding between two Belgium defenders to nod a flicked header past Thibaut Courtois from a Philippe Coutinho cross. Coutinho 's first - time shot flew wide and yet another Neymar penalty appeal was rejected, before he drew a fingertip save from Courtois in the 94th minute.
De Bruyne became the 100th player to score at Russia 2018 (excluding own goals). Belgium have reached the World Cup semi-finals for only the second time, losing out to eventual winners Argentina in 1986. Belgium 's victory was only their second ever against Brazil, and first since a 1963 friendly match in Brussels. This was the first time in 30 matches in all competitions that Brazil had conceded more than once in a game, since a 2 -- 2 draw with Paraguay in March 2016.
Man of the Match: Kevin De Bruyne (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Milovan Ristić (Serbia) Dalibor Đurđević (Serbia) Fourth official: Jair Marrufo (United States) Reserve assistant referee: Corey Rockwell (United States) Video assistant referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Mark Borsch (Germany) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had faced each other in 23 previous matches, including two times in the group stage of the World Cup, both matches ending in a draw (1 -- 1 in 2002 and 2 -- 2 in 2006). Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2012, a 4 -- 2 Sweden win.
England took the lead in the 30th minute, Ashley Young 's outswinging corner from the left found Harry Maguire, goalkeeper Robin Olsen and Ola Toivonen on the line were unable to stop the defender 's downward header. Olsen did well with a strong hand to deny Raheem Sterling, who dallied with the rebound and allowed Andreas Granqvist to make a vital block. Shortly after the restart, Jordan Pickford dived to his left to palm away a header from Marcus Berg, who climbed above Young at the back post. In the 58th minute, another England set - piece caused chaos and, although Sweden initially cleared their lines when Jesse Lingard delivered a cross from the right to the back post, Dele Alli was there to double his side 's advantage with a header. John Guidetti teed up strike partner Berg in the 71st minute but Pickford, tipped the effort over the crossbar.
Alli 's goal was England 's 11th at Russia 2018, equalling the country 's record of most goals at a single World Cup set in 1966. Alli is the second youngest player to score for England at the World Cup (22 years and 87 days), behind only Michael Owen (18 years and 190 days against Romania in 1998). Maguire became the first player to score their first England goal in a World Cup knockout match since Rio Ferdinand in 2002 against Denmark. Pickford made three saves in this match and became the youngest England goalkeeper to keep a clean sheet in a World Cup match (24 years and 122 days). England qualified for their first World Cup semi-final since 1990.
Man of the Match: Jordan Pickford (England)
Assistant referees: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Fourth official: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) Reserve assistant referee: Pau Cebrián Devís (Spain) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had faced each other in three previous matches. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2015, a 3 -- 1 Croatia win.
In the 31st minute, Denis Cheryshev came in from the left and, after a one - two with Artem Dzyuba, skipped away from Luka Modrić to curl a left foot effort beyond Danijel Subašić and into the left of the net. Six minutes before half - time, Mario Mandžukić advanced down the left to set up the chance for Andrej Kramarić to head home the equaliser. In the first period of extra time, Croatia took the lead as Domagoj Vida nodded down past Igor Akinfeev and into the right corner of the net after a corner from the right. Mário Fernandes drew his team level, converting Alan Dzagoev 's free - kick with a glancing header to the left corner of the net after a free - kick from the right. Penalties were required and while Fyodor Smolov 's Panenka attempt with the first effort was foiled by Subašić, parity was restored when Akinfeev got down to his left to keep out Mateo Kovačić 's second kick for Croatia. After Fernandes ' failure, Modrić 's strike found the net, following touches off Akinfeev 's glove and the post. The decisive penalty fell to Ivan Rakitić, who rolled the ball into the bottom - left corner to give Croatia the win.
Russia became the first country in World Cup history to contest two shoot - outs while hosting the event. There were three headed goals in this match -- the most in a World Cup match since Germany 8 -- 0 Saudi Arabia in 2002 (5 headers). Croatia are the second team to win two penalty shootouts at a single World Cup tournament -- the other was Argentina in 1990 (against Yugoslavia and Italy). Croatia has qualified for the semifinal for the first time since 1998 (their first World Cup tournament).
Man of the Match: Luka Modrić (Croatia)
Assistant referees: Emerson de Carvalho (Brazil) Marcelo Van Gasse (Brazil) Fourth official: Janny Sikazwe (Zambia) Reserve assistant referee: Jerson Dos Santos (Angola) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Wilton Sampaio (Brazil) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
For the first time since 1966, all multiple World Cup winners were eliminated before the semi-final stage. This is only the second time that neither Brazil nor Germany were in the last four, the other being the inaugural 1930 tournament. With Uruguay and Brazil eliminated in the quarter - finals, an all - European semi-final line up was completed for the fifth time (after the 1934, 1966, 1982, and 2006 tournaments). This also ensured that a European side would win the World Cup for the fourth tournament in a row.
The teams had faced each other in 73 previous matches, including two times in the World Cup, France winning both matches (3 -- 1 in the round of 16 in 1938 and 4 -- 2 in the third place play - off in 1986). Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2015, a 4 -- 3 Belgium win.
Eden Hazard twice went close, narrowly missing the target with a low, left - footed drive before seeing a curler with his right deflected over the crossbar by the head of Raphaël Varane. Hugo Lloris ' full - length dive kept out a first - time strike on the turn from Toby Alderweireld, while Thibaut Courtois blocked Benjamin Pavard 's attempt from a tight angle on the right at the other end. Six minutes after the break, Vincent Kompany 's block turned away Olivier Giroud 's shot, and Antoine Griezmann 's inswinging delivery from the right to the front post was turned in by Samuel Umtiti, who outjumped his marker, Marouane Fellaini, to head beyond Courtois. Dries Mertens 's cross from the right flank saw Fellaini narrowly miss the target with a header. Axel Witsel 's long - range drive was pushed away by Lloris as France secured their place into the finals.
Didier Deschamps has now managed more games for France at the World Cup than any other previous France manager, overtaking Raymond Domenech and Michel Hidalgo after this match. This was Belgium 's first defeat of any kind since a friendly loss against Spain in September 2016. France have reached their third World Cup final, also doing so in 1998 and 2006. Only Germany (8) and Italy (6) have reached more among European nations.
Man of the Match: Samuel Umtiti (France)
Assistant referees: Nicolás Tarán (Uruguay) Mauricio Espinosa (Uruguay) Fourth official: César Arturo Ramos (Mexico) Reserve assistant referee: Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in seven previous matches, which includes two matches played in the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification, England winning on both occasions (4 -- 1 and 5 -- 1).
Luka Modrić stopped a Dele Alli run, by fouling him at the edge of the area. Kieran Trippier found the top right corner of the net from the resulting free kick with his right foot. After half - time, Ivan Perišić met Šime Vrsaljko 's deep cross from the right with a flying left - footed finish to the left of the net. Soon after, Perišić shot against the right - hand post from the left before Ante Rebić put the rebound into Jordan Pickford 's hands. In extra-time, John Stones had a header cleared off the line by Vrsaljko in the 98th minute. Pickford at the other end, denied Mario Mandžukić at point - blank range after the striker met Perišić 's cross from the left. But Mandžukić came out on top soon after the break, latching on to Perišić 's headed pass on the left and sending a left - footed effort across Pickford to find the bottom - right corner, securing Croatia 's entrance into their first ever World Cup final.
Croatia are the first team to avoid defeat after trailing in three knockout matches at a single World Cup. They become the 13th different nation to reach their first World Cup Final. Trippier became the first player to score a direct free - kick for England at the World Cup since David Beckham in 2006 against Ecuador. Trippier 's goal after four minutes and 44 seconds was the fastest goal scored in a World Cup semi-final since 1958 (Vavá after two minutes for Brazil v France). Croatia became the first team to play extra time in three consecutive World Cup matches since England in 1990. England scored nine goals from set - pieces at the 2018 World Cup -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Man of the Match: Ivan Perišić (Croatia)
Assistant referees: Bahattin Duran (Turkey) Tarık Ongun (Turkey) Fourth official: Björn Kuipers (Netherlands) Reserve assistant referee: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The two teams had met in 22 matches, including three matches at the World Cup, one round of 16 game at the 1990 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 1 -- 0 victory for England, one group stage game at the 1954 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 4 -- 4 draw and their most recent encounter in Group G of this tournament which Belgium won 1 -- 0.
After four minutes, Thomas Meunier raced into the box to get across Danny Rose and tucked home Nacer Chadli 's low cross in from the left from six yards out. Harry Kane scuffed wide of the left post, from a Raheem Sterling lay - off. In the 70th minute, Eric Dier burst through for a one - on - one and dinked over Thibaut Courtois, only to see a retreating Toby Alderweireld hack the ball off the line. Jordan Pickford made a one - handed save to deny Meunier in the 80th minute. Eden Hazard scored the second with a near - post finish with his right foot, having been sent clean through by Kevin De Bruyne.
Meunier was the 10th player to score for Belgium at Russia 2018. No other team has had more, equalling France in 1982 and Italy in 2006. This is Belgium 's best finish at a World Cup, having previously finished fourth in 1986. This was England 's 100th match at a major tournament -- 69 at the World Cup, 31 at the European Championship. Since 1966, no player has been involved in more World Cup goals for Belgium than Hazard (seven -- three goals and four assists), level with Jan Ceulemans (also four goals and three assists).
Man of the Match: Eden Hazard (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Mohammadreza Mansouri (Iran) Fourth official: Malang Diedhiou (Senegal) Reserve assistant referee: Djibril Camara (Senegal) Video assistant referee: Mark Geiger (United States) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The match was the sixth meeting between France and Croatia, with France undefeated in the previous fixtures with three wins and two draws. The two sides first met in the 1998 World Cup semi-final, with hosts France winning 2 -- 1. Their only other competitive meeting was during the group stage of Euro 2004, which finished as a 2 -- 2 draw. Their next and most recent meeting was in a March 2011 friendly match, which finished as a 0 -- 0 draw.
Man of the Match: Antoine Griezmann (France)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Björn Kuipers (Netherlands) Reserve assistant referee: Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
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tourism development in india under government five year plans | Five - Year plans of India - Wikipedia
From 1947 to 2017, the Indian economy was premised on the concept of planning. This was carried through the Five - Year Plans, developed, executed, and monitored by the Planning Commission (1951 - 2014) and the NITI Aayog (2015 - 2017). With the prime minister as the ex-officio chairman, the commission has a nominated deputy chairman, who holds the rank of a cabinet Minister. Montek Singh Ahluwalia is the last deputy chairman of the commission (resigned on 26 May 2014). The Twelfth Plan completed its term in March 2017. Prior to the Fourth Plan, the allocation of state resources was based on schematic patterns rather than a transparent and objective mechanism, which led to the adoption of the Gadgil formula in 1969. Revised versions of the formula have been used since then to determine the allocation of central assistance for state plans. The new government led by Narendra Modi, elected in 2014, has announced the dissolution of the Planning Commission, and its replacement by a think tank called the NITI Aayog (an acronym for National Institution for Transforming India).
Five - Year Plans (FYPs) are centralized and integrated national economic programs. Joseph Stalin implemented the first Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union in 1928. Most communist states and several capitalist countries subsequently have adopted them. China and India both continue to use FYPs, although China renamed its Eleventh FYP, from 2006 to 2010, a guideline (guihua), rather than a plan (jihua), to signify the central government 's more hands - off approach to development. India launched its First FYP in 1951, immediately after independence under socialist influence of first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
The First Five - Year Plan was one of the most important because it had a great role in the launching of Indian development after Independence. Thus, it strongly supported agriculture production and it also launched the industrialization of the country (but less than the Second Plan, which focused on heavy industries). It built a particular system of mixed economy, with a great role for the public sector (with an emerging welfare state), as well as a growing private sector (represented by some personalities as those who published the Bombay Plan).
The first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the First Five - Year Plan to the Parliament of India and needed urgent attention. The First Five - year Plan was launched in 1951 which mainly focused in development of the primary sector. The First Five - Year Plan was based on the Harrod -- Domar model with few modifications.
The total planned budget of Rs. 2069 crore (2378 crore later) was allocated to seven broad areas: irrigation and energy (27.2 %), agriculture and community development (17.4 %), transport and communications (24 %), industry (8.4 %), social services (16.6 %), rehabilitation of landless farmers (4.1 %), and for other sectors and services (2.5 %). The most important feature of this phase was active role of state in all economic sectors. Such a role was justified at that time because immediately after independence, India was facing basic problems -- deficiency of capital and low capacity to save.
The target growth rate was 2.1 % annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth; the achieved growth rate was 3.6 % the net domestic product went up by 15 %. The monsoon was good and there were relatively high crop yields, boosting exchange reserves and the per capita income, which increased by 8 %. National income increased more than the per capita income due to rapid population growth. Many irrigation projects were initiated during this period, including the Bhakra, Hirakud, Mettur Dam and Damodar Valley dams. The World Health Organization (WHO), with the Indian government, addressed children 's health and reduced infant mortality, indirectly contributing to population growth.
At the end of the plan period in 1956, five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were started as major technical institutions. The University Grants Commission (UGC) was set up to take care of funding and take measures to strengthen the higher education in the country. Contracts were signed to start five steel plants, which came into existence in the middle of the Second Five - Year Plan. The plan was quasi successful for the government.
The Second Plan was particularly in the development of the public sector and "rapid Industrialisation ''. The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by the Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long - run economic growth. It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at the Indian Statistical Institute. The plan assumed a closed economy in which the main trading activity would be centred on importing capital goods.
Hydroelectric power projects and five steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, and Rourkela were established with the help of Russia, Britain (the U.K) and West Germany respectively. Coal production was increased. More railway lines were added in the north east.
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and Atomic Energy Commission of India was established as research institutes. In 1957 a talent search and scholarship program was begun to find talented young students to train for work in nuclear power.
The total amount allocated under the Second Five - Year Plan in India was Rs. 48 billion. This amount was allocated among various sectors: power and irrigation, social services, communications and transport, and miscellaneous.
"The target growth rate was 4.5 % and the actual growth rate was 4.27 %. ''
The Third Five - year Plan, stressed agriculture and improvement in the production of wheat, but the brief Sino - Indian War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the defence industry and the Indian Army. In 1965 -- 1966, India fought a War with Pakistan. There was also a severe drought in 1965. The war led to inflation and the priority was shifted to price stabilisation. The construction of dams continued. Many cement and fertilizer plants were also built. Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat.
Many primary schools were started in rural areas. In an effort to bring democracy to the grass - root level, Panchayat elections were started and the states were given more development responsibilities.
State electricity boards and state secondary education boards were formed. States were made responsible for secondary and higher education. State road transportation corporations were formed and local road building became a state responsibility.
The target growth rate was 5.6 %, but the actual growth rate was 2.4 %.
Due to miserable failure of the Third Plan the government was forced to declare "plan holidays '' (from 1966 -- 67, 1967 -- 68, and 1968 -- 69). Three annual plans were drawn during this intervening period. During 1966 -- 67 there was again the problem of drought. Equal priority was given to agriculture, its allied activities, and industrial sector. The government of India declared "Devaluation of Rupee '' to increase the exports of the country. The main reasons for plan holidays were the war, lack of resources, and increase in inflation.
At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister. The Indira Gandhi government nationalised 14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced agriculture. In addition, the situation in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was becoming dire as the Indo - Pakistan War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War took funds earmarked for industrial development. India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test (Pokhran - 1) in Rajasthan on May 18, 1974, partially in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal. The fleet had been deployed to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and extending the war.
The target growth rate was 5.6 %, but the actual growth rate was 3.3 %.
The Fifth Five - Year Plan laid stress on employment, poverty alleviation (Garibi Hatao), and justice. The plan also focused on self - reliance in agricultural production and defence. In 1978 the newly elected Morarji Desai government rejected the plan. The Electricity Supply Act was amended in 1975, which enabled the central government to enter into power generation and transmission.
The Indian national highway system was introduced and many roads were widened to accommodate the increasing traffic. Tourism also expanded. The twenty - point programme was launched in 1975. It was followed from 1974 to 1979.
The Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) was introduced in the first year of the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974 -- 78). The objective of the programme is to provide certain basic minimum needs and thereby improve the living standards of the people.
The target growth rate was 4.4 % and the actual growth rate was 4.8 %.
The Janata Party government rejected the Fifth Five - Year Plan and introduced a new Sixth Five - Year Plan (1978 -- 1980). This plan was again rejected by the Indian National Congress government in 1980 and a new Sixth Plan was made. The Rolling Plan consists of three kind of plans that were proposed. The First Plan is for the present year which comprises the annual budget and Second is a plan for a fixed number of years, which may be 3, 4 or 5 years. Plan number two is kept changing as per the requirements of the Indian economy. The Third Plan is a perspective plan which is for long terms i.e. for 10, 15 or 20 years. Hence there is no fixation of dates in for the commencement and termination of the plan in the rolling plans. The main advantage of the rolling plans is that they are flexible and are able to overcome the rigidity of fixed five year plans by mending targets, the object of the exercise, projections and allocations as per the changing conditions in the country 's economy. The main disadvantage of this plan is that if the targets are revised each year, it becomes very difficult to achieve them which are laid down in the five - year period and it turned out to be a complex plan. Frequent revisions resulted in lack of stability in the economy which is essential for its balanced development and progress.
The Sixth Five - Year Plan marked the beginning of economic liberalisation. Price controls were eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices and an increase in the cost of living. This was the end of Nehruvian socialism. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development was established for development of rural areas on 12 July 1982 by recommendation of the Shivaraman Committee. Family planning was also expanded in order to prevent overpopulation. In contrast to China 's strict and binding one - child policy, Indian policy did not rely on the threat of force. More prosperous areas of India adopted family planning more rapidly than less prosperous areas, which continued to have a high birth rate.
The Sixth Five - Year Plan was a great success to the Indian economy. The target growth rate was 5.2 % and the actual growth rate was 5.4 %. The only Five - Year Plan which was done twice.
The Seventh Five - Year Plan was led by the Congress Party with Rajiv Gandhi as the prime minister. The plan laid stress on improving the productivity level of industries by upgrading of technology.
The main objectives of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were to establish growth in areas of increasing economic productivity, production of food grains, and generating employment through "Social Justice ''.
As an outcome of the Sixth Five - Year Plan, there had been steady growth in agriculture, controls on the rate of inflation, and favourable balance of payments which had provided a strong base for the Seventh Five - Year Plan to build on the need for further economic growth. The Seventh Plan had strived towards socialism and energy production at large. The thrust areas of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were: social justice, removal of oppression of the weak, using modern technology, agricultural development, anti-poverty programmes, full supply of food, clothing, and shelter, increasing productivity of small - and large - scale farmers, and making India an independent economy.
Based on a 15 - year period of striving towards steady growth, the Seventh Plan was focused on achieving the prerequisites of self - sustaining growth by the year 2000. The plan expected the labour force to grow by 39 million people and employment was expected to grow at the rate of 4 % per year.
Some of the expected outcomes of the Seventh Five - Year Plan India are given below:
Under the Seventh Five - Year Plan, India strove to bring about a self - sustained economy in the country with valuable contributions from voluntary agencies and the general populace.
The target growth rate was 5.0 % and the actual growth rate was 6.01 %. and the growth rate of per capita income was 3.7 %.
The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political situation at the centre and the years 1990 -- 91 and 1991 -- 92 were treated as Annual Plans. The Eighth Plan was finally formulated for the period 1992 -- 1997.
1989 -- 91 was a period of economic instability in India and hence no five - year plan was implemented. Between 1990 and 1992, there were only Annual Plans. In 1991, India faced a crisis in foreign exchange (forex) reserves, left with reserves of only about US $ 1 billion. Thus, under pressure, the country took the risk of reforming the socialist economy. P.V. Narasimha Rao was the tenth Prime Minister of the Republic of India and head of Congress Party, and led one of the most important administrations in India 's modern history, overseeing a major economic transformation and several incidents affecting national security. At that time Dr. Manmohan Singh (later Prime Minister of India) launched India 's free market reforms that brought the nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge. It was the beginning of liberalization, privatisation and globalization (LPG) in India.
Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan. Under this plan, the gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning deficit and foreign debt. Meanwhile, India became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January 1995. The major objectives included, controlling population growth, poverty reduction, employment generation, strengthening the infrastructure, institutional building, tourism management, human resource development, involvement of Panchayati rajs, Nagar Palikas, NGOs, decentralisation and people 's participation.
Energy was given priority with 26.6 % of the outlay.
The target growth rate was 5.6 % and the actual growth rate was 6.8 %.
To achieve the target of an average of 5.6 % per annum, investment of 23.2 % of the gross domestic product was required. The incremental capital ratio is 4.1. The saving for investment was to come from domestic sources and foreign sources, with the rate of domestic saving at 21.6 % of gross domestic production and of foreign saving at 1.6 % of gross domestic production.
The Ninth Five - Year Plan came after 50 years of Indian Independence. Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister of India during the Ninth Five - Year Plan. The Ninth Five - Year Plan tried primarily to use the latent and unexplored economic potential of the country to promote economic and social growth. It offered strong support to the social spheres of the country in an effort to achieve the complete elimination of poverty. The satisfactory implementation of the Eighth Five - Year Plan also ensured the states ' ability to proceed on the path of faster development. The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw joint efforts from the public and the private sectors in ensuring economic development of the country. In addition, the Ninth Five - Year Plan saw contributions towards development from the general public as well as governmental agencies in both the rural and urban areas of the country. New implementation measures in the form of Special Action Plans (SAPs) were evolved during the Ninth Five - Year Plan to fulfill targets within the stipulated time with adequate resources. The SAPs covered the areas of social infrastructure, agriculture, information technology and Water policy.
Budget
The Ninth Five - Year Plan had a total public sector plan outlay of ₹ 859,200 crore (US $130 billion). The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw a hike of 48 % in terms of plan expenditure and 33 % in terms of the plan outlay in comparison to that of the Eighth Five - Year Plan. In the total outlay, the share of the center was approximately 57 % while it was 43 % for the states and the union territories.
The Ninth Five - Year Plan focused on the relationship between the rapid economic growth and the quality of life for the people of the country. The prime focus of this plan was to increase growth in the country with an emphasis on social justice and equity. The Ninth Five - Year Plan placed considerable importance on combining growth oriented policies with the mission of achieving the desired objective of improving policies which would work towards the improvement of the poor in the country. The Ninth Five - Year Plan also aimed at correcting the historical inequalities which were still prevalent in the society.
Objectives
The main objective of the Ninth Five - Year Plan was to correct historical inequalities and increase the economic growth in the country. Other aspects which constituted the Ninth Five - Year Plan were:
Strategies
Performance
The Ninth Five - Year Plan looks through the past weaknesses in order to frame the new measures for the overall socio - economic development of the country. However, for a well - planned economy of any country, there should be a combined participation of the governmental agencies along with the general population of that nation. A combined effort of public, private, and all levels of government is essential for ensuring the growth of India 's economy.
The target growth was 7.1 % and the actual growth was 6.8 %.
The main objectives of the Tenth Five - Year Plan:
Out of total plan outlay, ₹ 921,291 crore (US $130 billion) (57.9 %) was for central government and ₹ 691,009 crore (US $100 billion) (42.1 %) was for states and union territories.
The Twelfth Five - Year Plan of the Government of India has been decided to achieve a growth rate of 8.2 % but the National Development Council (NDC) on 27 December 2012 approved a growth rate of 8 % for the Twelfth Five - Year Plan.
With the deteriorating global situation, the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission Montek Singh Ahluwalia has said that achieving an average growth rate of 9 percent in the next five years is not possible. The Final growth target has been set at 8 % by the endorsement of the plan at the National Development Council meeting held in New Delhi.
"It is not possible to think of an average of 9 % (in the 12th plan). I think somewhere between 8 and 8.5 percent is feasible, '' Ahluwalia said on the sidelines of a conference of State Planning Boards and departments. The approached paper for the 12th Plan, approved last year, talked about an annual average growth rate of 9 %.
"When I say feasible... that will require major effort. If you do n't do that, there is no God given right to grow at 8 percent. I think given that the world economy deteriorated very sharply over the last year... the growth rate in the first year of the 12th Plan (2012 -- 13) is 6.5 to 7 percent. ''
He also indicated that soon he should share his views with other members of the Commission to choose a final number (economic growth target) to put before the country 's NDC for its approval.
The government intends to reduce poverty by 10 % during the 12th Five - Year Plan. Ahluwalia said, "We aim to reduce poverty estimates by 9 % annually on a sustainable basis during the Plan period ''. Earlier, addressing a conference of State Planning Boards and Planning departments, he said the rate of decline in poverty doubled during the 11th Plan. The commission had said, while using the Tendulkar poverty line, the rate of reduction in the five years between 2004 -- 05 and 2009 -- 10, was about 1.5 % points each year, which was twice that when compared to the period between 1993 -- 95 to 2004 -- 05. The plan aims towards the betterment of the infrastructural projects of the nation avoiding all types of bottlenecks. The document presented by the planning commission is aimed to attract private investments of up to US $1 trillion in the infrastructural growth in the 12th five - year plan, which will also ensure a reduction in the subsidy burden of the government to 1.5 percent from 2 percent of the GDP (gross domestic product). The UID (Unique Identification Number) will act as a platform for cash transfer of the subsidies in the plan.
The objectives of the Twelfth Five - Year Plan were:
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where was the video for life in a northern town filmed | Life in a Northern Town - wikipedia
"Life in a Northern Town '' is a song by English group the Dream Academy. The song is the lead single from their self - titled debut studio album The Dream Academy, released in 1985. The song was written as an elegy to British folk musician Nick Drake, who died in 1974, and the single 's record sleeve includes a dedication to him.
The single reached number 7 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in February 1986. It is their highest - peaking chart single in the United States, the UK, and Ireland.
The Dream Academy released the original version in 1985 as the first single from their self - titled album.
The lyrics include references to English singer - songwriter Nick Drake, who suffered from depression and insomnia throughout his life and often reflected those topics in his lyrics. Gilbert Gabriel, a member of the Dream Academy and co-writer of the song, has also said that the inspiration for the tune came from his experience at Dartington College of Arts. Drake died of an antidepressant overdose in 1974 at the age of 26, but his music has influenced songwriters and guitarists long after his death. He was best known for sombre pieces composed on his favourite instrument, the guitar, and The Dream Academy intended the song as a tribute to Drake.
The song, which took a year to record, also includes elements of classical music, an "African-esque '' chant (which was later sampled by dance duo Dario G for their track "Sunchyme ''), and hints of psychedelia. It is in the key of E major with a main chord pattern of E-A - E and a vocal range from B to E.
Two different music videos were made for the song. The first was made in 1984 and filmed in Hebden Bridge in West Yorkshire, England. It was directed by Tim Pope. The second was filmed in 1985 and was directed by Leslie Libman and Larry Williams. It was filmed in and around Newcastle upon Tyne with some scenes filmed in Manchester in the UK and in Aliquippa, Pennsylvania, United States, using footage of the now - closed LTV Steel and Duquesne Light facilities. The video featured footage from one of their first TV appearances, on The Tube.
7 '' Single
12 '' Single
The song was covered in 2007 by the country music duo Sugarland, along with Little Big Town and Jake Owen, on the Sugarland Change for Change Tour. A live performance from 2007 was made into a music video by Becky Fluke for the network Country Music Television. Although not officially released as a single, this rendition received airplay on country radio, debuting at 57 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart dated for 5 April 2008 and reaching a peak of 28. It also peaked at 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 based on downloads.
This performance was included on the Deluxe Fan Edition of Sugarland 's 2008 album Love on the Inside and on Capitol Records ' late 2008 re-release of Little Big Town 's 2007 album A Place to Land. In addition, it was nominated for Vocal Event of the Year at the Country Music Association awards, Best Country Collaboration with Vocals at the 51st Grammy Awards, and Vocal Event of the Year at the 44th Annual Academy of Country Music awards.
The song was used in the King of the Hill episode "Wings of the Dope. ''
An acoustic version of the song was featured in season 7, episode 9 ("Rock in the Road '') of AMC 's series The Walking Dead on 12 February 2017.
It was also featured as an instrumental snippet in the American television series "Fringe ''
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when is the fa cup replays being played | FA Cup - wikipedia
The FA Cup, known officially as The Football Association Challenge Cup, is an annual knockout football competition in men 's domestic English football. First played during the 1871 -- 72 season, it is the oldest national football competition in the world. It is organised by and named after The Football Association (The FA). For sponsorship reasons, from 2015 through to 2018 it is also known as The Emirates FA Cup. A concurrent women 's tournament is also held, the FA Women 's Cup.
The competition is open to any eligible club down to Level 10 of the English football league system -- all 92 professional clubs in the Premier League (Level 1) and the English Football League (Levels 2 to 4), and several hundred "non-league '' teams in Steps 1 to 6 of the National League System (Levels 5 to 10). A record 763 clubs competed in 2011 -- 12. The tournament consists of 12 randomly drawn rounds followed by the semi-finals and the final. Entrants are not seeded, although a system of byes based on league level ensures higher ranked teams enter in later rounds -- the minimum number of games needed to win the competition ranges from six to fourteen.
The first six rounds are the Qualifying Competition, from which 32 teams progress to the first round of the Competition Proper, meeting the first of the 48 professional teams from Leagues One and Two. The last entrants are the Premier League and Championship clubs, into the draw for the Third Round Proper. In the modern era, only one non-league team has ever reached the quarter - finals, and teams below Level 2 have never reached the final. As a result, as well as who wins, significant focus is given to those "minnows '' (smaller teams) who progress furthest, especially if they achieve an unlikely "giant - killing '' victory.
Winners receive the FA Cup trophy, of which there have been two designs and five actual cups; the latest is a 2014 replica of the second design, introduced in 1911. Winners also qualify for the Europa League and a place in the FA Community Shield match. Chelsea are the current holders, having beaten Manchester United 1 -- 0 in the 2018 final. Arsenal are the most successful club with 13 titles. Arsenal 's Arsène Wenger is the most successful manager in the competition with seven finals won.
In 1863, the newly founded Football Association (the FA) published the Laws of the Game of Association Football, unifying the various different rules in use before then. On 20 July 1871, in the offices of The Sportsman newspaper, the FA Secretary C.W. Alcock proposed to the FA committee that "it is desirable that a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the Association for which all clubs belonging to the Association should be invited to compete ''. The inaugural FA Cup tournament kicked off in November 1871. After thirteen games in all, Wanderers were crowned the winners in the final, on 16 March 1872. Wanderers retained the trophy the following year. The modern cup was beginning to be established by the 1888 -- 89 season, when qualifying rounds were introduced.
Following the 1914 -- 15 edition, the competition was suspended due to the First World War, and did not resume until 1919 -- 20. The 1922 -- 23 competition saw the first final to be played in the newly opened Wembley Stadium (known at the time as the Empire Stadium). Due to the outbreak of World War II, the competition was not played between the 1938 -- 39 and 1945 -- 46 editions. Due to the wartime breaks, the competition did not celebrate its centenary year until 1980 -- 81; fittingly the final featured a goal by Ricky Villa which was later voted the greatest goal ever scored at Wembley Stadium, but has since been replaced by Steven Gerrard.
Having previously featured replays, the modern day practice of ensuring the semi-final and final matches finish on the day, was introduced from 2000 onwards. Redevelopment of Wembley saw the final played outside of England for the first time, the 2001 -- 2006 finals being played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. The final returned to Wembley in 2007, followed by the semi-finals from 2008.
The competition is open to any club down to Level 10 of the English football league system which meets the eligibility criteria. All clubs in the top four levels (the Premier League and the three divisions of the Football League) are automatically eligible. Clubs in the next six levels (non-league football) are also eligible provided they have played in either the FA Cup, FA Trophy or FA Vase competitions in the previous season. Newly formed clubs, such as F.C. United of Manchester in 2005 -- 06 and also 2006 -- 07, may not therefore play in the FA Cup in their first season. All clubs entering the competition must also have a suitable stadium.
It is very rare for top clubs to miss the competition, although it can happen in exceptional circumstances. Manchester United did not defend their title in 1999 -- 2000, as they were already in the inaugural Club World Championship. The club stated that entering both tournaments would overload their fixture schedule and make it more difficult to defend their Champions League and Premier League titles. The club claimed that they did not want to devalue the FA Cup by fielding a weaker side. The move benefited United as they received a two - week break and won the 1999 -- 2000 league title by an 18 - point margin, although they did not progress past the group stage of the Club World Championship. The withdrawal from the FA Cup, however, drew considerable criticism as this weakened the tournament 's prestige and Sir Alex Ferguson later admitted his regret regarding their handling of the situation.
Welsh sides that play in English leagues are eligible, although since the creation of the League of Wales there are only six clubs remaining: Cardiff City (the only non-English team to win the tournament, in 1927), Swansea City, Newport County, Wrexham, Merthyr Town and Colwyn Bay. In the early years other teams from Wales, Ireland and Scotland also took part in the competition, with Glasgow side Queen 's Park losing the final to Blackburn Rovers in 1884 and 1885 before being barred from entering by the Scottish Football Association. In the 2013 -- 14 season the first Channel Island club entered the competition when Guernsey F.C. competed for the first time.
The number of entrants has increased greatly in recent years. In the 2004 -- 05 season, 660 clubs entered the competition, beating the long - standing record of 656 from the 1921 -- 22 season. In 2005 -- 06 this increased to 674 entrants, in 2006 -- 07 to 687, in 2007 -- 08 to 731 clubs, and for the 2008 -- 09 and 2009 -- 10 competitions it reached 762. The number has varied slightly but remained roughly stable since then, with 759 clubs participating in 2010 -- 11, a record 763 in 2011 -- 12, 758 for 2012 -- 13, 737 for 2013 -- 14 and 736 for 2014 -- 15. By comparison, the other major English domestic cup, the League Cup, involves only the 92 members of the Premier League and Football League.
Beginning in August, the competition proceeds as a knockout tournament throughout, consisting of twelve rounds, a semi-final and then a final, in May. A system of byes ensures clubs above Level 9 and 10 enter the competition at later stages. There is no seeding, the fixtures in each round being determined by a random draw. Prior to the quarter - finals, fixtures ending in a tie are replayed once only. The first six rounds are qualifiers, with the draws organised on a regional basis. The next six rounds are the "proper '' rounds where all clubs are in one draw.
Entrants from the bottom two levels (9 and 10) begin the competition in the Extra Preliminary Round. Clubs from higher levels are then added in later rounds, as per the table below. The months in which rounds are played are traditional, with exact dates subject to each year 's calendar.
The qualifying rounds are regionalised to reduce the travel costs for smaller non-league sides. The first and second proper rounds were also previously split into Northern and Southern sections, but this practice was ended after the 1997 -- 98 competition.
The final is normally held the Saturday after the Premier League season finishes in May. The only seasons in recent times when this pattern was not followed were 1999 -- 2000, when most rounds were played a few weeks earlier than normal as an experiment, and 2010 -- 11 and 2012 -- 13 when the FA Cup Final was played before the Premier League season had finished, to allow Wembley Stadium to be ready for the UEFA Champions League final, as well as in 2011 -- 12 to allow England time to prepare for that summer 's European Championships.
The draws for the Extra-Preliminary, Preliminary, and First Qualifying Rounds used to all occur at the same time. Thereafter, the draw for each subsequent round is not made until after the scheduled dates for the previous round, meaning that in the case of replays, clubs will often know their future opponents in advance. This season 2016 / 17 the draw for the 1st qualifying round was drawn at a later date as per previous season 's later rounds.
The draw for each of the proper rounds is broadcast live on television, usually taking place at the conclusion of live coverage of one of the games of the previous round. Public interest is particularly high during the draw for the third round, which is where the top - ranked teams are added to the draw.
In rounds up to and including the fifth round proper, fixtures resulting in a draw (after normal time) go to a replay, played at the venue of the away team, at a later date; if that replay is still tied, the winner is settled by a period of extra time, and if still necessary, a penalty shootout. Since 2016 -- 17, ties are settled on the day from the quarter - finals onwards, using extra time and penalties.
Until 1990 -- 91, further replays would be played until one team was victorious. Some ties took as many as six matches to settle; in their 1975 campaign, Fulham played a total of 12 games over six rounds, which remains the most games played by a team to reach a final. Replays were traditionally played three or four days after the original game, but from 1991 -- 92 they were staged at least 10 days later on police advice for the rounds proper. This led to penalty shoot - outs being introduced, the first of which came on 26 November 1991 when Rotherham United eliminated Scunthorpe United.
From 1980 -- 81 to 1998 -- 99, the semi-finals went to extra time on the day if the score after 90 minutes was a draw. If the score was still level after extra time, the match would go to a replay. Replays for the semi-finals were scrapped for 1999 -- 2000, the last semi-final to go into a replay was in 1998 -- 99 when Manchester United beat Arsenal 2 -- 1 after extra time. The first game had ended in a 0 -- 0 draw.
The first FA Cup Final to go to extra time and a replay was the 1875 final, between the Royal Engineers and the Old Etonians. The initial tie finished 1 -- 1 but the Royal Engineers won the replay 2 -- 0 in normal time. The last replayed final was the 1993 FA Cup Final, when Arsenal and Sheffield Wednesday fought a 1 -- 1 draw. The replay saw Arsenal win the FA Cup, 2 -- 1 after extra time.
The last quarter - final to go to a replay was Manchester United vs West Ham United in the 2015 -- 16 FA Cup. The original game at Old Trafford ended in a 1 -- 1 draw, while Manchester United won the replay at the Boleyn Ground, 2 -- 1. It was also the last FA Cup game ever played at the Boleyn Ground.
The FA Cup winners qualify for the following season 's UEFA Europa League (formerly named the UEFA Cup; from its launch in 1960 until 1998, they entered the now - defunct UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup instead). This European place applies even if the team is relegated or is not in the English top flight. In the past, if the FA Cup winning team also qualified for the following season 's Champions League or Europa League through their league position, then the losing FA Cup finalist were given this European berth instead. FA Cup winners enter the Europa League at the group stage. Losing finalists, if they have n't qualified for Europe via the league, began earlier, at the play - off or third qualifying round stage. From the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Europa League season, however, UEFA does not allow the runners - up to qualify for the Europa League through the competition. If the winner -- and until 2015, the runner - up -- has already qualified for Europe through their league position (with the exception of the UEFA Cup until 1998), the FA Cup berth is then given to the highest - place team in the league who has not yet qualified.
The FA Cup winners also qualify for the following season 's single - match FA Community Shield, the traditional season opener played against the previous season 's Premier League champions (or the Premier League runners - up if the FA Cup winners also won the league -- the double).
Fixtures in the 12 rounds of the competition are usually played at the home ground of one of the two teams. The semi-finals and final are played at a neutral venue -- the rebuilt Wembley Stadium (since 2008 and 2007 respectively).
In the matches for the twelve competition rounds, the team who plays at home is decided when the fixtures are drawn -- simply the first team drawn out for each fixture. Occasionally games may have to be moved to other grounds due to other events taking place, security reasons or a ground not being suitable to host popular teams. In the event of a draw, the replay is played at the ground of the team who originally played away from home.
In the days when multiple replays were possible, the second replay (and any further replays) were played at neutral grounds. The clubs involved could alternatively agree to toss for home advantage in the second replay.
The semi-finals have been played exclusively at the rebuilt Wembley Stadium since 2008, one year after it opened and after it had already hosted a final (in 2007). For the first decade of the competition, the Kennington Oval was used as the semi-final venue. In the period between this first decade and the reopening of Wembley, semi-finals were played at high - capacity neutral venues around England; usually the home grounds of teams not involved in that semi-final, chosen to be roughly equidistant between the two teams for fairness of travel. The top three most used venues in this period were Villa Park in Birmingham (55 times), Hillsborough in Sheffield (34 times) and Old Trafford in Manchester (23 times). The original Wembley Stadium was also used seven times for semi-final, between 1991 and 2000 (the last held there), but not always for fixtures featuring London teams. In 2005, both were held at the Millennium Stadium.
In 2003 the FA took the decision to permanently use the new Wembley for semi-finals to recoup debts in financing the new stadium. This was controversial, with the move seen as both unfair to fans of teams located far from London, as well as taking some of the prestige away from a Wembley final. In defending the move, the FA has also cited the extra capacity Wembley offers, although the 2013 fixture between Millwall and Wigan led to the unprecedented step of placing 6,000 tickets on sale to neutral fans after the game failed to sell out. A fan poll by The Guardian in 2013 found 86 % opposition to Wembley semi-finals.
The final has been played at the rebuilt Wembley Stadium since it opened, in 2007. The rebuilding process meant that between 2001 and 2006 they were hosted at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff in Wales. Prior to rebuilding, the final was hosted by the original Wembley Stadium since it opened in 1923 (being originally named the Empire Stadium). One exception to this 78 year series of Empire Stadium finals (including five replays) was the 1970 replay between Leeds and Chelsea, held at Old Trafford in Manchester.
In the 51 years prior to the Empire Stadium opening, the final (including 8 replays) was held in a variety of locations, predominantly in London, and mainly at the Kennington Oval and then Crystal Palace. It was played 22 times at The Oval (the inaugural competition in 1872, and then all but two times until 1892). After The Oval, Crystal Palace hosted 21 finals from 1895 to 1914, broken up by four replays elsewhere. The other London venues were Stamford Bridge from 1920 to 1922 (the last three finals before the move to Empire Stadium); and the University of Oxford 's Lillie Bridge in Fulham for the second ever final, in 1873. The other venues used sparingly in this period were all outside of London, as follows:
The FA permitted artificial turf (3G) pitches in all rounds of the competition from the 2014 -- 15 edition and beyond. Under the 2015 -- 16 rules, the pitch must be of FIFA One Star quality, or Two Star for ties if they involve one of the 92 professional clubs. This followed approval two years previously for their use in the qualifying rounds only -- if a team with a 3G pitch progressed to the competition proper, they had to switch their tie to the ground of another eligible entrant with a natural grass pitch. Having been strong proponents of the surface, the first match in the proper rounds to be played on a 3G surface was a televised first round replay at Maidstone United 's Gallagher Stadium on 20 November 2014.
The eventual winners of the competition receive the FA Cup; it is only loaned to the club by the FA, under the current (2015 -- 16) rules it must be returned by 1 March, or earlier if given seven days ' notice. Traditionally, the holders had the Cup until the following year 's presentation, although more recently the trophy has been taken on publicity tours by the FA in between finals.
The trophy comes in three parts -- the cup itself, plus a lid and a base. There have been two designs of trophy in use, but five physical trophies have been presented. The original trophy, known as the "little tin idol '', was 18 inches high and made by Martin, Hall & Co. It was stolen in 1895 and never recovered, and so was replaced by an exact replica, used until 1910. The FA decided to change the design after the 1909 winners, Manchester United, made their own replica, leading the FA to realise they did not own the copyright. This new, larger design was by Fattorini and Sons, and was used from 1911. In order to preserve this original, from 1992 it was replaced by an exact replica, although this had to be replaced after just over two decades, after showing wear and tear from being handled more than in previous eras. This third replica, first used in 2014, was built heavier to withstand the increased handling. Of the four surviving trophies, only the 1895 replica has entered private ownership.
The name of the winning team is engraved on the silver band around the base as soon as the final has finished, in order to be ready in time for the presentation ceremony. This means the engraver has just five minutes to perform a task which would take 20 under normal conditions, although time is saved by engraving the year on during the match, and sketching the presumed winner. During the final, the trophy is decorated with ribbons in the colours of both finalists, with the loser 's ribbons being removed at the end of the game. The tradition of tying ribbons started after Tottenham Hotspur won the 1901 FA Cup Final and the wife of a Spurs director decided to tie blue and white ribbons to the handles of the cup. Traditionally, at Wembley finals, the presentation is made at the Royal Box, with players, led by the captain, mounting a staircase to a gangway in front of the box and returning by a second staircase on the other side of the box. At Cardiff the presentation was made on a podium on the pitch.
The tradition of presenting the trophy immediately after the game did not start until the 1882 final; after the first final in 1872 the trophy was not presented to the winners, Wanderers, until a reception held four weeks later in the Pall Mall Restaurant in London. Under the original rules, the trophy was to be permanently presented to any club which won the competition three times, although when inaugural winners Wanderers achieved this feat by the 1876 final, the rules were changed by FA Secretary CW Alcock (who was also captain of Wanderers in their first victory).
Portsmouth F.C. have the distinction of being the football club which has held the FA Cup trophy for the longest uninterrupted period - seven years. Portsmouth had defeated Wolverhampton Wanderers 4 -- 1 in the 1939 FA Cup Final and were awarded the trophy as 1938 - 1939 FA Cup Champions. But with the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the regular Football League and FA Cup competitions for the 1939 - 40 season were cancelled for the duration of the war. Portsmouth 's manager Jack Tinn was rumoured to have kept the FA Cup trophy ' safe under his bed ' throughout the duration of the war, but this is an urban myth. Because the naval city of Portsmouth was a primary strategic military target for German Luftwaffe bombing, the FA Cup trophy was actually taken ten miles to the north of Portsmouth, to the nearby Hampshire village of Lovedean, and there it resided in a quaint thatched roof country pub called The Bird in Hand for the seven years of the war. After the conclusion of World War II, the FA Cup trophy was presented back to the Football Association by Portsmouth F.C. in time for the 1946 FA Cup Final.
The first trophy, the ' little tin idol ', was made by Martin, Hall & Co at a cost of £ 20 It was stolen from a Birmingham shoe shop window belonging to William Shillcock while held by Aston Villa on 11 September 1895 and was never seen again. Despite a £ 10 reward for information, the crime was never solved. As it happened while it was in their care, the FA fined Villa £ 25 to pay for a replacement.
Just over 60 years later, 80 year old career criminal Henry (Harry) James Burge claimed to have committed the theft, confessing to a newspaper, with the story being published in the Sunday Pictorial newspaper on 23 February 1958. He claimed to have carried out the robbery with two other men, although when discrepancies with a contemporaneous report in the Birmingham Post newspaper (the crime pre-dated written police reports) in his account of the means of entry and other items stolen, detectives decided there was no realistic possibility of a conviction and the case was closed. Burge claimed the cup had been melted down to make counterfeit half - crown coins, which matched known intelligence of the time, in which stolen silver was being used to forge coins which were then laundered through betting shops at a local racecourse, although Burge had no past history of forgery in a record of 42 previous convictions for which he had spent 42 years in prison. He had been further imprisoned in 1957 for seven years for theft from cars. Released in 1961, he died in 1964.
After being rendered obsolete by the redesign, the 1895 replica was presented in 1910 to the FA 's long - serving president Lord Kinnaird. Kinnaird died in 1923, and his family kept it in their possession, out of view, until putting it up for auction in 2005. It was duly sold at Christie 's auction house on 19 May 2005 for £ 420,000 (£ 478,400 including auction fees and taxes). The sale price set a new world record for a piece of football memorabilia, surpassing the £ 254,000 paid for the Jules Rimet World Cup Trophy in 1997. The successful bidder was David Gold, the then joint chairman of Birmingham City; claiming the FA and government were doing nothing proactive to ensure the trophy remained in the country, Gold stated his purchase was motivated by wanting to save it for the nation. Accordingly, Gold presented the trophy to the National Football Museum in Preston on 20 April 2006, where it went on immediate public display. It later moved with the museum to its new location in Manchester. In November 2012, it was ceremonially presented to Royal Engineers, after they beat Wanderers 7 -- 1 in a charity replay of the first FA Cup final.
The redesigned trophy first used in 1911 was larger at 61.5 cm (24.2 inches) high, and was designed and manufactured by Fattorini 's of Bradford, coincidentally being won by Bradford City in its first outing.
On the 27 March 2016 episode of the BBC television programme Antiques Roadshow, this trophy was valued at £ 1 million by expert Alastair Dickenson, although he suggested that, due to the design featuring depictions of grapes and vines, it may not have been specifically produced for the FA, but was instead an off - the - shelf design originally meant to be a wine or champagne cooler.
A smaller, but otherwise identical, replica was also made by Fattorini, the North Wales Coast FA Cup trophy, and is contested annually by members of that regional Association.
The 1992 replica was made by Toye, Kenning and Spencer. A copy of this trophy was also produced, in case anything happened to the primary trophy.
The 2014 replica was made by Thomas Lyte, handcrafted in sterling 925 silver over 250 hours. A weight increase to increase durability has taken it to 6.3 kilograms (14 lb).
Each club in the final receives 40 winners or runners - up medals to be distributed among players, staff, and officials.
Since the start of the 1994 -- 95 season, the FA Cup has been sponsored. However, to protect the identity of the competition, the sponsored name has always included ' The FA Cup ' in addition to the sponsor 's name, unlike sponsorship deals for the League Cup where the word ' cup ' is preceded by only the sponsor 's name. Sponsorship deals run for four years, though -- as in the case of E. ON -- one - year extensions may be agreed. Emirates Airline is the sponsor from 2015 to 2018, renaming the competition as ' The Emirates FA Cup ', unlike previous editions, which included ' The FA Cup in association with E. ON ' and ' The FA Cup with Budweiser '.
From August 2006 to 2013, Umbro supplied match balls for all FA Cup matches. Since March 2013, Nike has supplied the official match ball.
The possibility of unlikely victories in the earlier rounds of the competition, where lower ranked teams beat higher placed opposition in what is known as a "giant killing '', is much anticipated by the public. Such upsets are considered an integral part of the tradition and prestige of the competition, and the attention gained by giant - killing teams can be as great as that for winners of the cup. Almost every club in the League Pyramid has a fondly remembered giant - killing act in its history. It is considered particularly newsworthy when a top Premier League team suffers an upset defeat, or where the giant - killer is a non-league club, i.e. from outside the professional levels of The Football League.
One analysis of four years of FA Cup results showed that it was 99.85 per cent likely that at least one team would beat one from its next higher division in a given year. The probability drops to 48.8 per cent for a two - division gap, and 39.28 per cent for a three - division gap.
The Football League was founded in 1888, 16 years after the first FA Cup competition. Since the creation of The Football League, Tottenham Hotspur is the only non-league "giant - killer '' to win the Cup, taking the 1901 FA Cup with a victory over reigning league runners - up Sheffield United: although at that time, there were only two divisions and 36 clubs in the Football League, and Spurs were champions of the next strongest football league -- the Southern League and probably already good enough for the First Division (as was shown when they joined the Second Division in 1908 and immediately won promotion to the First.) Only two other actual non-League clubs have even reached the final since the founding of the League: Sheffield Wednesday in 1890 (champions of the Football Alliance, a rival league which was already effectively the Second Division, which it formally became in 1892 -- Wednesday being let straight into the First Division), and Southampton in 1900 and 1902 (in which years they were also Southern League champions, proving the strength of that league: again, they were probably of equivalent standard to a First Division club at the time, but Southampton 's form subsequently faded and they did not join the League till 1920 and the formation of the Third Division.)
The most recent examples of a non-league team (Levels 5 to 10) beating a Level 1 opponent are National League side Lincoln City 's away victory over Premier League side Burnley in the 2016 -- 17 FA Cup and Conference Premier side Luton Town 's away victory over Level 1 Premier League 's Norwich City in the 2012 -- 13 Fourth Round Proper. Prior to that game, the last time a non-league side defeated a Level 1 club was in 1989 when Sutton United claimed a 2 -- 1 victory at home over Coventry City, who had won the FA Cup less than two years prior.
In the 1971 -- 72 FA Cup, a non-league side achieved a Level 1 giant killing that was voted "best FA Cup tie ever '' in a 2007 poll by The Observer newspaper. Non-league Hereford United was trailing First Division Newcastle United 0 -- 1 with less than seven minutes left in the Third Round Proper replay, when Hereford 's Ronnie Radford scored the equalizer -- a goal still shown regularly when FA Cup fixtures are broadcast. Hereford finished the shocking comeback by defeating Newcastle 2 -- 1 in the match.
Some small clubs gain a reputation for being "cup specialists '' after two or more giant killing feats within a few years. Yeovil Town holds the record for the most victories over league opposition as a non-league team, having recorded 20 wins through the years before it achieved promotion into The Football League. The record for a club which has never entered The Football League is held by Altrincham, with 17 wins against league teams.
For non-league teams, reaching the Third Round Proper -- where all Level 1 sides now enter -- is considered a major achievement. In the 2008 -- 09 FA Cup, a record nine non-league teams achieved this feat. As of the 2016 -- 17 season, only nine non-league teams have reached the Fifth Round Proper (final 16) since 1945, and only Lincoln City have progressed to the Sixth Round (final 8), during the 2016 -- 17 edition of the tournament. Prior to Lincoln 's run, Kidderminster Harriers were the last team to reach the 5th round, in 1994, where they had a chance to inflict a giant - killing of their own against a Premier League side. They were drawn at home against West Ham United in Round 5 but lost 0 - 1 in a close game at Aggborough.
Chasetown, while playing at Level 8 of English football during the 2007 -- 08 competition, are the lowest - ranked team to ever play in the Third Round Proper (final 64, of 731 teams entered that season). Chasetown was then a member of the Southern League Division One Midlands (a lower level within the Southern Football League), when they lost to Football League Championship (Level 2) team Cardiff City, the eventual FA Cup runners - up that year. Their success earned the lowly organisation over £ 60,000 in prize money.
In games between league sides, one of the most notable results was the 1992 victory by Wrexham, last in the previous season 's league, over reigning league champion Arsenal. Another similar shock was when Shrewsbury Town beat Everton 2 -- 1 in 2003. Everton finished 7th in The Premier League and Shrewsbury Town were relegated to the Football Conference that same season.
Teams shown in italics are no longer in existence. Additionally, Queen 's Park ceased to be eligible to enter the FA Cup after a Scottish Football Association ruling in 1887.
Four clubs have won consecutive FA Cups on more than one occasion: Wanderers (1872, 1873 and 1876, 1877, 1878), Blackburn Rovers (1884, 1885, 1886 and 1890, 1891), Tottenham Hotspur (1961, 1962 and 1981, 1982) and Arsenal (2002, 2003 and 2014, 2015).
The record for most winner 's medals for a manager is held by Arsène Wenger, who has won seven titles with Arsenal (1998, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017).
Seven clubs have won the FA Cup as part of a League and Cup double, namely Preston North End (1889), Aston Villa (1897), Tottenham Hotspur (1961), Arsenal (1971, 1998, 2002), Liverpool (1986), Manchester United (1994, 1996, 1999) and Chelsea (2010). In 1993, Arsenal became the first side to win both the FA Cup and the League Cup in the same season when they beat Sheffield Wednesday 2 -- 1 in both finals. Liverpool (in 2001) and Chelsea (in 2007) have since repeated this feat. In 2012, Chelsea accomplished a different cup double consisting of the FA Cup and the 2012 Champions League. In 1998 -- 99, Manchester United added the 1999 Champions League title to their league and cup double to complete a unique Treble. Two years later, in 2000 -- 01, Liverpool won the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup to complete a cup treble.
The FA Cup has only been won by a non-English team once. Cardiff City achieved this in 1927 when they beat Arsenal in the final at Wembley. They had previously made it to the final only to lose to Sheffield United in 1925 and lost another final to Portsmouth in 2008. Cardiff City is also the only team to win the national cups of two different countries in the same season, having also won the Welsh Cup in 1927. The Scottish team Queen 's Park reached and lost the final in both 1884 and 1885.
Since the creation of the Football League in 1888, the final has never been contested by two teams from outside the top division, and there have only been eight winners who were not in the top flight: Notts County (1894); Tottenham Hotspur (1901); Wolverhampton Wanderers (1908); Barnsley (1912); West Bromwich Albion (1931); Sunderland (1973), Southampton (1976) and West Ham United (1980). With the exception of Tottenham, these clubs were all playing in the second tier (the old Second Division) -- Tottenham were playing in the Southern League and were only elected to the Football League in 1908, meaning they are the only non-League winners of the FA Cup since the League 's creation. Other than Tottenham 's victory, only 24 finalists have come from outside English football 's top tier, with a record of 7 wins and 17 runners - up: and none at all from the third tier or lower, Southampton (1902, then in the Southern League) being the last finalist from outside the top two tiers.
Sunderland 's win in 1973 was considered a major upset, having beaten Leeds United who finished third in the top flight that season., as was West Ham 's victory over Arsenal in 1980 as the Gunners were in their third successive FA Cup Final and were also the cup holders from the previous year as well as just having finished 4th in the First Division, whereas West Ham had ended the season 7th in Division 2. This also marked the last time (as of 2017 - 18) a team from outside the top division won the FA cup. Uniquely, in 2008 three of the four semi-finalists (Barnsley, Cardiff City and West Bromwich) were from outside the top division, although the eventual winner was the last remaining top - flight team, Portsmouth. West Bromwich (1931) are the only team to have won the FA Cup and earned promotion to the top flight in the same season; whereas Wigan Athletic (2013) are the only team to have won the Cup and been relegated from the top flight in the same season.
The FA Cup Final is one of 10 events reserved for live broadcast on UK terrestrial television under the Ofcom Code on Sports and Other Listed and Designated Events.
In the early years of coverage the BBC had exclusive radio coverage with a picture of the pitch marked in the Radio Times with numbered squares to help the listener follow the match on the radio. The first FA Cup Final on Radio was in 1926 between Bolton Wanderers and Manchester City but this was only broadcast in Manchester, the first national final on BBC Radio was between Arsenal and Cardiff in 1927. The first final on BBC Television was in 1937 in a match which featured Sunderland and Preston North End but this was not televised in full. The following season 's final between Preston and Huddersfield was covered in full by the BBC. When ITV was formed in 1955 they shared final coverage with the BBC in one of the only club matches shown live on television, during the 1970s and 1980s coverage became more elaborate with BBC and ITV trying to steal viewers from the others by starting coverage earlier and earlier some starting as early as 9 a.m. which was six hours before kick off. Nowadays, this continues with Setanta and ESPN having all - day broadcasts from Wembley, but terrestrial TV coverage usually begins two hours before kick off. The sharing of rights between BBC and ITV continued from 1955 to 1988, when ITV lost coverage to the new Sports Channel which later became Sky Sports.
From 1988 to 1997, the BBC and Sky Sports had coverage of the FA Cup, the BBC had highlights on Match of the Day and usually one match per round while Sky had the same deal. From 1997 to 2001, ITV and Sky shared live coverage with both having two matches per round and BBC continuing with highlights on Match of the Day. From 2002 to 2008, BBC and Sky again shared coverage with BBC having two or three matches per round and Sky having one or two. From 2008 -- 09 to 2013 -- 14, FA Cup matches are shown live by ITV across England and Wales, with UTV broadcasting to Northern Ireland but STV refusing to show them. ITV shows 16 FA Cup games per season, including the first pick of live matches from each of the first to sixth rounds of the competition, plus one semi-final exclusively live. The final is also shown live on ITV. Under the same 2008 contract, Setanta Sports showed three games and one replay in each round from round three to five, two quarter - finals, one semi-final and the final. The channel also broadcast ITV 's matches exclusively to Scotland, after the ITV franchise holder in Scotland, STV, decided not to broadcast FA Cup games. Setanta entered administration in June 2009 and as a result the FA terminated Setanta 's deal to broadcast FA - sanctioned competitions and England internationals. As a result of Setanta going out of business ITV showed the competition exclusively in the 2009 -- 10 season with between three and four matches per round, all quarter finals, semi-finals and final live as the FA could not find a pay TV broadcaster in time. ESPN bought the competition for the 2010 -- 11 to 2012 -- 13 season and during this time Rebecca Lowe became the first woman to host the FA Cup Final in the UK.
In October 2009, The FA announced that ITV would show an additional match in the First and Second Rounds on ITV, with one replay match shown on ITV4. One match and one replay match from the first two rounds will broadcast on The FA website for free, in a similar situation to the 2010 World Cup Qualifier between Ukraine and England. The 2009 -- 10 First Round match between Oldham Athletic and Leeds United was the first FA Cup match to be streamed online live.
Many expected BSkyB to make a bid to show some of the remaining FA Cup games for the remainder of the 2009 -- 10 season which would include a semi-final and shared rights to the final. ESPN took over the package Setanta held for the FA Cup from the 2010 -- 11 season. The 2011 final was also shown live on Sky 3D in addition to ESPN (who provided the 3D coverage for Sky 3D) and ITV. Following the sale of ESPN 's UK and Ireland channels to BT, ESPN 's rights package transferred to BT Sport from the 2013 -- 14 season.
BBC Radio 5 Live and Talksport provides radio coverage including several full live commentaries per round, with additional commentaries broadcast on BBC Local Radio.
Until the 2008 -- 09 season, the BBC and Sky Sports shared television coverage, with the BBC showing three matches in the earlier rounds. Some analysts argued the decision to move away from the Sky and, in particular, the BBC undermined the FA Cup in the eyes of the public.
The early rounds of the 2008 -- 09 competition were covered for the first time by ITV 's online service, ITV Local. The first match of the competition, between Wantage Town and Brading Town, was broadcast live online. Highlights of eight games of each round were broadcast as catch up on ITV Local. Since ITV Local closed, this coverage did not continue.
ITV lost the rights to the FA Cup beginning with the 2014 -- 15 FA Cup, terrestrial rights will return to BBC Sport, with the final being shown on BBC One while BT Sport hold the pay TV rights. Under this deal, the BBC will show around the same number of games as ITV and still having the first pick for each round.
Matches involving Welsh clubs are sometimes exclusively broadcast on Welsh language channel S4C, which is also available to view across the rest of the United Kingdom on satellite and cable television, and through the channel 's website. A similar arrangement is shared with BBC Cymru Wales from 2014 -- 15, potentially giving the BBC an extra match per round.
The FA sells overseas rights separately from the domestic contract.
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where was series 3 of game of thrones filmed | Game of Thrones (season 3) - Wikipedia
The third season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered in the United States on HBO on March 31, 2013, and concluded on June 9, 2013. It was broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm in the United States, consisting of 10 episodes, each running approximately 50 -- 60 minutes. The season is based roughly on the first half of A Storm of Swords (the third of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by George R.R. Martin, of which the series is an adaptation). The series is adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. HBO renewed the series for a third season on April 10, 2012, nine days after the second season 's premiere. Production began in July 2012. The show was filmed primarily in Ireland, Northern Ireland, Croatia, Iceland and Morocco.
The story takes place in a fictional world, primarily upon a continent called Westeros, with one storyline occurring on another continent to the east known as Essos. Like the novel, the season follows the climactic battle at Kings Landing. Season three like the previous season mainly centers around the war of the five kings; after the death of Renly Baratheon, all four kings in Westeros believes to have a claim to the Iron Throne, besides Robb Stark, who seeks vengeance for the death of his father, Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington. The season introduced a number of new cast members, including Ciarán Hinds, Nathalie Emmanuel and Iwan Rheon.
Critics praised the show 's production values and cast. Viewership yet again rose compared to the previous season. It won 2 of the 16 Emmy Awards for which it was nominated, it received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Clarke) and Outstanding Drama Series. It also won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Drama Series.
After defeating Stannis Baratheon at the Battle of the Blackwater, the Lannisters hold a firm grasp on the Iron Throne. They are threatened by their new ally House Tyrell, powerful and manipulative players of the game. Tyrion Lannister struggles with losing the power he had as Hand of the King and feels his father does n't appreciate the service he provided the family as Hand. Meanwhile, Jaime Lannister continues his attempt to return home and begins to form a bond with his road companion, Brienne of Tarth.
The Starks find themselves losing the war. They lost the support of Lord Walder Frey, after Robb Stark broke his vow to him by marrying Talisa Maegyr, and many members of Robb 's army are losing faith in him. His relationship with his mother has also turned icy after her freeing of Jaime Lannister, though the reported deaths of her father and the younger Stark boys bring them closer. In reality, Bran and Rickon Stark are alive and continuing their journey north, with new strange allies in the Reed siblings. It was Theon Greyjoy who faked the Stark boys ' deaths and is now being physically tortured under an unknown person 's command. However, a mysterious boy claiming to be sent by Theon 's sister plans to aid his escape. Arya Stark, on her journey home with companions Gendry and Hot Pie, finds herself entangled with The Brotherhood without Banners and Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane. Sansa Stark remains in King 's Landing a prisoner of the Lannisters but is now being offered help by both the treacherous Petyr Baelish and the Tyrells.
At Dragonstone, Stannis Baratheon appears a broken man after being crushed at the Battle of the Blackwater. His advisor Ser Davos is imprisoned after attempting to kill Melisandre, who still believes her god, the Lord of Light, will help Stannis return to prominence.
Beyond the Wall, Jon Snow joins Mance Rayder 's wildling army, but with hidden intentions. His vows are tested more than ever by a growing romance with wildling Ygritte, as he finds that he will have to choose between her and the Night 's Watch. The latter has been largely decimated by a White Walker attack, and a group of them is making their way back to the Wall. However, many of the rangers find themselves also questioning their vows, putting Lord Commander Mormont 's and Samwell Tarly 's lives in danger.
Across the Narrow sea in Astapor, Daenerys Targaryen continues her quest to reclaim the seven kingdoms. She has a new companion in former King 's Guard commander Barristan Selmy and is still advised by Jorah Mormont. She contemplates buying the Unsullied, an elite army of harshly trained eunuchs. They are controlled by a cruel master with an intelligent young translator, Missandei.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 3. They are listed by the region in which they first appear:
The musicians Will Champion of Coldplay and Gary Lightbody of Snow Patrol made cameo appearances, and Bart the Bear 2 (a.k.a. "Little Bart '') was the bear that fought in the pit at Harrenhal.
Game of Thrones rapidly became a critical and commercial success after it started airing in April 2011. A few days after ratings for the second season 's premiere, "The North Remembers '', hit a series high of 8.3 million viewers, HBO announced the show 's renewal for a third season. Prior to that announcement, there had been rumors and reports that showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss planned to shoot seasons three and four simultaneously. Benioff said that this would be very efficient, but impossible to write.
The ten episodes of the third season are longer than the previous seasons ', about 54 or 57 minutes as opposed to about 52. The season 's budget was reported to be around 50 million U.S. dollars.
The third season is based on the first half of the novel A Storm of Swords. Benioff had previously said that A Storm of Swords would need to be adapted in two seasons on account of its length. Benioff and Weiss also noted that they thought of Game of Thrones as an adaptation of the series as a whole, rather than of individual novels, which gave them the liberty to move scenes back and forth across novels according to the requirements of the screen adaptation. According to Benioff, the third season contains a particularly memorable scene from A Storm of Swords, the prospect of filming which was part of their motivation to adapt the novels for television in the first place. The writing credits for the third season now state "Written for television by '', instead of the usual "Written by '' credit.
Season 3 saw the first significant use of the Valyrian languages, spoken in doomed Valyria and its former colonies in Essos. The constructed languages were developed by linguist David J. Peterson based on the few words Martin invented for the novels. Peterson had previously developed the Dothraki language, used principally in season 1.
The third season adds previously recurring actors Oona Chaplin (Talisa Maegyr), Joe Dempsie (Gendry) and Rose Leslie (Ygritte) to the series ' main cast.
After an absence of one season David Bradley returns as Walder Frey, Ian McElhinney as Barristan Selmy, Peter Vaughan as Maester Aemon, Josef Altin as Pypar and Luke McEwan as Rast.
David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as main writers and showrunners for the third season. They co-wrote seven out of ten episodes. The remaining three episodes were written by Bryan Cogman, Vanessa Taylor, and the author of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin.
Daniel Minahan, Alex Graves, Michelle MacLaren, and David Nutter each directed two episodes. One further episode was directed by previous series cinematographer, Alik Sakharov, whereas another was co-directed by Benioff and Weiss, both making their directorial debuts, although only Benioff is credited for directing the episode.
The filming of the third season began in early July 2012, and concluded with the wrap of the unit filming in Iceland on November 24, 2012. Filming in Iceland, for scenes in five of the season 's ten episodes, took place near Akureyri and Lake Mývatn. Dimmuborgir was used as the location for Mance Rayder 's wildling army camp, and the Grjótagjá cave was used as establishing shot of Jon Snow and Ygrite in the cave although most of this scene was filmed in the studio. The filming in Iceland lasted eight days, as opposed to nearly a month for season 2. Kit Harington (Jon Snow) broke an ankle in an accident in July, which required the Iceland shoots to be pushed back to give him time to heal, as well as the occasional use of a body double.
The production was again based in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and continued to receive support from the Northern Ireland Screen fund. The production used various locations in Northern Ireland to film scenes in the North and the Riverlands. The production also returned to Dubrovnik in Croatia for scenes in King 's Landing. Morocco, a new location, was used to film Daenerys ' scenes in Essos such as the city of Astapor, for which locations in Essaouira were used. A scene involving a live bear was filmed in Los Angeles.
The U.S. indie rock band The Hold Steady recorded "The Bear and the Maiden Fair '', a ribald folk song from Martin 's novels. The recording is played over the end credits of episode three, and the song is sung by Brienne and Jaime 's captors in the same episode. Set to music by series composer Ramin Djawadi, the recording was released on a seven - inch record on Record Store Day, April 20, 2013.
The soundtrack for the season was released digitally on June 4, 2013, and on CD on July 2, 2013.
Review aggregator Metacritic has a score of 91 for season 3, indicating "universal acclaim '', based on 25 reviews. While the season 3 finale ("Mhysa '') was generally well received, IGN 's Matt Fowler stated, "Season 3 may have stumbled slightly with its finale, but up until then it was thrilling and traumatic. '' Overall, he gave season 3 a 9 / 10 rating. On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has a 97 % approval rating from 41 critics with an average rating of 8.4 out of 10; the season also received a 96 % average episode score.
For the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards, the third season received 16 nominations, including for Outstanding Drama Series, Peter Dinklage for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Emilia Clarke for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, Diana Rigg for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, and David Benioff and D.B. Weiss for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the episode "The Rains of Castamere ''. That episode also won the 2014 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form. Game of Thrones won the award for Outstanding Achievement in Drama for the 29th TCA Awards, and also received a nomination for Program of the Year. For the 20th Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast was nominated for Best Drama Ensemble, Peter Dinklage was nominated for Best Drama Actor, and the series won for Best Stunt Team.
The day after the third season premiered in the U.S., it premiered in the United Kingdom on Sky Atlantic, in Australia on Foxtel, and in New Zealand on SoHo.
The third season was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 18, 2014 (2014 - 02 - 18), in region 2 on February 17, 2014 (2014 - 02 - 17) and in region 4 on February 19, 2014 (2014 - 02 - 19).
It was made available for purchase as a digital download on the iTunes store, in Australia only, in parallel to the U.S. premiere. However, on May 14, 2013, Foxtel blocked the Australian iTunes store from making the episodes available soon after they screened in the U.S. Season 3 was reported to be the most infringed TV show via torrents during spring 2013, estimated to be 5.2 million downloads via BitTorrent.
Blu - ray exclusive:
The third season of Game of Thrones was the most - pirated TV series in 2013.
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who sang you are my one and only | My One and Only (song) - Wikipedia
"My One and Only '' is a song composed by George Gershwin, with lyrics by Ira Gershwin, written for the 1927 musical Funny Face where it was introduced by Fred Astaire, Betty Compton and Gertrude McDonald. It was originally titled "(What Am I Gonna Do) If You Turn Me Down? ''
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what is the difference between a moko and a tattoo | Tā moko - wikipedia
Tā moko is the permanent body and face marking by Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand. Traditionally it is distinct from tattoo and tatau in that the skin was carved by uhi (chisels) rather than punctured. This left the skin with grooves, rather than a smooth surface.
Captain James Cook wrote in 1769:
The marks in general are spirals drawn with great nicety and even elegance. One side corresponds with the other. The marks on the body resemble foliage in old chased ornaments, convolutions of filigree work, but in these they have such a luxury of forms that of a hundred which at first appeared exactly the same no two were formed alike on close examination.
The Tohunga tā moko (or tattooists) were considered tapu, or inviolable and sacred.
Tattoo arts are common in the Eastern Polynesian homeland of Māori, and the traditional implements and methods employed were similar to those used in other parts of Polynesia (see Buck 1974: 296, cited in References below). In pre-European Māori culture, many if not most high - ranking persons received moko, and those who went without them were seen as persons of lower social status. Receiving moko constituted an important milestone between childhood and adulthood, and was accompanied by many rites and rituals. Apart from signalling status and rank, another reason for the practice in traditional times was to make a person more attractive to the opposite sex. Men generally received moko on their faces, buttocks (raperape) and thighs (puhoro). Women usually wore moko on their lips (kauwae) and chins. Other parts of the body known to have moko include women 's foreheads, buttocks, thighs, necks and backs and men 's backs, stomachs, and calves.
Originally tohunga - tā - moko (moko specialists) used a range of uhi (chisels) made from albatross bone which were hafted onto a handle, and struck with a mallet. The pigments were made from the awheto for the body colour, and ngarehu (burnt timbers) for the blacker face colour. The soot from burnt kauri gum was also mixed with fat to make pigment. The pigment was stored in ornate vessels named oko, which were often buried when not in use. The oko were handed on to successive generations. A kōrere (feeding funnel) is believed to have been used to feed men whose mouths had become swollen from receiving tā moko.
Men were predominantly the tā moko specialists, although King records a number of women during the early 20th century who also took up the practice. There is also a remarkable account of a woman prisoner - of - war in the 1830s who was seen putting moko on the entire back of the wife of a chief.
The Pākehā practise of collecting and trading mokomokai (tattooed heads) changed the dynamic of tā moko in the early colonial period. King (see below) talks about changes which evolved in the late 19th century when needles came to replace the uhi as the main tools. This was a quicker method, less prone to possible health risks, but the feel of the tā moko changed to smooth. Tā moko on men stopped around the 1860s in line with changing fashion and acceptance by Pākehā.
Women continued receiving moko through the early 20th century with Michael King in the early 1970s interviewing over 70 elderly women who would have been given the moko before the 1907 Tohunga Suppression Act. Women were traditionally only tattooed on their lips, around the chin, and sometimes the nostrils.
Since 1990 there has been a resurgence in the practice of tā moko for both men and women, as a sign of cultural identity and a reflection of the general revival of the language and culture. Most tā moko applied today is done using a tattoo machine, but there has also been a revival of the use of uhi (chisels). Women too have become more involved as practitioners, such as Christine Harvey of the Chathams, Henriata Nicholas in Rotorua and Julie Kipa in Whakatane.
Te Uhi a Mataora was established in 2000 "to preserve, enhance, and develop tā moko as a living art form ''.
Māori Moko in 1908
Tāme Iti, Ngāi Tūhoe
Tukukino Te Ahiātaewa, Ngāti Tamaterā
Te Aho - o - te - rangi Wharepu, Ngati Mahuta
Europeans were aware of tā moko from at the time of the first voyage of James Cook, and early Māori visitors to Europe, such as Moehanga in 1805, then Hongi Hika in 1820 and Te Pēhi Kupe in 1826, all had full face moko, as did several pākehā Māori such as Barnet Burns. However, until relatively recently the art had little global impact.
Misappropriation by non-Māori is seen as an offence, and high - profile uses of Māori designs by Robbie Williams, Ben Harper and a 2007 Jean Paul Gaultier fashion show were controversial.
To reconcile the demand for Māori designs in a culturally sensitive way, the Te Uhi a Mataora group promotes the use of the term kirituhi, which has now gained wide acceptance:
... Kirituhi translates literally to mean -- "drawn skin. '' As opposed to Moko which requires a process of consents, genealogy and historical information, Kirituhi is merely a design with a Maori flavour that can be applied anywhere, for any reason and on anyone...
Tāwhiao, Tukaroto Matutaera Potatau Te Wherowhero
Barnet Burns, a Pākehā Māori
Riperata Kahutia, Te Aitanga - a-Mahaki
Rewi Maniapoto, Ngāti Maniapoto
Guide Susan
Tāmati Wāka Nene, Ngāpuhi
Tomika Te Mutu, Ngāi Te Rangi
Unidentified Māori woman
Unidentified Māori man
Unidentified Māori man
Hariota Hull
Unidentified Māori woman
Unidentified Māori woman
Unidentified Māori woman
Unidentified Māori man, same as above.
Mrs. Rabone, 1871
Tuterei Karewa, Ngāti Maru (Hauraki)
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how many houses were destroyed in nepal earthquake | April 2015 Nepal earthquake - wikipedia
8,857 dead in Nepal and 8,964 in total 21,952 injured
The April 2015 Nepal earthquake (also known as the Gorkha earthquake) killed nearly 9,000 people and injured nearly 22,000. It occurred at 11: 56 Nepal Standard Time on 25 April, with a magnitude of 7.8 M or 8.1 M and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Violent). Its epicenter was east of Gorkha District at Barpak, Gorkha, and its hypocenter was at a depth of approximately 8.2 km (5.1 mi). It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal -- Bihar earthquake. The ground motion recorded in Kathmandu valley was of low frequency which, along with its occurrence at an hour where many people in rural areas were working outdoors, decreased the loss of property and human life.
The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing 21, making April 25, 2015 the deadliest day on the mountain in history. The earthquake triggered another huge avalanche in the Langtang valley, where 250 people were reported missing.
Hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless with entire villages flattened, across many districts of the country. Centuries - old buildings were destroyed at UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the Kathmandu Valley, including some at the Kathmandu Durbar Square, the Patan Durbar Square, the Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the Changu Narayan Temple, the Boudhanath stupa and the Swayambhunath Stupa. Geophysicists and other experts had warned for decades that Nepal was vulnerable to a deadly earthquake, particularly because of its geology, urbanization, and architecture.
Continued aftershocks occurred throughout Nepal at the intervals of 15 -- 20 minutes, with one shock reaching a magnitude of 6.7 on 26 April at 12: 54: 08 NST. The country also had a continued risk of landslides.
A major aftershock occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12: 50 NST with a moment magnitude (M) of 7.3. The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital of Kathmandu and Mt. Everest. More than 200 people were killed and over 2,500 were injured by this aftershock.
The earthquake occurred on 25 April 2015 at 11: 56 am NST (06: 11: 26 UTC) at a depth of approximately 15 km (9.3 mi) (which is considered shallow and therefore more damaging than quakes that originate deeper in the ground), with its epicentre approximately 34 km (21 mi) east - southeast of Lamjung, Nepal, lasting approximately fifty seconds. The earthquake was initially reported as 7.5 M by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) before it was quickly upgraded to 7.8 M. The China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) reported the earthquake 's magnitude to be 8.1 M. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) said two powerful quakes were registered in Nepal at 06: 11 UTC and 06: 45 UTC. The first quake measured 7.8 M and its epicenter was identified at a distance of 80 km to the northwest of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. Bharatpur was the nearest major city to the main earthquake, 53 km (33 mi) from the epicenter. The second earthquake was somewhat less powerful at 6.6 M. It occurred 65 km (40 mi) east of Kathmandu and its seismic focus lay at a depth of 10 km (6.2 mi) below the earth 's surface. Over thirty - eight aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 M or greater occurred in the day following the initial earthquake, including the one of magnitude 6.8 M.
According to the USGS, the earthquake was caused by a sudden thrust, or release of built - up stress, along the major fault line where the Indian Plate, carrying India, is slowly diving underneath the Eurasian Plate, carrying much of Europe and Asia. Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust approximately 120 km (74 miles) wide and 60 km (37 miles) long, reportedly shifted 3 m (10 ft) to the south in a matter of just 30 seconds.
The risk of a large earthquake was well known beforehand. In 2013, in an interview with seismologist Vinod Kumar Gaur, The Hindu quoted him as saying, "Calculations show that there is sufficient accumulated energy (in the Main Frontal Thrust), now to produce an 8 magnitude earthquake. I can not say when. It may not happen tomorrow, but it could possibly happen sometime this century, or wait longer to produce a much larger one. '' According to Brian Tucker, founder of a nonprofit organization devoted to reducing casualties from natural disasters, some government officials had expressed confidence that such an earthquake would not occur again. Tucker recounted a conversation he had had with a government official in the 1990s who said, "We do n't have to worry about earthquakes anymore, because we already had an earthquake ''; the previous earthquake to which he referred occurred in 1934.
Nepal lies towards the southern limit of the diffuse collisional boundary where the Indian Plate underthrusts the Eurasian Plate, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one - third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi) long Himalayas. Geologically, the Nepal Himalayas are sub-divided into five tectonic zones from north to south and, east to west and almost parallel to sub-parallel. These five distinct morpho - geotectonic zones are: (1) Terai Plain, (2) Sub Himalaya (Sivalik Range), (3) Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys), (4) Higher Himalaya, and (5) Inner Himalaya (Tibetan Tethys). Each of these zones is clearly identified by their morphological, geological, and tectonic features.
The convergence rate between the plates in central Nepal is about 45 mm (1.8 in) per year. The location, magnitude, and focal mechanism of the earthquake suggest that it was caused by a slip along the Main Frontal Thrust.
The earthquake 's effects were amplified in Kathmandu as it sits on the Kathmandu Basin, which contains up to 600 m (2,000 ft) of sedimentary rocks, representing the infilling of a lake.
Based on a study published in 2014, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a great earthquake occurs every 750 ± 140 and 870 ± 350 years in the east Nepal region. A study from 2015 found a 700 - year delay between earthquakes in the region. The study also suggests that because of tectonic stress buildup, the earthquake from 1934 in Nepal and the 2015 quake are connected, following a historic earthquake pattern. A 2016 study on historical great (M ≥ 8) earthquake pairs and cycles found that associated great earthquakes are likely to occur in the West China region through the 2020s.
According to "Did You Feel It? '' (DYFI?) responses on the USGS website, the intensity in small parts of Kathmandu was IX (Violent). In most of Kathmandu the intensity was VI, as evidenced by the numerous undamaged water towers installed on top of undamaged multi story buildings. Tremors were felt in the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Gujarat, in the National capital region around New Delhi and as far south as Karnataka. Damage was extensive in northern Bihar and minor damage was also reported from parts of Odisha. Shaking was felt in high - rise buildings as far as Kochi in the southern state of Kerala. The intensity in Patna was V (Moderate). The intensity was IV (Light) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The earthquake was also experienced across southwestern China, ranging from the Tibet Autonomous Region to Chengdu, which is 1,900 km (1,200 mi) away from the epicenter. Tremors were felt in Pakistan and Bhutan.
A series of aftershocks began immediately after the mainshock, at intervals of 15 -- 30 minutes, with one aftershock reaching 6.6 M within 34 minutes of the initial quake. A major aftershock of magnitude 6.9 M occurred on 26 April 2015 in the same region at 12: 54 NST (07: 08 UTC), with an epicenter located about 17 km (11 mi) south of Kodari, Nepal. The aftershock caused fresh avalanches on Mount Everest and was felt in many places in northern India including Kolkata, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri, and Assam. The aftershock caused a landslide on the Koshi Highway which blocked the section of the road between Bhedetar and Mulghat.
A model of GeoGateway, based on a United States Geological Survey mechanism of a near - horizontal fault as well as location of aftershocks showed that the fault had an 11 ° dip towards the north, striking at 295 °, 50 km (31 mi) wide, 150 km (93 mi) long, and had a dip slip of 3 m (9.8 ft). The USGS says the aftershock registered at a shallow depth of 10 km (6.2 mi).
Assuming that 25 April earthquake was the largest event in this seismic episode, Nepal could expect more than 30 aftershocks greater than magnitude 5 over the following month. As of 24 May 2016, 459 aftershocks had occurred with different epicenters and magnitudes equal to or above 4 M (out of which 51 aftershocks are equal to or above 5 M and 5 aftershocks above 6 M) and more than 20,000 aftershocks less than 4 M.
A second major earthquake occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12: 50 NST with a moment magnitude (M) of 7.3 M 18 km (11 mi) southeast of Kodari. The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital of Kathmandu and Mt. Everest. It struck at the depth of 18.5 km (11.5 miles). This earthquake occurred along the same fault as the original magnitude 7.8 earthquake of 25 April but further to the east. As such, it is considered to be an aftershock of the 25 April quake. Tremors were also felt in northern parts of India including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and other North - Indian States. At least 153 died in Nepal as a result of the aftershock and about 2,500 were injured. 62 others died in India, two in Bangladesh, and one in China. In Kathmandu the intensity was VI. People ran out of doors, or dove under a strong table (a behaviour more recommended), but water towers on top of multi story buildings remained intact.
Disastrous events in very poor and politically paralyzed nations such as Nepal often become a long drawn out chain of events, in that one disaster feeds into another for years or even decades upon end. The aftereffects from the earthquake have subsequent effects on myriad of seemingly unrelated aspects: human trafficking, labour cost and availability, rental and property cost burdens, urbanization, private and public debt burdens, mental health, politics, tourism, disease, and damage to the healthcare system.
Some disasters that came with the monsoon season were suspected to be related to the earthquake. There was a landslip on 11 June that claimed 53 lives. Meanwhile, a glacial lake had burst in particularly hard hit Solukhumbhu district. Whether or not the quake had contributed to such events is often unknown and unresearched, but certainly possible.
The earthquake killed more than 8,800 people in Nepal and injured nearly three times as many. The rural death toll may have been minimized by the fact that most villagers were outdoors working when the quake hit. As of 15 May, 6,271 people, including 1,700 from the 12 May aftershock, were still receiving treatment for their injuries. Nearly 3.5 million people were left homeless.
The example of this earthquake shows that loss calculations for hypothetical likely future earthquakes can be reasonably reliable. In 2005, the expected numbers of fatalities due to a hypothetical scenario earthquake near Kathmandu for M8. 1 was published. The fatalities at that time were estimated between 21,000 and 42,000. A M7. 8 earthquake happened on 25 April 2015 near Kathmandu. It killed only about 10,000 people because it was Saturday and the children were not in the collapsing school buildings. The original estimate was correct within a factor of 2.5 and would have been exactly correct, had it not been for the lucky break children got due to Saturday being a holiday.
After the rupture area of the Kathmandu 2015 earthquake had been derived and the intensities of shaking had been mapped, a line source model for losses could be constructed with energy being radiated along the entire rupture. The fatalities estimated in this way by QLARM agree with those reported in the end. The figure shows reports of fatalities as a function of time. News reports significantly underestimated the actual numbers of fatalities for several days.
The Himalayan Times reported that as many as 20,000 foreign nationals may have been visiting Nepal at the time of the earthquake, although reports of foreign deaths were relatively low.
A total of 78 deaths were reported in India - including 58 in Bihar, 16 in Uttar Pradesh, 3 in West Bengal and 1 in Rajasthan.
27 dead and 4 missing, all from the Tibet Autonomous Region.
4 dead.
This earthquake caused avalanches on Mount Everest. At least 19 died, with at least 120 others injured or missing.
In the Langtang valley located in Langtang National Park, 329 people were reported missing after an avalanche hit the village of Ghodatabela and the village of Langtang. The avalanche was estimated to have been two to three kilometres wide. Ghodatabela was an area popular on the Langtang trekking route. The village of Langtang was destroyed by the avalanche. Smaller settlements on the outskirts of Langtang were buried during the earthquake, such as Chyamki, Thangsyap, and Mundu. Twelve locals and two foreigners were believed to have survived. Smaller landslides occurred in the Trishuli River Valley with reports of significant damage at Mailung, Simle, and Archale. On 4 May it was announced that 52 bodies had been found in the Langtang area, of which seven were of foreigners.
According to geological models, the frequency and intensity of future landslides in the Langtang Valley is due to increase in the coming decades. This is attributable directly to the effect of the earthquake, which caused widespread fracturing in the grounds of the Langtang area.
Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages flattened, especially those near the epicenter.
The Tribhuvan International Airport serving Kathmandu was closed immediately after the quake, but was re-opened later in the day for relief operations and, later, for some commercial flights. It subsequently shut down operations sporadically due to aftershocks, and on 3 May was closed temporarily to the largest planes for fear of runway damage. During strong aftershocks, the airport opened all boarding - lounge exit doors onto the tarmac, allowing travelers who were waiting post security and immigration to flee to the open spaces of the runway tarmac. Many travelers remained outside as planes were delayed and the airport swelled to capacity. The airport facilities suffered damage and there was no running water or operating toilets for travelers waiting in the airport lounges. Few airport workers were at their posts; most were killed in the earthquake or had to deal with its aftereffects.
Flights resumed from Pokhara, to the west of the epicentre, on 27 April.
Several of the churches in the Kathmandu valley were destroyed. As Saturday is the principal day of Christian worship in Nepal, 500 people were reported to have died in the collapses.
Several temples on Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed, as did the Dharahara tower, built in 1832; the collapse of the latter structure killed at least 180 people, Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, previously damaged in an earlier quake, tilted several inches further. The northern side of Janaki Mandir in Janakpur was reported to have been damaged. Several temples, including Kasthamandap, Panchtale temple, the top levels of the nine - story Basantapur Durbar, the Dasa Avtar temple and two dewals located behind the Shiva Parvati temple were demolished by the quake. Some other monuments including the Taleju Bhawani Temple partially collapsed.
The top of the Jaya Bageshwari Temple in Gaushala and some parts of the Pashupatinath Temple, Swyambhunath, Boudhanath Stupa, Ratna Mandir, inside Rani Pokhari, and Durbar High School have been destroyed.
In Patan, the Char Narayan Mandir, the statue of Yog Narendra Malla, a pati inside Patan Durbar Square, the Taleju Temple, the Hari Shankar, Uma Maheshwar Temple and the Machhindranath Temple in Bungamati were destroyed. In Tripureshwar, the Kal Mochan Ghat, a temple inspired by Mughal architecture, was completely destroyed and the nearby Tripura Sundari also suffered significant damage. In Bhaktapur, several monuments, including the Phasi Deva temple, the Chardham temple and the 17th century Vatsala Durga Temple were fully or partially destroyed.
Outside the Valley, the Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, the Gorkha Durbar, the Palanchok Bhagwati, in Kabhrepalanchok District, the Rani Mahal in Palpa District, the Churiyamai in Makwanpur District, the Dolakha Bhimsensthan in Dolakha District, and the Nuwakot Durbar suffered varying degrees of damage. Historian Prushottam Lochan Shrestha stated, "We have lost most of the monuments that had been designated as World Heritage Sites in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur District, Nepal. They can not be restored to their original states. '' The northeastern parts of India also received major damage. Heavy shocks were felt in the states of Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and others. Huge damage was caused to the property and the lives of the people.
Concern was expressed that harvests could be reduced or lost this season as people affected by the earthquake would have only a short time to plant crops before the onset of the Monsoon rains.
Nepal, with a total Gross Domestic Product of USD $19.921 billion (according to a 2012 estimate), is one of Asia 's poorest countries, and has little ability to fund a major reconstruction effort on its own. Even before the quake, the Asian Development Bank estimated that it would need to spend about four times more than it currently does annually on infrastructure through to 2020 to attract investment. The U.S. Geological Survey initially estimated economic losses from the tremor at 9 percent to 50 percent of gross domestic product, with a best guess of 35 percent. "It 's too hard for now to tell the extent of the damage and the effect on Nepal 's GDP '', according to Hun Kim, an Asian Development Bank (ADB) official. The ADB said on the 28th that it would provide a USD $3 million grant to Nepal for immediate relief efforts, and up to USD $200 million for the first phase of rehabilitation.
Rajiv Biswas, an economist at a Colorado - based consultancy, said that rebuilding the economy will need international effort over the next few years as it could "easily exceed '' USD $5 billion, or about 20 percent of Nepal 's gross domestic product.
It was reported that the survivors were preyed upon by human traffickers involved in the supply of girls and women to the brothels of South Asia. These traffickers took advantage of the chaos that resulted from the aftermath of the earthquake. The most affected were women from poor communities who lost their homes.
Single women have had very little access to relief, according to a report by the Inter-party Women 's Alliance (IPWA). The report also found that violence and rapes against women and minors has increased after the earthquake. Additionally, the earthquake has significantly affected certain groups of people. Tibeto - Burman peoples were hardest hit as they tend to inhabit the higher slopes of mountains as opposed to the central valleys, are less educated and connected. All of these factors make them harder to access. According to a government survey, malnutrition in children has worsened considerably some 3 months after the quake, with the most undernourished being Tamang and Chepang peoples. Before the quake, 41 percent of children under five were stunted, 29 percent were underweight and 11 percent were emaciated, according to the World Food Programme.
On 3 May, the hashtag # GoHomeIndianMedia was trending worldwide on Twitter, condemning news covered by the Indian media as insensitive and inhumane to victims of the tragedy. The people of Nepal acknowledged the aid and effort put by the Indian armed forces, yet, at the same time, accused Indian news networks of carrying out "a public relations exercise '' on behalf of the Indian government, of overemphasizing the role of the Indian Army, and of hogging space on relief planes where aid material or rescue or medical personnel could have been sent instead. Indian users responded with the hashtags # SorryNepal and # DontComeBackIndianMedia.
Though a feared mass cholera outbreak failed to materialize (there were sporadic reports), other outbreaks have been reported. At least 13 people have died of scrub typhus while 240 people have been taken ill since the disease was first diagnosed in the country in August 2015 until Sept 2016.
About 90 % of soldiers from the Nepalese Army were sent to the stricken areas in the aftermath of the earthquake under Operation Sankat Mochan, with volunteers mobilized from other parts of the country. Rainfall and aftershocks were factors complicating the rescue efforts, with potential secondary effects like additional landslides and further building collapses being concerns. Impassable roads and damaged communications infrastructure posed substantial challenges to rescue efforts. Survivors were found up to a week after the earthquake.
As of 1 May international aid agencies like Médecins Sans Frontières and the Red Cross were able to start medically evacuating the critically wounded by helicopter from outlying areas, initially cut - off from the capital city, Kathmandu, and treating others in mobile and makeshift facilities. There was concern about epidemics due to the shortage of clean water, the makeshift nature of living conditions and the lack of toilets.
Emergency workers were able to identify four men who had been trapped in rubble, and rescue them, using advanced heartbeat detection. The four men were trapped in up to ten feet of rubble in the village of Chautara, north of Kathmandu. An international team of rescuers from several countries using FINDER devices found two sets of men under two different collapsed buildings.
Volunteers used crisis mapping to help plan emergency aid work. Local organization Kathmandu Living Labs helped coordinate local knowledge on the ground and collaborated with international crisis mapping and humanitarian organizations. Public volunteers from around the world participated in crowdmapping and added details into online maps. Information was mapped from data input from social media, satellite pictures and drones of passable roads, collapsed houses, stranded, shelterless and starving people, who needed help, and from messages and contact details of people willing to help. On - site volunteers verified these mapping details wherever they could to reduce errors.
Digital mappers, through the Kathmandu Living Labs, were already charting the densely populated Kathmandu Valley, and then focused on earthquake relief. "They were doing an inventory in the poorer communities where they did n't have a very good sense of the quality of buildings, '' says Cowan, whose students helped add Kathmandu 's buildings and roads to OpenStreetMap. First responders, from Nepalese citizens to the Red Cross, the Nepal army and the United Nations used this data. The Nepal earthquake crisis mapping utilized experience gained and lessons learned about planning emergency aid work from earthquakes in Haiti and Indonesia.
India decided to donate $1 billion in cash and materials to Nepal. India 's External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj said "I am happy to announce Government of India 's pledge for Nepal 's post-earthquake reconstruction of Nepali Rupees 10,000 crores, equivalent to one billion US dollars, one fourth of it as Grant. '' The International Conference on Nepal 's Reconstruction has been organised by the Nepalese government to raise funds for rebuilding the country.
Reports are also coming in of sub-standard relief materials and inedible food being sent to Nepal by many of the foreign aid agencies.
A United States Marine Corps helicopter crashed on 12 May while involved in delivering relief supplies. The Bell UH - 1Y Venom crashed at Charikot, roughly 45 miles (72 kilometers) east of Kathmandu. Two Nepalese soldiers and 6 American Marines died in the crash.
Need - fulfillment application, Getmii, launched a special pilot version in partnership with the Red Cross to double daily blood donors at the Kathmandu donation center using the app.
Imaging technologies such as satellites and smartphones, were instrumental to relief efforts in Nepal. GLIMS, group of volunteer scientists from nine nations, were able to provide rapid, systematic mapping of the damaged area, allowing the investigation of earthquake - induced geo - hazard processes which provided information to relief and recovery officials on the same timeframe as those operations were occurring.
UNESCO and the Ministry of Culture began strengthening damaged monuments in danger of collapsing before the monsoon season. Subsequent restoration of collapsed structures, including historic houses is planned. Architectural drawings exist that provide plans for reconstruction. According to UNESCO, more than 30 monuments in the Kathmandu Valley collapsed in the quakes, and another 120 incurred partial damage. Repair estimates are $160 million to restore 1,000 damaged and destroyed monasteries, temples, historic houses, and shrines across the country. The destruction is concentrated in the Kathmandu Valley. UNESCO designated seven groups of multi-ethnic monuments clustered in the valley as a single World Heritage Site, including Swayambhu, the Durbar squares of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, and the Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changu Narayan. Damaged in the quakes were the structures in the three Durbar squares, the temple of Changu Narayan, and the 1655 temple in Sankhu. Drones fly above cultural heritage sites to provide 3D images of the damage to use for planning repairs.
UNICEF appealed for donations, as close to 1.7 million children had been driven out into the open, and were in desperate need of drinking water, psychological counsel, temporary shelters, sanitation and protection from disease outbreak. It distributed water, tents, hygiene kits, water purification tablets and buckets. Numerous other organizations provided similar support.
India was the first to respond within hours, being Nepal 's immediate neighbour, with Operation Maitri which provided rescue and relief by its armed forces. It also evacuated its own and other countries ' stranded nationals. India has been the largest aid donor to Nepal following the earthquake with a billion dollar support apart from other non-monetary reliefs extended. The United States, China and other nations have provided helicopters as requested by the Nepalese government.
On 26 April 2015, international aid agencies and governments mobilized rescue workers and aid for the earthquake. They faced challenges in both getting assistance to Nepal and ferrying people to remote areas as the country had few helicopters. Relief efforts were also hampered by Nepalese government insistence on routing aid through the Prime Minister 's Disaster Relief Fund and its National Emergency Operation Center. After concerns were raised, it was clarified that "Non-profits '' or NGOs already in the country could continue receiving aid directly and bypass the official fund. Aid mismatch and supply of "leftovers '' by donors, aid diversion in Nepal, mistrust over control of the distribution of funds and supplies, congestion and customs delays at Kathmandu 's airport and border check posts were also reported. On 3 May 2015, restrictions were placed on heavy aircraft flying in aid supplies after new cracks were noticed on the runway at the Tribhuvan airport (KTM), Nepal 's only wide - body jet airport.
The list below gives a break - up of pledged donations, by each nation, along with aid in kind, delivered immediately.
$3,568,500 to the United Nations relief effort, $793,000 to the World Health Organization, $793,000 to the Australian Red Cross, $396,500 to the RedR Australia relief organisation, $3.172 million for other Australian NGOs. Two Boeing C - 17 aircraft carrying 15 tons of Australian aid and two RAAF aero medical evacuation teams. The Government of Tasmania donated $7,930 to Rotary Tasmania 's Nepal Earthquake Appeal.
2 humanitarian experts and a crisis - response team initially. 70 defence personnel, immigration and other federal government officials to distribute aid and help with evacuation efforts.
BAF Lockheed C - 130B aircraft with 10 tonnes of relief materials -- tents, dry food, water, blankets, etc. Four cargo trucks carrying approximately 25 tonnes of essential relief materials for earthquake victims in Nepal left Dhaka. The cargoes will travel through Banglabandh - Fulbari - Panitanki - Kakarbhitta land route. The relief materials include 3000 cartons (12 tonne) of dry food and fruit juice donated by PRAN, and 5000 pieces of blankets donated by Brac, according to a press release of the Embassy of Nepal in Bangladesh. Bangladesh will provide at least one hundred thousand tons of rice and other relief materials including drinking water to help the earthquake victims in Nepal.
8 tons of baby food Over 100 tons of medical supplies 75,000 vials of insulin Over 200 tons of water 100,000 bottles of water every day from the Indian Railways Hundreds of tons of food and dry rations 43 tons of relief material 10 tons of blankets Several tons of stretchers, tents A reverse osmosis (RO) plant Oxygen regenerators & cylinders 345 tons of relief material, dry food and essential medicines from the state governments of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
16 National Disaster Response Force teams, over 1,000 personnel, search - & - rescue dogs Hundreds of retired Indian Gorkha soldiers of the Indian Army Hundreds of Indian Army and Indian Air Force personnel Military task forces headquartered in Kathmandu and Barpak Relief sorties by Ilyushin Il - 76, C - 130J Hercules, C - 17 Globemaster, Antonov An - 32 aircraft Civilian aircraft Helicopters -- Mi - 17, Cheetah, HAL Dhruv ALH Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 18 member medical team 3 field hospitals 2 mobile teams of specialist doctors 41 member medical team from the state of Rajasthan Indian Air Force rapid action medical team 45 bed hospital at Lagankhel Light vehicles Earth moving equipment 18 Indian Army Engineer Task Forces (Indian Army Corps of Engineers) Indian Oil Corporation team PowerGrid Corporation of India engineers 36 + vehicles -- ambulances and water tankers -- from the Sashastra Seema Bal 39 member Indian Army team deployed at the Everest Base Camp to search for, rescue and assist climbers
Evacuation of over 20,000 Indian citizens and hundreds of foreign nationals by air and road
Four Lockheed C - 130 planes 30 - bed hospital 2,000 military meals 600 blankets 200 tents other assorted relief items
1000 tents Food packages for 230 families (Rice 10 kg, bean 1 kg, salt 1 kg, oil, Nepal noodle 1 kg, 10 vitamin tablets and etc. per a package) 2.4 tons of rice, 320 bottles of vegetable oil, salts for 740 villagers
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are there any humans for whom zeus is a patron | Greek city - state patron gods - wikipedia
Ancient and archaic Greek poleis would be dedicated to the worship of a particular city - state patron god, to whom the population would show reverence in addition to the god or gods of their own personal adherence. The patron gods of Greece are the equivalent of today 's patron saints.
Ancient Greek temples were dedicated to a certain deity. A typical temple would have a statue inside. An altar would be placed outside, upon which offerings would be placed as sacrifices to the city 's patron deity. The Parthenon is a famous example of an Ancient Greek temple.
Athena and Apollo are among the most common choices of patron gods of the ancient Greek cities.
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winner of the fillies triple crown in 1985 crossword clue | British classic races - wikipedia
The British Classics are five long - standing Group 1 horse races run during the traditional flat racing season. They are restricted to three - year - old horses and traditionally represent the pinnacle of achievement for racehorses against their own age group. As such, victory in any classic marks a horse as amongst the very best of a generation. Victory in two or even three of the series (a rare feat known as the English Triple Crown) marks a horse as truly exceptional.
The five British Classics are:
It is common to think of them as taking place in three legs.
The first leg is made up of the Newmarket Classics -- 1,000 Guineas and 2,000 Guineas. Given that the 1,000 Guineas is restricted to fillies, this is regarded as the fillies ' classic and the 2,000, which is open to both sexes, as the colts ' classic, although it is theoretically possible for a filly to compete in both.
The second leg is made up of The Derby and / or Oaks, both ridden over 1 1 / 2 miles at Epsom in early June. The Oaks is regarded as the fillies ' classic, the Derby as the colts ', although, as with the Guineas, a filly could theoretically contest both.
The final leg is the St. Leger, held over 1 mile 6 1 / 2 furlongs at Doncaster and is open to both sexes.
The variety of distances and racecourses faced in the Classics make them particularly challenging as a series to even the best horses. It is rare for a horse to possess both the speed and stamina to compete across all these distances, making the Triple Crown a particularly notable achievement. In fact, in the modern era, it is rare for any attempt on the Triple Crown to be made.
Although the oldest race in the series, the St Leger, was first run 1776, the races were not designated ' classics ' until 1815, shortly after the first running of the 1,000 Guineas.
(see also Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing)
In 1902 Sceptre became the only racehorse to win four British Classic Races outright, winning both Guineas, the Oaks and the St Leger. Previously, in 1868, Formosa won the same four races but dead - heated in the 2,000 Guineas.
Fifteen horses have won the standard Triple Crown (2,000 Guineas -- Derby -- St Leger), the last being Nijinsky in 1970.
In addition to Sceptre and Formosa above, eight horses have won the fillies ' Triple Crown (1,000 Guineas -- Oaks -- St Leger), the last being Oh So Sharp in 1985.
Many horses have won two classics, some of whom have gone on to attempt the Triple Crown, losing in the last leg at Doncaster. The most recent example of this was the Aidan O'Brien trained Camelot, who having won 2,000 Guineas and Derby, finished second in the St Leger in 2012.
Most wins as a horse
Most wins as a jockey
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when did chevy go to independent front suspension | Pontiac - wikipedia
Pontiac was a car brand that was owned, made, and sold by General Motors. Introduced as a companion make for GM 's more expensive line of Oakland automobiles, Pontiac overtook Oakland in popularity and supplanted its parent brand entirely by 1933.
Sold in the United States, Canada and Mexico by GM, Pontiac was advertised as the performance division of General Motors from the 1960s onward.
Amid late 2000s financial problems and restructuring efforts, GM announced in 2008 it would follow the same path with Pontiac as it had with Oldsmobile in 2004 and discontinue manufacturing and marketing vehicles under that brand by the end of 2010. The last Pontiac badged cars were built in December 2009, with one final vehicle in January, 2010. Franchise agreements for Pontiac dealers expired October 31, 2010, leaving GM to focus on its four remaining North American brands: Chevrolet, Buick, Cadillac, and GMC.
The Pontiac brand was introduced by General Motors in 1926 as the companion marque to GM 's Oakland division, and shared the GM A platform. Purchased by General Motors in 1909, Oakland continued to produce modestly priced automobiles until 1931 when it was renamed Pontiac. It was named after the famous Ottawa chief who had also given his name to the city of Pontiac, Michigan where the car was produced. Within months of its introduction, Pontiac was outselling Oakland, which was essentially a 1920s Chevrolet with a six - cylinder engine installed. Body styles offered included a sedan with both two and four doors, Landau Coupe, with the Sport Phaeton, Sport Landau Sedan, Sport Cabriolet and Sport Roadster. As a result of Pontiac 's rising sales, versus Oakland 's declining sales, Pontiac became the only companion marque to survive its parent, with Oakland ceasing production in 1932.
Pontiacs were also manufactured from knock - down kits at GM 's short - lived Japanese factory at Osaka Assembly in Osaka, Japan from 1927 - 1941.
Pontiac produced cars offering 40 hp (30 kW; 41 PS) 186.7 cu in (3.1 L) (3.25 x3. 75 in, 82.5 x95mm) L - head straight 6 - cylinder engines in the Pontiac Chief of 1927; its stroke was the shortest of any American car in the industry at the time. The Chief sold 39,000 units within six months of its appearance at the 1926 New York Auto Salon, hitting 76,742 at twelve months. The next year, it became the top - selling six in the U.S., ranking seventh in overall sales. By 1933, it had moved up to producing the least expensive cars available with straight eight engines. This was done by using many components from the 6 - cylinder Chevrolet Master, such as the body, but installing a large chrome strip on the top and center of the front hood Pontiac called the "Silver Streak ''. In the late 1930s, Pontiac used a Buick "torpedo '' body for one of its models, just prior to its being used by Chevrolet, earning some media attention for the marque. An unusual feature of the "torpedo '' - bodied exhibition car was that, with push of a button, the front half of the body would open showing the engine and the car 's front seat interior. In 1937, the eight - cylinder had a 122 - inch (3,099 mm) wheelbase, while the six - cylinder had a 117 - inch (2,972 mm) wheelbase. In 1940, Pontiac introduced the Torpedo as a production model. On 2 February 1942, a Pontiac was the last civilian automobile manufactured in the United States during World War II, as all automobile factories converted to military production.
For an extended period of time -- prewar through the early 1950s -- the Pontiac was a quiet, solid car, but not especially powerful. It came with a flathead straight eight. Straight 8s were slightly less expensive to produce than the increasingly popular V8s, but they were also heavier and longer. Additionally, the long crankshaft suffered from excessive flex, restricting straight 8s to a relatively low compression ratio with a modest redline. However, in this application, inexpensive (yet very quiet) flatheads were not a liability.
From 1946 to 1948, all Pontiac models were essentially 1942 models with minor changes. The Hydra - matic automatic transmission was introduced in 1948 and helped Pontiac sales grow even though their cars, Torpedoes and Streamliners, were quickly becoming out of date.
The first all - new Pontiac models appeared in 1949. They incorporated styling cues such as lower body lines and rear fenders that were integrated in the rear - end styling of the car.
Along with new styling came a new model. Continuing the Native American theme of Pontiac, the Chieftain line was introduced to replace the Torpedo. These were built on the GM B - Body platform and featured different styling than the more conservative Streamliner. In 1950, the Catalina pillarless hardtop coupe was introduced as a "halo '' model, much like the Chevrolet Bel Air of the same year.
In 1952, Pontiac discontinued the Streamliner and replaced it with additional models in the Chieftain line built on the GM A-body platform. This single model line continued until 1954 when the Star Chief was added. The Star Chief was created by adding an 11 - inch (280 mm) extension to the A-body platform creating a 124 - inch (3,100 mm) wheelbase.
The 1953 models were the first to have one - piece windshields instead of the normal two - piece units. While the 1953 and 1954 models were heavily re-worked versions of the 1949 - 52 Chieftain models, they were engineered for the V8 engine that was supposed to be introduced on the 1953 models, however Buick division complained to corporate that the introduction might take sales away because Buick was introducing its new nailhead V - 8 in 1953. The corporation held Pontiac back until 1955.
Completely new bodies and chassis were introduced for 1955. A new 173 hp (129 kW; 175 PS) overhead valve V8 engine was introduced. (see Engines section below). Sales increased. With the introduction of this V8, the six - cylinder engines were discontinued; a six - cylinder would not return to the full - size Pontiac line until the GM corporate downsizing of 1977. A four - cylinder engine was introduced in the Tempest model line in 1961, followed by an overhead - cam six - cylinder starting in 1966, as well as on the Firebird. It was the first popular - priced, mass - produced engine in America utilizing an overhead - camshaft configuration.
In 1956, when 42 - year - old Semon "Bunkie '' Knudsen became general manager of Pontiac, along new heads of engineering, E.M. Estes and John DeLorean, Knudsen immediately began reworking the brand 's image. One of the first steps involved the removal of the famous trademark "silver streaks '' from the hood and deck lid of the 1957 models just weeks before the 1957s were introduced. Another step was introducing the first Bonneville -- a limited - edition Star Chief convertible that showcased Pontiac 's first fuel - injected engine. Approximately 630 Bonnevilles were built for 1957, each with a retail price of nearly $5,800. While new car buyers could buy a Cadillac for that price, the Bonneville raised new interest in what Pontiac now called "America 's No. 1 Road Car. ''
The following year the Bonneville became its own line, built on the 122 - inch (3,100 mm) wheelbase of the A-body platform. A 1958 Tri power Bonneville was the pace car for that year 's Indianapolis 500. Also, 1958 was the last year Pontiac Motor Division would bear the "Indian '' motif throughout the vehicle. The exception would be the Indian head high beam indicator light in the instrument cluster.
With the 1959 model year, Pontiac came out with its "Arrowhead '' emblem, with the star design in the middle. The "Arrowhead '' design ran all the way up the hood from between the split grille, and on Starchief Models, had eight chrome stars from the emblem design bolted to both sides of the vehicle as chrome trim. Knudsen saw to it that the car received a completely reworked chassis, body, and interior styling. Quad headlamps, as well as a longer, lower body were some of the styling changes.
The Chieftain line was renamed Catalina; Star Chief was downgraded to replace the discontinued Super Chief series and for the first time did not have a two - door hardtop, only a two - door sedan along with a four - door hardtop and four - door sedan, in addition there was no Star Chief wagon. The Bonneville was now the top of the line, coming in three body styles of two - door hardtop, four - door vista and four - door wagon. The Star Chief 's four - door "Vista '' hardtop was also shared by the Bonneville. Catalina models included a two - door hardtop, two - door sedan, four - door sedan, four - door hardtop vista and two wagons, one a six - passenger and one a nine - passenger wagon. Bonneville and Star Chief were built on a 124 - inch (3,100 mm) wheelbase with the exception of the Bonneville wagon and all Catalina models and Bonneville wagon that rode on a 122 - inch wheelbase. Catalina was also seven inches shorter than Bonneville and Star Chief and weighed one hundred to two hundred pounds less than its long - wheelbase counterparts. All 1959 Pontiac engines were equipped with a 389 - cubic - inch engine with horsepower ratings from 215Hp economy engine to a conservative rated 345 hp Tri power carbureted engine. All automatics were four - speed Super-Hydra - Matics or, as Hydramatic Division who designed and built them called them, "Controlled coupling HydraMatic ''. A special note here is that Oldsmobile used this same transmission and called it Jetaway HydraMatic and Cadillac also used this transmission and Cadillac called it 315 or P 315 Hydramatic. A three - speed column - mounted stick shift was standard on all Pontiacs. This coincided with major body styling changes across all models that introduced increased glass area, twin V - shaped fins and lower hood profiles. Because of these changes, Motor Trend magazine picked the entire Pontiac line as 1959 Car of the Year. The ' 59s have a five - inch (127 mm) wider track, Front at 63 7 / 8 '' front track and 64.0 '' rear track because Knudsen noticed the new, wider bodies looked awkward on the carried - over 1958 frames. The new "Wide - Track '' Pontiacs not only had improved styling, but also handled better -- a bonus that tied into Pontiac 's resurgence in the marketplace.
The 1960 models saw a complete re-skinning with the exception of the body 's canopies which remained identical to the 59 's, but removed the tail fins and the distinctive split grille (which Ford copied on the final Edsel models for 1960). The 1960 models standard engine all had a Horsepower gain of 3 hp due to a compression bump of. 25 to one over the 59 engine. The front track was now widened to the rear track at 64 ". Ventura was introduced, a more luxurious hardtop coupe and the Vista 4 - door hardtop now being built on the shorter 122 - inch (3,100 mm) wheelbase platform, with it falling between the Catalina and Star Chief models. The Ventura featured the luxury features of the Bonneville in the shorter, lighter Catalina body.
Most of Pontiac 's models built during the 1960s and 1970s were either styled like, or were siblings to, other GM makes (except Cadillac). However, Pontiac retained its own front and rear end styling, interiors, and engines.
The 1961 models were similarly reworked. The split grille returned, as well as all - new bodies and a new design of a perimeter - frame chassis for all its full - size models (something which would be adopted for all of GM 's intermediate - sized cars in 1964, and all its full - sized cars in 1965). These new chassis allowed for reduced weight and smaller body sizes. It is interesting to note that the similarly styled Chevrolet still used the radically different "X '' frame in the early 1960s.
But a complete departure in 1961 was the new Tempest, one of the three BOP (Buick - Olds - Pontiac) "compacts '' introduced that year, the others being the Buick Special and Skylark and Oldsmobile F - 85 and Cutlass. Toward the end of the 1961 model year an upscale version of the Tempest called the "LeMans '' was introduced, named after the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans auto race in France.
All three were uni-body cars, dubbed the "Y - body '' platform, combining the frame and body into a single construction, making them comparatively lighter and smaller. All three put into production new technology pushed by John DeLorean which GM had been working on for several years prior, but the Tempest was by far the most radical. A flexible steel shaft rotating at the speed of the engine delivered power from the front - mounted engine through a "torque tube '' to a rear - mounted trans - axle. This innovation not only delivered close to a 50 / 50 front - rear weight distribution that drastically improved handling, it enabled four - wheel independent suspension which enhanced it even more. It also all but eliminated the large floor "hump '' common to front - engined rear - drive cars.
Though the Tempest 's transaxle was similar to the one in the Corvair, introduced the year before, it shared virtually no common parts. GM had planned to launch a Pontiac version of the Corvair (dubbed "Polaris ''), but "Bunkie '' Knudsen -- whose niece had been seriously injured in a Corvair crash -- successfully argued against the idea. The Polaris design apparently made it to full - scale clay before it was cancelled. Instead, DeLorean 's "rope - shaft '' design was green - lighted.
Contemporary rumors of the rope - shaft 's demise due to reliability problems are unfounded; the rope - shaft 's durability and performance had been proven in tests in full - size Pontiacs and Cadillacs in 1959, and only adapted to a smaller car in 1960. The Tempest won the Motor Trend "Car of the Year '' award in 1961 -- for Pontiac, the second time in three years. DeLorean 's vision has been further vindicated by the adoption of similar designs in a slew of modern high - performance cars, including the Porsche 928, 924, and 944, the Corvette C5, and the Aston Martin DB9.
Unless customers checked an option, the Tempest 's power - plant was a 194.5 Ci inline - slant - four - cylinder motor, derived from the right bank of the venerable Pontiac 389 V8, enabling it to be run down the same production line as the 389, saving costs for both the car 's customers and Pontiac. Pontiac engineers ran early tests of this motor by literally cutting off the left bank of pistons and adding counterweights to the crankshaft, and were surprised to find it easily maintained the heaviest Pontiacs at over 90 miles per hour (140 km / h). In production, the engine received a crankshaft designed for just four cylinders, but this did n't completely solve its balance issues. The engine gained the nickname "Hay Baler '' because of it tendency to kick violently, like the farm machine, when its timing was off.
The aforementioned Buick 215 V8, was ordered by less than two percent of its customers in the two years it was available, 1961 and 1962. Today, the 215 cars are among the most sought - after of all Tempests. In 1963, Pontiac replaced the 215 with a "new '' 326 which was really a 336 with a bore of 3.78 and stroke of 3.75 (same stroke as the 389), an iron block mill that had the same external dimensions and shared parts with the 389, but an altered, reduced bore. The car 's body and suspension was also changed to be lower, longer and wider. The response was that more than half of the 1963 Tempests and LeMans (separate lines for that one year only) were ordered with the V8, a trend that did not go unnoticed by management. The next year, the 326 would become a true 326 with a new bore size of 3.72. The Tempest 's popularity helped move Pontiac into third place among American car brands in 1962, a position Pontiac would hold through 1970. The Buick 215 V8 would remain in production for more than thirty five years, being used by Britain 's Rover Group after it had bought the rights to it. GM attempted to buy the rights back, however, Rover wished, instead, to sell the engines directly.
In November 1961, Knudsen had moved to Chevrolet. Pete Estes now became general manager of Pontiac and Delorean was promoted to Pontiac Chief engineer. Both continued Knudsen 's work of making Pontiac a performance - car brand. Pontiac capitalized on the emerging trend toward sportier bucket - seat coupes in 1962 by introducing the Grand Prix, taking the place of the Ventura which now became a trim option on the Catalina. Although GM officially ended factory support for all racing activities across all of its brands in January 1963, Pontiac continued to cater to performance car enthusiasts by making larger engines with more power available across all model lines. For 1963, the Grand Prix received the same styling changes as other full - sized Pontiacs such as vertical headlights and crisper body lines, but also received its own squared - off roof - line with a concave rear window, along with less chrome. This concave rear window would be duplicated on all Tempest / LeMans four - door intermediates in 1964 - 1965.
For 1964, the Tempest and LeMans ' trans - axle design was dropped and the cars were redesigned under GM 's new A body platform; frame cars with a conventional front - engine, rear - wheel - drive layout. The most important of these is the GTO, short for "Gran Turismo Omologato, '' the Italian for "Grand Touring, Homologated '' used by Ferrari as a badge to announce a car 's official qualification for racing. In spite of a GM unwritten edict against engines larger than 330 Ci in intermediate cars, DeLorean (with support from Jim Wangers from Pontiac 's ad agency), came up with the idea to offer the GTO as an option package that included a 389 Ci engine rated at 325 or 348 horsepower (260 kW).
The entire Pontiac lineup was honored as Motor Trend 's Car of the Year for 1965, the third time for Pontiac to receive such honors. The February, 1965 issue of Motor Trend was almost entirely devoted to Pontiac 's Car of the Year award and included feature stories on the division 's marketing, styling, engineering and performance efforts along with road tests of several models.
Due to the popularity of the GTO option, it was split from being an option on the Tempest LeMans series to become the separate GTO series. On the technology front, 1966 saw the introduction of a completely new overhead camshaft 6 - cylinder engine in the Tempest, and in an industry first, plastic grilles were used on several models.
The 1967 model year saw the introduction for the Pontiac Firebird pony car, a variant of the Chevrolet Camaro that was the brand 's answer to the hot - selling Ford Mustang. Intermediate sized cars (Tempest, LeMans, GTO) were mildly face - lifted but all full size cars and GTO lost their Tri-Power engine option though it did get a larger 400 cubic - inch V8 that replaced the previous 389. Full - sized cars got a major facelift with rounder wasp - waisted body lines, a name change for the mid-line series from Star Chief to Executive and a one - year - only Grand Prix convertible. 1968 introduced the Endura ' rubber ' front bumper on the GTO, the precursor to modern cars ' integrated bumpers, and the first of a series "Ram Air '' engines, which featured the induction of cold air to the carburetor (s) for more power, and took away some of the sting from deleting the famous Tri-Power multiple carburetion option from the engine line up. This Tri carburetor deletion came from the 14th floor of GM banning multiple carburetion and headed by GM president Ed Cole. The Ram Air V garnered much auto press publicity, but only a relative few were made available for sale. Full - sized cars and intermediates reverted from vertical to horizontal headlights while the sporty / performance 2 + 2 was dropped from the lineup.
For 1969, Pontiac moved the Grand Prix from the full - sized lineup into a G - body model of its own based on the A-body intermediate four - door modified from 116 inches to 118 inches wheelbase chassis, but with distinctive styling and long hood / short deck proportions to create yet another niche product - the intermediate - sized personal - luxury car that offered the luxury and styling of the higher priced personal cars such as the Buick Riviera and Ford Thunderbird and the old Grand Prix and Olds Starfire but for a much lower price tag. The development of the car really has an interesting twist. Pete Estes who like Knudsen had moved to be GM of Chevrolet in 1966 and Delorean now general manager of the Pontiac division needed a car to take the place of the sagging sales of the full size Grand Prix, but the development cost of the car was too much of burden for Pontiac division alone, so Delorean went to his old boss now at Chevrolet to gather support for the development cost of the new "G '' body Grand Prix. Estes agreed to share in the cost and allow Pontiac to have a one - year exclusivity on this new car, the next year Chevy would follow with its version which was called Chevrolet Monte Carlo. The new Grand Prix was such a sales success in 1969 as dealers moved 112,000 units - more than four times the number of Grand Prixs sold in 1968. Full - sized Pontiacs were also substantially restyled but retained the same basic under - body structure and chassis that debuted with the 1965 model - in fact the roof - lines for the four - door pillared sedans and Safari wagons were the same as the 1965 models, while the two - door semi-fastback design gave way to a squared - off notch - back style and four - door hardtop sedans were also more squared off than 1967 - 68 models. The GTOs and Firebirds received the Ram Air options, the GTO saw the addition of the "Judge '' performance / appearance package, and the Firebird also got the "Trans Am '' package. Although originally conceived as a 303 cubic inch model to compete directly in the Trans Am racing series, in a cost - saving move the Pontiac Trans Am debuted with the standard 400 - cubic - inch performance engines. This year also saw De Lorean leaving the post of general manager to accept a similar position at GM 's Chevrolet division. His replacement was F. James McDonald.
Pontiacs built in the late 1960s conformed to new U.S. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards. These included energy - absorbing interior parts such as steering columns, steering wheels, knobs and handles, dual - circuit hydraulic brake systems, shoulder belts, side marker lights, and headrests.
The 1969 Firebirds. received a heavy facelift but otherwise continued much the same as the original 1967 model. It was the final year for the overhead cam six - cylinder engine in Firebirds and intermediates, and the Firebird convertible (until 1991). Production of the 1969 Firebirds was extended into the first three months of the 1970 model year (all other 1970 Pontiacs debuted Sept. 18, 1969) due to a decision to delay the introduction of an all - new 1970 Firebird (and Chevrolet Camaro) until Feb. 26, 1970.
In addition in the late - 1960s, GM directed their GM and Pontiac divisions to develop concept mini-cars called commuter car for urban drivers. GM developed a gasoline - electric drive hybrid the XP - 833 and the Pontiac X-4 a rear - wheel drive mid-engine car that was powered by a radical X-shaped aircraft type air - cooled two - stroke radial engine where the standard crankshaft was replaced by a unit called a Scotch yoke. While the GM car was fully tested the Pontiac concept was not. Neither was placed in production.
Increasing insurance and fuel costs for owners coupled with looming Federal emissions and safety regulations would eventually put an end to the unrestricted, powerful engines of the 1960s. Safety, luxury and economy would become the new watch - words of this decade. Engine performance began declining in 1971 when GM issued a corporate edict mandating that all engines be capable of using lower - octane unleaded gasoline, which led to dramatic drops in compression ratios, along with performance and fuel economy. This, coupled with trying to build cars as plush as GM 's more luxurious Buicks and Oldsmobiles, contributed to the start of a slow decline of Pontiac in 1971.
In mid-1971 Pontiac introduced the compact, budget - priced Ventura II (based on the third generation Chevrolet Nova). This same year, Pontiac completely restyled its full - sized cars, moved the Bonneville, and replaced it with a higher luxury model named the Grand Ville, while Safari wagons got a new clamshell tailgate that lowered into the body while the rear window raised into the roof.
1971 -- 1976 model full - size station wagons featured a ' Clamshell ' design where the rear power - operated glass slid up into the roof as the tailgate (manually or with power assist), dropped below the load floor. The power tailgate, the first in station wagon history, ultimately supplanted the manual tailgate, which required marked effort to lift from storage.
The 1972 models saw the first wave of emissions reduction and safety equipment and updates. GTO was a now sub-series of the LeMans series. The Tempest, was dropped, after being renamed ' T - 37 ' and ' GT - 37 ' for 1971. The base 1972 mid-sized Pontiac was now called LeMans.
James MacDonald left the post of general manager to be replaced by Martin J. Caserio in late 1972. Caserio was the first manager in over a decade to be more focused on marketing and sales than on performance.
For 1973, Pontiac restyled its personal - luxury Grand Prix, mid-sized LeMans and compact Ventura models and introduced the all - new Grand Am as part of the LeMans line. All other models including the big cars and Firebirds received only minor updates. Again, power dropped across all engines as more emissions requirements came into effect. The 1973 Firebird Trans Am 's factory applied hood decal, a John Schinella restylized interpretation of the Native American fire bird, took up most of the available space on the hood. Also in 1973, the new Super Duty 455 engine ("Super Duty '' harkening back to Pontiac 's Racing Engines) was introduced. Although it was originally supposed to be available in GTOs and Firebirds, only a few SD 455 engines made it into Firebird Trans Ams that year. One so equipped was tested by ' Car and Driver ' magazine, who proclaimed it the last of the fast cars. But the pendulum had swung, and the SD 455 only hung on one more year in the Trans Am.
All Federal emissions and safety regulations were required to be in full effect for 1974 causing the demise of two of the three iterations of the big 455 cubic inch engines after this year. The last version of the 455 would hang on for two more years before being discontinued.
For 1975, Pontiac introduced the new sub-compact Astre, a version of the Chevrolet Vega. This was the brand 's entry into the fuel economy segment of the market. Astre had been sold exclusively in Canada from 1973. It was offered through the 1977 model year. 1975 would also see the end of Pontiac convertibles for the next decade.
The 1976 models were the last of the traditional American large cars powered by mostly big block V8 engines. After this year, all GM models would go through "downsizing '' and shrink in length, width, weight and available engine size. The 1976 Sunbird, based on the Chevrolet Vega and Monza 's equivalent, joined the line. It was first offered as a Notchback, with a Hatchback body style added in 1977. The Vega Wagon body style was added in 1978, Sunbird Safari Wagon, replacing the Astre Safari Wagon. The Sunbird was offered in its rear - wheel - drive configuration through the 1980 model year. (Sunbird Safari wagon through 1979.)
At mid-year 1977, Pontiac introduced the Phoenix, an upscale version of the Ventura which replaced the Ventura entirely after the end of the 1977 model year. Pontiac also introduced its 151 cubic inch "Iron Duke '' 4 - cylinder overhead valve engine. It was first used in the 1977 Astre, replacing Astre 's aluminum - block 140 cubic inch Vega engine. The ' Iron Duke ' engine would later go into many GM and non-GM automobiles into the early 1990s. The 151 cubic inch L4 and the 301 cubic inch V8 were the last two engines designed solely by Pontiac. Subsequent engine design would be accomplished by one central office with all designs being shared by each brand.
For model year 1977, the full sized Pontiacs received the same "downsizing '' as GM 's other "B '' body cars. The new Bonnevilles and Catalinas continued to be best - sellers, although their styling similarity to the Chevrolet Caprice was seen by some buyers as a "cheapening '' of Pontiac 's image. In 1981, the full - size Bonneville was discontinued, the name reassigned to the "A '' body intermediate platform. That left the Catalina as the only big Pontiac, further reducing sales as buyers went for more plushness.
The remainder of the 1970s and the early 1980s saw the continued rise of luxury, safety and economy as the key selling points in Pontiac products. Wire - spoked wheel covers returned for the first time since the 1930s. More station wagons than ever were being offered. Padded vinyl roofs were options on almost every model. Rear - wheel drive began its slow demise with the introduction of the first front - wheel drive Pontiac, the 1980 Phoenix (a version of the Chevrolet Citation). The Firebird continued to fly high on the success of the ' Smokey and the Bandit ' film, still offering Formula and Trans Am packages, plus a Pontiac first - a turbocharged V8, for the 1980 and 1981 model years. In addition to this, The Rockford Files, which lasted for 6 years used an Esprit Firebird. James Garner was given a new model each year, which was resprayed and painted. But he disapproved of the front facelift. The turn which he performed throughout the show were all his own stunts and came to be known as the Rockford turn or J turn.
Introduced in 1982, the wedge shaped Firebird was the first major redesign of the venerable pony car since 1970. Partly due to the hugely successful NBC television series Knight Rider, it was an instant success and provided Pontiac with a foundation on which to build successively more performance oriented models over the next decade. The Trans Am also set a production aerodynamic mark of. 32 cd.
The next step in Pontiac 's resurgence came in the form of its first convertible in nine years. GM adapted the J - body cars. The all - new for 1982 J2000 (later renamed Sunbird) had a convertible as part of its line.
Next came the 1984 Fiero. This was a major departure from anything Pontiac had produced in the past. A two - seat, mid-engined coupe, the Fiero was targeted straight at the same market that Semon Knudsen had been aiming for in the late 1950s: the young, affluent buyer who wanted sporting performance at a reasonable price. The Fiero was also an instant success and was partially responsible for Pontiac seeing its first increase in sales in four years.
Pontiac also began to focus on technology. In 1984, a Special Touring Edition (STE) was added to the 6000 line as a competitor to European road cars such as the Mercedes 190. The STE sported digital instruments and other electronics as well as a more powerful V - 6 and retuned suspension. Later iterations would see some of the first introductions on Pontiacs of anti-lock brakes, steering wheel mounted radio controls and other advanced features.
Full size buyers, disappointed by the lack of an available big Bonneville, complained, resulting in Pontiac 's importing the Canadian - market Pontiac Parisienne, which featured the Bonneville 's deluxe trim. This car, although a Pontiac in name, was no more than a slightly re-trimmed Caprice. Despite this fact, the Parisienne sold in profitable numbers and this car continued in production until 1986 for the sedan, and 1989 for the Safari station wagon.
With the exception of the Parisienne Safari, the Firebird and Fiero, beginning in 1988 all Pontiacs, with the exception of the Firebird, switched to front - wheel drive platforms. For the first time since 1970, Pontiac was the number three domestic car maker in America. Pontiac 's drive to bring in more youthful buyers was working as the median age of Pontiac owners dropped from 46 in 1981 to 38 in 1988.
Although updating and revamping continued throughout the 1990s, the vast change seen during the 1980s did not. The period between 1989 and 1997 can best be described as one of continuous refinement. Anti-lock brakes, GM 's Quad - 4 engine, airbags and composite materials all became standard on Pontiacs during this time.
All new models were produced but at more lengthy intervals. The 1990 model year saw the launch of Pontiac 's first minivan and light truck, the Trans Sport. The Sunbird was replaced with the (still J - body) Sunfire in 1995.
Significantly, an all new Firebird bowed in 1993. It was powered by either a 3.4 L V6 with 160 hp (120 kW), or in TransAm guise a 275 hp (205 kW) LT - 1, a 5.7 L (350c. i.) V8, and could be backed by a T - 56 six - speed manual (which was similar to the transmission found in contemporary Corvettes and Vipers). This new Firebird easily outperformed its main rival, the Ford Mustang, but did not do as well in the marketplace due to the Mustang 's superior image and refinement, particularly in the interior.
1992 saw the introduction of a brand - new Bonneville. This full - size model featured aerodynamic styling, large expanses of curved glass, front - wheel drive, and a V6 as standard equipment. This model proved popular and continued in production into the 21st century.
Beginning in 1996, Pontiac began mining its historic past. This was the last year for the 5th - generation Grand Prix. 1997 led the way for an all - new Grand Prix, which debuted with the Wide Track chassis making a return spearheaded by the "Wider is Better '' advertising campaign. In addition, the GTP trim level was added to the Grand Prix. It featured a supercharged 3.8 L V6 putting out 240 hp (180 kW) and 280 lb ft (380 N m) of torque. Pontiac was back to the days of fast cars. The 1999 model year saw the replacement of the Trans Sport with the larger Montana minivan. The year 2000 marked the first redesign of the Bonneville, since 1992. Based was on the G - Body, shared with the Oldsmobile Aurora and Buick LeSabre.
In 1998 the Firebird was updated. It featured sleeker styling and improved amenities. The TransAm received the LS - 1 motor which produced 305 hp (227 kW). The WS6 option saw this number increase to 320 hp (240 kW) and the addition of Ram Air and stiffer springs. Though these ratings have been proven to fall short. Dyno tests over the years since release have confirmed that all trim levels with the LS1 have closer to 350 hp. However, despite handily outperforming the redesigned 1999 Mustang, the Firebird was not nearly as large a sales success. In 2002 both the Firebird / Trans Am and Camaro were discontinued as a result of declining sales and a saturated sport market. The coupe version of the Grand Prix was also discontinued.
The 2003 Vibe arrived in spring 2002, a Toyota - based compact wagon built at the NUMMI joint - venture plant.
In 2003, it was announced that the Grand Prix would be in its last year of its generation, with an improved 7th generation on the way for 2004. It would also be Pontiac 's final year in NASCAR before leaving the circuit for good. Pontiac 's final victory in NASCAR would be achieved by Ricky Craven in one of the closest finishes in NASCAR history.
In 2004 the re-introduction of the Pontiac GTO (based on the Holden Monaro from Australia) took place, effectively replacing the spot left by the Firebird and Camaro. The GTO was also initially powered by the 350 HP LS - 1 V8 in 2004. It had an independent front and rear suspension and an upscale full leather interior. Its clean lines and understated looks drew some criticism. Sales did not reach the 18,000 units that GM predicted. Initial dealer mark ups, slow shipping transit from Australia, and lack of advertisement by GM were to blame. Due to the retirement of the LS1 engine in 2004, Pontiac added the drive - by - wire 400 HP LS2 V8 for 2005 -- 2006 model years at no additional cost. Additional upgrades also consisted of stainless steel dual exhaust outlets, larger Corvette sourced PBR brakes with EBD, larger front vented rotors with vented rear rotors, and functional heat extractor hood scoops. The Bonneville introduced the GXP trim level to replace the SSEi. The Bonneville GXP featured a 4.6 Northstar V8, borrowed from Cadillac, and replaced the Supercharged 3800 Series II. The redesigned Grand Prix made its appearance, and featured a GT and GTP trim level. The GTP 's new 3.8 L supercharged V6 now made 260 horsepower (190 kW), up 20 from the previous generation. TAPshift was also introduced as well as a Competition Group package (Comp G).
Pontiac went through a complete product revamping through this period. The Grand Am was replaced with the mid-size G6 in 2004. The Bonneville ended production in 2005 after nearly 50 years of production. Although it was not directly replaced, the RWD G8 served as an initial replacement. The Solstice concept shown in 2002 was approved for production as a roadster (2006 - 2009) and, for a few months, a hard - top coupe (2009), which is considered to be quite rare, as a total of only 1,266 coupes made it off the assembly line in Wilmington, DE before it was shut down due to the demise of Pontiac. This is in stark contrast to the over 64,000 Solstice Convertibles that were manufactured on that same line. The controversial and slow - selling Aztek was finally phased out and replaced by the Torrent, which was identical to the Chevrolet Equinox. In 2005 the Sunfire was discontinued and replaced by the new Pontiac Pursuit (later named G5).
The Grand Prix ended production in 2008 and the launch of the Australian - built RWD G8 commenced. The G8 gained positive reception for its high performance and low costs. Many noted the G8 as the poor man 's BMW M5, due to similar performance at a much cheaper price. The Holden Ute was scheduled to be launched as the G8 ST before it was cancelled in January 2009 due to GM 's financial situation. It was later announced that the G8 may not see a second generation.
Towards the end of the decade many rumors began spreading that Pontiac would become completely reliant on RWD. Reports ranged from a compact sedan based on the Alpha platform to a new RWD G6 for the 2013 model year. Many reports suggested that the Trans Am / Firebird would return after GM confirmed the rebirth of the Camaro, however, no reports confirmed this.
On December 2, 2008, General Motors announced that it was considering eliminating numerous brands, including Pontiac, in order to appease Congress in hope of receiving a $25 billion loan. On February 17, 2009, GM proposed the elimination of its Saturn division, the sale of Saab, and either the sale or elimination of Hummer, depending on whether a buyer could be found quickly. GM clarified that Pontiac would have begun to focus on "niche '' models aimed at the "youthful and sporty '' segment, but did not provide specifics. Pontiac was to trim its number of models to four, although there was talk of retaining only one model. By April 2009 several automotive websites and business publications were reporting that GM was doing a study suggesting it might eliminate the brand altogether, along with sister truck brand GMC. On April 23 a report was published stating the company would be dropping the Pontiac brand while preserving the GMC truck line, and the Chevrolet, Cadillac, and Buick brands. The decision to eliminate Pontiac was made primarily due to the increasing threat of a bankruptcy filing if the June 1 deadline could not be met. On April 27, 2009, GM announced that Pontiac would be dropped and that all of its remaining models would be phased out by the end of 2010. Though both production and franchise agreements ended in 2010, Pontiac remains a registered and active trademark of GM.
General Motors would eliminate an additional 7,000 to 8,000 factory jobs in the United States and shed 2,600 dealers by 2010 under a revised business plan. GM Chief Executive Officer Fritz Henderson said the Pontiac brand would be closed by 2010, calling it an "extremely personal decision ''. In addition to speeding up decisions on Saturn, Saab and Hummer, GM would be left with four brands -- Chevrolet, Buick, GMC and Cadillac.
In early May 2009, Jim Waldron, a Davison, Michigan, Pontiac dealer, announced that he was interested in purchasing the Pontiac brand and logos, and had found financing to purchase them and some soon - to - be shuttered GM plants in order to build cars. However, GM had already decided to retire the brand as it has begun to sell off its remaining inventory and said that, unlike Saturn, Hummer, and Saab, Pontiac was not for sale.
The Pontiac brand was pulled after the 2009 model year in Mexico and the brand was renamed Matiz, selling only one vehicle, the Matiz G2 (Matiz 's logo is similar to Pontiac 's).
The last Pontiac, a 2010 model year G6, was built at the Orion Township Assembly Line in January, 2010.
Pontiac became the second brand General Motors had eliminated in six years. Oldsmobile met the same fate in 2004 after being more slowly phased out over four years. Pontiac also became the ninth North American automobile brand since 1987 to be phased out, after Merkur, Mercury, Passport, Asüna, Geo, Plymouth, American Motors (AMC) (renamed Eagle in 1988, and phased out in 1999), and Oldsmobile.
A Native American headdress was used as a logo until 1956. This was updated to the Native American red arrowhead design for 1957 in all usage except the high - beam indicator lamp, which retained the original logo through 1970. The arrowhead logo is also known as the Dart.
Besides the logo, another identifying feature of Pontiacs were their "Silver Streaks '' -- one or more narrow strips of stainless steel which extended from the grille down the center of the hood. Eventually they extended from the rear window to the rear bumper as well, and finally; along the tops of the fins. Although initially a single band, this stylistic trademark doubled to two for 1955 - 1956. The Streaks were discontinued the same year the Indian Head emblems were; 1957.
Other long - familiar styling elements were the split grille design (from 1959 onward), pointed ' arrowhead ' nose (in the 1960s and 70s), and "grilled - over '' (in the 1960s), or multiple - striped taillights. This later feature originated with the 1963 Grand Prix, and although the ' 62 Grand Prix also had rear grillework, the taillight lenses were not behind it. Less longstanding but equally memorable is the ' cladding ' common on the doors and fenders of Pontiacs produced in the 1980s and 90s. Rather than minimizing the side bumper, Pontiac designers put two troughs going along the length. Bumpers with this appearance were found on nearly all Pontiacs until the arrival of the G6. From 2004 onwards, new Pontiacs had cleaner, more premium styling, but retained the traditional split grille.
In Canada, the post-World War II Pontiac brand sold well. General Motors of Canada offered a line of full - size Pontiac cars that were styled like U.S market models, but were actually Chevrolets under their skins. Model lineup during this period included the base Strato - Chief, mid-range Laurentian, and top - of - the - line Parisienne series. Under their exteriors, however, these cars featured Chevrolet frames, engines, and even dimensions. Interiors (except for instrument panels which were Pontiac - based) were a combination of Chevy and Pontiac styling. During the early 1960s, Pontiacs featured the controversial "X '' frame used on the big Chevys, as well as the complete Chevy lineup of OHV straight Sixes, small - block 283 and 327 cubic inch V8s, and the big - block 348 and 409 V8s. This scheme was used well into the 1980s, and the Caprice - based 1984 and later Parisienne made it into U.S. Pontiac showrooms to replace the recently discontinued Bonneville. This strategy helped keep the price of the cars to a minimum, as was needed in the then less - affluent Canadian marketplace. GM of Canada was already building Chevrolets in Ontario; they only needed to stamp Pontiac - styled body skins (these were styled like, but not interchangeable with, US Pontiac body parts) and import Pontiac - specific trim from the United States, to convert these Chevys to Pontiacs. It also reduced the cost of tariffs GM would have needed to pay, had they imported U.S. - market Pontiacs Up North.
GM of Canada also executed right - hand drive versions of Pontiac for export. These cars were popular in Australia, where GM faced competition from the big Ford Galaxie and Dodge Phoenix.
Pontiac dealers in Canada also sold smaller Chevrolet - based cars under the Acadian and Beaumont badges. These models are often referred to as Pontiacs, but in fact were never marketed as such, nor did they ever wear Pontiac badges (although the Acadian and Beaumont emblem was in fact, similar to the Pontiac Arrowhead). However, some Chevrolet were badged as Pontiacs later on in Canada.
Pontiac engineer Clayton Leach designed the stamped steel valvetrain rocker arm, a simplified and reliable alternative to a bearing - equipped rocker. This design was subsequently picked up by nearly every OHV engine manufacturer at one point or another.
Pontiac began work on a V8 configuration in 1946. This was initially intended to be an L - head engine, and 8 experimental units were built and extensively tested by the end of the 1940s. But testing comparisons to the OHV Oldsmobile V8 revealed the L - head could not compete performance-wise. So, in addition to building a new Pontiac Engineering building in 1949 -- 1951, the decision to re-direct the V8 to an OHV design delayed its introduction until the 1953 model year, however Buick division was introducing its new engine (nailhead V - 8) in 1953 and asked the corporation to hold back or delay Pontiac 's V - 8 introduction until the 1955 model year which it did.
In mid-1956, Pontiac introduced a higher - powered version of its V8. Among other things, this version of the engine was equipped with a high - performance racing camshaft and dual 4 - barrel carburetors. This was the first in a series of NASCAR - ready pre - Super-Duty V8 engines and introduced the long line of multi-carburetor equipped engines that saw Pontiac become a major player during the muscle car and pony car era of the 1960s. Interestingly, the enlarged 1956 Pontiac V8 found its way into light - duty GMC pickup trucks.
Pontiac 's second generation V8 engines shared numerous similarities, allowing many parts to interchange from its advent in 1959 to its demise in 1979. Sizes ranged from 287 cubic inch to 455 cubic inch. This similarity (except the 301 & 265) makes rebuilding these engines relatively easier. This feature also made it possible for Pontiac to invent the modern muscle car, by the relatively simple process of placing its second largest - displacement engine, the 389 cid, into its mid-size car, the Le Mans, creating the Pontiac LeMans GTO.
From their inception in the 1950s until the early 1970s, Pontiac engines were known for their performance. The largest engine was a massive 455 cubic inch V8 that was available in most of their mid-size, full - size and sports car models. At the height of the horsepower era, Pontiac engines reached a powerful 390 rated horsepower (SAE gross), though other engines achieved considerably higher outputs in actuality. Federal emissions laws eventually brought the horsepower era to a close and resulted in a steady decline for Pontiac 's engines. One holdout to this industry - wide slide was the Super Duty 455 engine of 1973 -- 1974. Available only in the Firebird Formula and Trans Am models, this was rated at 310 hp (230 kW) net initially but after having issues passing EPA emissions tests, the camshaft was changed to the old RA III cam and with the change, came a 290 hp (220 kW) net rating. The engine was the pinnacle of Pontiac engine development and was a very strong performer that included a few race - specific features, such as provisions for dry - sump oiling. This engine and its legacy drive the SD Trans Ams and Formulas as one of the more, if not the most, desirable Pontiacs ever produced.
The only non-traditional Pontiac V8 engines were the 301 cubic inch and the smaller displacement 265 cubic inch V8s. Produced from 1977 through 1981, these engines had the distinction of being the last V8s produced by Pontiac; GM merged its various brands ' engines into one collectively shared group in 1980, entitled General Motors Powertrain. Interestingly, the 301 had a 4 - inch (100 mm) bore and 3 - inch (76 mm) stroke, identical to the vaunted Chevrolet small - block engine and Ford Boss 302 engine.
Pontiac engines were not available in Canada, however, but were replaced with Chevrolet engines of similar size and power, resulting in such interesting and unusual (at least to American car fans) models as the Beaumont SD - 396 with a Chevrolet big - block 396 cubic inch V8.
PMD used Carter 1 - barrel carburetors for many years, but by the time of the second generation V8 engines had switched mostly to 2 - barrel offerings. These also were the basis for the Tri-Power setups on the engines.
The Tri-Power setup included one center carburetor with idle control and two end carburetors that did not contribute until the throttle was opened more than half way. This was accomplished two ways, mechanically for the manual transmission models, and via a vacuum - switch on the automatics. This went through various permutations as it was only a factory installed option in from 1957 - 1966.
PMD also had a square - bore 4 - barrel at the time, but this was rated at a lower power than the Tri-Power. This carburetor was later replaced by the Quadrajet, a spread bore. ' Spread - bore ' refers to the difference in sizes between the primaries and secondaries, using smaller primaries paired with larger secondaries for increased airflow at wider throttle with fuel delivery changes akin to the two - plus - four benefit of Tri-Power but with a single carburetor. It must be understood that the Q jet was not the only thing that gave the top GTO 400 '' engine and the 428 H-O engines the same H.P. as the 389 and 421. Aside of the displacement advantage the new engine had redesigned cylinder heads with different valve angles and larger ports. The different valve angles allowed for larger diameter intake and exhaust valves. There have been many test when a Tri-Power set - up was added to a 400 '' or 428 '' engine that they made even more H.P. than a Q - Jet.
By the end of the muscle car era, the Quadrajet setup had become the nearly ubiquitous choice on PMD engines. The Quadrajet design continued until 1990 for Oldsmobile V8 applications, along with added computer controls to meet emissions and fuel economy standards.
Pontiac New Series 6 - 28 8240 2 - door Sedan 1928
Pontiac Big Six Series 6 - 29 8930 4 - Door Landaulette 1929
Pontiac Series 603 34318 Convertible Coupé 1934
Pontiac De Luxe Series 26 2611 2 - door Touring Coach 1937
Pontiac De Luxe Series 26 2611 2 - door Touring Sedan 1938
Pontiac De Luxe Convertible Coupé 1939
Pontiac Station Wagon 1948
Pontiac Chieftain Catalina 1953
Pontiac Chieftain Catalina 1953
Pontiac Star Chief 1954
Pontiac Laurentian Convertible 1956
Pontiac Star Chief 1957
Pontiac Bonneville Convertible 1957
Pontiac 2119 Tempest 1961
Pontiac GTO 1966
Pontiac Fiero 1988
Pontiac Grand Am Sedan 1996 -- 1998
Pontiac Bonneville 2003
Pontiac Grand Prix GTP 2005
Pontiac GTO 2006
Pontiac G8 2008
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is pokemon mystery dungeon explorers of the sky the same as time and darkness | Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness - wikipedia
Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Time and Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Darkness are a matched pair of Pokémon games for the Nintendo DS. The two games were released in Japan on September 13, 2007, and were released in North America on April 20, 2008. They were released in Europe on July 4, 2008. A third version, Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Sky, was released in 2009.
As a sequel to Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Blue Rescue Team, new features include the addition of Generation IV Pokémon, improved Wi - Fi functionality, and more touch - screen options. 491 of the 493 Pokémon are featured, as Shaymin and Arceus were not officially released at the time of the game 's launch. A 21 - minute TV special based on the game starring Kurumi Mamiya aired in Japan on September 9, 2007 as a content of the program relating Pokémon, "Pokémon Sunday '' produced by TV Tokyo Corporation. It was later dubbed in English in 2008.
In terms of gameplay and premise, the Explorers installments are largely similar with their Rescue Team predecessors; where a human - turned - Pokémon joins an Exploration Society and explores shifting dungeons, fighting hostile Pokémon through turn - based combat. In terms of critical review, it was criticized for repetitive gameplay and similarity, while receiving praise for its storyline and Wi - Fi functionality. As of 2010, the three games had accumulated worldwide sales in excess of 5.9 million copies.
As with the previous games, the player takes on the role of a human who has been turned into a Pokémon, whose type is determined by a personality test. A partner Pokémon is also selected who will henceforth be referred to as "the partner ''. Unlike Blue Rescue Team and Red Rescue Team, the gender does not restrict the available selection of Pokémon for either the player or the partner, though both player and partner may not be of the same type. The test sets the player as one of the many natures in the mainstream games, and two Pokémon will be set to that nature, one for male, one for female.
The player may be Bulbasaur, Charmander, Squirtle, Pikachu, Meowth, Chikorita, Cyndaquil, Totodile, Treecko, Torchic, Mudkip, Skitty, Turtwig, Chimchar, Piplup and Munchlax; a total of 16 Pokémon to choose from. Once chosen, the partner may be any of the above Pokémon, with the exception of Pokémon of the same type of the player, Meowth, Skitty and Munchlax. Eevee, Machop, Cubone and Psyduck were removed as starter Pokémon, though Eevee was again made available in the game 's remake. Riolu was debated for a player Pokémon in Explorers of Time and Darkness, but the idea was eventually dropped, and Riolu was selected for the Explorers of Sky list.
The basic gameplay is unchanged from Blue Rescue Team and Red Rescue Team - players may use shops in Treasure Town (equivalent of Pokémon Square in previous games) to link moves, save money, buy items, store items, and train in special "maze '' levels (although the Pokémon running almost all of these shops have changed). Players enter dungeons to complete missions, and during exploration they encounter hostile Pokémon. During the story portion, if either the player or his / her partner is defeated by running out of health, the team will be removed from the dungeon and lose all their money and half (or more) of their items. However, after beating the main story (and graduating) the team will only be removed if the team leader faints.
Like previous installments, players may send out an SOS if they are defeated.
New to this series is the option to temporarily send a team member to aid a friend who is in need - this allows a team to have more than four members. Defeated teams awaiting rescue may also engage in a "standby adventure '' mode in which players may revisit previous dungeons to raise funds and collect items, but without the ability to level up.
Among new items introduced are treasure boxes, which require money to be opened and may contain rare items. Rare items, however, may only affect certain Pokémon. They can also be used to trade for rarer and more valuable items using a new shop. New items are also introduced to account for new evolution methods which do not translate well from the main series to Mystery Dungeon (such as Probopass, Magnezone, Leafeon, or Glaceon). Pokémon eggs have been introduced to Mystery Dungeon, where the newly hatched Pokémon will join the player 's team. Finally, "Friend Areas '' from Blue Rescue Team and Red Rescue Team have been eliminated in favour of a more streamlined team management process.
The Wonder Mail has also changed, the reason for this being that many players were using Wonder Mail to cheat in Blue and Red Rescue Team.
As with all Pokémon games, some Pokémon are exclusive to one version, although they may be unlocked on the other through the exchange of Wonder Mail codes. The Pokémon that are exclusive to Explorers of Time are Celebi, Combee, Lucario, Pachirisu, and Riolu, while the Pokémon exclusive to Explorers of Darkness are Burmy, Buneary, Lopunny, Mewtwo, and Rotom. Despite this, Celebi and Mewtwo are currently impossible to recruit except on their respective games. Also, some items are much rarer in one version than in another.
The story begins with the player having been washed ashore by a storm. Meanwhile, his partner is nervous about joining the Wigglytuff Guild, as local "Dungeons '' (these are the levels in the game) have been revealed and are open to exploration. After teaming up to recover the partner 's Relic Fragment from some thieves, the player, who has lost all memory, except his name and the fact that they used to be human, agrees to form an exploration team in order to piece together who he is. The first proper mission that the team go on is to Drenched Bluff, to recover a Spoink 's missing pearl. Upon finishing, the hero and partner receive a large reward, a large percentage of which is promptly taken by Chatot as collateral for guild training.
The player discovers not too long after that he has the ability to see things in the past and future through contact with people or things. This leads to the player rescuing an Azurill from Drowzee, a wanted criminal. Some time after, the partner tells the player the story of the Time Gears, the artifacts that all Pokémon are to avoid lest time stand still. When a Time Gear is stolen, time in that area is frozen. Despite this, it is soon revealed that a mysterious thief is stealing the Time Gears, causing time to stop in various areas.
The player and partner get quite excited when Chatot gives them an exploration mission, to explore an "unexplored cave '' called Waterfall Cave. Before this, Chimecho provides a new feature to the exploration team, allowing them to recruit new members. After Waterfall Cave, the player, after piecing together several visions, finds out that the guildmaster, Wigglytuff, had previously explored this cave but forgot about it prior to telling them to explore it.
A short time later, the whole guild mounts an expedition to Fogbound Lake. Meanwhile, the player 's team draws the ire of team Skull, a band of thugs who take it upon themselves to make their lives miserable. Upon arrival, the player recalls the place as being familiar, but can not explain as to why. The guild encounters Uxie and discovers the location of a Time Gear, but are allowed to return home with their memories intact, on the condition that they not reveal it to anybody else. The guild meets a famous explorer named Dusknoir, who explains that the player 's ability to see through time is called the Dimensional Scream. Not long after, Azurill and his brother Marill (whom the player meets earlier when saving Azurill from Drowzee) come to the guild, showing them a ransom note for an item (a Water Float) that they had been looking for. They then go to the Amp Plains and fight Luxray and the Luxio tribe, but get saved by Dusknoir and chase off Team Skull, who took the Water Float in order to get revenge on the team. Dusknoir offers his help in uncovering the secret behind the player 's transformation and also offers his assistance in the hunt for Grovyle, who is stealing the Time Gears. Soon, the Time Gear at Fogbound Lake is stolen, and the whole guild splits up to look for Time Gears. The player 's team eventually discover an underground lake, which is home to Mesprit and another Time Gear. However Grovyle appears and steals the Time Gear after Mesprit mistakes the team as the thieves. Somewhere in the story, the player and the partner also activate a dojo in which they can train in.
Dusknoir determines that the third lake guardian Azelf, the being of willpower, is likely to be guarding another Time Gear. Dusknoir further explains that as Uxie and Mesprit were encountered in lakes, Azelf is also likely to be found in a lake area. The team arrives at the lake in the middle of Crystal Cave, where they find Azelf about to be defeated by Grovyle. However, just as Grovyle is about to steal the Time Gear, Azelf activates a fail - safe trap, which prevents it from doing so. Grovyle then escapes, but with Dusknoir in pursuit.
Back in town, Dusknoir reveals that he and Grovyle are from the future, and that Grovyle fled to the past to prevent from being captured, and intends to steal the Time Gears so as to cause the Planet 's Paralysis, an event turning the Pokémon world into a dark, dismal region filled with scared and corrupted Pokémon. Everyone comes up with a plan to capture Grovyle, by luring him in with the Time Gear that still remains, but Dusknoir adds that he and the Lake Trio alone must battle Grovyle for capture. A few days later a report comes in, indicating that Grovyle has been captured, and that Dusknoir plans to take Grovyle back to the future to face justice. The Time Gears have been returned to their rightful places, and Dusknoir has opened a Dimensional Hole to take Grovyle back to the future. Dusknoir bids farewell to the villagers, but suddenly grabs the player and partner, and drags them with him into the portal.
The player and partner awaken, finding themselves in a prison. After escaping a near execution with Grovyle, they (now in the future) discover their world has become paralyzed, despite the Time Gears being placed back in their respective spots. The two traverse through several dungeons until they catch up to Grovyle, having to rescue him from a rogue Spiritomb. After coming to compromise, Grovyle offers to share what he knows with the two heroes.
They learn that the paralysis was caused by time breaking down before the theft of the Gears because of Temporal Tower, which gives structure to time itself. When the tower collapsed, its head occupant, Dialga the Time Dragon, survived the collapse but became corrupted due to the flow of darkness that possessed and twisted the minds of countless Pokémon. Now living as a tyrannical being known as Primal Dialga, it has sworn to preserve the dark future so as to maintain its fearsome form. It is also established that Grovyle has pure motives for collecting Time Gears, so as to prevent the planet 's paralysis in Temporal Tower. This story contradicts Dusknoir 's fallacies, and Grovyle exposes Dusknoir as a villainous agent sent to the partner 's world to capture him. Unsure but determined, the player 's team searches for a way back to the past. However, they are being pursued by Dusknoir and his Sableye minions. The group eventually manage to find a shiny Celebi, who is a (close) friend of Grovyle, and finally arrive at the Passage of Time. Dusknoir ambushes the group, but Grovyle expresses hope for success - when he traveled back to the past initially, he was joined by a human companion on his mission. That partner was lost during their time travel, though Grovyle believes that even if he dies, the partner will be able to fulfill his mission for him. Dusknoir asks Grovyle to divulge the name of his friend, revealing that the partner in question is actually the player. Dusknoir reveals he has known about this for a long while: he was scouting all over the past world, collecting all of its history and information in order to find the two. He came across the player 's exploration duo at one point, and eventually discovered one of them had the Dimensional Scream. After revealing their ability and name, Dusknoir carried out a plan which had the player itself betray Grovyle unknowingly and blackened Grovyle 's reputation further. This plan worked out smoothly because the player could not recognize their foe when they saw him. Not defeated by the grim circumstances, the partner urges Celebi to transport them ahead of Dusknoir and into the Passage. With little interference from Primal Dialga, they succeed, and Celebi escapes.
Arriving back to the present, the group decides to stay at the partner 's old home, due to Grovyle 's presence potentially landing them in trouble. They plan their next move, which is to take the Time Gears. Grovyle tells the team that the player was his partner before the player turned into a Pokémon, explaining the strange voice heard near the Time Gear locations, the random visions, and the lack of Screams in the future due to no Time Gears there. They soon discover through reconnaissance that time has still stopped in places where Time Gears are present, despite them being returned. It appears that the only way to restore time is to take the Time Gears to Temporal Tower. This is easier said than done, though; the Tower is located in the Hidden Land, and no one knows where the Hidden Land is. They eventually decide to reveal their return to the guild, so they can convince the guild to help them, and receive the lake guardians ' Time Gears - they are, fortunately, met with friendly cooperation from all parties. They talk with Torkoal, the town elder, who tells them that to get to the Hidden Land, they need an item with an inscription on it, which is on the partner 's Relic Fragment. Wigglytuff and Chatot have also seen this pattern, in Brine Cave. Inside Brine Cave 's Depths, Chatot (and Team Skull, who tried to get to the Hidden Land simply to get the fame) is injured protecting the team from a Kabutops and two Omastar. The team manages to defeat the bandits, driving them off. Wigglytuff comes with the rest of the guild with Grovyle in tow, having collected the five Time Gears needed to stop the collapse of Temporal Tower. Leaving Chatot in the Guild 's care, the team and Grovyle forge ahead.
In Brine Cave, the team discovers a rock wall pointing out to sea, on which is a wall pattern similar to the one found on the Relic Fragment. When the Relic Fragment is presented, a light shines out towards the sea. Just then, a Lapras arrives. Lapras ferries the team and Grovyle to the Hidden Land. Arriving at the Hidden Land, Lapras tells them that in order to reach the Temporal Tower, they must take the Rainbow Stoneship, located inside an old ruin. Finding the ruin, they find a temple where, at the top, they find the Relic Fragment pattern. The team discovers that the temple itself is the Rainbow Stoneship, and in order for the ship to operate, the Relic Fragment must be slotted in one of the indentations. But before the partner can do so, they are captured by Dusknoir and the Sableye entourage. The team is able to defeat Dusknoir and the Sableye in battle, but while the partner goes to activate the Rainbow Stoneship, Dusknoir warns that should they succeed in their quest, the Pokémon of the future, including the player and Grovyle, will be erased from existence, from being from a future that will no longer exist. Grovyle admits that this is the case, but that their sacrifice is worth the trouble if it means that the future can be saved. The player accepts this fate, even though the player knows that the partner will not take it as easily as the player or Grovyle.
Meanwhile, the partner succeeds in activating the Rainbow Stoneship, by putting their Relic Fragment in it, but Dusknoir manages to recover and attack the player before either the player or Grovyle is on board. Just as Dusknoir tries to finish off the player, Grovyle intervenes, taking the blow. Dusknoir angrily decides to slay Grovyle first, but in a move of desperation, Grovyle pushes Dusknoir towards the Dimensional Hole, hoping that in his own defense of the player, Grovyle will ensure the success of the mission. Dropping the Time Gears, Grovyle pushes Dusknoir and himself through the Dimensional Hole, transporting them into the future, but not without giving his last goodbye. The partner recovers the Time Gears, and the team proceed on the Rainbow Stoneship, with the player keeping silent to the partner about his / her fate. With a heavy heart, the team head towards Temporal Tower to take on their final mission.
The team is able to defeat Primal Dialga, and head home, but on the way back, the player begins to feel the effects of being slowly erased from existence. The player says goodbye to the partner and, in the only open dialogue spoken by the player character, conveys his / her last wish, to "tell everyone about what happened, so nothing like this will ever happen again '', as the player fades out of existence. After the credits, Dialga feels the partner 's sorrow all the way from Temporal Tower. Deeply moved by the partner 's devotion and grief, Dialga intervenes and restores the player to the timeline, as thanks for bringing time back in control. The player reappears at the beach, where the partner is crying in front of Bidoof. The partner runs over to embrace their best friend, overjoyed that they are alive.
After the main credits, the player and partner are told by Chatot at the next briefing that they may take an exam to graduate from the guild. Wigglytuff comments that they must search for a treasure in Mystifying Forest, but may have to defeat a "grandmaster of all things bad ''. The player goes to Mystifying Forest, where they fall into a trap. The cover to the trap closes and the "grandmaster of all things bad '' sneaks in and circles around them. Bidoof lifts the lid of the cave, revealing that it is just the guild, with Wigglytuff as the "grandmaster of all things bad '' and the others as back - up, though they all attempt (poorly) to convince the player otherwise. The player and partner defeat them, allowing them to continue forward to find a treasure chest containing a Perfect Apple. They continue further with Teddiursa and Ursaring to Luminous Spring, where Teddiursa evolves into Ursaring. The partner goes forward to evolve, but is told that neither the partner nor the player can evolve due to a distortion in space that they create.
After returning to the guild, the player and the partner graduate - the player 's team moves their own base of operations to Sharpedo Bluff. Afterward the player must rescue Scizor from a Froslass to get the Secret Rank. They are slowly given more dungeons to explore, including a new training dungeon known as the Final Maze. Eventually, the player is told by Sunflora about a dungeon known as the Surrounded Sea. The player 's team goes to the dungeon and finds an egg that hatches into a baby Manaphy. They must feed it with Blue Gummis, but it eventually falls sick after being away from the ocean for so long.
The player 's team goes to Miracle Sea to acquire the cure - all Phione Dew. After fending off a Gyarados, the Phione give a Phione Dew to the player and Manaphy is cured. However, at Chatot 's insistence, Manaphy is put in the care of a Walrein and returns to the ocean. After a few more days, Team Charm comes to the guild. It is revealed here that Wigglytuff was once a member of Team Charm. Lopunny, the leader of Team Charm, asks Wigglytuff for a key shaped like an Unown they found in previous travels, saying that they think they found where it should go. Wigglytuff goes into his quarters, rummages around for the key, and returns with the key. Team Charm thanks Wigglytuff and begins to head out. The partner asks Lopunny if the player 's team can come along. This provokes the entire guild to ask if they could come. Team Charm agrees and heads out to open the door to Aegis Cave.
Inside, they come across a room with a stone tablet in the middle bearing the inscription "ROCK (in Unown letters) Close your eyes and submit your proof. '' The guild and Team Charm proceed into the dungeon with the player 's team following. Upon completing Aegis Rock Cave, the player 's team will come back to the stone tablet room. The player 's team finds Team Charm inspecting the stone tablet. After a brief conversation, Team Charm proceeds. If the player has picked up Unown Stones R, O, C, and K dropped by the corresponding Unoun in the dungeon, the player should interact with the stone tablet in the middle of the room and close their eyes. Following this, the stone tablet disappears and reveals a staircase, which a Regirock is waiting to battle in. This process is repeated with ICE and STEEL with Regice and Registeel as bosses respectively.
The player 's team catches up with Team Charm, who took advantage of the player sorting out what to expect but were unalble to beat Registeel. In the final section of the dungeon, The statues in the room come alive, revealing 4 Bronzong, 4 Hitmonlee and a (Regigigas)) which are defeated with the help of Team Charm. After the battle is completed, Regigigas faints and a massive stone tablet appears, intstructing the player to let his aura flow into the ground. The player does so and Regigigas gets up and tremors begin. The player 's team and Team Charm flee the dungeon. Medicham notices a cave that appeared. Team Charm theorizes that Aegis Cave was just a distraction for where the actual treasure was, but concedes the glory to the player 's team as a thank you and heads off to find another treasure. Over the course of a few days, the player has dreams in which Cresselia tells the player that the player does not belong in this world, and that the distortion of space the player and partner have made will send the world into ruin unless they disappear.
Finally, one day the Azurill they assisted a while back has a nightmare that he can not awake from, so the team locates the old criminal Drowzee, who is able to send the player and partner into Azurill 's nightmare. At the end of this dream (a dungeon in itself known as The Nightmare) the player sees Cresselia, who attempts to destroy them. Cresselia is interrupted by Drowzee and disappears. Back in the guild, the player and partner report their findings to the guild. However, when asked about a way to undo the distortion of space, the partner says that there is no way. The next morning, the partner suggests that they go talk to Lapras for more information. Lapras is able to tell them that Palkia is the ruler of space and that he resides in Spacial Rift. However, Lapras does n't know where it is.
The player and partner wake up the next morning and see Palkia whisking in and taking them away to Spacial Rift to destroy them. They fall into a chasm and proceed to complete Spacial Rift and defeat Palkia, who suddenly falls into a nightmare. They are asked by an unknown voice if they want to enter Palkia 's nightmare and end up consenting. In Palkia 's nightmare, Cresselia appears and proceeds to destroy them. However, when Palkia grows suspicious of Cresselia 's ascertations of the team 's intent, another Cresselia appears and they then find out the Cresselia in their dreams was actually Darkrai. Darkrai flees from the room and tells the partner and player they must come to defeat him. They must venture with Cresselia to defeat Darkrai, who was behind the transformation of Primal Dialga, the player 's transformation into a Pokémon, and the break in the space - time continuum. After defeating Darkrai, they may recruit Palkia, which allows the player and partner to evolve. Also, after some events in the post-story - mode, Manaphy returns and asks to join your exploration team. If this option is accepted, Manaphy leads to player to a new dungeon called the Marine Resort after a few days.
As of September 30, 2008, Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness combined to sell 4.12 million copies worldwide, according to Nintendo. The reviews for the game were average to positive. The games were scored as 59 out of 100 by Metacritic 's review. GameSpy gave the games a 4 / 5 star rating. Both Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness have received a rating of 7.5 from Nintendo Power. The game is usually criticized on its repetitive game play, but heavily praised for its mature, heartwarming story. The story has been acclaimed as one of the best in the series, further inclining on how Mystery Dungeon continues to be a more favored spin - off of the original Pokémon games.
Combined worldwide sales for Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness passed 4.5 million copies on March 31, 2009.
A special episode of the Pokémon anime, Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Time & Darkness (Japanese: ポケモン 不思議 の ダンジョン 時 の 探検 隊 ・ 闇 の 探検 隊 Pokémon Mystery Dungeon Time Expedition & Darkness Expedition), was developed based on the game plot. Unlike previous special episodes, this does not take place in any continuity of the main storyline. It was first broadcast in Japan on September 9, 2007, as part of Pokémon Sunday.
Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Sky is an enhanced version of Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness for the Nintendo DS. It was released in Japan on April 18, 2009; North America on October 12, 2009; Australia on November 12, 2009; and Europe on November 20, 2009. It has since been re-released on the Wii U Virtual Console in North America on June 23, 2016, and in the PAL region on August 18, 2016.
As with its predecessors, the game follows the story of a human who is mysteriously transformed into a Pokémon (determined by a personality test at the game 's start - up). Along with the starters from the previous game, five more are included as playable choices; Phanpy, Riolu, Shinx, Eevee, and Vulpix. Some, however, are only available to certain genders; Eevee, Skitty, and Vulpix are always female. Riolu, Phanpy, and Shinx are always male. However, 2 starters, Munchlax and Meowth were removed and can only be played as the partner. Many new gameplay features were incorporated into the game. There were extra dungeons added, the titular event Pokémon Shaymin featured on the box was added, and alternate forms introduced in Pokémon Platinum (except for Rotom) were included.
Explorers of Sky expands on the plot of Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness, as well as exploring the background of several characters. New cutscenes were added and some were changed. Five new Special Episodes are unlocked at certain points in the game which add to the overall game (such as Wigglytuff 's inspiration to become an explorer, the induction of Bidoof into the guild, the formation of Team Charm, a special mission for guild member Sunflora, and the investigation of Grovyle and Dusknoir who team up after the battle at the Hidden Land, which shows how Primal Dialga was defeated simultaneously in the present and the future and how the future continued to thrive).
1.40 million copies of Explorers of Sky had been sold by March 31, 2010, adding up the total sales of the three games to over 5.90 million copies.
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when was the first comic book ever made | Comic book - wikipedia
A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comic art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by brief descriptive prose and written narrative, usually dialog contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Although comics has some origins in 18th century Japan and 1830s Europe, comic books were first popularized in the United States during the 1930s. The first modern comic book, Famous Funnies, was released in the United States in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story - telling devices used in comics. The term comic book derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone.
Comic books are reliant on their organization and appearance. Authors largely focus on the frame of the page, size, orientation, and panel positions. These characteristic aspects of comic books are necessary in conveying the content and messages of the author. The key elements of comic books include panels, balloons (speech bubbles), text (lines), and characters. Balloons are usually convex spatial containers of information that are related to a character using a tail element. The tail has an origin, path, tip, and pointed direction. Key tasks in the creation of comic books are writing, drawing, and coloring.
Comics as a print medium have existed in America since the printing of The Adventures of Mr. Obadiah Oldbuck in 1842 in hardcover, making it the first known American prototype comic book. Proto - comics periodicals began appearing early in the 20th century, with historians generally citing Dell Publishing 's 36 - page Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics as the first true American comic book; Goulart, for example, calls it "the cornerstone for one of the most lucrative branches of magazine publishing ''. The introduction of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster 's Superman in 1938 turned comic books into a major industry, and ushered the Golden Age of Comics. The Golden Age originated the archetype of the superhero.
Historians generally divide the timeline of the American comic book into eras. The Golden Age of Comic Books began in the 1930s; which is generally considered the beginning of the comic book that we know today. The Silver Age of comic books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the then - dormant superhero form, with the debut of the Flash in Showcase # 4 (Oct. 1956). The Silver Age lasted through the late 1960s or early 1970s, during which time Marvel Comics revolutionized the medium with such naturalistic superheroes as Stan Lee and Jack Kirby 's Fantastic Four and Lee and Steve Ditko 's Spider - Man. The demarcation between the Silver Age and the following era, the Bronze Age of Comic Books, is less well - defined, with the Bronze Age running from the very early 1970s through the mid-1980s. The Modern Age of Comic Books runs from the mid-1980s to the present day.
A notable event in the history of the American comic book came with psychiatrist Fredric Wertham 's criticisms of the medium in his book Seduction of the Innocent (1954), which prompted the American Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency to investigate comic books. In response to attention from the government and from the media, the U.S. comic book industry set up the Comics Magazine Association of America. The CMAA instilled the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the self - censorship Comics Code that year, which required all comic books to go through a process of approval. It was not until the 1970s that comic books could be published without passing through the inspection of the CMAA. The Code was made formally defunct in 2011.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a surge of creativity emerged in what became known as underground comix. Published and distributed independently of the established comics industry, most of such comics reflected the youth counterculture and drug culture of the time. Many had an uninhibited, often irreverent style; their frank depictions of nudity, sex, profanity, and politics had no parallel outside their precursors, the pornographic and even more obscure "Tijuana bibles ''. Underground comics were almost never sold at newsstands, but rather in such youth - oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, as well as by mail order.
Frank Stack 's The Adventures of Jesus, published under the name Foolbert Sturgeon, has been credited as the first underground comic; while R. Crumb and the crew of cartoonists who worked on Zap Comix popularized the form.
The rise of comic book specialty stores in the late 1970s created / paralleled a dedicated market for "independent '' or "alternative comics '' in the U.S. The first such comics included the anthology series Star Reach, published by comic - book writer Mike Friedrich from 1974 to 1979, and Harvey Pekar 's American Splendor, which continued sporadic publication into the 21st century and which Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini adapted into a 2003 film. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics. While their content generally remained less explicit, others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre, but were published by smaller artist - owned companies or by single artists. A few (notably RAW) represented experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the status of fine art.
During the 1970s the "small press '' culture grew and diversified. By the 1980s, several independent publishers - such as Pacific, Eclipse, First, Comico, and Fantagraphics - had started releasing a wide range of styles and formats -- from color - superhero, detective, and science - fiction comic books to black - and - white magazine - format stories of Latin American magical realism.
A number of small publishers in the 1990s changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The "minicomics '' form, an extremely informal version of self - publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press.
Small publishers regularly releasing titles include Avatar Comics, Hyperwerks, Raytoons, and Terminal Press, buoyed by such advances in printing technology as digital print - on - demand.
In 1964, Richard Kyle coined the term "graphic novel ''.. Precursors of the form existed by the 1920s, which saw a revival of the medieval woodcut tradition by Belgian Frans Masereel, American Lynd Ward and others, including Stan Lee. In 1950, St. John Publications produced the digest - sized, adult - oriented "picture novel '' It Rhymes with Lust, a 128 - page digest by pseudonymous writer "Drake Waller '' (Arnold Drake and Leslie Waller), penciler Matt Baker and inker Ray Osrin, touted as "an original full - length novel '' on its cover. In 1971, writer - artist Gil Kane and collaborators devised the paperback "comics novel '' Blackmark. Will Eisner popularized the term "graphic novel '' when he used it on the cover of the paperback edition of his work A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories in 1978.
The 1970s saw the advent of specialty comic book stores. Initially, comic books were marketed by publishers to children because comic books were perceived as children 's entertainment. However, with increasing recognition of comics as an art form and the growing pop culture presence of comic book conventions, they are now embraced by many adults.
Comic book collectors are often lifelong enthusiasts of the comic book stories and they usually focus on particular heroes and attempt to assemble the entire run of a title. Comics are published with a sequential number. The first issue of a long - running comic book series is commonly the rarest and most desirable to collectors. The first appearance of a specific character, however, might be in a pre-existing title. For example, Spider - Man 's first appearance was in Amazing Fantasy # 15. New characters were often introduced this way, and did not receive their own titles until there was a proven audience for the hero. As a result, comics that feature the first appearance of an important character will sometimes be even harder to find than the number 1 issue of a character 's own title.
Some rare comic books include copies of the unreleased Motion Picture Funnies Weekly # 1 from 1939. Eight copies, plus one without a cover, emerged in the estate of the deceased publisher in 1974. The "Pay Copy '' of this book sold for $43,125 in a 2005 Heritage auction.
The most valuable American comics have combined rarity and quality with the first appearances of popular and enduring characters. Four comic books have sold for over $1 million USD as of December 2010, including two examples of Action Comics # 1, the first appearance of Superman, both sold privately through online dealer ComicConnect.com in 2010, and Detective Comics # 27, the first appearance of Batman, via public auction.
Updating the above price obtained for Action Comics # 1, the first appearance of Superman, the highest sale on record for this book is $3.2 million, for a 9.0 copy.
Misprints, promotional comic - dealer incentive printings, and issues with extremely low distribution also generally have scarcity value. The rarest modern comic books include the original press run of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen # 5, which DC executive Paul Levitz recalled and pulped due to the appearance of a vintage Victorian era advertisement for "Marvel Douche '', which the publisher considered offensive; only 100 copies exist, most of which have been CGC graded. (See Recalled comics for more pulped, recalled, and erroneous comics.)
In 2000, a company named Comics Guaranty (CGC) began to "slab '' comics, encasing them in a thick plastic and giving them a numeric grade. As of 2014, there are two companies that provide third party grading of comic book condition. Because condition is so important to the value of rare comics, the idea of grading by a company that does not buy or sell comics seems like a good one. However, there is some controversy about whether this grading service is worth the high cost, and whether it is a positive development for collectors, or if it primarily services speculators who wish to make a quick profit trading in comics as one might trade in stocks or fine art. Comic grading has created valuation standards that online price guides such as GoCollect and GPAnalysis have used to report on real - time market values.
The original artwork pages from comic books are also collected, and these are perhaps the rarest of all comic book collector 's items, as there is only one unique page of artwork for each page that was printed and published. These were created by a writer, who created the story; a pencil artist, who laid out the sequential panels on the page; an ink artist, who went over the pencil with pen and black ink; a letterer, who provided the dialogue and narration of the story by hand lettering each word; and finally a colorist, who added color as the last step before the finished pages went to the printer.
When the original pages of artwork are returned by the printer, they are typically given back to the artists, who sometimes sell them at comic book conventions, or in galleries and art shows related to comic book art. The original pages of the first appearances of such legendary characters as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman and Spider - man are considered priceless.
France and Belgium have a long tradition in comics and comic books, called BDs (an abbreviation of bande dessinées) in French and strips in Dutch. Belgian comic books originally written in Dutch show the influence of the Francophone "Franco - Belgian '' comics, but have their own distinct style.
The name bande dessinée derives from the original description of the art form as drawn strips (the phrase literally translates as "the drawn strip ''), analogous to the sequence of images in a film strip. As in its English equivalent, the word "bande '' can be applied to both film and comics. Significantly, the French - language term contains no indication of subject - matter, unlike the American terms "comics '' and "funnies '', which imply an art form not to be taken seriously. The distinction of comics as le neuvième art (literally, "the ninth art '') is prevalent in French scholarship on the form, as is the concept of comics criticism and scholarship itself. Relative to the respective size of their populations, the innumerable authors in France and Belgium publish a high volume of comic books. In North America, the more serious Franco - Belgian comics are often seen as equivalent to graphic novels, but whether they are long or short, bound or in magazine format, in Europe there is no need for a more sophisticated term, as the art 's name does not itself imply something frivolous.
In France, authors control the publication of most comics. The author works within a self - appointed time - frame, and it is common for readers to wait six months or as long as two years between installments. Most books first appear in print as a hardcover book, typically with 48, 56, or 64 pages.
Although Ally Sloper 's Half Holiday (1884), the first comic published in Britain, aimed at an adult market, publishers quickly targeted a younger demographic, which has led to most publications being for children and has created an association in the public 's mind of comics as somewhat juvenile. British comics in the early 20th century typically evolved from illustrated penny dreadfuls of the Victorian era (featuring Sweeney Todd, Dick Turpin and Varney the Vampire).
The two most popular British comic books, The Beano and The Dandy, were released by DC Thomson in the 1930s. By 1950 the weekly circulation of both reached two million. Explaining the enormous popularity of comics in British popular culture during this period, Anita O'Brien, director curator at London 's Cartoon Museum, states: "When comics like the Beano and Dandy were invented back in the 1930s - and through really to the 1950s and 60s - these comics were almost the only entertainment available to children. ''
In 1954, Tiger comics introduced Roy of the Rovers, the hugely popular football based strip recounting the life of Roy Race and the team he played for, Melchester Rovers. The stock media phrase "real ' Roy of the Rovers ' stuff '' is often used by football writers, commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill, or surprising results that go against the odds, in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip 's trademark. Other comic books such as Eagle, Valiant, Warrior, Viz and 2000 AD also flourished. Some comics, such as Judge Dredd and other 2000 AD titles, have been published in a tabloid form. Underground comics and "small press '' titles have also appeared in the UK, notably Oz and Escape Magazine.
The content of Action, another title aimed at children and launched in the mid-1970s, became the subject of discussion in the House of Commons. Although on a smaller scale than similar investigations in the U.S., such concerns led to a moderation of content published within British comics. Such moderation never became formalized to the extent of promulgating a code, nor did it last long. The UK has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originating in the U.S. The lack of reliable supplies of American comic books led to a variety of black - and - white reprints, including Marvel 's monster comics of the 1950s, Fawcett 's Captain Marvel, and other characters such as Sheena, Mandrake the Magician, and the Phantom. Several reprint companies became involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter. Marvel Comics established a UK office in 1972. DC Comics and Dark Horse Comics also opened offices in the 1990s. The repackaging of European material has occurred less frequently, although The Adventures of Tintin and Asterix serials have been successfully translated and repackaged in softcover books.
In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "British Invasion '' in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such as anarchy, controversy and politics common in British media. These elements would pave the way for mature and "darker and edgier '' comic books and jump start the Modern Age of Comics. Writers included Alan Moore, famous for his V for Vendetta, From Hell, Watchmen, Marvelman, and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen; Neil Gaiman with The Sandman mythos and Books of Magic; Warren Ellis, creator of Transmetropolitan and Planetary; and others such as Mark Millar, creator of Wanted and Kick - Ass. The comic book series Hellblazer, which is largely set in Britain and starring the magician John Constantine, paved the way for British writers such as Jamie Delano.
At Christmas time, publishers repackage and commission material for comic annuals, printed and bound as hardcover A4 - size books; "Rupert '' supplies a famous example of the British comic annual. DC Thomson also repackages The Broons and Oor Wullie strips in softcover A4 - size books for the holiday season.
On 19 March 2012, the British postal service, the Royal Mail, released a set of stamps depicting British comic - book characters and series. The collection featured The Beano, The Dandy, Eagle, The Topper, Roy of the Rovers, Bunty, Buster, Valiant, Twinkle and 2000 AD.
In Italy, comics (known in Italian as fumetti) made their debut as humor strips at the end of the 19th century, and later evolved into adventure stories. After World War II, however, artists like Hugo Pratt and Guido Crepax exposed Italian comics to an international audience. Popular comic books such as Diabolik or the Bonelli line -- namely Tex Willer or Dylan Dog -- remain best - sellers.
Mainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black - and - white digest size format, with approximately 100 to 132 pages. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with more than 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format, with an example being Pratt 's Corto Maltese.
Italian cartoonists show the influence of comics from other countries, including France, Belgium, Spain, and Argentina. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of Walt Disney comic stories outside the U.S. Donald Duck 's superhero alter ego, Paperinik, known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy.
Čtyřlístek (in English translated as Lucky Four or Four - Leaf Clover) is one of the most well - known comics for children published in the Czech Republic.
The first comic books in Japan appeared during the 18th century in the form of woodblock - printed booklets containing short stories drawn from folk tales, legends, and historical accounts, told in a simple visual - verbal idiom. Known as "red books '' (赤本, akahon), "black books '' (黒 本, kurobon), and "blue books '' (青 本, aohon), these were written primarily for less literate readers. However, with the publication in 1775 of Koikawa Harumachi 's comic book Master Flashgold 's Splendiferous Dream (金 々 先生 栄 花 の 夢, Kinkin sensei eiga no yume), an evolved form of comic book originated, which required greater literacy and cultural sophistication. This was known as the kibyōshi (黄 表紙, lit. yellow cover). Published in thousands of copies, the kibyōshi may have been the earliest fully realized comic book for adults in world literary history. Approximately 2,000 titles remain extant.
Modern comic books in Japan developed from a mixture of these earlier comic books and of woodblock prints ukiyo - e (浮世絵) with Western styles of drawing. They took their current form shortly after World War II. They are usually published in black - and - white, except for the covers, which are usually printed in four colors, although occasionally, the first few pages may also be printed in full color. The term manga means "random (or whimsical) pictures '', and first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden 's picturebook Shiji no yukikai (四 時 交加) (1798) and Aikawa Minwa 's Comic Sketches of a Hundred Women (1798). During the Meiji period, the term Akahon was also common.
Western artists were brought over to teach their students such concepts as line, form, and color; things which had not been regarded as conceptually important in ukiyo - e, as the idea behind the picture was of paramount importance. Manga at this time was referred to as Ponchi - e (Punch - picture) and, like its British counterpart Punch magazine, mainly depicted humor and political satire in short one - or four - picture format.
Dr. Osamu Tezuka (1928 -- 1989) further developed this form. Seeing an animated war propaganda film titled Momotaro 's Divine Sea Warriors (桃太郎 海 の 神 兵, Momotarō Umi no Shinpei) inspired Tezuka to become a comic artist. He introduced episodic storytelling and character development in comic format, in which each story is part of larger story arc. The only text in Tezuka 's comics was the characters ' dialogue and this further lent his comics a cinematic quality. Inspired by the work of Walt Disney, Tezuka also adopted a style of drawing facial features in which a character 's eyes, nose, and mouth are drawn in an extremely exaggerated manner. This style created immediately recognizable expressions using very few lines, and the simplicity of this style allowed Tezuka to be prolific. Tezuka 's work generated new interest in the ukiyo - e tradition, in which the image is a representation of an idea, rather than a depiction of reality.
Though a close equivalent to the American comic book, manga has historically held a more important place in Japanese culture than comics have in American culture. Japanese society shows a wide respect for manga, both as an art form and as a form of popular literature. Many manga become television shows or short films. As with its American counterpart, some manga has been criticized for its sexuality and violence, although in the absence of official or even industry restrictions on content, artists have freely created manga for every age group and for every topic.
Manga magazines -- also known as "anthologies '' -- often run several series concurrently, with approximately 20 to 40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These magazines range from 200 to more than 850 pages each. Manga magazines also contain one - shot comics and a variety of four - panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series may continue for many years if they are successful, with stories often collected and reprinted in book - sized volumes called tankōbon (単行本, lit. stand - alone book), the equivalent of the American trade paperbacks. These volumes use higher - quality paper and are useful to readers who want to be brought up to date with a series, or to readers who find the cost of the weekly or monthly publications to be prohibitive. Deluxe versions are printed as commemorative or collectible editions.
Dōjinshi (同人 誌, fan magazine), fan - made Japanese comics operate in a far larger market in Japan than the American "underground comics '' market; the largest dōjinshi fair, Comiket, attracts 500,000 visitors twice a year.
Korean manhwa have quickly gained popularity outside Korea in recent times as a result of the Korean Wave. The manhwa industry has suffered through two crashes and strict censorship since its early beginnings as a result of the Japanese occupation of the peninsula which stunt the growth of the industry but has now started to flourish thanks in part to the internet and new ways to read manhwa whether on computers or through smartphones. In the past manhwa would be marketed as manga outside the country in order to make sure they would sell well but now that is no longer needed since more people are now more knowledgeable about the industry and Korean culture.
Webtoons have become popular in South Korea as a new way to read comics. Thanks in part to different censorship rules, color and unique visual effects, and optimization to be able to be read on smartphones and computers, more manhwaga have made the switch from traditional print manhwa to online webtoons. Major webtoon distributors include Lezhin, Naver, and Kakao.
Distribution has historically been a problem for the comic book industry with many mainstream retailers declining to carry extensive stocks of the most interesting and popular comics. The smartphone and the tablet have turned out to be an ideal medium for online distribution.
On November 13, 2007, Marvel Comics launched Marvel Digital Comics Unlimited, a subscription service allowing readers to read many comics from Marvel 's history online. The service also includes periodic release new comics not available elsewhere. With the release of Avenging Spider - Man Marvel also became the first publisher to provide free digital copies as part of the print copy of the comic book.
With the growing popularity of smartphones and tablets, many major publishers have begun releasing titles in digital form. The most popular platform is comiXology. Some platforms, such as Graphicly, have shut down,
Many libraries have extensive collections of comics in the form of graphic novels. This is a convenient way for many in the public to become familiar with the medium.
The largest comic book ever published was on the 30th of August 2014 in Fremont, California, USA. It was chapter one of the graphic novel CruZader TM: Agent of the Vatican by Omar Morales and it measured at 60.96 cm by 94.46 cm (2 ft by 3 ft 1.19 in).
The Japanese manga author Eiichiro Oda has made comic book history by attaining a Guinness World Record title for having the "Most copies published for the same comic book series by a single author ''. His widely popular comic titled One Piece was first serialised in Weekly Shonen Jump magazine (Shueisha) in Japan, back in December 1997. In the space of less than two decades, the series has accumulated an incredibly loyal following and has gone on to sell an incredible 320,866,000 units, with a substantial 77 volumes of the comic book released over that period.
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avatar the last airbender season 3 ep 6 | Avatar: the Last Airbender (season 3) - wikipedia
Season Three (Book Three: Fire) of Avatar: The Last Airbender, an American animated television series on Nickelodeon, first aired its 21 episodes from September 21, 2007 to July 19, 2008. The season was created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, and starred Zach Tyler Eisen, Mae Whitman, Jack DeSena, Jessie Flower, Dante Basco, Dee Bradley Baker, Greg Baldwin, Grey DeLisle and Mark Hamill as the main character voices.
This third and final season focuses on Aang 's quest to defeat the tyrannical Fire Lord. In the season 's beginning, protagonist Aang and his friends Sokka, Katara, and Toph are traveling through the Fire Nation, conjuring a plan for invading the Fire Nation and looking for a teacher to teach Aang Firebending. Midway through the season, Aang gathers friends he met in previous episodes and leads a failed invasion into the Fire Nation. Former antagonist and anti-hero Zuko changes sides and joins Aang, serving as his Firebending teacher until the four - part series finale when Aang finally defeats the Fire Lord and ends the one hundred - year war in a surprising way: he uses a new ability to take away Ozai 's firebending abilities to avoid violating selfless Air Nomad teachings.
The season is then followed by The Promise, The Search, and The Rift comic series that take place one or two years later after the hundred - year war 's end.
The final season features twenty - one episodes, one more than the previous two seasons. The season finale consisted of the four episodes airing together as a two - hour television movie. Season Three received a similar positive critical reception to that of the previous seasons. The season, and especially the finale, received much critical acclaim, with praises from sources such as DVD Talk. Between October 30, 2007 and September 16, 2008, Nickelodeon released four DVD volumes and a "Complete Box Set ''.
The season was produced by and aired on Nickelodeon, which is owned by Viacom. The season 's executive producers and co-creators were Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, who worked alongside episode director and co-producer Aaron Ehasz. Most of the individual episodes were directed by Ethan Spaulding, Lauren MacMullan and Giancarlo Volpe. Episodes were written by a team of writers, which consisted of Aaron Ehasz, Elizabeth Welch Ehasz, Tim Hedrick, and John O'Bryan, along with creators DiMartino and Konietzko.
The season 's music was composed by "The Track Team '', which consists of Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn, who were known to the show 's creators because Zuckerman was Konietzko 's roommate.
All of the central characters generally remained the same: Zach Tyler Eisen voices Aang, Mae Whitman voices Katara, Jack DeSena voices Sokka, Jessie Flower voices Toph, Dante Basco voices Zuko, Dee Bradley Baker voices Appa and Momo, and Grey DeLisle voices Azula.
Additionally, Mark Hamill joins the cast to voice Fire Lord Ozai after having minor appearances throughout the first and second seasons of the series, while Greg Baldwin now voices Iroh due to Mako Iwamatsu 's passing.
The season received critical acclaim. Jamie S. Rich from DVD Talk remarked, "In addition to the solid writing, Avatar the Last Airbender (sic) also has amazing animation. The character designs, with its roots in classic Asian folklore, are colorful and inventive, and the overall animation is smooth and consistently executed ''. Jamie S. Rich wrote in another review:
Henrik Batallones, a BuddyTV Staff Columnist, also noted the wide variety of positive reviews from the press for the series finale, noting that sources such as the New York Times and Toon Zone gave Avatar: The Last Airbender "glowing reviews ''.
The season also received praise for its video and sound quality. Nick Lyons from DVD Talk felt that the video quality appeared better than previous seasons, which had also garnered additional awards. He also remarks that the sound is "spot on... as per usual. '' At the 2008 Annie Awards, the season won "Best Animated Television Production for Children ''. At the same Annie Awards, Joaquim Dos Santos won the "Best Directing in an Animated Television Production '' caption for his directing in "Into the Inferno ''. Joaquim Dos Santos also gave Avatar: The Last Airbender a nomination at Annecy 2008 for his work with "The Day of Black Sun Part 2: The Eclipse ''. Additionally, music editor and composer Jeremy Zuckerman and the sound editing team were nominated a Golden Reel award for "Best Sound Editing in a Television Animation '' for their work in "Avatar Aang ''.
Sokka feels left out as he is the only person of the group unable to bend. He finds sword master Piandao to train him, forging his own sword out of a meteorite. The sword master teaches Sokka the philosophy of swordsmanship by giving him various seemingly boring tasks like painting and rock - gardening. When he gains Piandao 's respect he reveals he is not from the Fire Nation. Piandao says he knew that already and that the ways of the sword belongs to all nations. He gives Sokka a white lotus Pai Sho tile as a farewell gift. Meanwhile, Iroh devises a plan to escape prison and starts training in secret.
Aang and Zuko both learn about the strong and close childhood friendship of Avatar Roku and Fire - lord Sozin. Sozin suggested to Roku that, as the pinnacle of civilization, the Fire Nation should control the destiny of the entire world to ensure universal prosperity. As Roku was the Avatar, he knew the importance of balance between all people and disagreed. When Sozin later greedily took an Earth Kingdom colony, Roku defeated him in battle and threatened to kill him if he again tried to do anything that crossed that line. When Roku 's island volcano erupted years later, Sozin came to help. But, at the last moment, when Roku was overcome by volcanic gases, Sozin realized that he could rule the world if he let Roku die, and he abandoned him. Roku then died from the lava and was reincarnated as Aang. In his prison cell, Iroh tells Zuko that as the great - grandson of both Roku and Sozin, he alone has the ability to resolve their endless conflict and restore order and peace to the world.
Ozai accidentally causes Aang to enter the mighty Avatar State. The Order of the White Lotus successfully liberates Ba Sing Se, while Sokka, Suki and Toph disable all of the Airships. Katara freezes and chains Azula down, triggering a psychotic breakdown in Azula, then uses her exceptionally strong healing abilities to revive a severely wounded Zuko. Aang easily overwhelms Ozai, yet still refuses to kill him. Aang uses his knowledge from the lion - turtle - a newly acquired bending ability called energybending - to permanently strip Ozai of his firebending abilities, defeating the Phoenix King without taking his life. Newly appointed Fire Lord Zuko declares the war over, and Aang and his friends celebrate together at Iroh 's tea shop in Ba Sing Se. Zuko and Mai reconcile officially, and Zuko confronts his father, angrily asking where his mother, Ursa, is being kept. Aang and Katara share a loving hug and kiss passionately before the sunset.
Note: The series is directly followed by The Promise, The Search, The Rift, Smoke and Shadow and North and South comic trilogies. This series is followed by The Legend of Korra.
The first three DVD volumes contain five episodes each, and the fourth volume contains six. A later boxed set contained all four volumes. The first DVD was released on October 30, 2007, and the complete boxed set was released on September 16, 2008. They are released by Paramount Home Entertainment. Each of the individual Season Three DVDs also comes complete with an exclusive comic book. The Complete Book 3 Collection DVD includes the following DVD extras: Inside Sozin 's Comet: Exclusive Four - Part Commentary by Creators, The Women of Avatar: The Last Airbender, Book 3 Finale Pencil Test Animation and Into the Fire Nation at San Diego Comic - Con. The boxed set was released on February 1, 2010 in the United Kingdom.
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when was dance of the sugar plum fairy written | The Nutcracker - wikipedia
Swan Lake (1876) Sleeping Beauty (1889) The Nutcracker (1892) List of all compositions
The Nutcracker (Russian: Щелкунчик, Балет - феерия / Shchelkunchik, Balet - feyeriya listen (help info); French: Casse - Noisette, ballet - féerie) is a two - act ballet, originally choreographed by Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov with a score by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (op. 71). The libretto is adapted from E.T.A. Hoffmann 's story "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King '', by way of Alexandre Dumas ' adapted story "The Nutcracker ''. It was given its premiere at the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg on Sunday, December 18, 1892, on a double - bill with Tchaikovsky 's opera Iolanta.
Although the original production was not a success, the 20 - minute suite that Tchaikovsky extracted from the ballet was. However, the complete Nutcracker has enjoyed enormous popularity since the late 1960s and is now performed by countless ballet companies, primarily during the Christmas season, especially in North America. Major American ballet companies generate around 40 % of their annual ticket revenues from performances of The Nutcracker.
Tchaikovsky 's score has become one of his most famous compositions, in particular the pieces featured in the suite. Among other things, the score is noted for its use of the celesta, an instrument that the composer had already employed in his much lesser known symphonic ballad The Voyevoda.
After the success of The Sleeping Beauty in 1890, Ivan Vsevolozhsky, the director of the Imperial Theatres, commissioned Tchaikovsky to compose a double - bill program featuring both an opera and a ballet. The opera would be Iolanta. For the ballet, Tchaikovsky would again join forces with Marius Petipa, with whom he had collaborated on The Sleeping Beauty. The material Petipa chose was an adaptation of E.T.A. Hoffmann 's story "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King '' by Alexandre Dumas père called "The Tale of the Nutcracker ''. The plot of Hoffmann 's story (and Dumas ' adaptation) was greatly simplified for the two - act ballet. Hoffmann 's tale contains a long flashback story within its main plot titled "The Tale of the Hard Nut '', which explains how the Prince was turned into the Nutcracker. This had to be excised for the ballet.
Petipa gave Tchaikovsky extremely detailed instructions for the composition of each number, down to the tempo and number of bars. The completion of the work was interrupted for a short time when Tchaikovsky visited the United States for twenty - five days to conduct concerts for the opening of Carnegie Hall. Tchaikovsky composed parts of The Nutcracker in Rouen, France.
The first performance of the ballet was held as a double premiere together with Tchaikovsky 's last opera, Iolanta, on 18 December (O.S. 6 December) 1892, at the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia. Although the libretto was by Marius Petipa, who exactly choreographed the first production has been debated. Petipa began work on the choreography in August 1892; however, illness removed him from its completion and his assistant of seven years, Lev Ivanov, was brought in. Although Ivanov is often credited as the choreographer, some contemporary accounts credit Petipa. The performance was conducted by Riccardo Drigo, with Antonietta Dell'Era as the Sugar Plum Fairy, Pavel Gerdt as Prince Coqueluche, Stanislava Belinskaya as Clara, Sergei Legat as the Nutcracker - Prince, and Timofey Stukolkin as Drosselmeyer. The children 's roles, unlike many later productions, were performed by real children rather than adults (with Belinskaya as Clara, and Vassily Stukolkin as Fritz), students of Imperial Ballet School of St. Petersburg.
The first performance of The Nutcracker was not deemed a success. The reaction to the dancers themselves was ambivalent. While some critics praised Dell'Era on her pointework as the Sugar Plum Fairy (she allegedly received five curtain - calls), one critic called her "corpulent '' and "podgy ''. Olga Preobrajenskaya as the Columbine doll was panned by one critic as "completely insipid '' and praised as "charming '' by another.
Alexandre Benois described the choreography of the battle scene as confusing: "One can not understand anything. Disorderly pushing about from corner to corner and running backwards and forwards -- quite amateurish. ''
The libretto was criticized as "lopsided '' and for not being faithful to the Hoffmann tale. Much of the criticism focused on the featuring of children so prominently in the ballet, and many bemoaned the fact that the ballerina did not dance until the Grand Pas de Deux near the end of the second act (which did not occur until nearly midnight during the program). Some found the transition between the mundane world of the first scene and the fantasy world of the second act too abrupt. Reception was better for Tchaikovsky 's score. Some critics called it "astonishingly rich in detailed inspiration '' and "from beginning to end, beautiful, melodious, original, and characteristic ''. But even this was not unanimous as some critics found the party scene "ponderous '' and the Grand Pas de Deux "insipid ''.
In 1919, choreographer Alexander Gorsky staged a production which eliminated the Sugar Plum Fairy and her Cavalier and gave their dances to Clara and the Nutcracker Prince, who were played by adults instead of children. This was the first production to do so. An abridged version of the ballet was first performed outside Russia in Budapest (Royal Opera House) in 1927, with choreography by Ede Brada. In 1934, choreographer Vasili Vainonen staged a version of the work that addressed many of the criticisms of the original 1892 production by casting adult dancers in the roles of Clara and the Prince, as Gorsky had. The Vainonen version influenced several later productions.
The first complete performance outside Russia took place in England in 1934, staged by Nicholas Sergeyev after Petipa 's original choreography. Annual performances of the ballet have been staged there since 1952. Another abridged version of the ballet, performed by the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, was staged in New York City in 1940, Alexandra Fedorova -- again, after Petipa 's version. The ballet 's first complete United States performance was on 24 December 1944, by the San Francisco Ballet, staged by its artistic director, Willam Christensen, and starring Gisella Caccialanza as the Sugar Plum Fairy. After the enormous success of this production, San Francisco Ballet has presented Nutcracker every Christmas Eve and throughout the winter season, debuting new productions in 1944, 1954, 1967, and 2004. The New York City Ballet gave its first annual performance of George Balanchine 's staging of The Nutcracker in 1954. Beginning in the 1960s, the tradition of performing the complete ballet at Christmas eventually spread to the rest of the United States.
Since Gorsky, Vainonen and Balanchine 's productions, many other choreographers have made their own versions. Some institute the changes made by Gorsky and Vainonen while others, like Balanchine, utilize the original libretto. Some notable productions include those by Rudolf Nureyev for the Royal Ballet, Yuri Grigorovich for the Bolshoi Ballet, Mikhail Baryshnikov for the American Ballet Theatre, Kent Stowell for Pacific Northwest Ballet starting in 1983, and Peter Wright for the Royal Ballet and the Birmingham Royal Ballet. In recent years, revisionist productions, including those by Mark Morris, Matthew Bourne, and Mikhail Chemiakin have appeared; these depart radically from both the original 1892 libretto and Vainonen 's revival, while Maurice Bejart 's version completely discards the original plot and characters. In addition to annual live stagings of the work, many productions have also been televised and / or released on home video.
The following extrapolation of the characters (in order of appearance) is drawn from an examination of the stage directions in the score.
Below is a synopsis based on the original 1892 libretto by Marius Petipa. The story varies from production to production, though most follow the basic outline. The names of the characters also vary. In the original E.T.A. Hoffmann story, the young heroine is called Marie Stahlbaum and Clara (Klärchen) is her doll 's name. In the adaptation by Dumas on which Petipa based his libretto, her name is Marie Silberhaus. In still other productions, such as Baryshnikov 's, Clara is Clara Stahlbaum rather than Clara Silberhaus.
Act I
Scene 1: The Stahlbaum Home
It is Christmas Eve. Family and friends have gathered in the parlor to decorate the beautiful Christmas tree in preparation for the party. Once the tree is finished, the children are sent for. They stand in awe of the tree sparkling with candles and decorations.
The party begins. A march is played. Presents are given out to the children. Suddenly, as the owl - topped grandmother clock strikes eight, a mysterious figure enters the room. It is Drosselmeyer, a local councilman, magician, and Clara 's godfather. He is also a talented toymaker who has brought with him gifts for the children, including four lifelike dolls who dance to the delight of all. He then has them put away for safekeeping.
Clara and Fritz are sad to see the dolls being taken away, but Drosselmeyer has yet another toy for them: a wooden nutcracker carved in the shape of a little man, used for cracking nuts. The other children ignore it, but Clara immediately takes a liking to it. Fritz, however, breaks it. Clara is heartbroken.
During the night, after everyone else has gone to bed, Clara returns to the parlor to check on her beloved nutcracker. As she reaches the little bed, the clock strikes midnight and she looks up to see Drosselmeyer perched atop it. Suddenly, mice begin to fill the room and the Christmas tree begins to grow to dizzying heights. The nutcracker also grows to life size. Clara finds herself in the midst of a battle between an army of gingerbread soldiers and the mice, led by their king. They begin to eat the soldiers.
The nutcracker appears to lead the soldiers, who are joined by tin ones and dolls who serve as doctors to carry away the wounded. As the Mouse King advances on the still - wounded nutcracker, Clara throws her slipper at him, distracting him long enough for the nutcracker to stab him.
Scene 2: A Pine Forest
The mice retreat and the nutcracker is transformed into a handsome Prince. He leads Clara through the moonlit night to a pine forest in which the snowflakes dance around them, beckoning them on to his kingdom as the first act ends.
Act II
Scene 1: The Land of Sweets
Clara and the Prince travel to the beautiful Land of Sweets, ruled by the Sugar Plum Fairy in the Prince 's place until his return. He recounts for her how he had been saved from the Mouse King by Clara and transformed back into himself.
In honor of the young heroine, a celebration of sweets from around the world is produced: chocolate from Spain, coffee from Arabia, tea from China, and candy canes from Russia all dance for their amusement; Danish shepherdesses perform on their flutes; Mother Ginger has her children, the Polichinelles, emerge from under her enormous hoop skirt to dance; a string of beautiful flowers perform a waltz. To conclude the night, the Sugar Plum Fairy and her Cavalier perform a dance.
A final waltz is performed by all the sweets, after which the Sugar Plum Fairy ushers Clara and the Prince down from their throne. He bows to her, she kisses Clara goodbye, and leads them to a reindeer drawn sleigh. It takes off as they wave goodbye to all the subjects who wave back.
In the original libretto, the ballet 's apotheosis "represents a large beehive with flying bees, closely guarding their riches ''. Just like Swan Lake, there have been various alternative endings created in productions subsequent to the original.
Titles of all of the numbers listed here come from Marius Petipa 's original scenario, as well as the original libretto and programs of the first production of 1892. All libretti and programs of works performed on the stages of the Imperial Theatres were titled in French, which was the official language of the Imperial Court, as well as the language from which balletic terminology is derived.
Casse - Noisette. Ballet - féerie in two acts and three tableaux with apotheosis.
Act I
Act II
List of acts, scenes (tableaux) and musical numbers, along with tempo indications. Numbers are given according to the original Russian and French titles of the first edition score (1892), the piano reduction score by Sergei Taneyev (1892), both published by P. Jurgenson in Moscow, and the Soviet collected edition of the composer 's works, as reprinted Melville, New York: Belwin Mills (n.d.)
The Nutcracker is one of the composer 's most popular compositions. The music belongs to the Romantic Period and contains some of his most memorable melodies, several of which are frequently used in television and film. (They are often heard in TV commercials shown during the Christmas season.) The Trepak, or Russian dance, is one of the most recognizable pieces in the ballet, along with the famous Waltz of the Flowers and March, as well as the ubiquitous Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy. The composer 's reverence for Rococo and late 18th - century music can be detected in passages such as the Overture, the "Entrée des parents '', and "Tempo di Grossvater '' in act 1.
Tchaikovsky is said to have argued with a friend who wagered that the composer could not write a melody based on a one - octave scale in sequence. Tchaikovsky asked if it mattered whether the notes were in ascending or descending order, and was assured it did not. This resulted in the Adagio from the Grand pas de deux, which, in the ballet, nearly always immediately follows the Waltz of the Flowers. A story is also told that Tchaikovsky 's sister had died shortly before he began composition of the ballet, and that his sister 's death influenced him to compose a melancholy, descending scale melody for the adagio of the Grand Pas de Deux.
One novelty in Tchaikovsky 's original score was the use of the celesta, a new instrument Tchaikovsky had discovered in Paris. He wanted it genuinely for the character of the Sugar Plum Fairy to characterize her because of its "heavenly sweet sound ''. It appears not only in her "Dance '', but also in other passages in act 2. (However, he first wrote for the celesta in his symphonic ballad The Voyevoda the previous year.) Tchaikovsky also uses toy instruments during the Christmas party scene. Tchaikovsky was proud of the celesta 's effect, and wanted its music performed quickly for the public, before he could be "scooped. ''
Although the original ballet is only about 85 minutes long if performed without applause or an intermission, and therefore much shorter than either Swan Lake or The Sleeping Beauty, some modern staged performances have omitted or re-ordered some of the music, or inserted selections from elsewhere, thus adding to the confusion over the suites. In fact, most of the very famous versions of the ballet have had the order of the dances slightly re-arranged, if they have not actually altered the music. For instance, the 1954 George Balanchine New York City Ballet version adds to Tchaikovsky 's score an entr'acte that the composer wrote for act 2 of The Sleeping Beauty, but which is now seldom played in productions of that ballet. It is used as a transition between the departure of the guests and the battle with the mice. Nearly all of the CD and LP recordings of the complete ballet present Tchaikovsky 's score exactly as he originally conceived it.
Tchaikovsky was less satisfied with The Nutcracker than with The Sleeping Beauty. (In the film Fantasia, commentator Deems Taylor observes that he "really detested '' the score.) Tchaikovsky accepted the commission from Vsevolozhsky but did not particularly want to write the ballet (though he did write to a friend while composing it: "I am daily becoming more and more attuned to my task '').
Tchaikovsky made a selection of eight of the numbers from the ballet before the ballet 's December 1892 première, forming The Nutcracker Suite, Op. 71a, intended for concert performance. The suite was first performed, under the composer 's direction, on 19 March 1892 at an assembly of the St. Petersburg branch of the Musical Society. The suite became instantly popular, with almost every number encored at its premiere, while the complete ballet did not begin to achieve its great popularity until after the George Balanchine staging became a hit in New York City. The suite became very popular on the concert stage, and was featured in Disney 's Fantasia. The Nutcracker Suite should not be mistaken for the complete ballet. The outline below represents the selection and sequence of the Nutcracker Suite culled by the composer.
The Paraphrase on Tchaikovsky 's Flower Waltz is a successful piano arrangement from one of the movements from The Nutcracker by the pianist and composer Percy Grainger.
The pianist and conductor Mikhail Pletnev adapted some of the music into a virtuosic concert suite for piano solo:
Many recordings have been made since 1909 of the Nutcracker Suite, which made its initial appearance on disc that year in what is now historically considered the first record album. This recording was conducted by Herman Finck and featured the London Palace Orchestra. But it was not until the LP album was developed that recordings of the complete ballet began to be made. Because of the ballet 's approximate hour and a half length when performed without intermission, applause, or interpolated numbers, it fits very comfortably onto two LPs. Most CD recordings take up two discs, often with fillers. An exception is the 81 - minute 1998 Philips recording by Valery Gergiev that fits onto one CD because of Gergiev 's somewhat brisker speeds.
With the advent of the stereo LP coinciding with the growing popularity of the complete ballet, many other complete recordings of it have been made. Notable conductors who have done so include Maurice Abravanel, André Previn, Michael Tilson Thomas, Mariss Jansons, Seiji Ozawa, Richard Bonynge, Semyon Bychkov, Alexander Vedernikov, Ondrej Lenard, Mikhail Pletnev, and most recently, Simon Rattle. A CD of excerpts from the Tilson Thomas version had as its album cover art a painting of Mikhail Baryshnikov in his Nutcracker costume; perhaps this was due to the fact that the Tilson Thomas recording was released by CBS Masterworks, and CBS had first telecast the Baryshnikov "Nutcracker ''.
There have been two major theatrical film versions of the ballet, made within seven years of each other, and both were given soundtrack albums.
Neither Ormandy, Reiner, nor Fiedler ever recorded a complete version of the ballet; however, Kunzel 's album of excerpts runs 73 minutes, containing more than two - thirds of the music. Conductor Neeme Järvi has recorded act 2 of the ballet complete, along with excerpts from Swan Lake. The music is played by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra.
For a comprehensive list of stage, film and television adaptations of The Nutcracker, see: List of productions of The Nutcracker
Several films having little or nothing to do with the ballet or the original Hoffmann tale have used its music:
There have been several recorded children 's adaptations of the E.T.A. Hoffmann story (the basis for the ballet) using Tchaikovsky 's music, some quite faithful, some not. One that was not was a version titled The Nutcracker Suite for Children, narrated by Metropolitan Opera announcer Milton Cross, which used a two - piano arrangement of the music. It was released as a 78 - RPM album set in the 1940s. For the children 's label Peter Pan Records, actor Victor Jory narrated a condensed adaptation of the story with excerpts from the score. It was released on one side of a 45 - RPM disc. A later version, titled The Nutcracker Suite, starred Denise Bryer and a full cast, was released in the 1960s on LP and made use of Tchaikovsky 's music in the original orchestral arrangements. It was quite faithful to Hoffmann 's story The Nutcracker and the Mouse King, on which the ballet is based, even to the point of including the section in which Clara cuts her arm on the glass toy cabinet, and also mentioning that she married the Prince at the end. It also included a less gruesome version of "The Tale of the Hard Nut '', the tale - within - a-tale in Hoffmann 's story. It was released as part of the Tale Spinners for Children series.
Another children 's LP, The Nutcracker Suite with Words, featured Captain Kangaroo 's Bob Keeshan narrating the story, and sung versions of the different movements, with special lyrics.
That warm and welcoming veneer of domestic bliss in The Nutcracker gives the appearance that all is just plummy in the ballet world. But ballet is beset by serious ailments that threaten its future in this country... companies are so cautious in their programming that they have effectively reduced an art form to a rotation of over-roasted chestnuts that no one can justifiably croon about... The tyranny of The Nutcracker is emblematic of how dull and risk - averse American ballet has become. There were moments throughout the 20th century when ballet was brave. When it threw bold punches at its own conventions. First among these was the Ballets Russes period, when ballet -- ballet -- lassoed the avant - garde art movement and, with works such as Michel Fokine 's fashionably sexy Scheherazade (1910) and Léonide Massine 's Cubist - inspired Parade (1917), made world capitals sit up and take notice. Afraid of scandal? Not these free - thinkers; Vaslav Nijinsky 's rough - hewn, aggressive Rite of Spring famously put Paris in an uproar in 1913... Where are this century 's provocations? Has ballet become so entwined with its "Nutcracker '' image, so fearfully wedded to unthreatening offerings, that it has forgotten how eye - opening and ultimately nourishing creative destruction can be?
Act I of The Nutcracker ends with snow falling and snowflakes dancing. Yet The Nutcracker is now seasonal entertainment even in parts of America where snow seldom falls: Hawaii, the California coast, Florida. Over the last 70 years this ballet -- conceived in the Old World -- has become an American institution. Its amalgam of children, parents, toys, a Christmas tree, snow, sweets and Tchaikovsky 's astounding score is integral to the season of good will that runs from Thanksgiving to New Year... I am a European who lives in America, and I never saw any Nutcracker until I was 21. Since then I 've seen it many times. The importance of this ballet to America has become a phenomenon that surely says as much about this country as it does about this work of art. So this year I 'm running a Nutcracker marathon: taking in as many different American productions as I can reasonably manage in November and December, from coast to coast (more than 20, if all goes well). America is a country I 'm still discovering; let The Nutcracker be part of my research.
List of compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
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changing faces the best of 10cc and godley & creme | Changing faces -- the very best of 10cc and Godley & Creme - wikipedia
Changing Faces -- The Very Best of 10cc and Godley & Creme was the first compilation that included all the hits from 10cc and Godley & Creme. The album featured sixteen tracks including a remixed version of "Snack Attack '' by Godley & Creme, that originally featured on their 1981 album Ismism. The track was also issued as a single with an edit of "Wet Rubber Soup '' from The History Mix Volume 1 on the B - side. The single failed to chart. The album was very successful in the UK reaching No. 4 and achieving platinum status - selling over 300,000 copies, and was the catalyst to Polydor conducting market research to see if the public would welcome a new album from the band. The results were... Meanwhile
The cover featured a composite of all the band 's faces placed on top of each other - a reference to the famous morphing video for Godley & Creme 's "Cry '' single from 1985.
Following on from the success of the album, a compilation of videos was assembled and released in 1988. Because many of the early singles did n't have promo films available, the track listing differed from the album.
The video has since been repackaged as the companion to the "Greatest Hits... And More '' compilation from 2006, available as a DVD.
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which disney park has the tower of terror | The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror - wikipedia
The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror, also known as Tower of Terror, is an accelerated drop tower dark ride located at Disney 's Hollywood Studios, Tokyo DisneySea, Walt Disney Studios Park, and formerly located at Disney California Adventure Park. Except for the Tokyo DisneySea version, the attractions are inspired by Rod Serling 's anthology television series, The Twilight Zone, and take place in the fictional Hollywood Tower Hotel in Hollywood, California. The Tokyo version, which features an original story line not related to The Twilight Zone, takes place in the fictional Hotel Hightower. All three versions place riders in a seemingly ordinary hotel elevator, and present the riders with a fictional backstory in which people have mysteriously disappeared from the elevator under the influence of some supernatural element many years prior.
The original version of the attraction opened at Disney 's Hollywood Studios at Walt Disney World in July 1994, and was the basis of the 1997 television film of the same name, several scenes of which being shot at the attraction. A decade later, Disney began plans to add similar versions of the attraction to their newest parks at the Disneyland Resort in California, Tokyo Disney Resort in Japan, and Disneyland Paris. In California and Paris, Disney sought to use the popular attraction to boost attendance at the respective resorts ' struggling new theme parks. The California and Tokyo versions of Tower of Terror opened in 2004 and 2006, respectively, while financial problems delayed the opening of the Paris version until 2008. The California version closed in January 2017.
The Tower of Terror buildings are among the tallest structures found at their respective Disney resorts. At 199 feet (60.7 m), the Florida version is the second tallest attraction at the Walt Disney World Resort, with only Expedition Everest 199.5 feet (60.8 m) being taller. At the Disneyland Resort, the 183 - foot (55.8 m) structure (which now houses Guardians of the Galaxy -- Mission: Breakout!) is the tallest building at the resort, as well as one of the tallest buildings in Anaheim. At Disneyland Paris, it is the second tallest attraction.
In the American and European versions of the attraction, guests make their way to the Hollywood Tower Hotel through the front gate. Guests then walk along a cracked, curved pathway that leads to the hotel. The pathway goes past overgrown gardens, signs pointing to the stables, a bowling green, tennis courts, swimming pools, and a vine - covered pavilion. In most parks, 1930s jazz music plays in the queue area.
Entering through the hotel 's front doors, guests encounter an interior designed to give the impression that the Hollywood Tower Hotel has been left untouched since the night of its closure. The lobby is covered in dust and draped with cobwebs, and throughout there are other signs of the hotel 's abrupt closure. Past the front desk, the main elevators are in a dilapidated state, and a sign reads "Out of Order ''. Guests are informed by bellhops that their rooms are not ready yet, and they are then ushered into the hotel library, which houses the hotel 's collection of books, antiques, an old television set, and various pieces of Twilight Zone memorabilia scattered about the room. Through the library window, guests can observe a severe thunderstorm raging outside.
With a crash of thunder and lightning, the power suddenly goes out, except for the television set which crackles into life and plays the opening sequence from the fourth and fifth seasons of The Twilight Zone, hosted by Rod Serling. The episode goes on to depict the events of a stormy night in 1939 when a lightning bolt struck the tower and caused five people -- a celebrity couple, a rising child star, her nanny, and a hotel bellhop -- to vanish from the elevator. The television then turns off and the guests are directed through to the boiler room, where they await the maintenance service elevator 's arrival.
In the late 1980s, a second phase of development was being designed for Disneyland Paris (then Euro Disney). Included was a free - fall type ride in Frontierland that was to be named Geyser Mountain. It would have been part roller coaster, part free - fall ride that shot guests up a vertical shaft. The plan was scrapped, but was picked up by Disney 's Hollywood Studios (then Disney - MGM Studios) as part of a massive expansion to their U.S. park. Several attractions had already been proposed, including "Dick Tracy 's Crimestoppers '', which would be later made into Indiana Jones Adventure at Disneyland. Still needing a major "E-ticket '' attraction, the idea of a drop - shaft ride came up and was chosen. There had been several proposed ideas for haunted attractions, including a ride based on Stephen King 's novels, a Vincent Price ghost tour, a Mel Brooks - narrated ride, a real hotel, and a whodunit murder mystery, but none progressed into development.
Walt Disney Imagineering eventually took inspiration from Rod Serling 's anthology stories featured in The Twilight Zone, as a foundation for their original story. Imagineers mused that the attraction would be able to take guests into the Fifth Dimension that Serling always described as unlocking in every episode of the series. With the project in firm development, Disney licensed the rights to use The Twilight Zone intellectual property from CBS Inc... The Imagineering team settled on a 1930s - era Hollywood hotel with a Twilight Zone theme, but a new ride system had to be built, which would allow both more capacity inside the ride and make the drop fast. Otis Elevator Company created the vertical ride system, and Eaton - Kenway a ride vehicle that could drive itself horizontally. Joe Dante directed the ride 's short preshow film. The archival footage of Rod Serling used in the preshow was taken from the episode, "It 's a Good Life ''. Mark Silverman provided the voice for Serling in the attraction; Serling 's wife, Carol Serling, approved Silverman 's casting after several auditions.
Site - clearing and prep began early 1992. A sinkhole led to the site 's being moved slightly. The tower 's interior and exterior design took inspiration from existing Southern California landmarks, including the Biltmore Hotel and Mission Inn. The distinctive Spanish Colonial Revival architectural features on and around the attraction 's roof were designed so that the rear facade, which is visible from Epcot, would blend seamlessly with the skyline of the Morocco Pavilion in Epcot 's World Showcase Lagoon. After construction ended, the ride was set to open on July 4, 1994; but the Tower of Terror opened on July 22, 1994, along with the Sunset Boulevard thoroughfare.
The ride system of The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror at Disney 's Hollywood Studios employs specialized technology developed by Walt Disney Imagineering, particularly the ability to move the vehicle in and out of the vertical motion shaft. The elevator cabs are self - propelled automated ride vehicles, also known as automated guided vehicles, which lock into separate vertical motion cabs. The cabs can move into and out of elevators horizontally, move through the "Fifth Dimension '' scene, and on to the drop shaft.
In order to achieve the weightless effect the Imagineers desired, cables attached to the bottom of the elevator car pull it down at a speed slightly faster than what a free fall would provide. Two enormous motors are located at the top of the tower, measuring 12 feet (3.7 m) tall, 35 feet (11 m) long, and weighing 132,000 pounds (60,000 kg). They are able to accelerate 10 short tons (9.1 t) at 15 times the speed of normal elevators. They generate torque equal to that of 275 Corvette engines and reach top speeds in 1.5 seconds. The ride 's slogan, "Never the Same Fear Twice! '', refers to the drop pattern being randomly selected by a computer before the ride begins. The drop reaches a top speed of 39 miles per hour (63 km / h).
After the elevator cab has completed the ride, it propels itself to the unload dock and then back to the show shaft. The Florida ride runs on a unique loop system different from the versions used in California, Paris and Tokyo.
In this version of the attraction, Rod Serling 's voice greets passengers the moment the elevator doors close, saying:
The elevator rises for a few seconds before coming to its first stop. The doors open to reveal a long, dimly lit hotel corridor, with overgrown plants and doors to guest rooms, with morning newspapers and room - service trays outside, along its length. There is a single window at the opposite end of the corridor. A violent thunderstorm is raging and lightning flashes outside the window. The five missing passengers from 1939 appear for several moments, turning to face the elevator and beckoning the guests to join them. Then they disappear in a burst of electricity. The corridor fades away, but the window remains until it appears to be floating in a dark field of stars. The window morphs into the window from the Season 5 opening sequence, and breaks.
The elevator doors close and the car continues its ascent. Serling 's narration goes on, saying:
The elevator stops once more. The doors open to what at first looks like a maintenance room, but slowly transforms into a field of stars. The elevator car emerges horizontally from the lift shaft and enters a section of the ride called "The Fifth Dimension '', which is a collection of sights and sounds and star fields, again in the style of the television show 's opening sequence. A rendition of The Twilight Zone theme plays throughout. The scene ends as the elevator reaches another star field which splits and opens much like elevator doors. The elevator enters another vertical shaft, this one pitch black. Serling 's voice is heard again, saying:
On the last word of Serling 's narration, the elevator starts its drop sequence. Rather than a simple gravity - powered drop, however, the elevator is pulled downwards, causing most riders to rise off their seats, held down by a seat belt. At least once during the drop sequence, wide elevator doors in front of the riders open to reveal a view of the park from a height of 157 ft (48 m), however the drop is only 130 ft (40 m), the height of a 13 - story building. The elevator drops at a top speed of 39 miles per hour (63 km / h). In the Hollywood Studios version, the back of the "Hollywood Tower Hotel '' sign partially obstructs the view (the on - ride camera is located here, recording the ride for video or a photograph to be purchased later).
Randomized patterns of drops and lifts have been added, where the ride vehicle will drop or rise various distances at different intervals. Other added effects include projected images of the breaking window, wind effects, lightning flashes, and ominous blue - lit figures of the five ghostly original riders. These changes were made so that each trip on The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror is a slightly different experience. The ride was reprogrammed most recently, in its fourth conversion, so that the ride system allows for any number of randomized drops and lifts. When guests enter the drop shaft, a computer randomly chooses one of four drop profiles, one of which is a modified version of the ride 's third incarnation. Regardless of the number of randomized drops and lifts, each drop sequence always features one "faux drop '' meant to startle the riders, and one complete drop through the entire tower at the top speed of 39 miles per hour (63 km / h).
After a series of these drops have been made, the elevator returns to the basement of the decrepit Hollywood Tower Hotel, past a curious array of abandoned items. A short clip plays, showing elements from the Season 5 opening sequence, along with the 1939 elevator passengers and Rod Serling falling into the "vortex '' seen in the Season 3 opening sequence. Serling 's voice says:
Guests then exit the elevator, leaving the hotel through the gift shop.
On leaving the elevator, guests are led through a hotel corridor towards what would appear to be the old "Lost & Found '' desk of the hotel; however, it is now where photos taken on the ride may be purchased. Beyond this desk, guests pass a cracked fountain to the left and on the right can be seen the Hollywood Tower Hotel 's dining room, previously called The Sunset Room. The menu, placed outside the closed double - doors, is dated October 31, 1939. Guests then enter the shop which is called Tower Merchandise. The shop, in keeping with the theme of the hotel, has cracked walls and is dimly lit. There, guests may purchase Twilight Zone merchandise and Hollywood Tower Hotel - themed souvenirs, including hotel bathrobes and slippers.
On August 13, 2014, the ride 's on - ride camera began recording video, so that riders could purchase a photograph or video of their ride. This was the first ride at Walt Disney World to offer on - ride videos. On September 18, 2014, the Seven Dwarfs Mine Train ride at the Magic Kingdom began offering on - ride videos and pictures as well, making these the only two rides at Walt Disney World to offer videos and pictures.
In February 2010, Disney announced that the Tower of Terror would receive "new lighting effects and a new addition '' as part of a summer entertainment package called "Summer Nightastic! ''. The Fifth Dimension scene is changed, mostly covered by black tarps with fiber - optic stars, and Serling 's voice is removed from just before the drop profile. Replacing it is music played in the drop shaft, along with a projected picture of the riders just before they enter the drop shaft. Similar to the Disney California Adventure and Walt Disney Studios Park versions of the ride, the riders disappear, leaving an empty elevator. A new drop profile was created for "Summer Nightastic! '', and replaces the other drop profiles on all rides. The profile mainly consisted of utilizing the entire tower for the drop sequences, as compared to the numerous faux and shortened drops in the randomized version. The changes were implemented on June 5, 2010, but were officially introduced the day after. All changes were temporary, and lasted until August 14, 2010.
While similar in concept and theme to the original attraction in Florida, the attraction at Disney California Adventure, which opened in 2004 and closed in 2017, featured some significant differences. The exterior of Disney California Adventure 's tower had architectural features reminiscent of Pueblo Deco styles found throughout Southern California during the Golden Age of Hollywood.
The California version also had a slightly different queue area. The boiler room scene in the queue area had two floors, instead of the one floor in the original Florida version. The two floors allowed for one elevator in one shaft to have guests on ride, while the other elevator of the same shaft was loading guests. There were three elevator shafts in the Disney California Adventure version, with two elevators per shaft, for a total of six elevators operating at once.
Imagineers redesigned the ride system for the attraction at Disney California Adventure and made some changes to the show scenes. The attraction featured three elevator shafts. Each shaft was its own separate ride with its own separate operating system. This made it easier to repair individual areas of the attraction without causing the entire attraction to go down. Each shaft had the capacity to accommodate two vehicles operating from two load levels, each vehicle loading and unloading at the same point. The ride was designed so that one vehicle could be in its ride profile while the other was at its loading level, giving each ride shaft the ability to accommodate more riders. Disney used this ride system again for Walt Disney Studios Park 's version of the ride, and for Tokyo DisneySea 's Hotel Hightower.
Instead of the autonomous vehicle found in the original incarnation, the Disney California Adventure attraction limited a car to a single shaft. As the elevator doors closed, the lights of the service elevator flickered out. The redesigned, multiple - cars - per - shaft, multilevel - boarding ride system for the California version of the tower required that one elevator load while another be in the drop shaft progressing through the ride cycle. As such, the first movement guests experienced is horizontal, as the elevator itself was pulled back from the doors as Rod Serling 's voice was heard:
With a flash of lightning, the walls of the basement disappeared altogether, leaving only a starfield around the service doors with a rotating purple spiral.
The elevator rose quickly to the fifth floor. Because the dark - ride portion of California 's tower took place in the drop shaft, the physical vertical vehicle conveyance system moved more quickly and nimbly than Florida 's (in which the first tower functions only as a dark ride and is not built for the quick movements that the drop portion requires). As such, visitors felt a moment of weightlessness as the elevator quickly ascended and then stopped on the fifth floor, where when the doors opened, an ornate, wood - framed mirror stood in a brightly lit hallway of the hotel and riders saw their reflection in its glass. Serling then said:
Suddenly, lightning struck the hotel and the lights of both the hallway and elevator flickered out. A ghostly wind blows through a window and the reflection of riders in the elevator became distorted. With another blast, the elevator rumbled and shook and with a final blast of lightning the electrified reflection disappeared, leaving only the image of the empty elevator in the mirror as the doors closed.
The elevator descended and opened to reveal the "hallway '' scene with an image of another elevator at the other end of the hallway, unlike Florida 's version which shows a window. Serling delivered his next narration:
The five missing guests appeared in the hallway, crackling with electricity and beckoning riders to follow them. They disappeared, and the walls of the hotel became a starfield, leaving just the other elevator, as Serling said:
The other elevator doors opened to reveal the lost passengers inside as both elevators appeared to float through space.
The distant guests fell, then the distant elevator, followed immediately by the ride elevator. California 's version did not have a randomized drop sequence. The ride experience was identical in every drop shaft, regardless of which floor passengers boarded on. Two small drops occurred in pitch - black darkness, followed by a rise to the top of the tower as in - cabin lights flickered. The doors then opened out to reveal the view from the top floor before the ride drops briefly, pauses, and drops along the remainder of the shaft. The elevator then raised and immediately dropped without stopping, in complete darkness. The elevator then was raised to the top of the tower, shuddered, and fell to the bottom of the shaft, to the area in between the two loading floors (to assure each ride is identical), with the elevator being finally returned to its load level and horizontally pushed back into place at the boiler room service doors. The height of the ride is 130 feet (40 m) and the elevator drop 124 feet (38 m) in total.
As the elevator was pushed back into place, Serling delivered his final narration:
After which, the service doors opened and guests exited the hotel through the basement and the gift shop.
On July 23, 2016, at San Diego Comic - Con, Disney announced that the California version would be replaced by an attraction based on Marvel 's Guardians of the Galaxy film series, titled Guardians of the Galaxy -- Mission: Breakout!, which opened in May 2017 and utilizes the same structure and ride system. This is the first American Disney attraction to be based on the Marvel Cinematic Universe (Marvel Entertainment having been wholly acquired by Disney in 2009).
The Tower of Terror 's final day of operation was January 2, 2017; the ride then closed January 3. In preparation for the closure, Disney began a "farewell '' promotion of the ride on September 9, 2016, which featured a "Late Check Out '' option to experience the drop portion of the ride in total darkness. On the night of September 19 and early morning of September 20, the "Hollywood Tower Hotel '' sign was removed to prepare for the new attraction.
The other three Disney parks with versions of the Tower of Terror are unaffected, and Disney has stated that there are no plans to change the ride in its other locations.
The attraction at Tokyo DisneySea omits any connection or tie - in whatsoever with The Twilight Zone, as the television series is not well known in Japan. Instead, the attraction is themed as the fictional Hotel Hightower. The ride tower, its facade an example of Moorish Revival architecture, is located in the American Waterfront area of the park, close to the S.S. Columbia cruise liner. The ride system for this version is similar to that of the Disney California Adventure and Walt Disney Studios Park versions.
The story line of the attraction is more complex than that of its American and European counterparts. The scenario involves the adventures of the hotel 's famous builder and owner, Harrison Hightower III (modeled after Walt Disney Imagineering executive Joe Rohde), who went on many expeditions throughout the world and collected thousands of priceless artifacts. Most of these artifacts were stolen for personal gain and stored in his hotel. After one such expedition to Africa, he brought home an idol with the name of Shiriki Utundu.
Hightower claimed that the natives were angry to have their beloved god taken, and that they threatened that the idol would curse him. On New Year 's Eve, 1899, Hightower held a press conference about his expedition to Africa, followed by a huge party. Hightower boasted about how he acquired the idol and denied claims of it being cursed. Just as he left the party, he mocked the idol, using its head to put out his cigar. Around midnight, he entered the elevator to retire to his private apartments in the hotel penthouse. As the elevator neared the top, the idol came to life.
The idol 's immense rage and power caused the elevator to plummet and crash on the ground floor. When the doors were pried open, only Hightower 's hat and the idol were recovered. The hotel was abruptly closed and condemned for more than a decade, rumored by locals to be haunted. In 1912, following pressure to demolish the hotel, a New York restoration company reopened it because of its historical significance. The company now offers paid tours of the building. It is on these "tours '' that guests embark when they enter the hotel.
The queue area winds through gardens filled with statues from many different countries up to the Hotel Hightower, where guests can see that the windows are almost completely shattered. Signs are posted all over the hotel front advertising the tour. Guests then enter the lobby, an elaborate and well - decorated room filled with plush furniture and beautiful art. On each ceiling arch is painted a mural of Hightower on one of his adventures, showing him escaping native people with a valuable artifact or item in his possession. At the end of the lobby is the elevator in its destroyed state, its doors left open with only a single plank of wood holding them together, a broken cable visible inside. Guests are then ushered into a room filled with many pictures of Hightower, his expeditions, and his hotel.
Guests enter one of two rooms, either his office or the library, and in each room a large stained glass window depicts a confident Hightower with Shiriki Utundu sitting on a pedestal nearby. A tour guide talks about Hightower, then winds up an old gramophone that plays a recording of Hightower 's last interview. At this point, the lights dim. Suddenly, the stained glass window changes to show a frightened Hightower holding the idol and then entering the elevator on that fateful night. It then shows the outside of the hotel as the elevator ascends. Suddenly, all the lights in the hotel go out, and there is a flash of green lightning, shattering the bottom of the window. At this point, Shiriki Utundu comes to life, looks around, laughs mischievously at the guests, and then vanishes into a star - field. A gray fog covers the window, which remains the same when the fog lifts. Guests are then ushered into an enormous storage room where Hightower kept his treasures. There are multiple loading rooms on the second floor, each themed to a different type of item. One has swords, another has tapestries, the third has stone tablets and other valuable artifacts.
The mechanics of the DisneySea tower are identical to those of the Californian and Parisian towers, with dual loading floors, horizontal push - back from the doors and into the drop tower, a "hallway '' scene, and a mirror scene, but with thematic changes. The order of the mirror and hallway scenes is reversed compared to the American and European counterparts.
As the ride begins, the lights of the elevator turn off as Hightower 's voice explains the significance of the idol. The elevator is pulled backwards, away from the still - visible service elevator doors as the walls of the basement disappear and turn into a star field. The glowing green eyes of the idol appear in the darkness as the elevator enters the drop shaft. The elevator begins its ascent, stopping at the first scene.
The elevator doors open to reveal the private apartments of Harrison Hightower, the idol sitting on a table in the center. Hightower, under a ghostly form, glowing blue, appears beside it and reaches out to touch it. The idol zaps him with a bolt of green electricity, blasting him backwards past open elevator doors at the opposite end of the apartments, where Hightower falls down the shaft, which then fades away, replaced by a star field. The idol turns toward the guests ' elevator and laughs before the doors close.
The elevator ascends to another level. The doors open, revealing a large, ornate mirror. Hightower tells the guests to wave and say "good bye to yourself ''. As they do, the lighting of the hotel is replaced with an eerie green glow, which makes the reflections of the guests ghostlike, an effect similar to the California and Paris rides, but absent the lightning strike. The ghostly reflection of the riders disappears and leaves the idol alone in the empty elevator. The idol laughs menacingly at the riders, and suddenly shoots forward at them. The elevator vibrates, shakes, and begins the drop sequence. The sequence is identical to the US version except the first two drops are missing (the ascent comes first) and the final drop takes place from the bottom set of doors rather than the top of the shaft.
At the end of the drop sequence, the elevator returns to its loading level, where the idol 's green eyes glare from a star field, which then disappear, replaced by the service doors through which guests entered.
La Tour de la Terreur -- Un Saut dans la Quatrième Dimension (English: The Tower of Terror -- A Jump into the Fourth Dimension), at Walt Disney Studios Park in Disneyland Paris, is similar to the version at Disney California Adventure, which used the designs for the Paris park to construct its ride first, when it was needed as an additional crowd - puller. When financial troubles hit Disney 's Parisian resort, the attraction had to be put on hold.
The attraction was finally green - lit in 2005 and was under construction in the center of the park, behind the La Terrasse seating area, by early 2006. Upon completion, it was joined by a new Hollywood Boulevard lined by faux movie sets. Unlike its American cousins, the Paris Tower was constructed using concrete rather than steel due to French construction guidelines and standards, at a total cost exceeding € 180 million. The Paris version opened in 2007.
The Paris and California versions were originally intended to be almost identical upon completion, but there are differences, notably the height of the building and the location of some rooms backstage, as well as other differences due to different construction and work regulations in France.
The default language for the pre-show library video and the ride is French, but can be changed to English by the Cast Member upon request. The library video is the same as the American version, but is dubbed in French and subtitled in English.
In an effort to be true to the spirit of The Twilight Zone, Disney Imagineers reportedly watched every episode of the original television show at least twice. The attraction buildings are littered with references to Twilight Zone episodes, including:
The ride appeared on the Disney Channel 's 1994 Halloween edition of Walt Disney World Inside Out with guest star Gilbert Gottfried. Scott Herriott was the host.
Following the ride 's success, Disney produced the TV film, Tower of Terror, based on the attraction in 1997, starring Steven Guttenberg and Kirsten Dunst. Many shots were filmed at the Orlando theme park, while others were filmed on Burbank movie sets. As of October 2015, a theatrical film based on the ride, with a script by John August, is in the works.
In the queue for the Tower of Terror at Disney 's Hollywood Studios, music from the 1930s is played.
The ride 's score was composed by Richard Bellis, and incorporates the main Twilight Zone theme composed by Marius Constant. The attraction 's theme and can be found on several theme park albums:
The Tokyo DisneySea version of the attraction is scored by Joel McNeely, who has released the overture on his site.
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what is the meaning of e8 in result | West African Senior school Certificate examination - wikipedia
The West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) is a type of standardized test in West Africa. It is administered by the West African Examinations Council. It is only offered to candidates residing in Anglophone West African countries. The academic school - leaving qualification awarded upon successful completion of the exams is the West African Senior School Certificate (WASSCE).
There are two different types of the examination:
Candidates are advised that they will be required to satisfy not only the university 's general entrance requirements but also the requirements of the particular faculty which they wish to enter and that these requirements vary considerably. Particulars of entrance requirements and exemption regulations may be obtained from the universities or professional bodies concerned.
Students who choose to study in Nigerian universities are required to sit for the entrance examinations administered by the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) known as the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME).
Universities in the United Kingdom may in addition, require candidates to complete a one - year foundation course or acceptable alternative.
Official website
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when did india conduct her first nuclear test | Smiling Buddha - Wikipedia
Smiling Buddha (MEA designation: Pokhran - I) was the assigned code name of India 's first successful nuclear bomb test on 18 May 1974. The bomb was detonated on the army base, Pokhran Test Range (PTR), in Rajasthan by the Indian Army under the supervision of several key Indian generals.
Pokhran - I was also the first confirmed nuclear weapons test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. Officially, the Indian Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) claimed this test was a "peaceful nuclear explosion '', but it was an accelerated nuclear programme.
India started its own nuclear programme in 1944 when Homi J. Bhabha founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. Physicist Raja Ramanna played an essential role in nuclear weapons technology research; he expanded and supervised scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the test.
After Indian independence from the British Empire, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru authorised the development of a nuclear programme headed by Homi Bhabha. The Atomic Energy Act of 1948 focused on peaceful development. India was heavily involved in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but ultimately opted not to sign it.
We must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war -- indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way.
In 1954, Bhabha steered the nuclear programme in the direction of weapons design and production. Two important infrastructure projects were commissioned. The first established Trombay Atomic Energy Establishment at Mumbai (Bombay). The other created a governmental secretariat, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), of which Bhabha was the first secretary. From 1954 to 1959, the nuclear programme grew swiftly. By 1958, the DAE had one - third of the defence budget for research purposes. In 1954, India reached a verbal understanding with Canada and the United States under the Atoms for Peace programme; Canada and the United States ultimately agreed to provide and establish the CIRUS research reactor also at Trombay. The acquisition of CIRUS was a watershed event in nuclear proliferation with the understanding between India and the United States that the reactor would be used for peaceful purposes only. CIRUS was an ideal facility to develop a plutonium device, and therefore Nehru refused to accept nuclear fuel from Canada and started the programme to develop an indigenous nuclear fuel cycle.
In July 1958, Nehru authorised "Project Phoenix '' to build a reprocessing plant with a capacity of 20 tons of fuel a year -- a size to match the production capacity of CIRUS. The plant used the PUREX process and was designed by the American firm Vitro International. Construction of the plutonium plant began at Trombay on 27 March 1961, and it was commissioned in mid-1964.
The nuclear programme continued to mature, and by 1960, Nehru made the critical decision to move the programme into production. At about the same time, Nehru held discussions with the American firm Westinghouse Electric to construct India 's first nuclear power plant in Tarapur, Maharashtra. Kenneth Nichols, a US Army engineer, recalls from a meeting with Nehru, "it was that time when Nehru turned to Bhabha and asked Bhabha for the timeline of the development of a nuclear weapon ''. Bhabha estimated he would need about a year to accomplish the task.
By 1962, the nuclear programme was still developing, but at a slow rate. Nehru was distracted by the Sino - Indian War, during which India lost territory to China. Nehru turned to the Soviet Union for help, but the Soviet Union was preoccupied with the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Soviet Politburo turned down Nehru 's request for arms and continued backing the Chinese. India concluded that the Soviet Union was an unreliable ally, and this conclusion strengthened India 's determination to create a nuclear deterrent. Design work began in 1965 under Bhabha and proceeded under Raja Ramanna who took over the programme after the former 's death.
Bhabha was now aggressively lobbying for nuclear weapons and made several speeches on Indian radio. In 1964, Bhabha told the Indian public via Indian radio that "such nuclear weapons are remarkably cheap '' and supported his arguments by referring to the economical cost of American nuclear testing programme (Plowshare). Bhabha stated to the politicians that a 10 kt device would cost around $350,000, and $600,000 for a 2 mt. From this, he estimated that "a stockpile '' of around 50 atomic bombs would cost under $21 million and a stockpile of 50 two - megaton hydrogen bombs would cost around $31.5 million. '' Bhabha did not realise, however, that the U.S. Plowshare cost - figures were produced by a vast industrial complex costing tens of billions of dollars, which had already manufactured nuclear weapons numbering in the tens of thousands. The delivery systems for nuclear weapons typically cost several times as much as the weapons themselves.
The nuclear programme was partially slowed down when Lal Bahadur Shastri became the prime minister. In 1965, Shastri faced another war with Pakistan. Shastri appointed physicist Vikram Sarabhai as the head of the nuclear programme but because of his Gandhian beliefs Sarabhai directed the programme toward peaceful purposes rather than military development.
In 1967, Indira Gandhi became the prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed with renewed vigour. Homi Sethna, a chemical engineer, played a significant role in the development of weapon - grade plutonium while Ramanna designed and manufactured the whole nuclear device. The first nuclear bomb project did not employ more than 75 scientists because of its sensitivity. The nuclear weapons programme was now directed towards the production of plutonium rather than uranium.
In 1968 -- 69, P.K. Iyengar visited the Soviet Union with three colleagues and toured the nuclear research facilities at Dubna, Russia. During his visit, Iyengar was impressed by the plutonium - fueled pulsed fast reactor. Upon his return to India, Iyengar set about developing plutonium reactors approved by the Indian political leadership in January 1969. The secret plutonium plant was known as Purnima, and construction began in March 1969. The plant 's leadership included Iyengar, Ramanna, Homi Sethna, and Sarabhai. Sarabhai 's presence indicates that, with or without formal approval, the work on nuclear weapons at Trombay had been commenced.
India continued to harbour ambivalent feelings about nuclear weapons, and accorded low priority to their production until the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971. In December 1971, Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group led by the USS Enterprise (CVN - 65) into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India. The Soviet Union responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force. The Soviet response demonstrated the deterrent value and significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to Indira Gandhi. India gained the military and political initiative over Pakistan after acceding to the treaty that divided Pakistan into two different political entities.
On 7 September 1972, near the peak of her post-war popularity, Indira Gandhi authorised the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) to manufacture a nuclear device and prepare it for a test. Although the Indian Army was not fully involved in the nuclear testing, the army 's highest command was kept fully informed of the test preparations. The preparations were carried out under the watchful eyes of the Indian political leadership, with civilian scientists assisting the Indian Army.
The device was formally called the "Peaceful Nuclear Explosive '', but it was usually referred to as the Smiling Buddha. The device was detonated on 18 May 1974, Buddha Jayanti (a festival day in India marking the birth of Gautama Buddha). Indira Gandhi maintained tight control of all aspects of the preparations of the Smiling Buddha test, which was conducted in extreme secrecy; besides Gandhi, only advisers Parmeshwar Haksar and Durga Dhar were kept informed. Scholar Raj Chengappa asserts the Indian Defence Minister Jagjivan Ram was not provided with any knowledge of this test and came to learn of it only after it was conducted. Swaran Singh, the Minister of External Affairs, was given 48 hours advance notice. The Indira Gandhi administration employed no more than 75 civilian scientists while General G.G. Bewoor, Indian army chief, and the commander of Indian Western Command were the only military commanders kept informed.
The head of this entire nuclear bomb project was the director of the BARC, Raja Ramanna. In later years, his role in the nuclear programme would be more deeply integrated as he remained head of the nuclear programme most of his life. The designer and creator of the bomb was P.K. Iyengar, who was the second in command of this project. Iyengar 's work was further assisted by the chief metallurgist, R. Chidambaram, and by Nagapattinam Sambasiva Venkatesan of the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, who developed and manufactured the high explosive implosion system. The explosive materials and the detonation system were developed by Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan of the High Energy Materials Research Laboratory.
The overall project was supervised by chemical engineer Homi Sethna, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India. Chidambaram, who would later coordinate work on the Pokhran - II tests, began work on the equation of state of plutonium in late 1967 or early 1968. To preserve secrecy, the project employed no more than 75 scientists and engineers from 1967 -- 74. Abdul Kalam also arrived at the test site as the representative of the DRDO.
The device was of the implosion - type design and had a close resemblance to the American nuclear bomb called the Fat Man. The implosion system was assembled at the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) of the DRDO in Chandigarh. The detonation system was developed at the High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL) of the DRDO in Pune, Maharashtra State. The 6 kg of plutonium came from the CIRUS reactor at BARC. The neutron initiator was of the polonium -- beryllium type and code - named Flower. The complete nuclear bomb was engineered and finally assembled by Indian engineers at Trombay before transportation to the test site.
The fully assembled device had a hexagonal cross section, 1.25 metres in diameter, and weighed 1400 kg. The device was mounted on a hexagonal metal tripod, and was transported to the shaft on rails which the army kept covered with sand. The device was detonated when Dastidar pushed the firing button at 8.05 a.m.; it was in a shaft 107 m under the army Pokhran test range in the Thar Desert (or Great Indian Desert), Rajasthan.
The nuclear yield of this test still remains controversial, with unclear data provided by Indian sources, although Indian politicians have given the country 's press a range from 2 kt to 20 kt. The official yield was initially set at 12 kt; post-Operation Shakti claims have raised it to 13 kt. Independent seismic data from outside and analysis of the crater features indicate a lower figure. Analysts usually estimate the yield at 4 to 6 kt, using conventional seismic magnitude - to - yield conversion formulas. In recent years, both Homi Sethna and P.K. Iyengar have conceded the official yield to be an exaggeration.
Iyengar has variously stated that the yield was 8 -- 10 kt, that the device was designed to yield 10 kt, and that the yield was 8 kt "exactly as predicted ''. Although seismic scaling laws lead to an estimated yield range between 3.2 kt and 21 kt, an analysis of hard rock cratering effects suggests a narrow range of around 8 kt for the yield, which is within the uncertainties of the seismic yield estimate.
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had already gained much popularity and publicity after her successful military campaign against Pakistan in the 1971 war. The test caused an immediate revival of Indira Gandhi 's popularity, which had flagged considerably from its high after the 1971 war. The overall popularity and image of the Congress Party was enhanced and the Congress Party was well received in the Indian Parliament. In 1975, Homi Sethna, a chemical engineer and the chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission (AECI), Raja Ramanna of BARC, and Basanti Nagchaudhuri of DRDO, all were honoured with the Padma Vibhushan, India 's second highest civilian award. Five other project members received the Padma Shri, India 's fourth highest civilian award. India consistently maintained that this was a peaceful nuclear bomb test and that it had no intentions of militarising its nuclear programme. However, according to independent monitors, this test was part of an accelerated Indian nuclear programme. In 1997 Raja Ramanna, speaking to the Press Trust of India, maintained:
The Pokhran test was a bomb, I can tell you now... An explosion is an explosion, a gun is a gun, whether you shoot at someone or shoot at the ground... I just want to make clear that the test was not all that peaceful.
While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many quarters. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation. The NSG decided in 1992 to require full - scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export deals, which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India, but in 2008 it waived this restriction on nuclear trade with India as part of the Indo - US civilian nuclear agreement.
Pakistan did not view the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion '', and cancelled talks scheduled for 10 June on normalisation of relations. Pakistan 's Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto vowed in June 1974 that he would never succumb to "nuclear blackmail '' or accept "Indian hegemony or domination over the subcontinent ''. The chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Munir Ahmed Khan, said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear bomb. Pakistan 's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, stated in 2011 that he believed the test "pushed (Pakistan) further into the nuclear arena ''.
The plutonium used in the test was created in the CIRUS reactor supplied by Canada and using heavy water supplied by the United States. Both countries reacted negatively, especially in light of then ongoing negotiations on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the economic aid both countries had provided to India. Canada concluded that the test violated a 1971 understanding between the two states, and froze nuclear energy assistance for the two heavy water reactors then under construction. The United States concluded that the test did not violate any agreement and proceeded with a June 1974 shipment of enriched uranium for the Tarapur reactor.
France sent a congratulatory telegram to India but later withdrew it.
Despite many proposals, India did not carry out further nuclear tests until 1998. After the 1998 general elections, Operation Shakti (also known as Pokhran - II) was carried out at the Pokhran test site, using devices designed and built over the preceding two decades.
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the sumer monsoon is the dry season in most of asia | Summer - wikipedia
Summer is the hottest of the four temperate seasons, falling after spring and before autumn. At the summer solstice, the days are longest and the nights are shortest, with day - length decreasing as the season progresses after the solstice. The date of the beginning of summer varies according to climate, tradition and culture. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere, and vice-versa.
From an astronomical view, the equinoxes and solstices would be the middle of the respective seasons, but sometimes astronomical summer is defined as starting at the solstice, the time of maximal insolation, or on the traditional date of June 21. A variable seasonal lag means that the meteorological center of the season, which is based on average temperature patterns, occurs several weeks after the time of maximal insolation. The meteorological convention is to define summer as comprising the months of June, July, and August in the northern hemisphere and the months of December, January, and February in the southern hemisphere. Under meteorological definitions, all seasons are arbitrarily set to start at the beginning of a calendar month and end at the end of a month. This meteorological definition of summer also aligns with the commonly viewed notion of summer as the season with the longest (and warmest) days of the year, in which daylight predominates. The meteorological reckoning of seasons is used in Australia, Austria, Denmark, the former Soviet Union and Japan. It is also used by many in the United Kingdom. In Ireland, the summer months according to the national meteorological service, Met Éireann, are June, July and August. However, according to the Irish Calendar, summer begins on 1 May and ends on 1 August. School textbooks in Ireland follow the cultural norm of summer commencing on 1 May rather than the meteorological definition of 1 June.
Days continue to lengthen from equinox to solstice and summer days progressively shorten after the solstice, so meteorological summer encompasses the build - up to the longest day and a diminishing thereafter, with summer having many more hours of daylight than spring. Reckoning by hours of daylight alone, summer solstice marks the midpoint, not the beginning, of the seasons. Midsummer takes place over the shortest night of the year, which is the summer solstice, or on a nearby date that varies with tradition.
Where a seasonal lag of half a season or more is common, reckoning based on astronomical markers is shifted half a season. By this method, in North America, summer is the period from the summer solstice (usually 20 or 21 June in the Northern Hemisphere) to the autumn equinox.
Reckoning by cultural festivals, the summer season in the United States is commonly regarded as beginning on Memorial Day weekend (the last weekend in May) and ending on Labor Day weekend (the first weekend in September), more closely in line with the meteorological definition for the parts of the country that have four - season weather. The similar Canadian tradition starts summer on Victoria Day one week prior (although summer conditions vary widely across Canada 's expansive territory) and ends, as in the United States, on Labour Day.
In Chinese astronomy, summer starts on or around 5 May, with the jiéqì (solar term) known as lìxià (立夏), i.e. "establishment of summer '', and it ends on or around 6 August.
In southern and southeast Asia, where the monsoon occurs, summer is more generally defined as lasting from March, April, May and June, the warmest time of the year, ending with the onset of the monsoon rains.
Because the temperature lag is shorter in the oceanic temperate southern hemisphere, most countries in this region use the meteorological definition with summer starting on 1 December and ending on the last day of February.
Summer is traditionally associated with hot or warm weather. In the Mediterranean regions, it is also associated with dry weather, while in other places (particularly in Eastern Asia because of the Monsoon) it is associated with rainy weather. The wet season is the main period of vegetation growth within the savanna climate regime. Where the wet season is associated with a seasonal shift in the prevailing winds, it is known as a monsoon.
In the northern Atlantic Ocean, a distinct tropical cyclone season occurs from 1 June to 30 November. The statistical peak of the Atlantic hurricane season is 10 September. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic. The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year - round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September. In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November. In the Southern Hemisphere, the tropical cyclone season runs from 1 November until the end of April with peaks in mid-February to early March.
Thunderstorm season in the United States and Canada runs in the spring through summer. These storms can produce hail, strong winds and tornadoes, usually during the afternoon and evening.
Schools and universities typically have a summer break to take advantage of the warmer weather and longer days. In almost all countries, children are out of school during this time of year for summer break, although dates vary. In the United States, public schools usually end in early June while colleges get out in early May, although some schools get out on the last or second last Thursday in May. In England and Wales, school ends in mid-July and resumes again in early September; in Scotland, the summer holiday begins in late June and ends in mid - to late - August. Similarly, in Canada the summer holiday starts on the last or second - last Friday in June and ends in late August or on the first Monday of September, with the exception of when that date falls before Labour Day, in which case, ends on the second Monday of the month. In Russia the summer holiday begins at the end of May and ends on August 31. In the Southern Hemisphere, school summer holiday dates include the major holidays of Christmas and New Year 's Day. School summer holidays in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa begin in early - December and end in early February, with the dates varying between states. In India, school ends in late April and resumes in early or mid June. In Cameroon and Nigeria, schools usually go for summer vacation in mid-July and resume back in the later weeks of September or first week of October.
A wide range of public holidays fall during summer, including:
People generally take advantage of the high temperatures by spending more time outdoors during summer. Activities such as travelling to the beach and picnics occur during the summer months. Sports such as association football, basketball, American football, volleyball, skateboarding, baseball, softball, cricket, tennis and golf are played. Water sports also occur. These include water skiing, wake boarding, swimming, surfing, tubing and water polo. The modern Olympics have been held during the summer months every four years since 1896. The 2000 Summer Olympics, in Sydney, however, were held during the Australian Spring.
Summer is normally a low point in television viewing, and television schedules generally reflect this by not scheduling new episodes of their most popular shows between the end of May sweeps and the beginning of the television season in September, instead scheduling low - cost reality television shows and burning off commitments to already - cancelled series. There is an exception to this with children 's television. Many television shows made for children and are popular with children are released during the summer months, especially on children 's cable channels such as the Disney Channel in the United States, as children are off school. Disney Channel, for example, ends its preschool programming earlier in the day for older school age children in the summer months while it reverts to the original scheduling as the new school year begins. Conversely, the music and film industries generally experience higher returns during the summer than other times of the year and market their summer hits accordingly. Summer is most popular for animated movies to be released theatrically in movie theaters.
With most school - age children and college students (except those attending summer school) on summer vacation during the summer months, especially in the United States, travel and vacationing traditionally peaks during the summer, with the volume of travel in a typical summer weekend rivaled only by Thanksgiving. Teenagers and college students often take summer jobs in industries that cater to recreation. Business activity for the recreation, tourism, restaurant, and retail industries peak during the summer months as well as the holiday season.
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who build the walls in attack on titan | Attack on Titan - Wikipedia
Attack on Titan (Japanese: 進撃 の 巨人, Hepburn: Shingeki no Kyojin, lit. "Advancing Giant '') is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hajime Isayama. The series began in Kodansha 's Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine on September 9, 2009, and has been collected into 23 tankōbon volumes as of August 2017. It is set in a world where humanity lives in cities surrounded by enormous walls; a defense against the Titans, gigantic humanoids that eat humans seemingly without reason. The story initially centers on Eren Yeager and his childhood friends Mikasa Ackerman and Armin Arlert, who join the military to fight the Titans after their home town is invaded and Eren 's mother is eaten. However, as the story progresses and the truths about the Titans are slowly revealed to the reader, the narrative shifts to encompass Historia Reiss, squad leader Levi, Eren 's father Grisha, and other supporting characters.
The spin - off light novel series Before the Fall began in December 2011 and has received a manga adaptation. Two additional light novel series and four additional spin - off manga series have also been created. An anime television adaptation is being produced by Wit Studio and Production I.G, aired in Japan on MBS. The first season aired between April and September 2013, the second season aired between April and June 2017, and a third season is scheduled to be released in April 2018. Four video game adaptations developed by Nitroplus staffers in collaboration with Production I.G were announced to be released as bonus content for the third and sixth volumes of the Blu - ray Disc release of the anime, with another game developed by Spike Chunsoft for the Nintendo 3DS. A two - part live - action film adaptation, Attack on Titan and Attack on Titan: End of the World, and a live - action web - series were released in 2015. An anime adaptation of the Junior High spin - off manga, produced by Production I.G, began airing in October 2015. Attack on Titan and all five spin - off manga are published in North America by Kodansha Comics USA, while the three novel series are published by Vertical. The anime has been licensed by Funimation for North America, by Manga Entertainment for the UK, and by Madman Entertainment for Australasia.
Attack on Titan has become a commercial success. As of April 2017, the manga has 66 million copies in print. The release of the anime also saw a boost in the series ' popularity, with it having received widespread critical acclaim for its atmosphere and story. Although it also gained fame in neighboring Asian countries, the series ' themes have been a subject of controversy.
Over 100 years before the beginning of the story on an alternate world, giant human - shaped creatures called Titans (巨人, Kyojin) suddenly appeared and nearly wiped out humanity, devouring them without remorse or reason. What remains of humanity now resides within three enormous curtain walls: the outermost is Wall Maria (ウォール ・ マリア, Wōru Maria); the middle wall is Wall Rose (ウォール ・ ローゼ, Wōru Rōze, sometimes pronounced like rosé) and the innermost is Wall Sheena (ウォール ・ シーナ, Wōru Shīna, alt. "Wall Sina ''). Inside these walls, humanity has lived in uneasy peace for one hundred years; many people growing up without ever having seen a Titan. This all changes when one day, a giant 60 - meter (200 ft) - tall Colossus Titan mysteriously appears after a strike of lightning and breaches the outer wall of the Shiganshina district, a town at Wall Maria, allowing the smaller Titans to invade the district. An Armored Titan smashes clean through the gate in Wall Maria, forcing humankind to abandon the land between Wall Maria and Wall Rose, evacuating the remaining population into the inner districts. The sudden influx of population causes turmoil and famine.
The Titans are giant humanoid figures ranging between 3 -- 15 meters (10 -- 50 ft) tall and are usually masculine in body structure but lack reproductive organs. Although they do not appear to need food, they instinctively attack and eat humans on sight; it is mentioned that they derive their energy from sunlight. Furthermore, the Titans also do not have a proper digestive tract; once they have eaten their fill of human prey, Titans will vomit large, slimy balls, derisively referred to as "hairballs ''. Finally, their skin is tough and difficult to penetrate, and they regenerate quickly from injuries, save for a weak spot at the nape of their neck.
Combating the Titans is the military, which is divided into three branches. Foremost in the story is the Survey Corps (調査 兵団, Chōsa Heidan), which goes out into Titan territory to try to reclaim the land. The Survey Corps are heavily derided in society because of their apparently senseless high casualty rate and little sense of progress. The second and largest branch is the Garrison Regiment (駐屯 兵団, Chūton Heidan), which guards the walls and the civilian populace. The third branch is the Military Police Brigade (憲兵 団, Kenpeidan), who guards the royal family and live relatively relaxed lives, although this eventually results in fraud, corruption, and political subterfuge. The soldiers use a tethering system called Vertical Maneuvering Equipment (立体 機動 装置, Rittai Kidō Sōchi) acting as a grappling system, allowing them to jump onto (and swing from) walls, trees, or nearby buildings to attack Titans with dual swords. However, despite it being the soldiers ' primary line of both offense and defense against the Titans, it is useless in open and flat terrain like fields.
It is later revealed that the Titans were created when Ymir Fritz found the "source of all organic life '' and became the Founding Titan where she had the ability to create and control the Titans. When Ymir Fritz died as a side effect of having the Titan ability for 13 years, her soul was split into the 9 Titans where their abilities can be inherited by anyone once the previous wielder is dead. These Titans consist of the Founding Titan, the Attack Titan, the Colossus Titan, the Armored Titan, the Female Titan, the Beast Titan, the Jaw Titan, the Cart Titan, and the War Hammer Titan. The 145th King that wielded the Founding Titan 's power fled to the island of Paradis where he used the countless Colossus Titans to make the walls and erased the memories of the Eldians he brought with him so that they did n't know anything about the outside world.
The story of Attack on Titan revolves around the adventures of Eren Yeager, Mikasa Ackerman, and their childhood friend Armin Arlert. After the wall which protects their hometown of Shinganshina is breached by the Colossal Titan leading the other Titans to enter, Eren watches in horror as a smiling Titan eats his mother. Vowing to kill all the Titans, Eren enlists in the military, along with his friends.
Five years later, the three cadet graduates are positioned in Trost District, one of the border towns jutting out of Wall Rose when the Titans attack again. In the ensuing battle, Eren saves Armin from being eaten by a bearded Titan, at the cost of him being eaten himself. A Titan later appears and begins fighting the other Titans while ignoring humans; the Titan is revealed to be Eren, who has developed the ability to transform into one. Though he is seen as a threat by some, he helps the military take back Trost District. After being placed on trial for being a danger to the humans, he is taken in by the Survey Corps ' Special Operations Squad, led by Captain Levi.
In an expedition to Shinganshina, the Scouts are attacked by a Female Titan who attempts to capture Eren. Although the Scouts are able to briefly capture the Female Titan, she breaks free and devastates Levi 's squad, forcing the expedition to retreat. Armin determines that the Female Titan is Annie, one of the cadets who taught Eren to fight, and devises a plan to capture her at Stohess. During this operation, collateral damage reveals that Titans reside in and make up the walls surrounding the human settlements.
Some of Eren 's friends are also revealed to be able to transform into Titans and had been sent as spies by an unknown party to find something called "The Coordinate ''. It is later confirmed that the Coordinate is the power to control other Titans at will, and that Eren holds that power. The royal family and the Military Police track Eren and his friend Krista Lenz, who is actually Historia Reiss, the successor to the real king, Rod Reiss, with the current king being but a figurehead.
The Survey Corps, losing all will to follow the current government, stage a successful rebellion to overthrow the monarchy, culminating with the death of Rod by the hands of his own daughter, who becomes the new queen. It is then revealed that the Reiss Family was responsible for the creation of the walls 100 years ago using the Coordinate, which was stolen by Eren 's father Grisha, who then transferred it to Eren 's body by turning him into a Titan before allowing his son to devour him.
By making use of a new power obtained by Eren that allows him to create massive and permanent structures, the Survey Corps hold another expedition, this time managing to reach Shiganshina and seal the breach to reclaim Wall Maria. However, they are ambushed by Zeke, the man behind the Titan invasions and the spies, leading an army of Titans including the Colossal Titan against them. The battle ends with Zeke retreating, and the Colossal Titan defeated and killed by Armin, who became a Titan Shifter like Eren, but at the cost of the lives of almost all the members of the expedition, including the commander of the Survey Corps, Erwin Smith.
Before returning home, the survivors explore the basement of Eren and Mikasa 's old house and recover evidence proving that the human civilization beyond the walls is not extinct as they were always led to believe, but is in fact, thriving. However, they also discover that their race, the Eldians, are being oppressed and persecuted by the Marleyans, the ruling race that with the objective of conquering their island, Paradis, and seizing their natural resources, have transformed Eldian prisoners into rogue Titans to keep them trapped inside the walls and sent Zeke, Annie, and the other Titan Shifters to steal the Coordinate. In the occasion, Eren also learns that Zeke is his older half - brother, who betrayed their father and defected to the Marleyans. After Wall Maria is reclaimed, Eren and the others make preparations for their imminent confrontation with the Marleyan forces.
The story then shifts to four years later, where Marley forces including Titan Shifters like Zeke and Reiner, as well as warriors in training to inherit their powers are fighting against another nation called the Mid-East Allied Forces. Though Marley wins the war, they are devastated by the new invention of Anti-Titan artillery which can seriously harm and even kill the most well fortified Titan Shifters. Thus Zeke tells Marley military command that they must once again attempt to steal Eren 's Coordinate power or Marley 's position as a world hegemony will cease.
Hajime Isayama created a 65 - page one - shot version of Attack on Titan in 2006. Originally, he also offered his work to the Weekly Shōnen Jump department at Shueisha, where he was advised to modify his style and story to be more suitable for Jump. He declined and instead decided to take it to the Weekly Shōnen Magazine department at Kodansha. Before serialization began in 2009, he had already thought of ideas for twists, although they are fleshed out as the series progresses. The author initially based the scenery in the manga on that of his hometown, which is surrounded by mountains. While working at an internet cafe, Isayama encountered a customer who grabbed him by the collar. It was this incident that showed him "the fear of meeting a person I ca n't communicate with, '' which is the feeling that he conveys through the Titans. When designing the appearances of the Titans, he uses several models such as martial artist Yushin Okami for Eren Yeager 's Titan form as well as Brock Lesnar for the Armored Titan. George Wada, the anime 's producer, stated that the "Wall of Fear '' was influenced by the isolated and enclosed nature of Japanese culture. He also said that the inner feelings of every individual is one of the series ' main influences. Isayama later would confirm that Attack on Titan was inspired in part by Muv - Luv Alternative, the second visual novel in the Muv - Luv visual novel series.
Isayama estimated his basic monthly timeline as one week to storyboard and three weeks to actually draw the chapter. The story is planned out in advance, even marking down in which collected volumes a specific "truth '' will be revealed. In September 2013, he stated that he was aiming to end the series in 20 collected volumes. Originally, Isayama planned to give the series a tragic conclusion similar to that of the film adaptation of Stephen King 's The Mist, where every character dies. However, positive response to the manga and anime has caused the author to contemplate changing the ending due to the impact it could have on fans.
Hajime Isayama 's original manga serial, Attack on Titan commenced publication in Kodansha 's monthly publication Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine starting with the September 2009 issue. The first tankōbon collected volume was released on March 17, 2010. The most recent, volume 22, was released on April 7, 2017. In November 2014, the manga had 45 million copies in print. By September 2016, the number had increased to 60 million. The series ' twelfth collected volume was given a first printing of 2.2 million copies, making Attack on Titan one of only two manga series ever to get an initial print surpassing 2 million, the other being One Piece. Volume 13 has the highest initial first print of the series so far, with 2,750,000 copies. It is also the first print run record for its publisher, Kodansha.
A comedic spin - off of the series, titled Attack on Titan: Junior High (進撃! 巨人 中学校, Shingeki! Kyojin Chūgakkō) and written by Saki Nakagawa, began serialization in Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine 's May 2012 issue. It follows the main characters as they battle the Titans while in junior high school. Another manga series based on the prequel light novels Attack on Titan: Before the Fall started running in Kodansha 's Monthly Shōnen Sirius from August 2013, drawn by Satoshi Shiki. An additional spin - off based on the No Regrets visual novel was serialized in the shōjo manga magazine Aria, titled Attack on Titan: No Regrets (進撃 の 巨人 悔い なき 選択, Shingeki no Kyojin: Kuinaki Sentaku). It is written by Gun Snark and illustrated by Hikaru Suruga. It focuses on the origins of Captain Levi, one of the most prominent characters in the main series. A yonkoma spin - off, called Spoof on Titan (寸劇 の 巨人, Sungeki no Kyojin, "Titan Short Skits '') and drawn by hounori, was released on Kodansha 's Manga Box smartphone and tablet application from December 2013 to December 30, 2014 in both Japanese and English. A manga adaptation of Hiroshi Seko 's Attack on Titan: Lost Girls novel, written and illustrated by Ryōsuke Fuji, began publication in Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine on August 9, 2015.
In North America, the series is published in English by Kodansha Comics USA. They published the first volume on June 19, 2012,. The fifteenth was released on April 7, 2015. By July 2015, the manga had 2.5 million copies in circulation in North America. The first three spin - off manga have also been licensed by Kodansha Comics USA, who published the first volume of each between March and June 2014. It announced its license to Spoof on Titan at the New York Comic Con in October 2015, and its acquisition of Lost Girls in March 2016.
A light novel series titled Attack on Titan: Before the Fall (進撃 の 巨人 Before the fall), written by Ryō Suzukaze and illustrated by Thores Shibamoto, began on April 1, 2011. Its story is set before the events of the manga and it was published by Kodansha in three volumes. While the first tells the story of Angel, the blacksmith who develops the first prototypes of the Vertical Maneuvering Equipment, the following two follow a young man who was found as a baby in the stomach of a Titan. A second light novel series called Attack on Titan: Harsh Mistress of the City (進撃 の 巨人 隔絶 都市 の 女王, Shingeki no Kyojin Kakuzetsu Toshi no Joō), written by Ryō Kawakami and illustrated by Range Murata, began on August 1, 2014. Vertical began releasing the novels in North America in the summer of 2014. A novel titled Attack on Titan: Lost Girls (進撃 の 巨人 Lost Girls), written by Hiroshi Seko, was published on December 9, 2014. It comprises three short stories featuring Mikasa and Annie Leonhart, titled "Lost in the cruel world '', "Wall Sina, Goodbye '', and "Lost Girls ''. It was also released in English by Vertical.
An anime television series adaptation produced by Wit Studio (a subsidiary of IG Port) aired on MBS between April 7, 2013 and September 29, 2013, directed by Tetsurō Araki with Yūki Kaji starring as Eren, Yui Ishikawa voicing Mikasa and Marina Inoue as Armin. Both Funimation and Crunchyroll simulcast the series on their respective websites, and Funimation began releasing the series on North American home video in 2014. The anime has been licensed in the UK by Manga Entertainment. Madman Entertainment acquired the show for distribution in Australia and New Zealand. The final episode was also aired in Japanese theaters. The anime had some production issues with needing more animators with Wit Studios ' character designer, Kyoji Asano tweeting and looking for active animators to work on the anime. An OVA version of the "Ilse 's Notebook '' special chapter from tankōbon volume 5 was originally scheduled to be released on August 9, 2013, bundled with the volume 11 limited edition, but was postponed and included with a limited edition of volume 12, released on December 9, 2013, instead. The OVA was bundled on subtitled DVD with the English limited edition release of the 17th manga volume, released on December 1, 2015. A second OVA was released on April 9, 2014, bundled with the 13th volume of the series, this one focused on the members of the 104th Training Corps. Two additional OVA episodes, based on the Attack on Titan: No Regrets prequel manga, were bundled with the 15th and 16th volumes of the main series, released on December 9, 2014 and April 9, 2015, respectively. The anime previously aired on Adult Swim 's Toonami block. In Australia, the anime currently airs on SBS 2 on Tuesdays, in Japanese with English subtitles, with the first episode having aired on September 30.
The anime was compiled into two animated theatrical films with new voice acting from the same cast. The first film Attack on Titan -- Part 1: Crimson Bow and Arrow (「 進撃 の 巨人 」 前編 ~ 紅蓮 の 弓矢 ~, Shingeki no Kyojin Zenpen ~ Guren no Yumiya ~) covers the first 13 episodes and was released on November 22, 2014, while the second film Attack on Titan -- Part 2: Wings of Freedom (「 進撃 の 巨人 」 後編 ~ 自由 の 翼 ~, Shingeki no Kyojin Kōhen ~ Jiyū no Tsubasa ~) adapts the remaining episodes and adds new opening and ending footage. It was released on June 27, 2015. A rebroadcast of the first season was aired from January 9, 2016 on NHK 's BS Premium channel. The compilation films were also broadcast in January 2017 on MBS.
A second season of the anime series was announced on the opening day of the first theatrical film, which was originally set to be released in 2016. It was then confirmed in the January 2017 issue of the Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine that the second season would premiere in April 2017. Masashi Koizuka is directing the second season, with Araki now acting as chief director. It has also been licensed by Funimation. It will run for 12 episodes.
An anime television adaptation of the Attack on Titan: Junior High manga spin - off began airing in October 2015. The series was directed by Yoshihide Ibata at Production I.G, with series composition by Midori Gotou, character design by Yuuko Yahiro, and music by Asami Tachibana. Linked Horizon will be back to do the opening theme "Youth Like Fireworks ''. The ending theme, "Ground 's Counterattack '' ("Hangeki no Daichi ''), is performed by the voice actors for Eren, Mikasa, and Jean. A rebroadcast of the series was aired during January 2016.
The second season of the anime series debuted on April 1, 2017. The season premiere was simulcast on Funimation, Crunchyroll, and the former 's VRV channel at 10: 30 AM EST. That same day, it was also announced that the second season of Attack on Titan would premiere on Toonami on April 29. It was subsequently announced on April 3 that the second season would premiere one week earlier, on April 22 instead.
Following the broadcast of the second season 's last episode, a third season was announced. It is scheduled to premiere in April 2018.
A three part OVA of Attack on Titan: Lost Girls is set to be released in 2017 & 2018 with volumes 24, 25 and 26 limited editions of the original manga.
In the first season, for the first thirteen episodes, the opening theme is "Guren no Yumiya '' (紅蓮 の 弓矢, lit. "Crimson Bow and Arrow '', styled in German as "Feuerroter Pfeil und Bogen '') by Linked Horizon, and the ending theme is "Utsukushiki Zankoku na Sekai '' (美しき 残酷 な 世界, lit. "This Beautiful Cruel World '') by Yōko Hikasa. For episodes 14 -- 25, the opening theme is "Jiyū no Tsubasa '' (自由 の 翼, lit. "Wings of Freedom '', styled in German as "Die Flügel der Freiheit '') by Linked Horizon, and the ending theme is "great escape '' by Cinema Staff. Both "Guren no Yumiya '' and "Jiyū no Tsubasa '' were released as part of the single "Jiyū e no Shingeki '' on July 10, 2013.
The series ' soundtrack was composed by Hiroyuki Sawano, and the first CD was released on June 28, 2013 by Pony Canyon. The first CD contains 16 tracks, with 6 vocal tracks featuring performances by Mika Kobayashi, mpi, Cyua, Aimee Blackschleger and CASG. The second CD containing the other half of the soundtrack was released on October 16, 2013 as a bonus offered with the fourth Blu - ray and DVD limited edition volumes of the anime.
All music composed by Hiroyuki Sawano.
The opening theme is "Shinzou wo Sasageyo! '' (心臓 を 捧げ よう!, lit. "Dedicate your Heart! '', styled in German as "Opfert eure Herzen! '') by Linked Horizon, and the ending theme is "Yuugure no Tori '' (夕暮れ の 鳥, lit. "Bird at Dusk '') by Shinsei Kamattechan.
Sawano returned to compose the soundtrack for the second season, with the 2CD soundtrack scheduled for release on June 7, 2017 by Pony Canyon.
All music composed by Hiroyuki Sawano.
For the first compilation film, Attack on Titan -- Part 1: Crimson Bow and Arrow, the ending themes were "YAMANAIAME '' (lit. "Unstoppable Rain '') by Hiroyuki Sawano feat. Mika Kobayashi, Mica Caldito & mpi and "Guren no Zahyou '' (紅蓮 の 座標, lit. "Crimson Coordinate '') by Linked Horizon. For the second compilation film, Attack on Titan -- Part 2: Wings of Freedom, the ending themes was "theDOGS '' by Hiroyuki Sawano feat. mpi. The film 's theme song was "Jiyuu no Daishou '' (自由 の 代償) by Linked Horizon.
A live - action film was announced to be in production in October 2011. In December 2012, it was reported that Tetsuya Nakashima left his position as director. According to film distributor Toho, Nakashima had considerable creative differences on the scriptwriting and other matters. In December 2013, Shinji Higuchi was revealed to be directing, and would also be responsible with the special effects. Writer Yūsuke Watanabe and critic / subculture expert Tomohiro Machiyama was announced to be scripting the movie with series creator Isayama. In July 2014, it was revealed that two films will be released in the summer of 2015. A teaser trailer for the first live - action film was released in March 2015. The following month, Toho released the second trailer for the first film, and announced the second installment will be called Attack on Titan: End of the World. In June 2015, a third trailer for the first film was released, revealing the Three - Dimensional Maneuvering Gear, as well as confirming the film will be released in IMAX theaters in Japan.
A live - action miniseries, titled Shingeki no Kyojin: Hangeki no Noroshi (進撃 の 巨人 反撃 の 狼煙, "Attack on Titan: Beacon for Counterattack '') and utilizing the same actors as the films, started streaming on NTT DoCoMo 's online - video service dTV on August 15, 2015. The three episode series focuses on Zoë Hange and her research of the Titans, as well as how the Vertical Maneuvering Equipment was created.
Deadline.com reported that Warner Bros. is in negotiations to secure the film rights to the Attack on Titan franchise. Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them producer David Heyman would be on board to produce a proposed two - film project that would remake the 2015 Japanese live - action film adaptations. A day later, however, Kodansha representatives said there were no negotiations with Warner Bros.
A Stage Play titled LIVE IMPACT was announced on the wraparound jacket band on Volume 21. It was scheduled to run from July 28 to September 3, 2017. The Stage Play was cancelled after one of the staff members being involved in an accident.
Two guidebooks to the manga titled Inside and Outside were released on April 9 and September 9, 2013, featuring concept art, character profiles and interviews. They were combined into one and released in North America on September 16, 2014, by Kodansha USA.
A 16 - minute drama CD was created with the anime 's staff and included in the January 2014 issue of Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine.
On November 3, 2014, American writer C.B. Cebulski revealed that a crossover between Attack on Titan and Marvel Comics was in the works. Cebulski scripts the scenario written by the original author Hajime Isayama. The one - shot crossover featured Spider - Man, the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy facing off against several Titans, including the Colossal Titan, the Armored Titan, and the Female Titan on the streets of New York City. During Free Comic Book Day 2015, Marvel 's Secret Wars preview included an 8 - page presentation "Attack on Avengers '' by creator Hajime Isayama with art by Gerardo Sandoval. It was announced at the 2015 New York Comic - Con that an American comic book titled Attack on Titan Anthology will be published.
From January 23 to May 10, 2015, Universal Studios Japan hosted attractions based on Attack on Titan. "The Real '' Attack on Titan Experience features a life - size 15 meter tall Eren titan engaging a 14 meter tall female titan in combat. Other attractions include a ground level titan, which visitors can pose with.
Attack on Titan won the Kodansha Manga Award in the shōnen category in 2011, was nominated for the 4th Manga Taishō Award and both the 16th and 18th annual Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize. The 2012 edition of Kono Manga ga Sugoi!, which surveys people in the manga and publishing industry, named Attack on Titan the eighth best manga series for male readers, while the 2014 edition named it the sixth best. Attack on Titan was the top favorite manga for Yomiuri Shimbun 's Sugoi Japan Awards in 2015. Attack on Titan was the second highest selling manga series of 2013, with 15,933,801 copies sold in a single year. In April 2014, Oricon reported that 30 million volumes of the series have been sold. In the first half of 2014 it topped the chart, ending One Piece 's five - year reign as the highest selling series in that period, with Isayama surprised about it and thanking the readers. By the end of the year, it was the second best selling manga with 11,728,368 copies sold. In 2015, the series sold 8,778,048 copies ranking third for the year. In 2016, the series sold 6,544,081. The manga 's publisher, Kodansha, credits Attack on Titan for the company 's first revenue increase in eighteen years. The anime is noted to have helped in boosting the series ' sales while Mainichi Shimbun called it a "once - in - a-decade hit. ''
Six of the seven English volumes published in North America at the time charted on The New York Times Manga Best Seller list for the week of October 13, 2013, and volume one was on the list for 81 weeks straight. In June 2015, the first volume clocked in at its 100th week on the top 10 chart. It also currently holds the title of appearing on the list for a volume with 121 weeks. Volume one was also number one on Nielsen BookScan 's list of top 20 graphic novels in American bookstores for October 2013, and for the month of September, the series had more volumes on the list than any other series. The Young Adult Library Services Association in the United States named the series one of its "Great Graphic Novels for Teens '' in 2013. Kodansha USA 's English release won the 2014 Harvey Award for Best American Edition of Foreign Material. Attack on Titan was the only manga to be nominated for the 2015 Goodreads Choice Award for Best Graphic Novel / Comic.
Many have analyzed Attack on Titan as representing "the hopelessness felt by young people in today 's society. '' while writer Mao Yamawaki called it a "coming - of - age story of the boys and girls at its core, '' with a new mystery every episode. It is these mysteries that critic Tomofusa Kure says amplifies readers ' expectations. The artwork of the manga has been criticized as crude by some reviewers, with Isayama himself admitting his drawings are "amateurish. '' However, those same critics stated that after years of serialization, the art has been improving, and Kure believes that had the illustrations been "refined '', it would not have conveyed the "eeriness '' that is a key characteristic of the work. In a short review, Jason Thompson noted how the characters conveniently receive "power - ups '' to create plot twists, but concluded that these said plot twists and the manga 's post-apocalyptic world are "too good to miss. ''
The anime has been very successful in Japan, with average sales of 52,067 across 9 volumes, with a total of 468,603 as of August 2016. It was the number one selling TV anime of 2013 in Japan and is currently the eight best selling anime of 2010 's. It has also been very successful in the U.S. with sales of at least 200,000. It was also the number one streaming anime from Funimation in 2014 and the number one fan favorite Funimation home video released of 2014. The anime adaptation won multiple prizes during the 3rd Newtype Anime Awards, including Best Director, Best Script, Best Soundtrack, Best Theme Song, Top Female Character and Title of the Year. It received the award for Best TV Animation at the 2013 Animation Kobe Awards. It received the award for Animation of the Year at the 2014 Tokyo Anime Award, along with, Best Director, Best Screenplay and Best Music. It won the 2013 Digital Contents of the Year Award at Japan 's 19th annual Association of Media in Digital (AMD) Awards.
Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network was sharply critical of the first two episodes of the anime adaptation. He did praise the show for "(bringing) back the terror of the fee - fi - fo - fum set '', but then said that it "does not a good show make ''. Kimlinger criticized Araki 's direction, saying he "clearly intends it to be powerful and unsettling, but it 's just crude and unpleasant. '' On the other hand, other critics from Anime News Network praised much of the series. Rebecca Silverman said it "is both gorgeous and appalling in its visuals '', and "an excellent mix of what 18th century Gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe defined as horror versus terror: the one is physical, making you want to look away, and the other is intellectual, making you want to know what 's going to happen next. '' Though there are several apocalyptic action shows, Carlo Santos noted that "few get as close to perfection as Attack on Titan does ''. Santos described it as "a masterpiece of death and destruction '' even if he only watched the first episode. Theron Martin of Anime News Network praised the musical score and the "intense, impactful first episode '' despite his feeling that it has "limited animation ''. Martin also compared Attack on Titan 's vibe and visual aesthetic to Claymore. John Sinnott of DVD Talk called the series one of the best ones he has ever watched and one "that anime fans should not miss. ''
The series has gained a strong popularity in not only Japan but also throughout the world. For instance, coverage of the anime appeared on the front page of the Hong Kong free newspaper am730 on May 27, 2013, concerning its popularity within Hong Kong as well as in China and Taiwan. However, the series also attracted criticism: the South Korean Electronic Times magazine accused Attack on Titan of having a militaristic message that serves Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe 's political leanings; while the series also resonated with Hong Kong youths who saw the invading Titans as a metaphor for mainland China. Hong Kong media commentator Wong Yeung - tat praised Isayama 's style and the versatility of Attack on Titan 's setting, which opens itself to readers ' various interpretations. In 2013, after media linked to a 2010 blog post by Isayama indicating that the design of the character Dot Pixis was based on the Imperial Japanese General Akiyama Yoshifuru, an Internet flame war about the general 's war record (e.g. allowing the Port Arthur massacre to occur) ensued on his blog and included death threats to the author. Because many of the threats written in Japanese had grammatical errors, it is believed that they were written by people outside of Japan.
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st. peter’s basilica the head of the catholic religion is located in | St. Peter 's Basilica - wikipedia
The Papal Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican (Italian: Basilica Papale di San Pietro in Vaticano), or simply St. Peter 's Basilica (Latin: Basilica Sancti Petri), is an Italian Renaissance church in Vatican City, the papal enclave within the city of Rome.
Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, St. Peter 's is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and the largest church in the world. While it is neither the mother church of the Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome, St. Peter 's is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic shrines. It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world '' and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom ''.
Catholic tradition holds that the Basilica is the burial site of Saint Peter, one of Jesus 's Apostles and also the first Pope. Saint Peter 's tomb is supposedly directly below the high altar of the Basilica. For this reason, many Popes have been interred at St. Peter 's since the Early Christian period, and there has been a church on this site since the time of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Construction of the present basilica, which would replace Old St. Peter 's Basilica from the 4th century CE, began on 18 April 1506 and was completed on 18 November 1626.
St. Peter 's is famous as a place of pilgrimage and for its liturgical functions. The Pope presides at a number of liturgies throughout the year, drawing audiences of 15,000 to over 80,000 people, either within the Basilica or the adjoining St. Peter 's Square. St. Peter 's has many historical associations, with the Early Christian Church, the Papacy, the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-reformation and numerous artists, especially Michelangelo. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age. St. Peter 's is one of the four churches in the world that hold the rank of Major Basilica, all four of which are in Rome. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a cathedral because it is not the seat of a bishop; the Cathedra of the Pope as Bishop of Rome is in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.
St. Peter 's is a church built in the Renaissance style located in the Vatican City west of the River Tiber and near the Janiculum Hill and Hadrian 's Mausoleum. Its central dome dominates the skyline of Rome. The basilica is approached via St. Peter 's Square, a forecourt in two sections, both surrounded by tall colonnades. The first space is oval and the second trapezoid. The façade of the basilica, with a giant order of columns, stretches across the end of the square and is approached by steps on which stand two 5.55 metres (18.2 ft) statues of the 1st - century apostles to Rome, Saints Peter and Paul.
The basilica is cruciform in shape, with an elongated nave in the Latin cross form but the early designs were for a centrally planned structure and this is still in evidence in the architecture. The central space is dominated both externally and internally by one of the largest domes in the world. The entrance is through a narthex, or entrance hall, which stretches across the building. One of the decorated bronze doors leading from the narthex is the Holy Door, only opened during jubilees.
The interior is of vast dimensions when compared with other churches. One author wrote: "Only gradually does it dawn upon us -- as we watch people draw near to this or that monument, strangely they appear to shrink; they are, of course, dwarfed by the scale of everything in the building. This in its turn overwhelms us. ''
The nave which leads to the central dome is in three bays, with piers supporting a barrel - vault, the highest of any church. The nave is framed by wide aisles which have a number of chapels off them. There are also chapels surrounding the dome. Moving around the basilica in a clockwise direction they are: The Baptistery, the Chapel of the Presentation of the Virgin, the larger Choir Chapel, the Clementine Chapel with the altar of Saint Gregory, the Sacristy Entrance, the left transept with altars to the Crucifixion of Saint Peter, Saint Joseph and Saint Thomas, the altar of the Sacred Heart, the Chapel of the Madonna of Colonna, the altar of Saint Peter and the Paralytic, the apse with the Chair of Saint Peter, the altar of Saint Peter raising Tabitha, the altar of the Archangel Michael, the altar of the Navicella, the right transept with altars of Saint Erasmus, Saints Processo and Martiniano, and Saint Wenceslas, the altar of Saint Basil, the Gregorian Chapel with the altar of the Madonna of Succour, the larger Chapel of the Holy Sacrament, the Chapel of Saint Sebastian and the Chapel of the Pietà. At the heart of the basilica, beneath the high altar, is the Confessio or Chapel of the Confession, in reference to the confession of faith by St. Peter, which led to his martyrdom. Two curving marble staircases lead to this underground chapel at the level of the Constantinian church and immediately above the purported burial place of Saint Peter.
The entire interior of St. Peter 's is lavishly decorated with marble, reliefs, architectural sculpture and gilding. The basilica contains a large number of tombs of popes and other notable people, many of which are considered outstanding artworks. There are also a number of sculptures in niches and chapels, including Michelangelo 's Pietà. The central feature is a baldachin, or canopy over the Papal Altar, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The sanctuary culminates in a sculptural ensemble, also by Bernini, and containing the symbolic Chair of Saint Peter.
One observer wrote: "St Peter 's Basilica is the reason why Rome is still the center of the civilized world. For religious, historical, and architectural reasons it by itself justifies a journey to Rome, and its interior offers a palimpsest of artistic styles at their best... ''
The American philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson described St. Peter 's as "an ornament of the earth... the sublime of the beautiful. ''
St. Peter 's Basilica is one of the Papal Basilicas (previously styled "patriarchal basilicas '') and one of the four Major Basilicas of Rome, the other Major Basilicas (all of which are also Papal Basilicas) being the Basilicas of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul outside the Walls. The rank of major basilica confers on St. Peter 's Basilica precedence before all minor basilicas worldwide. However, unlike all the other Papal Major Basilicas, it is wholly within the territory, and thus the sovereign jurisdiction, of the Vatican City State, and not that of Italy.
It is the most prominent building in the Vatican City. Its dome is a dominant feature of the skyline of Rome. Probably the largest church in Christendom, it covers an area of 2.3 hectares (5.7 acres). One of the holiest sites of Christianity and Catholic Tradition, it is traditionally the burial site of its titular, St. Peter, who was the head of the twelve Apostles of Jesus and, according to tradition, the first Bishop of Antioch and later the first Bishop of Rome, rendering him the first Pope. Although the New Testament does not mention St. Peter 's martyrdom in Rome, tradition, based on the writings of the Fathers of the Church, holds that his tomb is below the baldachin and altar of the Basilica in the "Confession ''. For this reason, many Popes have, from the early years of the Church, been buried near Pope St. Peter in the necropolis beneath the Basilica. Construction of the current basilica, over the old Constantinian basilica, began on 18 April 1506 and finished in 1615. At length, on 18 November 1626 Pope Urban VIII solemnly dedicated the Basilica.
St. Peter 's Basilica is neither the Pope 's official seat nor first in rank among the Major Basilicas of Rome. This honour is held by the Pope 's cathedral, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran which is the mother church of all churches in communion with the Catholic Church. However, St. Peter 's is certainly the Pope 's principal church in terms of use because most Papal liturgies and ceremonies take place there due to its size, proximity to the Papal residence, and location within the Vatican City proper. The "Chair of Saint Peter '', or cathedra, an ancient chair sometimes presumed to have been used by St. Peter himself, but which was a gift from Charles the Bald and used by many popes, symbolises the continuing line of apostolic succession from St. Peter to the reigning Pope. It occupies an elevated position in the apse of the Basilica, supported symbolically by the Doctors of the Church and enlightened symbolically by the Holy Spirit.
As one of the constituent structures of the historically and architecturally significant Vatican City, St. Peter 's Basilica was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 under criteria (i), (ii), (iv), and (vi). With an exterior area of 21,095 square metres (227,060 sq ft), an interior area of 15,160 square metres (163,200 sq ft), and a volume of 5,000,000 cubic metres (180,000,000 cu ft), St. Peter 's Basilica is the largest Christian church building in the world by the two latter metrics and the second largest by the first as of 2016. The top of its dome, at 448.1 feet (136.6 m), also places it as the second tallest building in Rome as of 2016. The dome 's soaring height placed it among the tallest buildings of the Old World, and it continues to hold the title of tallest dome in the world. Though the largest dome in the world by diameter at the time of its completion, it no longer holds this distinction.
After the crucifixion of Jesus, it is recorded in the Biblical book of the Acts of the Apostles that one of his twelve disciples, Simon known as Saint Peter, a fisherman from Galilee, took a leadership position among Jesus ' followers and was of great importance in the founding of the Christian Church. The name Peter is "Petrus '' in Latin and "Petros '' in Greek, deriving from "petra '' which means "stone '' or "rock '' in Greek, and is the literal translation of the Aramaic "Kepa '', the name given to Simon by Jesus. (John 1: 42, and see Matthew 16: 18)
Catholic tradition holds that Peter, after a ministry of thirty - four years, traveled to Rome and met his martyrdom there along with Paul on 13 October, 64 CE during the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. His execution was one of the many martyrdoms of Christians following the Great Fire of Rome. According to Origen, Peter was crucified head downwards, by his own request because he considered himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus. The crucifixion took place near an ancient Egyptian obelisk in the Circus of Nero. The obelisk now stands in St. Peter 's Square and is revered as a "witness '' to Peter 's death. It is one of several ancient Obelisks of Rome.
According to tradition, Peter 's remains were buried just outside the Circus, on the Mons Vaticanus across the Via Cornelia from the Circus, less than 150 metres (490 ft) from his place of death. The Via Cornelia was a road which ran east - to - west along the north wall of the Circus on land now covered by the southern portions of the Basilica and St. Peter 's Square. A shrine was built on this site some years later. Almost three hundred years later, Old St. Peter 's Basilica was constructed over this site.
The area now covered by the Vatican City had been a cemetery for some years before the Circus of Nero was built. It was a burial ground for the numerous executions in the Circus and contained many Christian burials, because for many years after the burial of Saint Peter many Christians chose to be buried near Peter.
In 1939, in the reign of Pope Pius XII, 10 years of archaeological research began, under the crypt of the basilica, an area inaccessible since the 9th century. The excavations revealed the remains of shrines of different periods at different levels, from Clement VIII (1594) to Callixtus II (1123) and Gregory I (590 -- 604), built over an aedicula containing fragments of bones that were folded in a tissue with gold decorations, tinted with the precious murex purple. Although it could not be determined with certainty that the bones were those of Peter, the rare vestments suggested a burial of great importance. On 23 December 1950, in his pre-Christmas radio broadcast to the world, Pope Pius XII announced the discovery of Saint Peter 's tomb.
Old St. Peter 's Basilica was the 4th - century church begun by the Emperor Constantine the Great between 319 and 333 CE. It was of typical basilical form, a wide nave and two aisles on each side and an apsidal end, with the addition of a transept or bema, giving the building the shape of a tau cross. It was over 103.6 metres (340 ft) long, and the entrance was preceded by a large colonnaded atrium. This church had been built over the small shrine believed to mark the burial place of St. Peter. It contained a very large number of burials and memorials, including those of most of the popes from St. Peter to the 15th century. Like all of the earliest churches in Rome, both this church and its successor had the entrance to the east and the apse at the west end of the building. Since the construction of the current basilica, the name Old St. Peter 's Basilica has been used for its predecessor to distinguish the two buildings.
By the end of the 15th century, having been neglected during the period of the Avignon Papacy, the old basilica had fallen into disrepair. It appears that the first pope to consider rebuilding, or at least making radical changes was Pope Nicholas V (1447 -- 55). He commissioned work on the old building from Leone Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino and also had Rossellino design a plan for an entirely new basilica, or an extreme modification of the old. His reign was frustrated by political problems and when he died, little had been achieved. He had, however, ordered the demolition of the Colosseum and by the time of his death, 2,522 cartloads of stone had been transported for use in the new building. The foundations were completed for a new transept and choir to form a domed Latin cross with the preserved nave and side aisles of the old basilica. Some walls for the choir had also been built.
Pope Julius II planned far more for St Peter 's than Nicholas V 's program of repair or modification. Julius was at that time planning his own tomb, which was to be designed and adorned with sculpture by Michelangelo and placed within St Peter 's. In 1505 Julius made a decision to demolish the ancient basilica and replace it with a monumental structure to house his enormous tomb and "aggrandize himself in the popular imagination ''. A competition was held, and a number of the designs have survived at the Uffizi Gallery. A succession of popes and architects followed in the next 120 years, their combined efforts resulting in the present building. The scheme begun by Julius II continued through the reigns of Leo X (1513 -- 1521), Hadrian VI (1522 -- 1523). Clement VII (1523 -- 1534), Paul III (1534 -- 1549), Julius III (1550 -- 1555), Marcellus II (1555), Paul IV (1555 -- 1559), Pius IV (1559 -- 1565), Pius V (saint) (1565 -- 1572), Gregory XIII (1572 -- 1585), Sixtus V (1585 -- 1590), Urban VII (1590), Gregory XIV (1590 -- 1591), Innocent IX (1591), Clement VIII (1592 -- 1605), Leo XI (1605), Paul V (1605 -- 1621), Gregory XV (1621 -- 1623), Urban VIII (1623 -- 1644) and Innocent X (1644 -- 1655).
One method employed to finance the building of St. Peter 's Basilica was the granting of indulgences in return for contributions. A major promoter of this method of fund - raising was Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, who had to clear debts owed to the Roman Curia by contributing to the rebuilding program. To facilitate this, he appointed the German Dominican preacher Johann Tetzel, whose salesmanship provoked a scandal.
A German Augustinian priest, Martin Luther, wrote to Archbishop Albrecht arguing against this "selling of indulgences ''. He also included his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences '', which came to be known as The 95 Theses. This became a factor in starting the Reformation, the birth of Protestantism.
Pope Julius ' scheme for the grandest building in Christendom was the subject of a competition for which a number of entries remain intact in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. It was the design of Donato Bramante that was selected, and for which the foundation stone was laid in 1506. This plan was in the form of an enormous Greek Cross with a dome inspired by that of the huge circular Roman temple, the Pantheon. The main difference between Bramante 's design and that of the Pantheon is that where the dome of the Pantheon is supported by a continuous wall, that of the new basilica was to be supported only on four large piers. This feature was maintained in the ultimate design. Bramante 's dome was to be surmounted by a lantern with its own small dome but otherwise very similar in form to the Early Renaissance lantern of Florence Cathedral designed for Brunelleschi 's dome by Michelozzo.
Bramante had envisioned that the central dome would be surrounded by four lower domes at the diagonal axes. The equal chancel, nave and transept arms were each to be of two bays ending in an apse. At each corner of the building was to stand a tower, so that the overall plan was square, with the apses projecting at the cardinal points. Each apse had two large radial buttresses, which squared off its semi-circular shape.
When Pope Julius died in 1513, Bramante was replaced with Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and Raphael. Sangallo and Fra Giocondo both died in 1515, Bramante himself having died the previous year. The main change in Raphael 's plan is the nave of five bays, with a row of complex apsidal chapels off the aisles on either side. Raphael 's plan for the chancel and transepts made the squareness of the exterior walls more definite by reducing the size of the towers, and the semi-circular apses more clearly defined by encircling each with an ambulatory.
In 1520 Raphael also died, aged 37, and his successor Baldassare Peruzzi maintained changes that Raphael had proposed to the internal arrangement of the three main apses, but otherwise reverted to the Greek Cross plan and other features of Bramante. This plan did not go ahead because of various difficulties of both Church and state. In 1527 Rome was sacked and plundered by Emperor Charles V. Peruzzi died in 1536 without his plan being realized.
At this point Antonio da Sangallo the Younger submitted a plan which combines features of Peruzzi, Raphael and Bramante in its design and extends the building into a short nave with a wide façade and portico of dynamic projection. His proposal for the dome was much more elaborate of both structure and decoration than that of Bramante and included ribs on the exterior. Like Bramante, Sangallo proposed that the dome be surmounted by a lantern which he redesigned to a larger and much more elaborate form. Sangallo 's main practical contribution was to strengthen Bramante 's piers which had begun to crack.
On 1 January 1547 in the reign of Pope Paul III, Michelangelo, then in his seventies, succeeded Sangallo the Younger as "Capomaestro '', the superintendent of the building program at St Peter 's. He is to be regarded as the principal designer of a large part of the building as it stands today, and as bringing the construction to a point where it could be carried through. He did not take on the job with pleasure; it was forced upon him by Pope Paul, frustrated at the death of his chosen candidate, Giulio Romano and the refusal of Jacopo Sansovino to leave Venice. Michelangelo wrote "I undertake this only for the love of God and in honour of the Apostle. '' He insisted that he should be given a free hand to achieve the ultimate aim by whatever means he saw fit.
Michelangelo took over a building site at which four piers, enormous beyond any constructed since ancient Roman times, were rising behind the remaining nave of the old basilica. He also inherited the numerous schemes designed and redesigned by some of the greatest architectural and engineering minds of the 16th century. There were certain common elements in these schemes. They all called for a dome to equal that engineered by Brunelleschi a century earlier and which has since dominated the skyline of Renaissance Florence, and they all called for a strongly symmetrical plan of either Greek Cross form, like the iconic St. Mark 's Basilica in Venice, or of a Latin Cross with the transepts of identical form to the chancel, as at Florence Cathedral.
Even though the work had progressed only a little in 40 years, Michelangelo did not simply dismiss the ideas of the previous architects. He drew on them in developing a grand vision. Above all, Michelangelo recognized the essential quality of Bramante 's original design. He reverted to the Greek Cross and, as Helen Gardner expresses it: "Without destroying the centralising features of Bramante 's plan, Michelangelo, with a few strokes of the pen converted its snowflake complexity into massive, cohesive unity. ''
As it stands today, St. Peter 's has been extended with a nave by Carlo Maderno. It is the chancel end (the ecclesiastical "Eastern end '') with its huge centrally placed dome that is the work of Michelangelo. Because of its location within the Vatican State and because the projection of the nave screens the dome from sight when the building is approached from the square in front of it, the work of Michelangelo is best appreciated from a distance. What becomes apparent is that the architect has greatly reduced the clearly defined geometric forms of Bramante 's plan of a square with square projections, and also of Raphael 's plan of a square with semi-circular projections. Michelangelo has blurred the definition of the geometry by making the external masonry of massive proportions and filling in every corner with a small vestry or stairwell. The effect created is of a continuous wall - surface that is folded or fractured at different angles, but lacks the right - angles which usually define change of direction at the corners of a building. This exterior is surrounded by a giant order of Corinthian pilasters all set at slightly different angles to each other, in keeping with the ever - changing angles of the wall 's surface. Above them the huge cornice ripples in a continuous band, giving the appearance of keeping the whole building in a state of compression.
The dome of St. Peter 's rises to a total height of 136.57 metres (448.1 ft) from the floor of the basilica to the top of the external cross. It is the tallest dome in the world. Its internal diameter is 41.47 metres (136.1 ft), slightly smaller than two of the three other huge domes that preceded it, those of the Pantheon of Ancient Rome, 43.3 metres (142 ft), and Florence Cathedral of the Early Renaissance, 44 metres (144 ft). It has a greater diameter by approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) than Constantinople 's Hagia Sophia church, completed in 537. It was to the domes of the Pantheon and Florence duomo that the architects of St. Peter 's looked for solutions as to how to go about building what was conceived, from the outset, as the greatest dome of Christendom.
The dome of the Pantheon stands on a circular wall with no entrances or windows except a single door. The whole building is as high as it is wide. Its dome is constructed in a single shell of concrete, made light by the inclusion of a large amount of the volcanic stones tuff and pumice. The inner surface of the dome is deeply coffered which has the effect of creating both vertical and horizontal ribs, while lightening the overall load. At the summit is an ocular opening 8 metres (26 ft) across which provides light to the interior.
Bramante 's plan for the dome of St. Peter 's (1506) follows that of the Pantheon very closely, and like that of the Pantheon, was designed to be constructed in Tufa Concrete for which he had rediscovered a formula. With the exception of the lantern that surmounts it, the profile is very similar, except that in this case the supporting wall becomes a drum raised high above ground level on four massive piers. The solid wall, as used at the Pantheon, is lightened at St. Peter 's by Bramante piercing it with windows and encircling it with a peristyle.
In the case of Florence Cathedral, the desired visual appearance of the pointed dome existed for many years before Brunelleschi made its construction feasible. Its double - shell construction of bricks locked together in herringbone pattern (re-introduced from Byzantine architecture), and the gentle upward slope of its eight stone ribs made it possible for the construction to take place without the massive wooden formwork necessary to construct hemispherical arches. While its appearance, with the exception of the details of the lantern, is entirely Gothic, its engineering was highly innovative, and the product of a mind that had studied the huge vaults and remaining dome of Ancient Rome.
Sangallo 's plan (1513), of which a large wooden model still exists, looks to both these predecessors. He realised the value of both the coffering at the Pantheon and the outer stone ribs at Florence Cathedral. He strengthened and extended the peristyle of Bramante into a series of arched and ordered openings around the base, with a second such arcade set back in a tier above the first. In his hands, the rather delicate form of the lantern, based closely on that in Florence, became a massive structure, surrounded by a projecting base, a peristyle and surmounted by a spire of conic form. According to James Lees - Milne the design was "too eclectic, too pernickety and too tasteless to have been a success ''.
Michelangelo redesigned the dome in 1547, taking into account all that had gone before. His dome, like that of Florence, is constructed of two shells of brick, the outer one having 16 stone ribs, twice the number at Florence but far fewer than in Sangallo 's design. As with the designs of Bramante and Sangallo, the dome is raised from the piers on a drum. The encircling peristyle of Bramante and the arcade of Sangallo are reduced to 16 pairs of Corinthian columns, each of 15 metres (49 ft) high which stand proud of the building, connected by an arch. Visually they appear to buttress each of the ribs, but structurally they are probably quite redundant. The reason for this is that the dome is ovoid in shape, rising steeply as does the dome of Florence Cathedral, and therefore exerting less outward thrust than does a hemispherical dome, such as that of the Pantheon, which, although it is not buttressed, is countered by the downward thrust of heavy masonry which extends above the circling wall.
The ovoid profile of the dome has been the subject of much speculation and scholarship over the past century. Michelangelo died in 1564, leaving the drum of the dome complete, and Bramante 's piers much bulkier than originally designed, each 18 metres (59 ft) across. Following his death, the work continued under his assistant Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola with Giorgio Vasari appointed by Pope Pius V as a watchdog to make sure that Michelangelo 's plans were carried out exactly. Despite Vignola 's knowledge of Michelangelo 's intentions, little happened in this period. In 1585 the energetic Pope Sixtus appointed Giacomo della Porta who was to be assisted by Domenico Fontana. The five - year reign of Sixtus was to see the building advance at a great rate.
Michelangelo left a few drawings, including an early drawing of the dome, and some drawings of details. There were also detailed engravings published in 1569 by Stefan du Pérac who claimed that they were the master 's final solution. Michelangelo, like Sangallo before him, also left a large wooden model. Giacomo della Porta subsequently altered this model in several ways, in keeping with changes that he made to the design. Most of these changes were of a cosmetic nature, such as the adding of lion 's masks over the swags on the drum in honour of Pope Sixtus and adding a circlet of finials around the spire at the top of the lantern, as proposed by Sangallo. The major change that was made to the model, either by della Porta, or Michelangelo himself before his death, was to raise the outer dome higher above the inner one.
A drawing by Michelangelo indicates that his early intentions were towards an ovoid dome, rather than a hemispherical one. In an engraving in Galasso Alghisi ' treatise (1563), the dome may be represented as ovoid, but the perspective is ambiguous. Stefan du Pérac 's engraving (1569) shows a hemispherical dome, but this was perhaps an inaccuracy of the engraver. The profile of the wooden model is more ovoid than that of the engravings, but less so than the finished product. It has been suggested that Michelangelo on his death bed reverted to the more pointed shape. However Lees - Milne cites Giacomo della Porta as taking full responsibility for the change and as indicating to Pope Sixtus that Michelangelo was lacking in the scientific understanding of which he himself was capable.
Helen Gardner suggests that Michelangelo made the change to the hemispherical dome of lower profile in order to establish a balance between the dynamic vertical elements of the encircling giant order of pilasters and a more static and reposeful dome. Gardner also comments "The sculpturing of architecture (by Michelangelo)... here extends itself up from the ground through the attic stories and moves on into the drum and dome, the whole building being pulled together into a unity from base to summit. ''
It is this sense of the building being sculptured, unified and "pulled together '' by the encircling band of the deep cornice that led Eneide Mignacca to conclude that the ovoid profile, seen now in the end product, was an essential part of Michelangelo 's first (and last) concept. The sculptor / architect has, figuratively speaking, taken all the previous designs in hand and compressed their contours as if the building were a lump of clay. The dome must appear to thrust upwards because of the apparent pressure created by flattening the building 's angles and restraining its projections. If this explanation is the correct one, then the profile of the dome is not merely a structural solution, as perceived by Giacomo della Porta; it is part of the integrated design solution that is about visual tension and compression. In one sense, Michelangelo 's dome may appear to look backward to the Gothic profile of Florence Cathedral and ignore the Classicism of the Renaissance, but on the other hand, perhaps more than any other building of the 16th century, it prefigures the architecture of the Baroque.
Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana brought the dome to completion in 1590, the last year of the reign of Sixtus V. His successor, Gregory XIV, saw Fontana complete the lantern and had an inscription to the honour of Sixtus V placed around its inner opening. The next pope, Clement VIII, had the cross raised into place, an event which took all day, and was accompanied by the ringing of the bells of all the city 's churches. In the arms of the cross are set two lead caskets, one containing a fragment of the True Cross and a relic of St. Andrew and the other containing medallions of the Holy Lamb.
In the mid 18th century, cracks appeared in the dome, so four iron chains were installed between the two shells to bind it, like the rings that keep a barrel from bursting. As many as ten chains have been installed at various times, the earliest possibly planned by Michelangelo himself as a precaution, as Brunelleschi did at Florence Cathedral.
Around the inside of the dome is written, in letters 1.4 metres (4.6 ft) high:
TV ES PETRVS ET SVPER HANC PETRAM AEDIFICABO ECCLESIAM MEAM. TIBI DABO CLAVES REGNI CAELORVM (... you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church... I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven... Vulgate, Matthew 16: 18 -- 19.)
Beneath the lantern is the inscription:
S. PETRI GLORIAE SIXTVS PP. V.A.M.D. XC. PONTIF. V. (To the glory of St Peter; Sixtus V, pope, in the year 1590, the fifth of his pontificate.)
On 7 December 2007, a fragment of a red chalk drawing of a section of the dome of the basilica, almost certainly by the hand of Michelangelo, was discovered in the Vatican archives. The drawing shows a small precisely drafted section of the plan of the entabulature above two of the radial columns of the cupola drum. Michelangelo is known to have destroyed thousands of his drawings before his death. The rare survival of this example is probably due to its fragmentary state and the fact that detailed mathematical calculations had been made over the top of the drawing.
On 18 February 1606, under Pope Paul V, the dismantling of the remaining parts of the Constantinian basilica began. The marble cross that had been set at the top of the pediment by Pope Sylvester and Constantine the Great was lowered to the ground. The timbers were salvaged for the roof of the Borghese Palace and two rare black marble columns, the largest of their kind, were carefully stored and later used in the narthex. The tombs of various popes were opened, treasures removed and plans made for re-interment in the new basilica.
The Pope had appointed Carlo Maderno in 1602. He was a nephew of Domenico Fontana and had demonstrated himself as a dynamic architect. Maderno 's idea was to ring Michelangelo 's building with chapels, but the Pope was hesitant about deviating from the master 's plan, even though he had been dead for forty years. The Fabbrica or building committee, a group drawn from various nationalities and generally despised by the Curia who viewed the basilica as belonging to Rome rather than Christendom, were in a quandary as to how the building should proceed. One of the matters that influenced their thinking was the Counter-Reformation which increasingly associated a Greek Cross plan with paganism and saw the Latin Cross as truly symbolic of Christianity.
Another influence on the thinking of both the Fabbrica and the Curia was a certain guilt at the demolition of the ancient building. The ground on which it and its various associated chapels, vestries and sacristies had stood for so long was hallowed. The only solution was to build a nave that encompassed the whole space. In 1607 a committee of ten architects was called together, and a decision was made to extend Michelangelo 's building into a nave. Maderno 's plans for both the nave and the facade were accepted. The building began on 7 May 1607, and proceeded at a great rate, with an army of 700 labourers being employed. The following year, the façade was begun, in December 1614 the final touches were added to the stucco decoration of the vault and early in 1615 the partition wall between the two sections was pulled down. All the rubble was carted away, and the nave was ready for use by Palm Sunday.
The facade designed by Maderno, is 114.69 metres (376.3 ft) wide and 45.55 metres (149.4 ft) high and is built of travertine stone, with a giant order of Corinthian columns and a central pediment rising in front of a tall attic surmounted by thirteen statues: Christ flanked by eleven of the Apostles (except Saint Peter, whose statue is left of the stairs) and John the Baptist. The inscription below the cornice on the 1 metre (3.3 ft) tall frieze reads:
IN HONOREM PRINCIPIS APOST PAVLVS V BVRGHESIVS ROMANVS PONT MAX AN MDCXII PONT VII (In honour of the Prince of Apostles, Paul V Borghese, a Roman, Supreme Pontiff, in the year 1612, the seventh of his pontificate)
(Paul V (Camillo Borghese), born in Rome but of a Sienese family, liked to emphasize his "Romanness. '')
The facade is often cited as the least satisfactory part of the design of St. Peter 's. The reasons for this, according to James Lees - Milne, are that it was not given enough consideration by the Pope and committee because of the desire to get the building completed quickly, coupled with the fact that Maderno was hesitant to deviate from the pattern set by Michelangelo at the other end of the building. Lees - Milne describes the problems of the façade as being too broad for its height, too cramped in its details and too heavy in the attic story. The breadth is caused by modifying the plan to have towers on either side. These towers were never executed above the line of the facade because it was discovered that the ground was not sufficiently stable to bear the weight. One effect of the facade and lengthened nave is to screen the view of the dome, so that the building, from the front, has no vertical feature, except from a distance.
Behind the façade of St. Peter 's stretches a long portico or "narthex '' such as was occasionally found in Italian Romanesque churches. This is the part of Maderno 's design with which he was most satisfied. Its long barrel vault is decorated with ornate stucco and gilt, and successfully illuminated by small windows between pendentives, while the ornate marble floor is beamed with light reflected in from the piazza. At each end of the narthex is a theatrical space framed by ionic columns and within each is set a statue, an equestrian figure of Charlemagne by Cornacchini (18th century) in the south end and Constantine the Great by Bernini (1670) in the north end.
Five portals, of which three are framed by huge salvaged antique columns, lead into the basilica. The central portal has a bronze door created by Antonio Averulino in 1455 for the old basilica and somewhat enlarged to fit the new space.
To the single bay of Michelangelo 's Greek Cross, Maderno added a further three bays. He made the dimensions slightly different from Michelangelo 's bay, thus defining where the two architectural works meet. Maderno also tilted the axis of the nave slightly. This was not by accident, as suggested by his critics. An ancient Egyptian obelisk had been erected in the square outside, but had not been quite aligned with Michelangelo 's building, so Maderno compensated, in order that it should, at least, align with the Basilica 's façade.
The nave has huge paired pilasters, in keeping with Michelangelo 's work. The size of the interior is so "stupendously large '' that it is hard to get a sense of scale within the building. The four cherubs who flutter against the first piers of the nave, carrying between them two holy water basins, appear of quite normal cherubic size, until approached. Then it becomes apparent that each one is over 2 metres high and that real children can not reach the basins unless they scramble up the marble draperies. The aisles each have two smaller chapels and a larger rectangular chapel, the Chapel of the Sacrament and the Choir Chapel. These are lavishly decorated with marble, stucco, gilt, sculpture and mosaic. Remarkably, there are very few paintings, although some, such as Raphael 's Sistine Madonna have been reproduced in mosaic. The most precious painting is a small icon of the Madonna, removed from the old basilica.
Maderno 's last work at St. Peter 's was to design a crypt - like space or "Confessio '' under the dome, where the cardinals and other privileged persons could descend in order to be nearer to the burial place of the apostle. Its marble steps are remnants of the old basilica and around its balustrade are 95 bronze lamps.
The design of St. Peter 's Basilica, and in particular its dome, has greatly influenced church architecture in Western Christendom. Within Rome, the huge domed church of Sant'Andrea della Valle was designed by Giacomo della Porta before the completion of St Peter 's Basilica, and subsequently worked on by Carlo Maderno. This was followed by the domes of San Carlo ai Catinari, Sant'Agnese in Agone, and many others. Christopher Wren 's dome at St Paul 's Cathedral (London, England), the domes of Karlskirche (Vienna, Austria), St. Nicholas Church (Prague, Czech Republic), and the Pantheon (Paris, France) all pay homage to St Peter 's Basilica.
The 19th and early - 20th - century architectural revivals brought about the building of a great number of churches that imitate elements of St Peter 's to a greater or lesser degree, including St. Mary of the Angels in Chicago, St. Josaphat 's Basilica in Milwaukee, Immaculate Heart of Mary in Pittsburgh and Mary, Queen of the World Cathedral in Montreal, which replicates many aspects of St Peter 's on a smaller scale. Post-Modernism has seen free adaptations of St Peter 's in the Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń, and the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro.
As a young boy Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 -- 1680) visited St. Peter 's with the painter Annibale Carracci and stated his wish to build "a mighty throne for the apostle ''. His wish came true. As a young man, in 1626, he received the patronage of Pope Urban VIII and worked on the embellishment of the Basilica for 50 years. Appointed as Maderno 's successor in 1629, he was to become regarded as the greatest architect and sculptor of the Baroque period. Bernini 's works at St. Peter 's include the baldachin (baldaquin, from Italian: baldacchino), the Chapel of the Sacrament, the plan for the niches and loggias in the piers of the dome and the chair of St. Peter.
Bernini 's first work at St. Peter 's was to design the baldacchino, a pavilion - like structure 28.74 metres (94.3 ft) tall and claimed to be the largest piece of bronze in the world, which stands beneath the dome and above the altar. Its design is based on the ciborium, of which there are many in the churches of Rome, serving to create a sort of holy space above and around the table on which the Sacrament is laid for the Eucharist and emphasizing the significance of this ritual. These ciboria are generally of white marble, with inlaid coloured stone. Bernini 's concept was for something very different. He took his inspiration in part from the baldachin or canopy carried above the head of the pope in processions, and in part from eight ancient columns that had formed part of a screen in the old basilica. Their twisted barley - sugar shape had a special significance as they were modeled on those of the Temple of Jerusalem and donated by the Emperor Constantine. Based on these columns, Bernini created four huge columns of bronze, twisted and decorated with laurel leaves and bees, which were the emblem of Pope Urban.
The baldacchino is surmounted not with an architectural pediment, like most baldacchini, but with curved Baroque brackets supporting a draped canopy, like the brocade canopies carried in processions above precious iconic images. In this case, the draped canopy is of bronze, and all the details, including the olive leaves, bees, and the portrait heads of Urban 's niece in childbirth and her newborn son, are picked out in gold leaf. The baldacchino stands as a vast free - standing sculptural object, central to and framed by the largest space within the building. It is so large that the visual effect is to create a link between the enormous dome which appears to float above it, and the congregation at floor level of the basilica. It is penetrated visually from every direction, and is visually linked to the Cathedra Petri in the apse behind it and to the four piers containing large statues that are at each diagonal.
As part of the scheme for the central space of the church, Bernini had the huge piers, begun by Bramante and completed by Michelangelo, hollowed out into niches, and had staircases made inside them, leading to four balconies. There was much dismay from those who thought that the dome might fall, but it did not. On the balconies Bernini created showcases, framed by the eight ancient twisted columns, to display the four most precious relics of the basilica: the spear of Longinus, said to have pierced the side of Christ, the veil of Veronica, with the miraculous image of the face of Christ, a fragment of the True Cross discovered in Jerusalem by Constantine 's mother, Helena, and a relic of Saint Andrew, the brother of Saint Peter. In each of the niches that surround the central space of the basilica was placed a huge statue of the saint associated with the relic above. Only Saint Longinus is the work of Bernini. (See below)
Urban had long been a critic of Bernini 's predecessor, Carlo Maderno. His disapproval of the architect 's work stemmed largely from the Maderno 's design for the longitudinal nave of St. Peters, which was widely condemned for obscuring Michelangelo 's dome. When the Pope gave the commission to Bernini he therefore requested that a new design for the facade 's bell towers to be submitted for consideration. Baldinucci describes Bernini 's tower as consisting of "two orders of columns and pilasters, the first order being Corinthian '' and "a third or attic story formed of pilasters and two columns on either side of the open archway in the center ''.
Urban desired the towers to be completed by a very specific date: 29 June 1641, the feast day dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul. To this end an order was issued which stated that "all work should take a second seat to that of the campanile. '' The south tower was completed on time even in spite of these issues, but records show that in the wake of the unveiling the Pope was not content with what he saw and he ordered the top level of Bernini 's tower removed so that the structure could be made even grander. The tower continued to grow, and as the construction began to settle the first cracks started to appear followed by Urban 's infamous public admonishment of his architect.
In 1642 all work on both towers came to a halt. Bernini had to pay the cost for the demolition; eventually the idea of completing the bell towers was abandoned.
Bernini then turned his attention to another precious relic, the so - called Cathedra Petri or "throne of St. Peter '' a chair which was often claimed to have been used by the apostle, but appears to date from the 12th century. As the chair itself was fast deteriorating and was no longer serviceable, Pope Alexander VII determined to enshrine it in suitable splendor as the object upon which the line of successors to Peter was based. Bernini created a large bronze throne in which it was housed, raised high on four looping supports held effortlessly by massive bronze statues of four Doctors of the Church, Saints Ambrose and Augustine representing the Latin Church and Athanasius and John Chrysostom, the Greek Church. The four figures are dynamic with sweeping robes and expressions of adoration and ecstasy. Behind and above the Cathedra, a blaze of light comes in through a window of yellow alabaster, illuminating, at its center, the Dove of the Holy Spirit. The elderly painter, Andrea Sacchi, had urged Bernini to make the figures large, so that they would be seen well from the central portal of the nave. The chair was enshrined in its new home with great celebration of 16 January 1666.
Bernini 's final work for St. Peter 's, undertaken in 1676, was the decoration of the Chapel of the Sacrament. To hold the sacramental Host, he designed a miniature version in gilt bronze of Bramante 's Tempietto, the little chapel that marks the place of the death of St. Peter. On either side is an angel, one gazing in rapt adoration and the other looking towards the viewer in welcome. Bernini died in 1680 in his 82nd year.
To the east of the basilica is the Piazza di San Pietro, (St. Peter 's Square). The present arrangement, constructed between 1656 and 1667, is the Baroque inspiration of Bernini who inherited a location already occupied by an Egyptian obelisk which was centrally placed, (with some contrivance) to Maderno 's facade. The obelisk, known as "The Witness '', at 25.5 metres (84 ft) and a total height, including base and the cross on top, of 40 metres (130 ft), is the second largest standing obelisk, and the only one to remain standing since its removal from Egypt and re-erection at the Circus of Nero in 37 AD, where it is thought to have stood witness to the crucifixion of Saint Peter. Its removal to its present location by order of Pope Sixtus V and engineered by Domenico Fontana on 28 September 1586, was an operation fraught with difficulties and nearly ending in disaster when the ropes holding the obelisk began to smoke from the friction. Fortunately this problem was noticed by Benedetto Bresca, a sailor of Sanremo, and for his swift intervention, his town was granted the privilege of providing the palms that are used at the basilica each Palm Sunday.
The other object in the old square with which Bernini had to contend was a large fountain designed by Maderno in 1613 and set to one side of the obelisk, making a line parallel with the facade. Bernini 's plan uses this horizontal axis as a major feature of his unique, spatially dynamic and highly symbolic design. The most obvious solutions were either a rectangular piazza of vast proportions so that the obelisk stood centrally and the fountain (and a matching companion) could be included, or a trapezoid piazza which fanned out from the facade of the basilica like that in front of the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena. The problems of the square plan are that the necessary width to include the fountain would entail the demolition of numerous buildings, including some of the Vatican, and would minimize the effect of the facade. The trapezoid plan, on the other hand, would maximize the apparent width of the facade, which was already perceived as a fault of the design.
Bernini 's ingenious solution was to create a piazza in two sections. That part which is nearest the basilica is trapezoid, but rather than fanning out from the facade, it narrows. This gives the effect of countering the visual perspective. It means that from the second part of the piazza, the building looks nearer than it is, the breadth of the facade is minimized and its height appears greater in proportion to its width. The second section of the piazza is a huge elliptical circus which gently slopes downwards to the obelisk at its center. The two distinct areas are framed by a colonnade formed by doubled pairs of columns supporting an entablature of the simple Tuscan Order.
The part of the colonnade that is around the ellipse does not entirely encircle it, but reaches out in two arcs, symbolic of the arms of "the Catholic Church reaching out to welcome its communicants ''. The obelisk and Maderno 's fountain mark the widest axis of the ellipse. Bernini balanced the scheme with another fountain in 1675. The approach to the square used to be through a jumble of old buildings, which added an element of surprise to the vista that opened up upon passing through the colonnade. Nowadays a long wide street, the Via della Conciliazione, built by Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaties, leads from the River Tiber to the piazza and gives distant views of St. Peter 's as the visitor approaches, with the basilica acting as a terminating vista.
Bernini 's transformation of the site is entirely Baroque in concept. Where Bramante and Michelangelo conceived a building that stood in "self - sufficient isolation '', Bernini made the whole complex "expansively relate to its environment ''. Banister Fletcher says "No other city has afforded such a wide - swept approach to its cathedral church, no other architect could have conceived a design of greater nobility... (it is) the greatest of all atriums before the greatest of all churches of Christendom. ''
There are over 100 tombs within St. Peter 's Basilica (extant to various extents), many located beneath the Basilica. These include 91 popes, Saint Ignatius of Antioch, Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, and the composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Exiled Catholic British royalty James Francis Edward Stuart and his two sons, Charles Edward Stuart and Henry Benedict Stuart, Cardinal Bishop of Frascati, are buried here, having been granted asylum by Pope Clement XI. Also buried here are Maria Clementina Sobieska, wife of James Francis Edward Stuart, Queen Christina of Sweden, who abdicated her throne in order to convert to Catholicism, and Countess Matilda of Tuscany, supporter of the Papacy during the Investiture Controversy. The most recent interment was Pope John Paul II, on 8 April 2005. Beneath, near the crypt, is the recently discovered vaulted 4th - century "Tomb of the Julii ''. (See below for some descriptions of tombs).
Recently installed commemorative plaques read as follows:
PAVLVS VI PONT MAX HVIVS PATRIARCALIS VATICANAE BASILICAE PORTAM SANCTAM APERVIT ET CLAVSIT ANNO IVBILAEI MCMLXXV Paul VI, Pontifex Maximus, opened and closed the holy door of this patriarchal Vatican basilica in the jubilee year of 1975.
IOANNES PAVLVS II P.M. PORTAM SANCTAM ANNO IVBILAEI MCMLXXVI A PAVLO PP VI RESERVATAM ET CLAVSAM APERVIT ET CLAVSIT ANNO IVB HVMANE REDEMP MCMLXXXIII -- MCMLXXXIV John Paul II, Pontifex Maximus, opened and closed again the holy door closed and set apart by Pope Paul VI in 1976 in the jubilee year of human redemption 1983 -- 4.
IOANNES PAVLVS II P.M. ITERVM PORTAM SANCTAM APERVIT ET CLAVSIT ANNO MAGNI IVBILAEI AB INCARNATIONE DOMINI MM - MMI John Paul II, Pontifex Maximus, again opened and closed the holy door in the year of the great jubilee, from the incarnation of the Lord 2000 -- 2001.
FRANCISCVS PP PORTAM SANCTAM ANNO MAGNI IVB MM - MMI A IOANNES PAVLVS PP II RESERVATAM ET CLAVSAM APERVIT ET CLAVSIT ANNO IVB MISERICORDIAE MMXV - MMXVI Pope Francis opened and closed again the holy door closed and set apart by Pope John Paul II in the year of the great jubilee 2000 - 2001, in the jubilee year of Mercy 2015 - 2016.
Saint Helena by Andrea Bolgi
Saint Longinus by Bernini
Saint Andrew by Francois Duquesnoy
Saint Veronica by Francesco Mochi
Pilgrim touching the foot of Saint Peter Enthroned
The Holy Door is opened only for great celebrations.
The tomb of Alexander VII.
The bronze statue of Saint Peter holding the keys of heaven, attributed to Arnolfo di Cambio.
The Pietà by Michelangelo is in the north aisle.
List of archpriests of the Vatican Basilica:
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who is the patron saint of finding lost things | Anthony of Padua - wikipedia
Saint Anthony of Padua (Portuguese: St. António de Lisboa), born Fernando Martins de Bulhões (1195 -- 13 June 1231), also known as Anthony of Lisbon, was a Portuguese Catholic priest and friar of the Franciscan Order. He was born and raised by a wealthy family in Lisbon, Portugal, and died in Padua, Italy. Noted by his contemporaries for his powerful preaching, expert knowledge of scripture, and undying love and devotion to the poor and the sick, he was one of the most quickly canonized saints in church history. He was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on 16 January 1946. He is also the patron saint of lost things.
Fernando Martins was born in Lisbon, Portugal. While fifteenth century writers state that his parents were Vicente Martins and Teresa Pais Taveira, and that his father was the brother of Pedro Martins de Bulhões, the ancestor of the Bulhão or Bulhões family, Niccolò Dal - Gal views this as less certain. His wealthy and noble family arranged for him to be instructed at the local cathedral school. At the age of fifteen, he entered the community of Canons Regular at the Augustinian Abbey of Saint Vincent on the outskirts of Lisbon.
In 1212, distracted by frequent visits from family and friends, he asked to be transferred to the motherhouse of the congregation, the Abbey of Santa Cruz in Coimbra, then the capital of Portugal. There the young Fernando studied theology and Latin.
After his ordination to the priesthood, Fernando was named guestmaster and placed in charge of hospitality for the abbey. While he was in Coimbra, some Franciscan friars arrived and settled at a small hermitage outside Coimbra dedicated to Saint Anthony of Egypt. Fernando was strongly attracted to the simple, evangelical lifestyle of the friars, whose order had been founded only eleven years prior. News arrived that five Franciscans had been beheaded in Morocco, the first of their order to be killed. King Afonso ransomed their bodies to be returned and buried as martyrs in the Abbey of Santa Cruz. Inspired by their example, Fernando obtained permission from church authorities to leave the Canons Regular to join the new Franciscan Order. Upon his admission to the life of the friars, he joined the small hermitage in Olivais, adopting the name Anthony (from the name of the chapel located there, dedicated to Saint Anthony the Great), by which he was to be known.
Anthony then set out for Morocco, in fulfillment of his new vocation. However, he fell seriously ill in Morocco and set sail back for Portugal in hope of regaining his health. On the return voyage the ship was blown off course and landed in Sicily.
From Sicily he made his way to Tuscany where he was assigned to a convent of the order, but he met with difficulty on account of his sickly appearance. He was finally assigned to the rural hermitage of San Paolo near Forlì, Romagna, a choice made after considering his poor health. There he had recourse to a cell one of the friars had made in a nearby cave, spending time in private prayer and study.
One day, in 1222, in the town of Forli, on the occasion of an ordination, a number of visiting Dominican friars were present, and there was some misunderstanding over who should preach. The Franciscans naturally expected that one of the Dominicans would occupy the pulpit, for they were renowned for their preaching; the Dominicans, on the other hand, had come unprepared, thinking that a Franciscan would be the homilist. In this quandary, the head of the hermitage, who had no one among his own humble friars suitable for the occasion, called upon Anthony, whom he suspected was most qualified, and entreated him to speak whatever the Holy Spirit should put into his mouth. Anthony objected but was overruled, and his sermon created a deep impression. Not only his rich voice and arresting manner, but the entire theme and substance of his discourse and his moving eloquence, held the attention of his hearers. Everyone was impressed with his knowledge of scripture, acquired during his years as an Augustinian friar.
At that point, Anthony was sent by Brother Gratian, the local Minister Provincial, to the Franciscan province of Romagna, based in Bologna. He soon came to the attention of the founder of the order, Francis of Assisi. Francis had held a strong distrust of the place of theological studies in the life of his brotherhood, fearing that it might lead to an abandonment of their commitment to a life of real poverty. In Anthony, however, he found a kindred spirit for his vision, who was also able to provide the teaching needed by young members of the order who might seek ordination. In 1224 he entrusted the pursuit of studies for any of his friars to the care of Anthony.
The reason St. Anthony 's help is invoked for finding things lost or stolen is traced to an incident that occurred in Bologna. According to the story, Anthony had a book of psalms that was of some importance to him as it contained the notes and comments he had made to use in teaching his students. A novice who had decided to leave took the psalter with him. Prior to the invention of the printing press, any book was an item of value. Upon noticing it was missing, Anthony prayed it would be found or returned. The thief was moved to restore the book to Anthony and return to the Order. The stolen book is said to be preserved in the Franciscan friary in Bologna.
Occasionally he took another post, as a teacher, for instance, at the universities of Montpellier and Toulouse in southern France, but it was as a preacher that Anthony revealed his supreme gift. According to historian Sophronius Clasen, Anthony preached the grandeur of Christianity. His method included allegory and symbolical explanation of Scripture. In 1226, after attending the General Chapter of his order held at Arles, France, and preaching in the French region of Provence, Anthony returned to Italy and was appointed provincial superior of northern Italy. He chose the city of Padua as his location.
In 1228 he served as envoy from the general chapter to Pope Gregory IX. At the Papal court, his preaching was hailed as a "jewel case of the Bible '' and he was commissioned to produce his collection of sermons, Sermons for Feast Days (Sermones in Festivitates). Gregory IX himself described him as the "Ark of the Testament '' (Doctor Arca testamenti).
Anthony became sick with ergotism, a disease which is now known also under the name "Saint Anthony 's Fire '', and, in 1231, went to the woodland retreat at Camposampiero with two other friars for a respite. There he lived in a cell built for him under the branches of a walnut tree. Anthony died on the way back to Padua on 13 June 1231 at the Poor Clare monastery at Arcella (now part of Padua), aged 35.
According to the request of Anthony, he was buried in the small church of Santa Maria Mater Domini, probably dating from the late 12th century and near a convent which had been founded by him in 1229. Nevertheless, due to his increased notability, construction of a large Basilica began around 1232 -- although it was not completed until 1301. The smaller church was incorporated into structure as the Cappella della Madonna Mora (Chapel of the Dark Madonna). The basilica is commonly known today as "Il Santo ''.
Various legends surround the death of Anthony. One holds that when he died, the children cried in the streets and that all the bells of the churches rang of their own accord. Another legend regards his tongue. Anthony is buried in a chapel within the large basilica built to honor him, where his tongue is displayed for veneration in a large reliquary along with his jaw and his vocal cords. When his body was exhumed thirty years after his death, it was found turned to dust, but the tongue was claimed to have glistened and looked as if it was still alive and moist; apparently a further claim was made that this was a sign of his gift of preaching. On 1 January 1981 Pope John Paul II authorized a scientific team to study the saint 's remains and the tomb was opened on 6 January.
Anthony was canonized by Pope Gregory IX on 30 May 1232, at Spoleto, Italy, less than one year after his death.
"The richness of spiritual teaching contained in the Sermons was so great that in (16 January) 1946 Venerable Pope Pius XII proclaimed Anthony a Doctor of the Church, attributing to him the title Doctor Evangelicus ('' Evangelical Doctor "), since the freshness and beauty of the Gospel emerge from these writings. ''
Anthony 's fame spread through Portuguese evangelization, and he has been known as the most celebrated of the followers of Saint Francis of Assisi. He is the patron saint of Lisbon, Padua and many places in Portugal and in the countries of the former Portuguese Empire.
He is especially invoked and venerated all over the world as the patron saint for the recovery of lost items and is credited with many miracles involving lost people, lost things and even lost spiritual goods.
In 1692 Spanish missionaries came across a small Payaya Indian community along what was then known as the Yanaguana River on the feast day of Saint Anthony, 13 June. The Franciscan chaplain, Father Damien Massanet, with agreement General Domingo de Teran, renamed the rivers in his honor, and eventually a mission built nearby as well. This mission became the focal point of a small community that eventually grew in size and scope to become the seventh largest city in the country, the U.S. city of San Antonio, Texas.
In New York City, the Shrine Church of St. Anthony in Greenwich Village, Manhattan celebrates his feast day, starting with the traditional novena of prayers asking for his intercession on the thirteen Tuesdays preceding his feast. This culminates with a week - long series of services and a street fair. A traditional Italian - style procession is held that day through the streets of its South Village neighborhood, in which a relic of the saint is carried for veneration.
Each year on the weekend of the last Sunday in August, Boston 's North End holds a feast in honor of Saint Anthony. Referred to as the "Feast of All Feasts '', Saint Anthony 's Feast in Boston 's North End was begun in 1919 by Italian immigrants from Montefalcione, a small town near Naples, where the tradition of honoring Saint Anthony goes back to 1688.
Each year the Sandia Pueblo along with Santa Clara Pueblo celebrate the feast day of Saint Anthony with traditional Native American dances
On 27 January 1907, in Beaumont, Texas, a church was dedicated and named in honor of Saint Anthony. The church was later designated a cathedral in 1966 with the formation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Beaumont, but was not formally consecrated. On 28 April 1974, St. Anthony Cathedral was dedicated and consecrated by Bishop Warren Boudreaux. In 2006 Pope Benedict XVI granted the cathedral the designation of minor basilica. St. Anthony Cathedral Basilica celebrated its 100th anniversary on 28 January 2007.
St. Anthony gives his name to Mission San Antonio de Padua, the third Franciscan mission dedicated along El Camino Real in California in 1771.
In Ellicott City, Maryland, southwest of Baltimore, the Conventual Franciscans of the St. Anthony Province dedicated their old novitiate house as The Shrine of St. Anthony which since 1 July 2004 serves as the official Shrine to Saint Anthony for the Archdiocese of Baltimore, the nation 's "premier see '' and oldest diocese / first bishop. A large relic of Saint Anthony was donated to the shrine in 1995 by the friars in Padua as well as copies of thirteen original paintings detailing particularly important moments in the life of St. Anthony. The Shrine of Saint Anthony is modeled upon the "Sacro Convento '' in Assisi, Italy and situated upon land once owned in a large estate by Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the only Roman Catholic signer of the Declaration of Independence for Maryland and then wealthiest man in America. Maryland had been founded as an English colony and a haven for Catholics in 1634. In addition to daily Mass and regular confession schedule, the Shrine of St. Anthony also offers retreat spaces for outside guests and hosts an annual pilgrimage in mid-June in honor of the Feast Day of St. Anthony of Padua.
Saint Anthony is known in Portugal, Spain and Brazil as a marriage saint, because there are legends of him reconciling couples. His feast day, 13 June, is Lisbon 's municipal holiday, celebrated with parades and marriages (the previous day, 12 June, is the Dia dos Namorados in Brazil). He is one of the saints celebrated in the Brazilian Festa Junina (also known as the "Santo Antônio ''), along with John the Baptist and Saint Peter. He is venerated in Mogán Village in Gran Canaria where his feast day is celebrated every year with oversized objects carried through the streets for the fiesta.
In the town of Brusciano, Italy, located near Naples, an annual feast in honor of Saint Anthony is held in late August. This tradition dates back to 1875. The tradition started when a man prayed to Saint Anthony for his sick son to get better. He vowed that if his son would become healthy that he would build and dance a giglio like the people of Nola do for their patron San Paolino during the annual Fest Dei Gigli. The celebration has grown over the years to include six giglio towers built in honor of the saint. This tradition has also carried over to America, specifically the East Harlem area of New York where the immigrants from the town of Brusciano formed the Giglio Society of East Harlem and have been holding their annual feast since the early 1900s.
In Poland he is the patron saint of Przeworsk. The icon of Saint Anthony, dating from 1649, is housed in a local (Franciscan church, Kaplica Świętego Antoniego w Przeworsku (pl)). Each Tuesday traditional prayers are celebrated with responsorium si quaeris (pl).
Devotion to Saint Anthony is popular throughout all of India. In Uvari, in Tamil Nadu, India, the church of Saint Anthony is home to an ancient wooden statue that is said to have cured the entire crew of a Portuguese ship suffering from cholera. Saint Anthony is said to perform many miracles daily, and Uvari is visited by pilgrims of different religions from all over South India. Christians in Tamil Nadu have great reverence for Saint Anthony and he is a popular saint there, where he is called "The Miracle Saint. ''
Also in India, a small crusady known with the name of Saint Anthony is located in the village called Pothiyanvilai, state of Tamil Nadu Kanyakumari district near Thengapattinam, where thousands of devotees attend every Tuesday and Friday to receive his blessings, miracles and guidings directly from St. Anthony 's soul entering in the body of a holy person for the last 34 years. The southern Indian state of Karnataka is also a holy pilgrimage center in honor of Saint Anthony (specifically located in the small village of Dornahalli, near Mysore). Local lore holds that a farmer there unearthed a statue that was later identified as being that of Saint Anthony. The statue was deemed miraculous and an incident of divine intervention. A church was then erected to honor the saint. Additionally, Saint Anthony is highly venerated in Sri Lanka, and the nation 's Saint Anthony National Shrine in Kochikade, Colombo, receives many devotees of Saint Anthony, both Catholic and non-Catholic.
In Siolim, a village in the Indian state of Goa, St. Anthony is always shown holding a serpent on a stick. This is a depiction of the incident which occurred during the construction of the church wherein a snake was disrupting construction work. The people turned to St. Anthony for help and placed his statue at the construction site. The next morning, the snake was found caught in the cord placed in the statue 's hand.
As the number of Franciscan saints increased, iconography struggled to distinguish Anthony from the others. Because of a legend that he had once preached to the fish, this was sometimes used as his attribute. He is also often seen with a white lily stalk, representing his purity. Other conventions referred to St. Anthony 's visionary fervor. Thus, one attribute in use for some time was a flaming heart.
In 1511, Titian painted three large frescoes in the Scuola del Santo (it) in Padua, depicting scenes of the miracles from the life of Saint Anthony: The Miracle of the Jealous Husband, which depicts the murder of a young woman by her husband; A Child Testifying to Its Mother 's Innocence; and The Saint Healing the Young Man with a Broken Limb.
Another key pattern has him meditating on an open book in which the Christ Child himself appears, as in the El Greco above. Over time the child came to be shown considerably larger than the book and some images even do without the book entirely. He typically appears carrying the infant Jesus and holding a cross.
An early work by Raphael, 1503, at the Dulwich Picture Gallery, London, UK
Baby Jesus with St. Anthony of Padua, Elisabetta Sirani, 1656, Bologna, Italy
Anthony of Padua with the Infant Jesus by Antonio de Pereda
St Antony Reading by Marco Antonio Bassetti
Triptych of Saint Antonius by Ambrosius Benson
Saint Anthony of Padua with the Infant Christ by Guercino, 1656, Bologna, Italy
Vision of Saint Anthony, by Alonso Cano
St. Antony with Christ Child, from, Carinthia, in Austria.
Media related to Saint Anthony of Padua at Wikimedia Commons
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who sang you just keep me hangin on | You Keep Me Hangin ' On - wikipedia
"You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' is a 1966 song written and composed by Holland -- Dozier -- Holland. It first became a popular Billboard Hot 100 number one hit for the American Motown group The Supremes in late 1966. The rock band Vanilla Fudge covered the song a year later and had a top ten hit with their version. British pop singer Kim Wilde covered "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' in 1986, bumping it back to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in June 1987. The single reached number one by two different musical acts in America. In the first 32 years of the Billboard Hot 100 rock era, "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' became one of only six songs to achieve this feat. In 1996, country music singer Reba McEntire 's version reached number 2 on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart.
Over the years, "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' has been covered by various artists including a charting version by Wilson Pickett, Rod Stewart, Colourbox, The Index and the Box Tops.
"You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' was originally recorded in 1966 by The Supremes for the Motown label. The single is rooted in proto - funk and rhythm and blues, compared to the Supremes ' previous single, "You Ca n't Hurry Love, '' which uses the call and response elements akin to gospel. The song 's signature guitar part is said to have originated from a Morse code - like radio sound effect, typically used before a news announcement, heard by Lamont Dozier. Dozier collaborated with Brian and Eddie Holland to integrate the idea into a single.
Many elements of the recording, including the guitars, the drums, and Diana Ross 's vocals were multitracked, a production technique which was established and popularized concurrently by H-D-H and other premier producers of the 1960s such as Phil Spector (see Wall of Sound) and George Martin. H-D-H recorded the song in eight sessions with The Supremes and session band The Funk Brothers before settling on a version deemed suitable for the final release.
"You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' was the first single taken from the Supremes ' 1967 album The Supremes Sing Holland -- Dozier -- Holland. The song became the group 's eighth number - one single when it topped the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart for two weeks in the United States from November 13, 1966 through November 27, 1966. It peaked at number 8 in the UK Singles Chart. The Supremes original version was ranked # 339 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. It was voted # 43 on Detroit 's 100 Greatest Songs, a Detroit Free Press poll in 2016.
The track is one of the more oft - covered songs in the Supremes canon. They performed the song on the ABC variety program The Hollywood Palace on Saturday, October 29, 1966.
Vanilla Fudge 's 1967 psychedelic rock remake of "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' reached number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart a year after the release of the Supremes ' recording. While the edited version released on the 45 RPM single was under three minutes long, the album version was seven minutes and twenty seconds long. The recording, done in one take, was Vanilla Fudge 's first single.
Vanilla Fudge drummer Carmine Appice talked about the band 's decision to cover the song in a 2014 interview:
That was Mark and Timmy. We used to slow songs down and listen to the lyrics and try to emulate what the lyrics were dictating. That one was a hurtin ' song; it had a lot of emotion in it. "People Get Ready '' was like a Gospel thing. "Eleanor Rigby '' was sort of eerie and church - like... like a horror movie kind of thing. If you listen to "Hangin ' On '' fast... by The Supremes, it sounds very happy, but the lyrics are n't happy at all. If you lived through that situation, the lyrics are definitely not happy.
A similar arrangement was used by Rod Stewart on his 1977 album Foot Loose & Fancy Free. This may have, in part, been the idea of Appice, who had by now joined Stewart 's band.
The Vanilla Fudge version appears at the conclusion of Episode 1 of Season 7 of the Mad Men television series (2015), plus in the film War Dogs (2016) and the videogame Mafia III (2016).
"You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' was covered in an updated version by British singer Kim Wilde in 1986. Wilde 's version was a total re-working of the original, completely transforming the Supremes ' Motown Sound into a hi - NRG song. She and her brother, producer Ricky Wilde, had not heard "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' for several years when they decided to record it. The song was not a track they knew well, so they treated it as a new song, even slightly changing the original lyrics.
It was released as the second single from Wilde 's Another Step studio album (although "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' was the LP 's first worldwide single, as the first single had been released only in selected countries). The song became the biggest hit of Wilde 's career, reaching number 2 in her home country, and number 1 in Australia. It also became Wilde 's second and last Top 40 hit in the US following "Kids in America '' and is also, to date, her most successful song in that country, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for one week in June 1987. It later ranked as the 34th biggest hit of 1987 on Billboard 's Hot 100 year - end chart that year. "You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry for UK sales exceeding 250,000 copies.
In 2006, she performed a new version of the song with the German singer Nena for her Never Say Never album.
It has sold 265,000 copies in France.
A music video was produced to promote her single. Directed by Greg Masuak, the video shows Wilde in a dark room lying on a large bed. She then rises from the bed as she sings the song and finds herself being "threatened '' by a strange man who is breaking down the walls around her.
Country music singer Reba McEntire covered the song in 1995 for her twenty - second studio album, Starting Over. Released as the album 's fourth single in 1996 on MCA Nashville Records, it was co-produced by Tony Brown and Michael Omartian. Although not released to country radio, McEntire 's rendition was her only dance hit, reaching # 2 on Hot Dance Club Play.
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the district of kerala which has no coast line | List of districts in Kerala - wikipedia
The Indian state of Kerala borders with the states of Tamil Nadu on the south and east, Karnataka on the north and the Lakshadweep Sea coastline on the west. form an almost continuous mountain wall, except near Palakkad where there is a natural mountain pass known as the Palakkad Gap. When the independent India amalgamated small states together Travancore and Cochin states were integrated to form Travancore - Cochin state on 1 July 1949. However, Malabar remained under the Madras province. The States Reorganisation Act of 1 November 1956 elevated Kerala to statehood.
The state of Kerala is divided into 14 revenue districts. On the basis of geography the state 's districts are generally grouped into three parts: - The North Kerala districts of Kasaragod, Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode; the Central Kerala districts of Malappuram, Palakkad, Thrissur, Ernakulam, Idukki and the South Kerala districts of Kottayam, Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram. Such a regional division occurred being part of historical Kingdoms of Kochi, Travancore and British Province of Malabar. The Travancore region is again divided into three zones as Northern Travancore (Hill Range) (Idukki and parts of Ernakulam), Central Travancore (Central Range) (Pathanamthitta, Alappuzha and Kottayam) and Southern Travancore (South Range) (Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam). Almost all of the districts in Kerala have the same name as the important town or city in the district, the exception being Idukki district, Wayanad district & Ernakulam district. The 14 districts are further divided into 75 taluks, and 941 Gram panchayats. Some of the districts and their towns were renamed in 1990 like Thiruvananthapuram (formerly known as Trivandrum), Kollam (Quilon or Venad), Alappuzha (Alleppey), As per GO (P) No. 133 / 90 / RD dated 7.2. 90, Government of Kerala Thrissur (Trichur or Thirushivaperur), Palakkad (Palghat), Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kannur (Cannanore).
Kerala State has been divided into 14 districts, 75 taluks, 152 community development blocks, 978 Gram panchayats, 6 corporations and 87 municipalities.
A district is governed by a District Collector, who is an officer from Indian Administrative Service (IAS) of Kerala cadre and is appointed by the State Government of Kerala. Functionally the district administration is carried on through the various Departments of the State Government each of which has an office of its own the district level. The District Collector is the executive leader of the district administration and the District Officers of the various Departments in the district render technical advice to him in the discharge of his duties. The District Collector is a key functionary of Government having large powers and responsibilities. He has a dual role to both as the agent of the Government of the state and also as the representative of the people in the district. He is also responsible for the maintenance of the law and order of the district.
Other than urban units such as town municipalities and rural units called Gram panchayats, other government administrative subdivisions includes taluks and ' community development blocks ' (also known as CD blocks or blocks). A taluk consists of urban units such as census towns and rural units called gram panchayats. The Tahsildar in charge of each taluk is primarily the Revenue Official responsible for the collection of revenue of the taluk, but he is also expected to be in direct contact with the people at all levels and to have first hand knowledge of the conditions of every village under his jurisdiction. The Tahsildar is assisted in each village by village officers and village assistants. A block also consists of such as census towns and Gram panchayats. A block is administered by a Block Development Officer (BDO), who is appointed by the Government of Kerala. A gram panchayat, which consists of a group of villages, is administered by a village council headed by a Gram Panchayat President.
A District Superintendent of Police, better known as a Superintendent of Police, heads the District Police organization of Kerala Police. This is as per the Police Act of 1861, which is applicable to the whole of India. The Superintendents of Police are officers of the Indian Police Service. For every subdivision, there is a Subdivision Police, headed by a Police officer of the rank of Assistant Superintendent of Police or Deputy Superintendent of Police. Under subdivisions, there are Police Circles, each headed by an Inspector of Police. A Police Circle consists of Police Stations, each headed by an Inspector of Police, or in case of rural areas, by a Sub-Inspector of Police.
The Kerala High Court has the jurisdiction of the state of Kerala. Each of the districts has a District Court.
At the time of formation, Kerala had only five districts: Malabar (part of the erstwhile Madras State), Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Kottayam and Thrissur (together constituting the erstwhile Travancore - Cochin). On 1 January 1957, the Malabar district was divided into the districts of Kozhikode, Palakkad, and Kannur. Alappuzha district was carved out of erstwhile Kottayam and Kollam districts on 17 August 1957. Ernakulam district was formed on 1 April 1958, carving out of parts of erstwhile Thrissur and Kottayam districts. Malappuram district was formed on 16 June 1969 with Ernad and Tirur taluks of the erstwhile Kozhikode district and Perinthalmanna and Ponnani taluks of Palakkad district. Idukki district was formed on 26 January 1972 with Devikulam, Udumbanchola and Peermedu taluks of the erstwhile Kottayam district and Thodupuzha taluk of the erstwhile Ernakulam district. Wayanad district was formed on 1 November 1980 as the 12th district in Kerala by carving out areas from Kozhikode and Kannur districts. Pathanamthitta district was formed on 1 November 1982 carving out the entire Pathanamthitta taluk and nine villages of Kunnathur taluk from Kollam district, entire Thiruvalla taluk and part of Chenganur and Mavelikkara taluks from Alapphuzha district and parts of Idukki district. Kasaragod district was formed on 24 May 1984 as the 14th revenue district by carving out a major portion of the erstwhile Kannur district.
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how did italian city-states use their location to gain wealth | Italian city - states - wikipedia
Timeline
The Italian city - states were a political phenomenon of small independent states mostly in the central and northern Italian peninsula between the 9th and the 15th centuries.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, urban settlements in Italy generally enjoyed a greater continuity than in the rest of western Europe. Many of these towns were survivors of earlier Etruscan, Umbrian and Roman towns which had existed within the Roman Empire. The republican institutions of Rome had also survived. Some feudal lords existed with a servile labour force and huge tracts of land, but by the 11th century, many cities, including Venice, Milan, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Lucca, Cremona, Siena, Città di Castello, Perugia, and many others, had become large trading metropoles, able to obtain independence from their formal sovereigns.
The very first Italian city - state can be considered the Republic of Venice, which de facto broke apart from the Byzantine Empire since 742 (when the Doge title was finally subtracted from the appointment of the Byzantine emperor), becoming also de jure independent in the following centuries. The other first Italian city - states appeared in northern Italy as a result of a struggle to gain greater autonomy when not independent from the German Holy Roman Empire. The Lombard League was an alliance formed around at its apex included most of the cities of northern Italy including Milan, Piacenza, Cremona, Mantua, Crema, Bergamo, Brescia, Bologna, Padua, Treviso, Vicenza, Verona, Lodi, Reggio Emilia and Parma, though its membership changed through time. Other city - states were associated to these "commune '' cities, like Genoa, Turin and, in the Adriatic, Ragusa. Venice was never subjected to the Holy Roman Empire, but chose anyway to patronize the Lombard League, to oppose strong imperial control of the mainland.
In central Italy there were the city - states of Florence, Pisa, Lucca, Siena, Città di Castello, Perugia, Ancona and other ones. South of Rome and the Papal States were the city - states of Salerno, Amalfi, Bari, Naples and Trani which in 1130 were united in the newly created Norman Kingdom of Sicily.
Around 1100, Genoa and Venice emerged as independent Maritime republics. For Genoa -- nominally -- the Holy Roman Emperor was sovereign and the Bishop of Genoa was head of state; however, actual power was wielded by a number of consuls annually elected by popular assembly. Pisa and Amalfi also emerged as maritime republics: trade, shipbuilding and banking helped support their powerful navies in the Mediterranean in those medieval centuries.
Between the 12th and 13th centuries, Italy was vastly different from feudal Europe north of the Alps. The Peninsula was a melange of political and cultural elements, not a unified state.
Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel have argued that geography determined the history of the region; other scholars emphasize the absence of central political structures. The very mountainous nature of Italy 's landscape was a barrier to effective inter-city communication. The Po plain, however, was an exception: it was the only large contiguous area, and most city states that fell to invasion were located there. Those that survived the longest were in the more rugged regions, such as Florence or Venice, which was protected by its lagoon. The rugged terrain of the Alps prevented the Holy Roman Emperors or various German princes and lords from attacking the northern part of Italy, safeguarding the country from permanent German political control. Largely for these reasons, no strong monarchies emerged as they did in the rest of Europe: authority of the Holy Roman Empire over northern Italian territory, especially after the year 1177, was de facto only nominal; instead there emerged the autonomous (sometime de facto independent) city - states.
While those Roman, urban, republican sensibilities persisted, there were many movements and changes afoot. Italy first felt the changes in Europe from the 11th to the 13th centuries. Typically there was:
In recent writing on the city states, American scholar Rodney Stark emphasizes that they married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. He argues that these states were mostly republics, unlike the great European monarchies of France and Spain, where absolute power was vested in rulers who could and did stifle commerce. Keeping both direct Church control and imperial power at arm 's length, the independent city republics prospered through commerce based on early capitalist principles, ultimately creating the conditions for the artistic and intellectual changes produced by the Renaissance.
Cambridge University historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner has pointed out how Otto of Freising, a German bishop who visited central Italy during the 12th century, commented that Italian towns had appeared to have exited from feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to absolutist monarchies or other more centrally controlled states, the Italian communes and commercial republics enjoyed relative political freedom conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Geographically, and because of trade, Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads.
Harvard historian Niall Ferguson points out that Florence and Venice, as well as several other Italian city - states, played a crucial innovative role in world financial developments, devising the main instruments and practices of banking and the emergence of new forms of social and economic organization.
It is estimated that the per capita income of northern Italy nearly tripled from the 11th century to the 15th century. This was a highly mobile, demographically expanding society, fueled by the rapidly expanding Renaissance commerce.
In the 14th century, just as the Italian Renaissance was beginning, Italy was the economic capital of Western Europe: the Italian States were the top manufacturers of finished woolen products. However, with the Bubonic Plague in 1348, the birth of the English woolen industry and general warfare, Italy temporarily lost its economic advantage. However, by the late 15th century Italy was again in control of trade along the Mediterranean Sea. It found a new niche in luxury items like ceramics, glassware, lace and silk as well an experiencing a temporary rebirth in the woolen industry.
However, Italy would never regain its strong hold on textiles. And though it was the birthplace of banking, by the 16th century German and Dutch banks began taking away business. Discovery of the Americas as well as new trade routes to Africa and India by the Portuguese (which made Portugal the leading trading power) brought about the shift of economic power from Italy to Portugal in the 16th century; from Portugal to Netherlands in the 17th century and from Netherlands to the United Kingdom in the 18th century.
By the 13th century, northern and central Italy had become the most literate society in the world. More than one - third of the male population could read in the vernacular (an unprecedented rate since the decline of the Western Roman Empire), as could a small but significant proportion of women.
The Italian city states were also highly numerate, given the importance of the new forms of bookkeeping that were essential to the trading and mercantile basis of society. Some of the most widely circulating books, such as the Liber Abaci by Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, included applications of mathematics and arithmetic to business practice or were business manuals based on sophisticated numeracy.
Indeed, Luca Pacioli helped create the banking system of the Italian city - states with double - entry bookkeeping. His 27 - page treatise on bookkeeping contained the first known published work on that topic, and is said to have laid the foundation for double - entry bookkeeping (of Genoese merchants) as it is practiced today.
During the 11th century in northern Italy a new political and social structure emerged: the city - state or commune. The civic culture which arose from this urbs was remarkable. In some places where communes arose (e.g. Britain and France), they were absorbed by the monarchical state as it emerged. They survived in northern and central Italy as in a handful of other regions throughout Europe to become independent and powerful city - states. In Italy the breakaway from their feudal overlords occurred in the late 12th century and 13th century, during the Investiture Controversy between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor: Milan led the Lombard cities against the Holy Roman Emperors and defeated them, gaining independence (battles of Legnano, 1176, and Parma, 1248; see Lombard League).
Similar town revolts led to the foundation of city - states throughout medieval Europe, such as in Russia (Novgorod Republic, 12th century), in Flanders (Battle of Golden Spurs, 14th century) in Switzerland (the towns of the Old Swiss Confederacy, 14th century), in Germany (the Hanseatic League, 14th -- 15th century), and in Prussia (Thirteen Years ' War, 15th century).
Some Italian city - states became great military powers very early on. Venice and Genoa acquired vast naval empires in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, some of which threatened those of the growing Ottoman Empire. During the Fourth Crusade (1204), Venice conquered a quarter of the Byzantine Empire.
The Maritime Republics were one of the main products of this new civic and social culture based on commerce and exchange of knowledge with other areas of the world outside western Europe. The Republic of Ragusa and the Republic of Venice, for example, had important trade communications with the Muslim and Hindu world and this helped the initial development of the Italian Renaissance.
By the late 12th century, a new and remarkable society had emerged in Northern Italy; rich, mobile, expanding, with a mixed aristocracy and urban borghese (burgher) class, interested in urban institutions and republican government. But many of the new city - states also housed violent factions based on family, confraternity and brotherhood, which undermined their cohesion (for instance the Guelphs and Ghibellines).
By 1300, most of these republics had become princely states dominated by a Signore. The exceptions were Venice, Florence, Lucca, and a few others, which remained republics in the face of an increasingly monarchic Europe. In many cases by 1400 the Signori were able to found a stable dynasty over their dominated city (or group of regional cities), obtaining also a nobility title of sovereignty by their formal superior, for example in 1395 Gian Galeazzo Visconti bought for 100,000 gold florins the title of Duke of Milan from the emperor Wenceslaus.
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Milan, Venice, and Florence were able to conquer other city - states, creating regional states. The 1454 Peace of Lodi ended their struggle for hegemony in Italy, attaining a balance of power (see Italian Renaissance).
At the beginning of the 16th century, apart from some minor city - states like Lucca or San Marino, only the republican Venice was able to preserve her independence and to match the European monarchies of France and Spain and the Ottoman Empire (see Italian Wars).
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who established an efficient system to train nurses | History of nursing - wikipedia
The word "nurse '' originally came from the Latin word "nutrire '', meaning to suckle, referring to a wet - nurse; only in the late 16th century did it attain its modern meaning of a person who cares for the infirm.
From the earliest times most cultures produced a stream of nurses dedicated to service on religious principles. Both Christendom and the Muslim World generated a stream of dedicated nurses from their earliest days. In Europe before the foundation of modern nursing, Catholic nuns and the military often provided nursing - like services. It took until the 20th century for nursing to become a secular profession.
The early history of nurses suffers from a lack of source material, but nursing in general has long been an extension of the wet - nurse function of women.
Buddhist Indian ruler (268 B.C.E. to 232 B.C.E.) Ashoka erected a series of pillars, which included an edict ordering hospitals to be built along the routes of travelers, and that they be "well provided with instruments and medicine, consisting of mineral and vegetable drugs, with roots and fruits ''; "Whenever there is no provision of drugs, medical roots, and herbs, they are to be supplied, and skilful physicians appointed at the expense of the state to administer them. '' The system of public hospitals continued until the fall of Buddhism in India ca. 750 C.E.
About 100 B.C.E. the Charaka Samhita was written in India, stating that good medical practice requires a patient, physician, nurse, and medicines, with the nurse required to be knowledgeable, skilled at preparing formulations and dosage, sympathetic towards everyone, and clean.
The first known Christian nurse, Phoebe, is mentioned in Romans 16: 1. During the early years of the Christian Church (ca. 50 C.E.), St. Paul sent a deaconess named Phoebe to Rome as the first visiting nurse.
From its earliest days, following the edicts of Jesus, Christianity encouraged its devotees to tend the sick. Priests were often also physicians. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, while pagan religions seldom offered help to the infirm, the early Christians were willing to nurse the sick and take food to them, notably during the smallpox epidemic of AD 165 - 180 and the measles outbreak of around AD 250; "In nursing the sick and dying, regardless of religion, the Christians won friends and sympathisers ''.
Following the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, leading to an expansion of the provision of care. Among the earliest were those built ca. 370 by St. Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia in Asia Minor (modern - day Turkey), by Saint Fabiola in Rome ca. 390, and by the physician - priest Saint Sampson (d. 530) in Constantinople, Called the Basiliad, St. Basil 's hospital resembled a city, and included housing for doctors and nurses and separate buildings for various classes of patients. There was a separate section for lepers. Eventually construction of a hospital in every cathedral town was begun.
Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals after the end of the persecution of the early church. Ancient church leaders like St. Benedict of Nursia (480 - 547) emphasized medicine as an aid to the provision of hospitality. 12th century Roman Catholic orders like the Dominicans and Carmelites have long lived in religious communities that work for the care of the sick.
Some hospitals maintained libraries and training programs, and doctors compiled their medical and pharmacological studies in manuscripts. Thus in - patient medical care in the sense of what we today consider a hospital, was an invention driven by Christian mercy and Byzantine innovation. Byzantine hospital staff included the Chief Physician (archiatroi), professional nurses (hypourgoi) and orderlies (hyperetai). By the twelfth century, Constantinople had two well - organized hospitals, staffed by doctors who were both male and female. Facilities included systematic treatment procedures and specialized wards for various diseases.
In the early 7th century, Rufaidah bint Sa'ad (also known as Rufaida Al - Aslamia) became what is now described as the first Muslim nurse. A contemporary of Muhammad, she hailed from the Bani Aslam tribe in Medina and learned her medical skills from her father, a traditional healer. After she had lead a group of women to treat injured fighters on the battlefield, Muhammad gave her permission to set up a tent near the Medina mosque to provide treatment and care for the ill and the needy.
Medieval hospitals in Europe followed a similar pattern to the Byzantine. They were religious communities, with care provided by monks and nuns. (An old French term for hospital is hôtel - Dieu, "hostel of God. '') Some were attached to monasteries; others were independent and had their own endowments, usually of property, which provided income for their support. Some hospitals were multi-functional while others were founded for specific purposes such as leper hospitals, or as refuges for the poor, or for pilgrims: not all cared for the sick. The first Spanish hospital, founded by the Catholic Visigoth bishop Masona in 580AD at Mérida, was a xenodochium designed as an inn for travellers (mostly pilgrims to the shrine of Eulalia of Mérida) as well as a hospital for citizens and local farmers. The hospital 's endowment consisted of farms to feed its patients and guests. From the account given by Paul the Deacon we learn that this hospital was supplied with physicians and nurses, whose mission included the care the sick wherever they were found, "slave or free, Christian or Jew. ''
During the late 700s and early 800s, Emperor Charlemagne decreed that those hospitals which had been well conducted before his time and had fallen into decay should be restored in accordance with the needs of the time. He further ordered that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery.
During the tenth century the monasteries became a dominant factor in hospital work. The famous Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded in 910, set the example which was widely imitated throughout France and Germany. Besides its infirmary for the religious, each monastery had a hospital in which externs were cared for. These were in charge of the eleemosynarius, whose duties, carefully prescribed by the rule, included every sort of service that the visitor or patient could require.
As the eleemosynarius was obliged to seek out the sick and needy in the neighborhood, each monastery became a center for the relief of suffering. Among the monasteries notable in this respect were those of the Benedictines at Corbie in Picardy, Hirschau, Braunweiler, Deutz, Ilsenburg, Liesborn, Pram, and Fulda; those of the Cistercians at Arnsberg, Baumgarten, Eberbach, Himmenrode, Herrnalb, Volkenrode, and Walkenried.
No less efficient was the work done by the diocesan clergy in accordance with the disciplinary enactments of the councils of Aachen (817, 836), which prescribed that a hospital should be maintained in connection with each collegiate church. The canons were obliged to contribute towards the support of the hospital, and one of their number had charge of the inmates. As these hospitals were located in cities, more numerous demands were made upon them than upon those attached to the monasteries. In this movement the bishop naturally took the lead, hence the hospitals founded by Heribert (died 1021) in Cologne, Godard (died 1038) in Hildesheim, Conrad (died 975) in Constance, and Ulrich (died 973) in Augsburg. But similar provision was made by the other churches; thus at Trier the hospitals of St. Maximin, St. Matthew, St. Simeon, and St. James took their names from the churches to which they were attached. During the period 1207 -- 1577 no less than 155 hospitals were founded in Germany.
The Ospedale Maggiore, traditionally named Ca ' Granda (i.e. Big House), in Milan, northern Italy, was constructed to house one of the first community hospitals, the largest such undertaking of the fifteenth century. Commissioned by Francesco Sforza in 1456 and designed by Antonio Filarete it is among the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Lombardy.
The Normans brought their hospital system along when they conquered England in 1066. By merging with traditional land - tenure and customs, the new charitable houses became popular and were distinct from both English monasteries and French hospitals. They dispensed alms and some medicine, and were generously endowed by the nobility and gentry who counted on them for spiritual rewards after death.
According to Geoffrey Blainey, the Catholic Church in Europe provided many of the services of a welfare state: "It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal ''. It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates.
Catholic women played large roles in health and healing in medieval and early modern Europe. A life as a nun was a prestigious role; wealthy families provided dowries for their daughters, and these funded the convents, while the nuns provided free nursing care for the poor.
Meanwhile, in Catholic lands such as France, rich families continued to fund convents and monasteries, and enrolled their daughters as nuns who provided free health services to the poor. Nursing was a religious role for the nurse, and there was little call for science.
The Eastern Orthodox Church had established many hospitals in the middle east, but following the rise of Islam from the 7th century, Arabic medicine developed in this region, where a number of important advances were made and an Islamic tradition of nursing begun. Arab ideas were later influential in Europe. The famous Knights Hospitaller arose as a group of individuals associated with an Amalfitan hospital in Jerusalem, which was built to provide care for poor, sick or injured Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land. Following the capture of the city by Crusaders, the order became a military as well as infirmarian order.
Roman Catholic orders such as the Franciscans stressed tending the sick, especially during the devastating plagues.
The Catholic elites provided hospital services because of their theology of salvation that good works were the route to heaven. The same theology holds strong into the 21st century. In Catholic areas, the tradition of nursing sisters continued uninterrupted. Several orders of nuns provided nursing services in hospitals. A leadership role was taken by the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul, founded in France in 1633. New orders of Catholic nuns expanded the range of activities and reached new areas. For example, in rural Brittany in France, the Daughters of the Holy Spirit, created in 1706, played a central role. New opportunity for nuns as charitable practitioners were created by devout nobles on their own estates. The nuns provided comprehensive care for the sick poor on their patrons ' estates, acting not only as nurses, but took on expanded roles as physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries. The French Catholics in New France (Canada) and New Orleans continued these traditions. During the French Revolution, most of the orders of nurses were shut down and there was no organized nursing care to replace them. However the demand for their nursing services remained strong, and after 1800 the sisters reappeared and resumed their work in hospitals and on rural estates. They were tolerated by officials because they had widespread support and were the link between elite physicians and distrustful peasants who needed help.
The Protestant reformers, led by Martin Luther, rejected the notion that rich men could gain God 's grace through good works -- and thereby escape purgatory -- by providing cash endowments to charitable institutions. They also rejected the Catholic idea that the poor patients earned grace and salvation through their suffering. Protestants generally closed all the convents and most of the hospitals, sending women home to become housewives, often against their will. On the other hand, local officials recognized the public value of hospitals, and some were continued in Protestant lands, but without monks or nuns and in the control of local governments.
In London, the crown allowed two hospitals to continue their charitable work, under nonreligious control of city officials. The convents were all shut down but Harkness finds that women -- some of them former nuns -- were part of a new system that delivered essential medical services to people outside their family. They were employed by parishes and hospitals, as well as by private families, and provided nursing care as well as some medical, pharmaceutical, and surgical services.
In the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents, though they allowed a few to continue in operation. Those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Between 1600 and 1800, Protestant Europe had a few noticeable hospitals, but no regular system of nursing. The weakened public role of women left female practitioners restricted to assisting neighbors and family in an unpaid and unrecognized capacity.
Modern nursing began in the 19th century in Germany and Britain, and spread worldwide by 1900.
Phoebe, the nurse mentioned in the New Testament, was a deaconess. The role had virtually died out centuries before, but was revived in Germany in 1836 when Theodor Fliedner and his wife Friederike Münster opened the first deaconess motherhouse in Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. The diaconate was soon brought to England and Scandinavia, Kaiserswerth model. The women obligated themselves for 5 years of service, receiving room, board, uniforms, pocket money, and lifelong care. The uniform was the usual dress of the married woman. There were variations, such as an emphasis on preparing women for marriage through training in nursing, child care, social work and housework. In the Anglican Church, the diaconate was an auxiliary to the pastorate, and there were no mother houses. By 1890 there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Protestant Europe, chiefly Germany Scandinavia and England. In World War II, diaconates in war zones sustained heavy damage. As eastern Europe fell to communism, most diaconates were shut down, and 7000 deaconesses became refugees in West Germany. By 1957, in Germany there were 46,000 deaconesses and 10,000 associates. Other countries reported a total of 14,000 deaconesses, most of them Lutherans. In the United States and Canada 1550 women were counted, half of them in the Methodist Church.
William Passavant in 1849 brought the first four deaconesses to Pittsburgh, after visiting Kaiserswerth. They worked at the Pittsburgh Infirmary (now Passavant Hospital). Between 1880 and 1915, 62 training schools were opened in the United States. The lack of training had weakened Passavant 's programs. However recruiting became increasingly difficult after 1910 as women preferred graduate nursing schools or the social work curriculum offered by state universities.
The Crimean War was a significant development in nursing history when English nurse Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing with the principles summarised in the book Notes on Nursing. A fund was set up in 1855 by members of the public to raise money for Florence Nightingale and her nurses ' work In 1856, £ 44,039 (equivalent to roughly over £ 2 million today) was pooled and with this Nightingale decided to use the money to lay the foundations for a training school at St Thomas ' Hospital. In 1860, the training for the first batch of nurses began; upon graduation from the school, these nurses used to be called ' Nightingales '.
Nightingale 's revelation of the abysmal nursing care afforded soldiers in the Crimean War energized reformers. Queen Victoria in 1860 ordered a hospital to be built to train Army nurses and surgeons, the Royal Victoria Hospital. The hospital opened in 1863 in Netley and admitted and cared for military patients. Beginning in 1866, nurses were formally appointed to Military General Hospitals. The Army Nursing Service (ANS) oversaw the work of the nurses starting in 1881. These military nurses were sent overseas beginning with the First Boer War (often called Zulu War) from 1879 to 1881. They were also dispatched to serve during the Egyptian Campaign in 1882 and the Sudan War of 1883 to 1884. During the Sudan War members of the Army Nursing Service nursed in hospital ships on the Nile as well as the Citadel in Cairo. Almost 2000 nurses served during the second Boer War, the Anglo - Boer War of 1899 to 1902, alongside nurses who were part of the colonial armies of Australia, Canada and New Zealand. They served in tented field hospitals. 23 Army Nursing sisters from Britain lost their lives from disease outbreaks.
New Zealand was the first country to regulate nurses nationally, with adoption of the Nurses Registration Act on the 12 September 1901. It was here in New Zealand that Ellen Dougherty became the first registered nurse.
Canadian nursing dates all the way back to 1639 in Quebec with the Augustine nuns. These nuns were trying to open up a mission that cared for the spiritual and physical needs of patients. The establishment of this mission created the first nursing apprenticeship training in North America.
In the nineteenth century there were some Catholic orders of nursing that were trying to spread their message across Canada. These women had only an occasional consultations with a physician. Towards the end of the nineteenth century hospital care and medical services had been improved and expanded. Much of this was due to the Nightingale model, which prevailed in English Canada. In 1874 the first formal nursing training program was started at the General and Marine Hospital in St. Catharines in Ontario. Many programs popped up in hospitals across Canada after this one was established. Graduates and teachers from these programs began to fight for licensing legislation, nursing journals, university training for nurses, and for professional organizations for nurses.
The first instance of Canadian nurses and the military was in 1885 with the Northwest Rebellion. Some nurses came out to aid the wounded. In 1901 Canadian nurses were officially part of the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps. Georgina Fane Pope and Margaret C. MacDonald were the first nurses officially recognized as military nurses.
Canadian missionary nurses were also of great importance in Henan, China as a part of the North China Mission starting in 1888.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women made inroads into various professions including teaching, journalism, social work, and public health. These advances included the establishment of a Women 's Medical College in Toronto (and in Kingston, Ontario) in 1883, attributed in part to the persistence of Emily Stowe, the first female doctor to practice in Canada. Stowe 's daughter, Augusta Stowe - Gullen, became the first woman to graduate from a Canadian medical school.
Apart from a token few, women were outsiders to the male - dominated medical profession. As physicians became better organized, they successfully had laws passed to control the practice of medicine and pharmacy and banning marginal and traditional practitioners. Midwifery -- practiced along traditional lines by women -- was restricted and practically died out by 1900. Even so, the great majority of childbirths took pace at home until the 1920s, when hospitals became preferred, especially by women who were better educated, more modern, and more trusting in modern medicine.
In the Prairie provinces, the first homesteaders relied on themselves for medical services. Poverty and geographic isolation empowered women to learn and practice medical care with the herbs, roots, and berries that worked for their mothers. They prayed for divine intervention but also practiced supernatural magic that provided as much psychological as physical relief. The reliance on homeopathic remedies continued as trained nurses and doctors and how - to manuals slowly reached the homesteaders in the early 20th century.
After 1900 medicine and especially nursing modernized and became well organized.
The Lethbridge Nursing Mission in Alberta was a representative Canadian voluntary mission. It was founded, independent of the Victorian Order of Nurses, in 1909 by Jessie Turnbull Robinson. A former nurse, Robinson was elected as president of the Lethbridge Relief Society and began district nursing services aimed at poor women and children. The mission was governed by a volunteer board of women directors and began by raising money for its first year of service through charitable donations and payments from the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. The mission also blended social work with nursing, becoming the dispenser of unemployment relief.
Richardson (1998) examines the social, political, economic, class, and professional factors that contributed to ideological and practical differences between leaders of the Alberta Association of Graduate Nurses (AAGN), established in 1916, and the United Farm Women of Alberta (UFWA), founded in 1915, regarding the promotion and acceptance of midwifery as a recognized subspecialty of registered nurses. Accusing the AAGN of ignoring the medical needs of rural Alberta women, the leaders of the UFWA worked to improve economic and living conditions of women farmers. Irene Parlby, the UFWA 's first president, lobbied for the establishment of a provincial Department of Public Health, government - provided hospitals and doctors, and passage of a law to permit nurses to qualify as registered midwives. The AAGN leadership opposed midwife certification, arguing that nursing curricula left no room for midwife study, and thus nurses were not qualified to participate in home births. In 1919 the AAGN compromised with the UFWA, and they worked together for the passage of the Public Health Nurses Act that allowed nurses to serve as midwives in regions without doctors. Thus, Alberta 's District Nursing Service, created in 1919 to coordinate the province 's women 's health resources, resulted chiefly from the organized, persistent political activism of UFWA members and only minimally from the actions of professional nursing groups clearly uninterested in rural Canadians ' medical needs.
The Alberta District Nursing Service administered health care in the predominantly rural and impoverished areas of Alberta in the first half of the 20th century. Founded in 1919 to meet maternal and emergency medical needs by the United Farm Women (UFWA), the Nursing Service treated prairie settlers living in primitive areas lacking doctors and hospitals. Nurses provided prenatal care, worked as midwives, performed minor surgery, conducted medical inspections of schoolchildren, and sponsored immunization programs. The post-Second World War discovery of large oil and gas reserves resulted in economic prosperity and the expansion of local medical services. The passage of provincial health and universal hospital insurance in 1957 precipitated the eventual phasing out of the obsolete District Nursing Service in 1976.
After World War II, the health care system expanded and was nationalized with medicare. Currently there are 260,000 nurses in Canada but they face the same difficulties as most countries, as technology advances and the aging population requires more nursing care.
During most of Mexico 's wars in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, camp followers known as soldaderas nursed soldiers wounded in warfare. During the Mexican Revolution (1910 - 1920) care of soldiers in northern Mexico was also undertaken by the Neutral White Cross, founded by Elena Arizmendi Mejia after the Mexican Red Cross refused to treat revolutionary soldiers. The Neutral White Cross treated soldiers regardless of their faction.
Professionalization of nursing in France came in the late 19th and early 20th century. In 1870 France 's 1,500 hospitals were operated by 11,000 Catholic sisters; by 1911 there were 15,000 nuns representing over 200 religious orders. Government policy after 1900 was to secularize public institutions, and diminish the role the Catholic Church. The lay staff was enlarged from 14,000 in 1890 to 95,000 in 1911. This political goal came in conflict with the need to maintain better quality of medical care in antiquated facilities. Many doctors, while personally anti-clerical, realized their dependence on the Catholic sisters. Most lay nurses came from peasant or working - class families and were poorly trained. Faced with the long hours and low pay, many soon married and left the field, while the Catholic sisters had renounced marriage and saw nursing as their God - given vocation. New government - operated nursing schools turned out nonreligous nurses who were slated for supervisory roles. During the World War, an outpouring of patriotic volunteers brought large numbers of untrained middle - class women into the military hospitals. They left when the war ended but the long - term effect was to heighten the prestige of nursing. In 1922 the government issued a national diploma for nursing.
Nursing professionalized rapidly in the late 19th century as larger hospitals set up nursing schools that attracted ambitious women from middle - and working - class backgrounds. Agnes Elizabeth Jones and Linda Richards established quality nursing schools in the U.S. and Japan; Linda Richards was officially America 's first professionally trained nurse, having been trained at Florence Nightingale 's training school, and subsequently graduating in 1873 from the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston
In the early 1900s, the autonomous, nursing - controlled, Nightingale - era schools came to an end. Despite the establishment of university - affiliated nursing schools, such as Columbia and Yale, hospital training programs were dominant. Formal "book learning '' was discouraged in favor of clinical experience through an apprenticeship. In order to meet a growing demand, hospitals used student nurses as cheap labor at the expense of quality formal education.
The number of hospitals grew from 149 in 1873 to 4,400 in 1910 (with 420,000 beds) to 6,300 in 1933, primarily because the public trusted hospitals more and could afford more intensive and professional care.
They were operated by city, state and federal agencies, by churches, by stand - alone non-profits, and by for - profit enterprises run by a local doctor. All the major denominations built hospitals; in 1915, the Catholic Church ran 541, staffed primarily by unpaid nuns. The others sometimes had a small cadre of deaconesses as staff. Most larger hospitals operated a school of nursing, which provided training to young women, who in turn did much of the staffing on an unpaid basis. The number of active graduate nurses rose rapidly from 51,000 in 1910 to 375,000 in 1940 and 700,000 in 1970.
The Protestant churches reentered the health field, especially by setting up orders of women, called deaconesses who dedicated themselves to nursing services.
The modern deaconess movement began in Germany in 1836 when Theodor Fliedner and his wife opened the first deaconess motherhouse in Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. It became a model and within a half century were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe. The Chursh of England named its first deaconess in 1862. The North London Deaconess Institution trained deaconesses for other dioceses and some served overseas.
William Passavant in 1849 brought the first four deaconesses to Pittsburgh, in the United States, after visiting Kaiserswerth. They worked at the Pittsburgh Infirmary (now Passavant Hospital).
The American Methodists -- the largest Protestant denomination -- engaged in large - scale missionary activity in Asia and elsewhere in the world, making medical services a priority as early as the 1850s. Methodists in America took note, and began opening their own charitable institutions such as orphanages and old people 's homes after 1860. In the 1880s, Methodists began opening hospitals in the United States, which served people of all religious backgrounds beliefs. By 1895 13 hospitals were in operation in major cities. well
In 1884, U.S. Lutherans, particularly John D. Lankenau, brought seven sisters from Germany to run the German Hospital in Philadelphia.
By 1963, the Lutheran Church in America had centers for deaconess work in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Omaha.
In the U.S., the role of public health nurse began in Los Angeles in 1898, by 1924 there were 12,000 public health nurses, half of them in the 100 largest cities. Their average annual salary in larger cities was $1,390. In addition, there were thousands of nurses employed by private agencies handling similar work. Public health nurses supervised health issues in the public and parochial schools, to prenatal and infant care, handled communicable diseases and tuberculosis and dealt with an aerial diseases.
During the Spanish -- American War of 1898, medical conditions in the tropical war zone were dangerous, with yellow fever and malaria endemic. The United States government called for women to volunteer as nurses. Thousands did so, but few were professionally trained. Among the latter were 250 Catholic nurses, most of them from the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul.
Sporadic progress was made on several continents, where medical pioneers established formal nursing schools. But even as late as the 1870s, "women working in North American urban hospitals typically were untrained, working class, and accorded lowly status by both the medical profession they supported and society at large ''. Nursing had the same status in Great Britain and continental Europe before World War I.
Hospital nursing schools in the United States and Canada took the lead in applying Nightingale 's model to their training programmers:
standards of classroom and on - the - job training had risen sharply in the 1880s and 1890s, and along with them the expectation of decorous and professional conduct
In late the 1920s, the women 's specialties in health care included 294,000 trained nurses, 150,000 untrained nurses, 47,000 midwives, and 550,000 other hospital workers (most of them women).
In recent decades, professionalization has moved nursing degrees out of RN - oriented hospital schools and into community colleges and universities. Specialization has brought numerous journals to broaden the knowledge base of the profession.
By the beginning of World War I, military nursing still had only a small role for women in Britain; 10,500 nurses enrolled in Queen Alexandra 's Imperial Military Nursing Service (QAIMNS) and the Princess Mary 's Royal Air Force Nursing Service. These services dated to 1902 and 1918, and enjoyed royal sponsorship. There also were Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) nurses who had been enrolled by the Red Cross. The ranks that were created for the new nursing services were Matron - in - Chief, Principal Matron, Sister and Staff Nurses. Women joined steadily throughout the War. At the end of 1914, there were 2,223 regular and reserve members of the QAIMNS and when the war ended there were 10,404 trained nurses in the QAIMNS.
Grace McDougall (1887 -- 1963) was the energetic commandant of the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry (FANY), which had formed in 1907 as an auxiliary to the home guard in Britain. McDougall at one point was captured by the Germans but escaped. The British army wanted nothing to do with them so they drove ambulances and ran hospitals and casualty clearing stations for the Belgian and French armies.
When Canadian nurses volunteered to serve during World War I, they were made commissioned officers by the Royal Canadian Army before being sent overseas, a move that would grant them some authority in the ranks, so that enlisted patients and orderlies would have to comply with their direction. Canada was the first country in the world to grant women this privilege. At the beginning of the War, nurses were not dispatched to the casualty clearing stations near the front lines, where they would be exposed to shell fire. They were initially assigned to hospitals a safe distance away from the front lines. As the war continued, however, nurses were assigned to casualty clearing stations. They were exposed to shelling, and caring for soldiers with "shell shock '' and casualties suffering the effects of new weapons such as poisonous gas, as Katherine Wilson - Sammie recollects in Lights Out! A Canadian Nursing Sister 's Tale. World War I was also the first war in which a clearly marked hospital ship evacuating the wounded was targeted and sunk by an enemy submarine or torpedo boat, an act that had previously been considered unthinkable, but which happened repeatedly (see List of hospital ships sunk in World War I). Nurses were among the casualties.
Canadian women volunteering to serve overseas as nurses overwhelmed the army with applications. A total of 3,141 Canadian "nursing sisters '' served in the Canadian Army Medical Corps and 2,504 of those served overseas in England, France and the Eastern Mediterranean at Gallipoli, Alexandria and Salonika. By the end of the First World War, 46 Canadian Nursing Sisters had died In addition to these nurses serving overseas with the military, others volunteered and paid their own way over with organizations such as the Canadian Red Cross, the Victorian Order of Nurses, and St. John Ambulance. The sacrifices made by these nurses during the War in fact gave a boost to the women 's suffrage movement in many of the countries that fought in the war. The Canadian Army nursing sisters were among the first women in the world to win the right to vote in a federal election; the Military Voters Act of 1917 extended the vote to women in the service such as Nursing Sisters.
Australian nurses served in the war as part of the Australian General Hospital. Australia established two hospitals at Lemnos and Heliopolis Islands to support the Dardanelles campaign at Gallipoli. Nursing recruitment was sporadic, with some reserve nurses sent with the advance parties to set up the transport ship HMAS Gascoyne while others simply fronted to Barracks and were accepted, while still others were expected to pay for their passage in steerage. Australian nurses from this period became known as "grey ghosts '' because of their drab uniforms with starched collar and cuffs.
During the course of the war, Australian nurses were granted their own administration rather than working under medical officers. Australian Nurses hold the record for the maximum number of triage cases processed by a casualty station in a twenty - four - hour period during the battle of Passchendale. Their work routinely included administering ether during haemostatic surgery and managing and training medical assistants (orderlies).
Some 560 Australian army nurses served in India during the war, where they had to overcome a debilitating climate, outbreaks of disease, insufficient numbers, overwork and hostile British Army officers.
Surveys in the U.S. showed that nurses often got married a few years after graduation and quit work; other waited 5 to 10 years for marriage; careerists some never married. By the 1920s increasing numbers of married nurses continued to work. The high turnover meant that advanvcement could be rapid; the average age of a nursing supervisor in a hospital was only 26 years. Wages for private duty nurses were high in the 1920s -- $1,300 a year when working full - time in patients ' homes or at their private rooms in hospitals. This was more than double what a woman could earn as a teacher or in office work. Rates fell sharply when the Great Depression came in 1929, and continuous work was much harder to find.
Over 4000 women served as nurses in uniform in the Canadian Armed Forces during the Second World War. They were called "Nursing Sisters '' and had already been professionally trained in civilian life. However, in military service they achieved an elite status well above what they had experienced as civilians. The Nursing Sisters had much more responsibility and autonomy, and had more opportunity to use their expertise, then civilian nurses. They were often close to the front lines, and the military doctors -- all men -- delegated significant responsibility to the nurses because of the high level of casualties, the shortages of physicians, and extreme working conditions.
In 1942, sixty five front line nurses from the General Hospital Division in British Singapore were ordered aboard the Vyner Brook and Empire Star for evacuation, rather than caring for wounded. The ships were strafed with machine gun fire by Japanese planes. Sisters Vera Torney and Margaret Anderson were awarded medals when they could find nothing else on the crowded deck and covered their patients with their own bodies. A version of this action was honoured in the film Paradise Road. The Vyner Brook was bombed and sank quickly in shallow water of the Sumatra Strait and all but twenty - one were lost at sea, presumed drowned. The remaining nurses swam ashore at Mentok, Sumatra. The twenty - one nurses and some British and Australian troops were marched into the sea and killed with machine gun fire in the Banka Island massacre. Sister Vivian Bullwinkel was the only survivor. She became Australia 's premier nursing war hero when she nursed wounded British soldiers in the jungle for three weeks, despite her own flesh wound. She survived on the charity provided by Indonesian locals, but eventually hunger and the privations of hiding in mangrove swamp forced her to surrender. She remained imprisoned for the remainder of the war.
At around the same time, another group of twelve nurses stationed at the Rabaul mission in New Guinea were captured along with missionaries by invading Japanese troops and interred at their camp for two years. They cared for a number of British, Australian and American wounded. Toward the end of the war, they were transferred to a concentration camp in Kyoto and imprisoned under freezing conditions and forced into hard labour.
As Campbell (1984) shows, the nursing profession was transformed by World War Two. Army and Navy nursing was highly attractive and a larger proportion of nurses volunteered for service higher than any other occupation in American society.
The public image of the nurses was highly favorable during the war, as the simplified by such Hollywood films as "Cry ' Havoc ' '' which made the selfless nurses heroes under enemy fire. Some nurses were captured by the Japanese, but in practice they were kept out of harm 's way, with the great majority stationed on the home front. However, 77 were stationed in the jungles of the Pacific, where their uniform consisted of "khaki slacks, mud, shirts, mud, field shoes, mud, and fatigues. '' The medical services were large operations, with over 600,000 soldiers, and ten enlisted men for every nurse. Nearly all the doctors were men, with women doctors allowed only to examine the WAC.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt hailed the service of nurses in the war effort in his final "Fireside Chat '' of January 6, 1945. Expecting heavy casualties in the invasion of Japan, he called for a compulsory draft of nurses. The casualties never happened and there was never a draft of American nurses.
During World War II, nurses belonged to Queen Alexandra 's Imperial Military Nursing Service (QAIMNS), as they had during World War I, and as they remain today. (Nurses belonging to the QAIMNS are informally called "QA '' s.) Members of the Army Nursing Service served in every overseas British military campaign during World War II, as well as at military hospitals in Britain. At the beginning of World War II, nurses held officer status with equivalent rank, but were not commissioned officers. In 1941, emergency commissions and a rank structure were created, conforming with the structure used in the rest of the British Army. Nurses were given rank badges and were now able to be promoted to ranks from Lieutenant through to Brigadier. Nurses were exposed to all dangers during the War, and some were captured and became prisoners of war.
Germany had a very large and well organized nursing service, with three main organizations, one for Catholics, one for Protestants, and the DRK (Red Cross). In 1934 the Nazis set up their own nursing unit, the Brown Nurses, absorbing one of the smaller groups, bringing it up to 40,000 members. It set up kindergartens, hoping to seize control of the minds of the younger Germans, in competition with the other nursing organizations. Civilian psychiatric nurses who were Nazi party members participated in the killings of invalids, although the process was shrouded in euphemisms and denials.
Military nursing was primarily handled by the DRK, which came under partial Nazi control. Front line medical services were provided by male medics and doctors. Red Cross nurses served widely within the military medical services, staffing the hospitals that perforce were close to the front lines and at risk of bombing attacks. Two dozen were awarded the highly prestigious Iron Cross for heroism under fire. They are among the 470,000 German women who served with the military.
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where does the last name bull come from | Bull (surname) - wikipedia
Bull is a surname.
In addition to people bearing "Bull '' as an Old World - derived surname, "Bull '' has been part of the names of some Native Americans. Some of them bear it as part of a traditional name of their respective cultures. Some of these, and some others, either have borne it as part of a legal surname or (with or without their assent) been treated as bearing thusly.
Those bearing Bull as a surname include:
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who is the bad company song shooting star about | Straight Shooter (Bad Company album) - wikipedia
Straight Shooter is the second studio album by the English supergroup Bad Company. The album was released in April 1975, a month after the release of the single "Good Lovin ' Gone Bad '' and four months before the album 's second single "Feel Like Makin ' Love '' (see 1975 in music).
The album reached number 3 in the UK Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200. It was certified gold (500,000 units sold) by the Recording Industry Association of America a month after its release.
Mick Ralphs and Simon Kirke revealed on In the Studio (which devoted an episode to Straight Shooter) that the track "Shooting Star '' (which told the story of a rock star who died early) was lyrically inspired by the drug and alcohol - related deaths of Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Jim Morrison.
In June 1974, Bad Company released their self - titled debut album. Three months later, the band and recording engineer Ron Nevison recorded at least eight songs at Clearwell Castle in Gloucestershire, England. Sometime later Nevison mixed the songs for Straight Shooter at Air Studios in London. The sleeve for the album was designed by Hipgnosis, who also designed their debut album.
The first single from the album, "Good Lovin ' Gone Bad '', was released in March 1975 and reached No. 36 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album was released in April. The album 's final single "Feel Like Makin ' Love '' was released in August and reached No. 10 on the Hot 100.
Straight Shooter received different reviews from different music critics. Gautam Baksi 's review of the album for Allmusic said that the album 's popularity was attributed to the acoustic ballads "Shooting Star '' and "Feel Like Makin ' Love '', while the two songs written by Simon Kirke -- "Anna '' and "Weep No More '' -- as well as the album not having enough supporting songs and follow - up singles, were what made the album less successful than its predecessor. Robert Christgau felt that although Straight Shooter was better than its predecessor, it should not be labelled hard rock because Paul Rodgers did not have either a strong voice, which is needed to be a rock singer and because the album is not played at the right speed. Ed Naha 's feeling of the album, as stated in Rolling Stone magazine, was much more favourable than Christgau 's. Naha thought that, with their second album, Bad Company was proving that they would not end up like Mott the Hoople, Free, or King Crimson -- bands that Bad Company 's members used to be part of. Naha also thought that Simon Kirke 's "Anna '' was as bad as it was when it was first recorded, but that "Weep No More '' showed that he was progressing as a writer, while Boz Burrell was also making progress on the bass.
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when was the first death wish movie made | Death Wish (1974 film) - wikipedia
Death Wish is a 1974 American vigilante action film, loosely based on the 1972 novel of the same title by Brian Garfield. The film was directed by Michael Winner and stars Charles Bronson as Paul Kersey, an architect who becomes a vigilante after his wife is murdered and his daughter sexually assaulted during a home invasion. It was the first of the Death Wish film franchise.
At the time of release, the film was attacked by many film critics due to its support of vigilantism and advocating unlimited punishment of criminals. The novel denounced vigilantism, whereas the film embraced the notion. The film was a commercial success and resonated with the public in the United States, which was facing increasing crime rates during the 1970s.
Paul Kersey is an architect living in Manhattan with his wife Joanna and grown daughter Carol. One day, Joanna and Carol are followed home from D'Agostino's by three thugs who invade the apartment, posing as deliverymen. Upon finding that Carol and Joanna only have $7 on them, the thugs proceed to rape Carol and brutally beat Joanna before fleeing. Upon arriving at the hospital, Paul is devastated to learn that Joanna has died from her injuries. After his wife 's funeral during a snowstorm in Connecticut, Paul has an encounter with a mugger in a darkened street. Paul fights back with a homemade weapon - an improvised blackjack made from a sock with two rolls of quarters in it - causing the mugger to run away. Paul is shaken and energized by the encounter.
Paul 's boss sends him to Tucson, Arizona to see Ames Jainchill, a client with a residential development project. A few days later Paul is invited to dinner by Ames at his gun club. Ames is impressed with Paul 's accuracy at the target range. Paul reveals that he was a conscientious objector during the Korean War when he served as a combat medic. He had been taught to handle firearms by his father, a hunter, but after he was killed in a hunting accident Paul 's mother made him swear never to use guns again. Ames drives Paul back to the Tucson airport, and presents Paul with a gift for his work on the development, which he places into Paul 's checked luggage.
Back in Manhattan, Paul learns from his son - in - law, Jack, that his daughter is severely depressed from the trauma of the assault and is now catatonic. Paul and his son - in - law have his daughter committed to a mental hospital. Paul learns that Ames has given him a revolver. He loads it, then takes a late night walk during which he is mugged at gunpoint. Paul shoots the mugger, and in a state of shock, he runs home and vomits. The next night Paul walks through the city looking for violent criminals. Over the next few weeks, Paul kills several people, some of whom he provokes into attacking him and others whom he sees attacking others.
NYPD Lt. Frank Ochoa investigates the vigilante killings. His department narrows it down to a list of men who have had a family member recently killed by muggers and who are war veterans. Ochoa soon suspects Paul and is about to make an arrest when the District Attorney intervenes and tells Ochoa to "let him loose '' in another city instead. The D.A. and the Police Commissioner do not want the fact to get out that street crime in New York City has dropped dramatically since Paul became a vigilante and fear that if he is not stopped the whole city will descend into chaos. But they do n't want him to be arrested, because they do n't want a martyr. Ochoa does not like the idea, but relents.
Paul shoots two muggers on the stairs before being wounded in the leg by a third mugger with a pistol, who Kersey then pursues to a warehouse. When Paul corners him, he challenges him to a fast draw, only to faint, with the mugger escaping. His gun is discovered by a young patrolman named Jackson Reilly, who hands it to Ochoa, and is told to forget he ever saw it. The press are informed that Paul is just another mugging victim. Hospitalized, Ochoa tells Paul to have his company transfer him to another city and, in exchange, Ochoa will dispose of Paul 's revolver. In addition, Paul is ordered by Ochoa to leave New York, permanently.
Paul arrives in Chicago Union Station by train. Being greeted by a company representative, he notices a group of hoodlums harassing a young woman. He excuses himself and helps the woman. The hoodlums make obscene gestures, but Paul makes a finger gun at them and smiles.
Character actor Robert Miano had a minor role as a mugger in the film. John Herzfeld played the mugger who cuts Paul 's newspaper on the subway. Lawrence Hilton - Jacobs, who later co-starred on the highly successful television show Welcome Back, Kotter, had an uncredited role as one of the Central Park muggers near the end of the film. It has been rumored that Denzel Washington made his screen debut as an uncredited alley mugger, because, in a long shot, the actor shown appears to resemble him, but according to Washington himself, that is not true. Actress Helen Martin, who had a minor role, subsequently appeared in the television sitcoms Good Times and 227. Sonia Manzano (Maria from Sesame Street), has an uncredited role as a supermarket checkout clerk. Christopher Guest makes one of his earliest film appearances as a young police officer who finds Kersey 's gun. The film also marked Jeff Goldblum 's screen debut, playing one of the "freaks '' who assaulted Kersey 's family early in the film.
The film was based on Brian Garfield 's 1972 novel of the same name. Garfield was inspired to use the theme of vigilantism following incidents in his personal life. In one incident, his wife 's purse was stolen; in another, his car was vandalized. His initial thought each time was that he could kill "the son of a bitch '' responsible. He later considered that these were primitive thoughts, contemplated in an unguarded moment. He then thought of writing a novel about a man who entered this way of thinking in a moment of rage and then never emerged from it. The original novel received favorable reviews but was not a best seller. Garfield sold screen rights to both Death Wish and Relentless to the only film producers who approached him, Hal Landers and Bobby Roberts. He was offered the chance to write a screenplay adapting one of the two novels, and chose Relentless. He simply considered it the easier of the two to turn into a film.
Wendell Mayes was then hired to write the screenplay for Death Wish. He preserved the basic structure of the novel and much of the philosophical dialogue. It was his idea to turn police detective Frank Ochoa into a major character of the film. His early drafts for the screenplay had different endings than the final one. In one, he followed an idea from Garfield. The vigilante confronts the three thugs who attacked his family and ends up dead at their hands. Ochoa discovers the dead man 's weapon and considers following in his footsteps. In another, the vigilante is wounded and rushed to a hospital. His fate is left ambiguous. Meanwhile, Ochoa has found the weapon and struggles with the decision to use it. His decision is left unclear.
Originally, Sidney Lumet was to have directed Jack Lemmon as Paul and Henry Fonda as Ochoa. Lumet bowed out of the project to direct Serpico (1973), requiring a search for another director. Several were considered. United Artists eventually chose Michael Winner, due to his track record of gritty, violent action films. The examples of his work considered included The Mechanic (1972), Scorpio (1973), and The Stone Killer (1973).
The film was rejected by other studios because of its controversial subject matter, and the perceived difficulty of casting someone in the vigilante role. Winner attempted to recruit Bronson, but there were two problems for the actor. First, his agent, Paul Kohner, considered that the film carried a dangerous message. Second, at this point the screenplay followed the original novel in describing the vigilante as a meek accountant -- hardly a suitable role for Bronson.
"I was really a miscast person, '' Bronson said later. "It was more a theme that would have been better for Dustin Hoffman or somebody who could play a weaker kind of man. I told them that at the time. ''
The film project was dropped by United Artists after budget constraints forced producers Hal Landers and Bobby Roberts to liquidate their rights. The original producers were replaced by Italian film mogul Dino De Laurentiis.
De Laurentiis convinced Charles Bluhdorn to bring the project to Paramount Pictures. Paramount purchased the distribution rights of the film in the United States market, while Columbia Pictures licensed the distribution rights for international markets. De Laurentiis raised the $3 million budget of the film by pre-selling the distribution rights.
With funding secured, screenwriter Gerald Wilson was hired to revise the script. His first task was changing the identity of the vigilante to make the role more suitable for Bronson. "Paul Benjamin '' was renamed to "Paul Kersey ''. His job was changed from accountant to architect. His background changed from a World War II veteran to a Korean War veteran. The reason for him not seeing combat duty changed from serving as an army accountant to being a conscientious objector. Several vignettes from Mayes ' script were deemed unnecessary and were therefore deleted.
Winner himself asked for several revisions in the script. Both the novel and the original script had no scenes showing the vigilante interacting with his wife. Winner decided to include a prologue depicting a happy relationship, so the prologue of the film depicts the couple vacationing in Hawaii. The early draft of the script had the vigilante being inspired by seeing a fight scene in the Western film High Noon. Winner decided on a more elaborate scene, involving a fight scene in a recreation of the Wild West, taking place in Tucson, Arizona. The final script had the vigilante making an occasional reference to Westerns. While confronting an armed mugger, he challenges him to draw (Kersey tells him to "fill your hand '' -- the same challenge issued by Western movie icon John Wayne to his main opponent in the climactic shoot - out in 1969 's True Grit). When Ochoa tells him to get out of town, he asks if he has until sundown to do so. The killing in the subway station was supposed to remain off - screen in Mayes ' script, but Winner himself decided to turn this into an actual, brutal scene.
A minor argument occurred when it came to a shooting location for the film. Bronson asked for a California - based location so he could visit his family in Bel Air, Los Angeles. Winner insisted on New York City and De Laurentiis agreed. Ultimately, Bronson backed down. Death Wish was shot on location in New York City, during the winter of 1973 - 1974. Death Wish was first released to American audiences in July 1974. The world premiere took place on July 24 in the Loews Theater of New York City.
Multiple Grammy award - winning jazz musician Herbie Hancock produced and composed the original score for the soundtrack to the movie. This was his third film score, behind the 1966 movie Blow - Up and 1973 's The Spook Who Sat By The Door. Michael Winner said, "(Dino) De Laurentiis said ' Get a cheap English band. ' Because the English bands were very successful. But I had a girlfriend who was in Sesame Street, a Puerto Rican actress (Sonia Manzano), who played a checkout girl at the supermarket (in Death Wish), and she was a great jazz fan. She said, ' Well, you should have Herbie Hancock. He 's got this record out called Head Hunters. ' She gave me Head Hunters, which was staggering. And I said, ' Dino, never mind a cheap English band, we 'll have Herbie Hancock. ' Which we did. ''
Hancock 's theme for the film was quoted in "Judge, Jury and Executioner, '' a 2013 single by Atoms for Peace.
Death Wish received mixed to extremely negative reviews upon its release, due to its support of vigilantism, but it affected U.S. audiences and began widespread debate over how to deal with rampant crime. The film 's graphic violence, particularly the brutal rape scene of Kersey 's daughter, as well as the explicit portrayal of Kersey 's premeditated slayings, was considered exploitative, but realistic in the context of an urban U.S. atmosphere of rising crime rates.
Many critics were displeased with the film, considering it an "immoral threat to society '' and an encouragement of antisocial behavior. Vincent Canby of the New York Times was one of the most outspoken writers, condemning Death Wish in two extensive articles. Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review, while not agreeing with its philosophy.
Garfield was also unhappy with the final product, calling the film "incendiary '', and stated that the film 's sequels are all pointless and rancid, since they advocate vigilantism, unlike his two novels, which make the opposite argument. The film led him to write a follow - up titled Death Sentence, which was published a year after the film 's release. In later years, the film would be liked for its disturbing, serious view of one man 's violent war on crime. Bronson defended the film: he felt it was intended to be a commentary on violence and was meant to attack violence, not romanticize it. Many critics rate the original film higher than the sequels, which were more exploitative and contrived.
Death Wish currently maintains a 65 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Death Wish was a watershed for Bronson, who was 53 years old at the time, and who was then better known in Europe and Asia for his role in The Great Escape. Bronson became an American film icon, who experienced great popularity over the next twenty years.
The film was first released on VHS and LaserDisc in 1980. It was later released on DVD in 2001 and 2006. A 40th Anniversary Edition was released on Blu - ray in 2014. The DVD was rereleased in 2017.
In March 2016, Paramount and MGM announced that Aharon Keshales and Navot Papushado would direct a remake starring Bruce Willis. In May, Keshales and Papushado quit the project, after the studio failed to allow their script rewrites. In June, Eli Roth signed on to direct. The film was released on March 2, 2018.
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where is ex on the beach filmed series 8 | Ex on the Beach - wikipedia
Ex on the Beach is a reality television series that is broadcast on MTV. The series was first announced in February 2014 and premiered on 22 April 2014. It features eight single men and women enjoying a summer holiday in paradise while looking for love. However, they are joined by their exes to shake things up. Each ex was there either for revenge or to rekindle their love. The show is narrated by Irish comedian Andrew Maxwell.
On 12 December 2017 it was announced that Vicky Pattison, and featuring Joss Mooney, would host a spin - off show entitled "Ex on the Beach: Body SOS '' where she will attempt to help members of the public to get into shape.
The first series of the show was announced in February 2014 and premiered on MTV on 22 April 2014. The series ran for eight episodes and concluded on 10 June 2014. The official list of cast members was released on 13 March 2014 and includes four single boys: Ashley Cain, Jack Lomax, Liam Lewis and Marco Alexandre; as well as four single girls: Chloe Goodman, Emily Gillard, Farah Sattaur and Vicky Pattison. It was announced that Geordie Shore star Vicky Pattison would be taking part in the series; she was joined by ex-fiancé and former Geordie Shore co-star Ricci Guarnaccio as well as Australian fling Daniel Conn who featured briefly in series 6 of Geordie Shore. On 7 January 2015, cast member Chloe Goodman entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the fifteenth series. However she became the first Housemate to be evicted. Ashley later returned for Series 2 as an ex, while Vicky returned in the third series. Liam and Chloe both returned again for Series 5, while Ashley and Joss made appearances as exes. Ross was another cast member from this series to make a return, this time during Series 6.
The second series of the show began airing on 27 January 2015 and ran for eight episodes, concluding on 17 March 2015. This was confirmed on 23 July 2014 when it was announced that filming would begin soon, with the series airing in 2015. The official list of cast members was released on 6 January 2015. It included four single boys: Connor Hunter, Luke Goodfellow, Morgan Evans and Rogan O'Connor, as well as four single girls: Anita Kaushik, Kayleigh Morris, Loren Green and Melissa Reeves. It was also announced that Geordie Shore stars Charlotte Crosby and Gary Beadle would be taking part in the series. Ahead of the launch of the new series, it was confirmed that Series 1 cast member Ashley Cain would be returning for the second series as an ex. Rogan later returned for the third series, while Jess and Gary both returned for the fifth series as main cast, with Kayleigh and Melissa appearing as exes. Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017, but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour. In 2018, Jess Impiazzi, an ex during this series went onto appear in the twenty - first series of Celebrity Big Brother.
The third series of the show began on 11 August 2015. The official list of cast members was released on 14 July 2015. This series was filmed in Cancun, Mexico, making this the first series to be filmed outside of Europe. They include four boys: Graham Griffiths, Jayden Robins, Kirk Norcross and Stephen Bear, and four girls: Amy Paige Cooke, Laura Alicia Summers, Megan McKenna and Megan Rees. With the announcement of the line - up it was confirmed that former Geordie Shore cast member and star of the first series, Vicky Pattison, would be making her return as an ex alongside Series 2 star Rogan O'Connor. The Only Way Is Essex cast member Kirk Norcross was also confirmed to be taking part in the series, with his ex-fiancée and Celebrity Big Brother star Cami - Li featuring as his ex. Star of Magaluf Weekender Jordan Davies was also revealed to be taking part in the series, also featuring as an ex. Megan McKenna and Jordan later returned for the fourth series. On 5 January 2016, cast member Megan McKenna entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the seveneeth series, and on 28 July 2016, Stephen Bear entered the house to compete in the eighteenth series where he left as the winner. Jordan Davies made another return to the show, this time during the fifth series with Jemma and Bear, and Holly also returning as an ex again. In August 2017, both Jemma Lucy and Jordan Davies took part in the twentieth series of Celebrity Big Brother.
The fourth series of the show began on 19 January 2016. This series was filmed in Portugal. The official cast list was revealed on 15 December 2015 and includes four girls: Helen Briggs, Nancy - May Turner, Naomi Hedman and Olivia Walsh, as well as four boys: Joe Delaney, Lewis Good, Youssef Hassane and Geordie Shore star Scotty T. Megan McKenna and Magaluf Weekender cast member Jordan Davies would be returning to the series as exes, having previously appeared during the previous series. Olivia later returned to the beach for the fifth series, while Kieran Lee went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother, but was evicted during the final week.
The fifth series of the show began on 16 August 2016. This series took place in Koh Samui, Thailand. The series was confirmed on 8 March 2016 after the finale of the fourth series. It was also announced that faces from the past would return for this series with "unfinished business ''. The official list of cast members were released on 5 July 2016. It features four boys and four girls from previous series. From the first series it includes Chloe Goodman and Liam Lewis. Geordie Shore star Gary Beadle and Jess Impiazzi return having previously appeared in the second series, while Jemma Lucy, Jordan Davies and Stephen Bear from the third series all return. Finally Olivia Walsh returns having previously appeared in series 4. Over the course of the series they will be joined by their exes, which also include familiar faces. Series 1 's Ashley Cain will be making his third appearance on the show, while Joss Mooney also returns. Kayleigh Morris and Melissa Reeves will be back having already appeared in the second series. Holly Rickwood from Series 3 will also be back on the beach. New cast members include Lillie Lexie Gregg, Charlotte Dawson, David Hawley, Aimee Kimber, Conor Scurlock and Alex Stewart. While the series was airing, Stephen Bear took part in the eighteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother. He later went on to win the series. Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017, but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour. Later in the year, in August 2017, both Jemma Lucy and Jordan Davies took part in the twentieth series of Celebrity Big Brother, who were both followed by Jess Impiazzi, who later went onto appear in the twenty - first series.
The sixth series of the show began on 17 January 2017. This series was filmed on location in Crete, Greece. The series was confirmed on 2 November 2016. The official list of cast members were released on 13 December 2016. They include four boys; Alex Leslie, Josh Ritchie, Ross Worsick and Sean Pratt, and four girls; Harriette Harper, Maisie Gillespie, Zahida Allen and ZaraLena Jackson. Ross has previously appeared in the first series of the show whereas Josh featured in the first series of Love Island. With the announcement of the line - up it was also confirmed that Geordie Shore star Aaron Chalmers would be arriving on the beach as an ex as well as former The Only Way Is Essex cast member Nicole Bass. Chanelle McCleary, an ex from this series, later went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother but was evicted a week before the final.
The seventh series of the show began on 20 June 2017. This series was filmed on location on the island of Bali in Indonesia. The series was confirmed on 26 February 2017. The cast members for the series were confirmed on 23 May 2017 which include Geordie Shore stars Chloe Ferry and Marty McKenna, Love Island contestants Max Morley and Josh Ritchie, as well as Beauty School Cop Outs cast member Savannah Kemplay. Marty and Josh had previously appeared in the third and sixth series of the show respectively. Shortly after the series it was announced that Dean Ralph and Jordan Wright had joined the cast of The Only Way Is Essex for the twenty - second series.
The eighth series of the show is expected to begin on 20 March 2018, and was filmed in Spain. The series was confirmed in August 2017. The cast for this series was revealed on 20 February 2018, and includes Geordie Shore star Marnie Simpson as well as The X Factor contestant, and Stereo Kicks and Union J singer Casey Johnson.
In addition to appearing on Ex on the Beach, some of the cast members went on to compete in other reality TV shows including Celebrity Big Brother, Big Brother, and The Challenge.
Challenges in bold indicate the cast member was a finalist on the Challenge.
On 12 December 2017 it was announced that Vicky Pattison would host a spin - off show entitled "Ex on the Beach: Body SOS '' where she will attempt to help members of the public to get into shape. The first series began airing on 17 January 2018 and features Joss Mooney, who rose to fame by appearing in the first series of Ex on the Beach.
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which aircraft of iaf was not a part of 1965 war * 1 point | Indo - Pakistani air war of 1965 - wikipedia
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The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 saw the Indian and Pakistani Air Forces engaged in large - scale aerial combat against each other for the first time since the Partition of India in 1947. The war took place during the course of September 1965 and saw both air forces conduct defensive and offensive operations over Indian and Pakistani airspace. The aerial war saw both sides conducting thousands of sorties in a single month. Both sides claimed victory in the air war; Pakistan claimed to have destroyed 104 enemy aircraft against its own losses of 19, while India claimed to have destroyed 73 enemy aircraft and lost 35 of its own. Despite the intense fighting, the conflict was effectively a stalemate.
The war began in early August 1965 and initially the fighting was confined mainly to the ground. Later, however, as the war progressed, the war took on another dimension as the two sides began air operations against each other. Although the two forces had previously taken part in the First Kashmir War which had occurred shortly after the Partition of India in 1947, that engagement had been limited in scale compared to the 1965 conflict and the air operations that both sides had undertaken were limited and largely confined to interdiction and other strategic purposes such as re-supply and troop transport operations. Although there had been one incident where Indian fighter aircraft intercepted a Pakistani transport, there had been no significant air - to - air combat. During the 1965 conflict, however, the PAF flew a total 2,364 sorties while the IAF flew 3,937 sorties.
The aerial phase of the war began on 1 September 1965 when the Indian Air Force (IAF) responded to an urgent call for air strikes against the Pakistani Army, which had launched an attack known as Operation Grand Slam. The IAF 's 45 Sqn was tasked to carry out Close air Support missions in support of Indian troops. The squadron had recently been moved from Pune to Pathankot, after a merger of No 220 Sqn into it, under the command of Sqn. Ldr. S.K. "Marshal '' Dhar. Three missions of four aircraft each were tasked, with the first wave taking off at 1719 hours. These strafed Pakistani positions and attacked Pakistani tanks and ground targets, though a lot of damage from "friendly fire '' was also reported later on. The Indian aircraft were intercepted by two Pakistan Air Force (PAF) F - 86 Sabres, flown by S / L Sarfraz Rafiqui of No 5 Sqn and F / L Imtiaz Bhatti of No 15 Sqn. In the ensuing dogfight four IAF Vampires were lost, one from the first wave and three from the second. After this, the IAF immediately withdrew about 130 Vampires, together with over 50 Ouragons, from front - line service.
On 2 September, both sides flew in support of their ground forces, however no major aerial engagement was observed.
The appearance of the Sabres necessitated a move by the IAF to send the Folland Gnat fighters to the forward base of Pathankot. IAF used Mysteres flying at slow speed as bait to lure Sabres to attack where the waiting Gnats would take them on. Two Sabres were scrambled but one had to turn back without entering the fight when the pilot could not jettison the fuel tanks. The other one flown by Flt Lt Yusaf Ali Khan, spotted the IAF planes and tried positioning himself behind them before attacking. Just as he got his cross-hairs on them he felt thuds on his own jet, as he was surrounded in a cloud of Gnats repeatedly being attacked. A Lockheed F - 104 Starfighter lurking in the area was pointed to the dog fight by base control along with scrambling another one from base. The first Starfighter crossed through the dog fight at super sonic speed. The Gnats after scoring a kill started egressing. IAF 's Squadron Leader Trevor J. Keelor of No. 23 Squadron claimed to have shot down the F - 86 Sabre on that day (September 3), claiming the first air combat victory for the IAF of the war and subsequently received the Vir Chakra and the title of ' Sabre Slayer '. However the sabre he ' shot down ' was flown in badly damaged condition and somehow rough landed back at the base. The Sabre pilot, Flt Lt Yusaf Ali Khan, was given Sitara - e-Jurat for surviving dog fight with six Gnats (while his wingman was ordered to leave since he could n't jettison his fuel tanks) and bringing the damaged Sabre back home. In the same incident, an IAF Gnat pilot was overheard warning others of the incoming Starfighter. Also, a Gnat piloted by Squadron Leader Brij Pal Singh Sikand, mistakingly landed at an abandoned airstrip in Pasrur, when he thought he had safely crossed the border. His takeoff attempt was aborted due to presence of a Pakistan army jeep on the runway. He was taken POW and later handed over to PAF. A Lockheed F - 104 Starfighter flown by Flt Lt Hakimullah Khan chasing in at super sonic speed was also credited with forcing the Gnat down. This Gnat is displayed as a war trophy in the Pakistan Air Force Museum, Karachi. after it was flown from Pasrur by Sqn Ldr Saad Hatmi who flew the captured aircraft back to Sargodha, and later tested and evaluated its flight performance, was of the personal view that Gnat was no ' Sabre Slayer ' when it came to dog fighting.
On 4 September, an F - 86 Sabre was lost. The PAF claimed the cause to be friendly ground fire while the IAF claimed to have shot it down.
Rafiqui was shot down over Halwara on 6 September, while Bhatti ended the war with 34 combat missions to his credit, the maximum combat missions flown by any pilot during the war.
During the conflict, the Pakistani F - 86 Sabre Flying Ace, Muhammad Mahmood Alam shot down seven Indian aircraft including claims of two as ' probable '. Five Hawker Hunter aircraft were shot down in one minute, of which four were brought down in 30 seconds.
On September 6, the Indian Army crossed the border at Lahore to relieve pressure on the Chamb Jaurian sector. On the evening of the same day, the PAF responded with attacks on Indian airfields at Pathankot, Adampur and Halwara. The attack on Pathankot was successful, while the attacks on Adampur and Halwara were failures. The IAF lost almost ten aircraft on the ground at Pathankot. The Adampur strike turned back before even reaching Adampur while at Halwara two of the three attacking raiders were shot down for the loss of two Indian Hunters in air combat. Both the Indian pilots survived as they ejected over their base, whereas the intruding Pakistani pilots were killed in action. This included the ace Squadron Leader Sarfaraz Rafiqui who had shot down two Vampires on 1 September. Before being shot down, Rafiqui is credited with shooting down the first of the Hunters. He was later posthumously awarded the Sitara - e-Jurat for the Chamb action and the Hilal - i - Jurat for the Halwara action.
On 7 September 1965, the PAF parachuted 135 Special Services Group (SSG) para commandos at three Indian airfields (Halwara, Pathankot and Adampur). The daring attempt proved to be an "unmitigated disaster ''. Only ten commandos were able to return to Pakistan, the rest were taken as prisoners of war (including one of the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt). At Halwara and Adampur these troops landed in residential areas where the villagers caught and handed them over to police.
Also on 7 September, the IAF mounted 33 sorties against the heavily guarded PAF airfield complex at Sargodha. The IAF lost two Mysteres and three Hunters due to the defence mounted by the PAF 's local squadrons. One of the Indian Hunter pilots, who ejected near Sargodha, was made POW and released after the war. One of the crippled Mysteres flying solo got involved in a dogfight with an F - 104 Starfighter and each somehow shot the other down; the Pakistani pilot safely ejected, while the Indian pilot, Squadron Leader Ajamada B. Devayya, was killed. Squadron Leader Devayya was awarded the Maha Vir Chakra for his bravery 23 years later, after his feat was revealed by an author appointed by the PAF to write its official history of the 1965 war.
The seventh of September also marked the day when the PAF attacked IAF airfields in the Eastern Sector. During the PAF 's raid on Kalaikunda, Indian pilot Flight Lieutenant AT Cooke engaged 3 PAF Sabres, shooting down one and badly damaging the second sabre, by this time, Cooke had no ammunition left but he successfully chased away the third sabre. His wingman engaged the remaining one sabre and shoot it down. The war lessened in intensity after 8 September, with occasional clashes between the IAF and the PAF. Both air forces now changed their doctrine from air interdictions to ground attack and concentrated their efforts on knocking out soft skin targets and supply lines, such as wagons carrying ammunition; and armoured vehicles. During the conflict IAF English Electric Canberras raided a few of the Pakistani bases. On 10 September one Mystere was downed by anti-aircraft fire in Pakistan but the pilot ejected safely.
On September 13, one PAF F - 86 Sabre was downed while attacking a train near Gurdaspur and the pilot was killed. In another encounter the same day between PAF Sabres from Sargodha and IAF Gnats from No. 2 Squadron, an Indian Gnat was shot down by a PAF F - 86 Sabre flown by Flt Lt Yusaf Ali Khan although the Indian pilot managed to eject safely. The other Gnat was engaged and damaged in air combat by Flt Lt Imtiaz Bhatti. The experienced pilot somehow managed to return to base, where according to All India Radio the Gnat 's pilot later died of wounds sustained during the combat. He was said to have brought his damaged aircraft back to base and to have died during landing. His funeral was attended by the Indian President. Yusaf Ali Khan was credited with a kill whereas, Imtiaz Bhatti was credited with damaging the IAF Gnat despite the later confirmation that the pilot died of wounds and the Gnat crashed during its landing attempt. Later in the night of 13 / 14 September, Indian Canberras undertook the deepest penetration of Pakistani airspace of the war, attacking Pakistani bases around Peshawar and Kohat. Rather than bombing the Peshawer runway, however, IAF bombers mistook the mall road in Peshawer as the runway and dropped their bombs there instead. The Canberras were intercepted by a Pakistani F - 104 near Lahore but they managed to evade the Starfighter and return home safely. They also had an encounter with F - 86 Sabres, one of which fired at the Canberras, which sustained some damage. A Pakistani F - 86 Sabre also crashed while conducting an evasive maneuver in an attempt to escape pursuit, from an escorting Gnat as it tried to defend the Canberra bombers; the PAF pilot was killed. The Gnat pilot, W / C Singh, was later credited with an aerial victory for this incident near Amritsar. Later, one Pakistani B - 57 was shot down by anti-aircraft fire over Adampur, although both of its crew managed to eject safely and remained POWs.
On 15 September, the PAF employed a number of its Lockheed C - 130 Hercules transport aircraft as bombers, which proved unsuccessful; two of them were shot down by the IAF. The following day, one IAF Hunter and a PAF F - 86 Sabre were shot down over Halwara. The IAF pilot was killed in the encounter, although the Pakistani pilot ejected and spent the rest of the war as a POW. A Pakistani Cessna was also shot down that day, as well as an Auster observation aircraft. On 18 September a Sabre was shot down by a Gnat over Amritsar; the matter was reported by the Collector, who had witnessed the entire dogfight. The same day a Pakistani Sabre shot down a civilian Indian aircraft even after the civilian plane indicated its identity, the PAF pilot assuming it to be a reconnaissance mission. Years later, the PAF pilot wrote a letter to the Indian pilot 's daughter to apologize for shooting down the aircraft. The aircraft had been carrying the then Gujarat Chief Minister Balwant Rai and his family.
On 19 September, a Gnat and two Sabres were downed over Chawinda. One of the Sabres that were shot down was credited to Squadron Leader Denzil Keelor, the brother of Trevor Keelor, who was credited with the first Indian aerial victory of the war. The following day, another two Hunters and an F - 86 Sabre were lost over Kasur, Pakistan.
The F - 86 was vulnerable to the diminutive Folland Gnat, nicknamed "Sabre Slayer. '' The Gnat is credited by many independent and Indian sources as having shot down seven Pakistani Canadair Sabres in the 1965 war. while two Gnats were downed by PAF fighters.
At one stage the IAF was operating 200 air missions simultaneously. IAF Folland Gnats of Nos 9 and 23 squadrons played a significant role in major air battles.
On 21 September, IAF Canberras carried out a daring daylight strike into Pakistan against the radar complex in Badin. The raid proved to be successful. Under the command of Wing Commander Peter Wilson, six Canberras from No. 16 Squadron took off from Agra, over 1,000 km from Bladin and proceeded towards the radar complex at low level. About 80 miles (130 km) short of the target, one Canberra climbed to an altitude of 10,000 feet in order to act as a decoy, before returning to base. The other five Canberras continued on towards the target. The flight then separated and four of the aircraft approached the target in two sections, each two minutes apart, at low level; before climbing to 7,000 feet from where they carried out bombing runs, dropping approximately 10,000 lbs of explosives. Wilson then approached from the south at an altitude of just 30 feet firing a salvo of 68mm rockets at the radar dome.
On the same day a PAF F - 104 intercepted a Canberra bomber on its way back from Sargodha and shot it down, while one Hunter pilot who was the son of Chief of the Indian Army was shot down by anti-aircraft fire; he ejected and was taken POW. The ceasefire was declared on the night of September 22, 1965.
There are conflicting claims by either side on this issue. Pakistani sources suggest that Indian losses were in the range of 59 -- 110 and Pakistani losses were around 18 -- 43.
Indian sources also claim that in terms of aircraft lost to sorties flown, the Indian Air Force 's attrition rate (1.5 %) was lower than the Pakistani attrition rate (1.82 %).
Another factor which makes it difficult to determine the outcome of the 1965 air war is the issue of aircraft lost in the air in air - to - air combat or to ground fire as opposed to aircraft lost on the ground due to bombing. A large number of Indian aircraft losses occurred on the ground during the attacks on Kalaikkunda and Pathankot -- up to 60 per cent by some accounts. -- while most of the Pakistani losses were in aerial combat.
India 's air chief marshal Arjan Singh claimed that despite having been qualitatively inferior, his air force achieved air superiority in three days. According to Kenneth Werrell, the Pakistan Air Force "did well in the conflict and probably had the edge ''. When hostilities broke out, the Pakistan Air Force with around 100 F - 86s faced an enemy with five times as many combat aircraft; the Indians were also equipped with comparatively modern aircraft inventory. Despite this, Werrell credits the PAF as having the advantage of a "decade 's experience with the Sabre '' and pilots with long flight hours experience.
The lessons of the 1965 war led India to refine its tactics which proved decisive in the 1971 war. Pakistani forces failed to take account of the extent to which they had relied on two factors which the IAF could not take for granted -- complete ground - based defensive radar coverage and an adequate supply of air - to - air missiles. Much effort was expended in India to remedy these deficiencies before 1971.
With Soviet aid, India established a modern early warning radar system, including the recently introduced ' Fansong - E ' low - level radar, linked with SA - 2 ' Guideline ' surface - to - air missiles and a large number of AA guns. By December 1971 the IAF comprised a total of 36 squadrons (of which 10 were deployed in the Bengal sector) with some 650 combat aircraft.
Moreover, the 1965 war resulted in the USA imposing a 10 - year arms embargo on both sides. This had no effect on India, which had always looked to Britain, France and even Russia for arms, but was disastrous for Pakistan, which was forced to acquire 90 obsolete second hand Sabres via Iran, 28 Mirage IIIs from France and 74 maintenance intensive Shenyang F - 6s. It was unable to replace losses among its (already weak) force of B - 57s, or to acquire a modern interceptor in realistic numbers.
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who has said yoga is the spiritues kamadhenu | Kamadhenu - wikipedia
Kamadhenu (Sanskrit: कामधेनु, (kaːməˈd̪ɦeːnʊ), Kāmadhenu), also known as Surabhi (सुरभि, Surabhī), is a divine bovine - goddess described in Hinduism as the mother of all cows. She is a miraculous "cow of plenty '' who provides her owner whatever he desires and is often portrayed as the mother of other cattle as well as the eleven Rudras. In iconography, she is generally depicted as a white cow with a female head and breasts, the wings of a bird, and the tail of a peafowl or as a white cow containing various deities within her body. All cows are venerated in Hinduism as the earthly embodiment of the Kamadhenu. As such, Kamadhenu is not worshipped independently as a goddess, and temples are not dedicated to her honor alone; rather, she is honored by the veneration of cows in general throughout the observant Hindu population.
Hindu scriptures provide diverse accounts of the birth of Kamadhenu. While some narrate that she emerged from the churning of the cosmic ocean, others describe her as the daughter of the creator god Daksha, and as the wife of the sage Kashyapa. Still other scriptures narrate that Kamadhenu was in the possession of either Jamadagni or Vashista (both ancient sages), and that kings who tried to steal her from the sage ultimately faced dire consequences for their actions. Kamadhenu plays the important role of providing milk and milk products to be used in her sage - master 's oblations; she is also capable of producing fierce warriors to protect him. In addition to dwelling in the sage 's hermitage, she is also described as dwelling in Goloka - the realm of the cows - and Patala, the netherworld.
Kamadhenu is often addressed by the proper name Surabhi or Shurbhi, which is also used as a synonym for an ordinary cow. Professor Jacobi considers the name Surabhi -- "the fragrant one '' -- to have originated from the peculiar smell of cows. According to the Monier Williams Sanskrit -- English Dictionary (1899), Surabhi means fragrant, charming, pleasing, as well as cow and earth. It can specifically refer to the divine cow Kamadhenu, the mother of cattle who is also sometimes described as a Matrika ("mother '') goddess. Other proper names attributed to Kamadhenu are Sabala ("the spotted one '') and Kapila ("the red one '').
The epithets "Kamadhenu '', "Kamaduh '' (कामदुह्) and "Kamaduha '' (कामदुहा) literally mean the cow "from whom all that is desired is drawn '' -- "the cow of plenty ''. In the Mahabharata and Devi Bhagavata Purana, in the context of the birth of Bhishma, the cow Nandini is given the epithet Kamadhenu. In other instances, Nandini is described as the cow - daughter of Surabhi - Kamadhenu. The scholar Vettam Mani considers Nandini and Surabhi to be synonyms of Kamadhenu.
According to Indologist Madeleine Biardeau, Kamadhenu or Kamaduh is the generic name of the sacred cow, who is regarded as the source of all prosperity in Hinduism. Kamadhenu is regarded as a form of Devi (the Hindu Divine Mother) and is closely related to the fertile Mother Earth (Prithvi), who is often described as a cow in Sanskrit. The sacred cow denotes "purity and non-erotic fertility,... sacrificing and motherly nature, (and) sustenance of human life ''.
Frederick M. Smith describes Kamadhenu as a "popular and enduring image in Indian art ''. All the gods are believed to reside in the body of Kamadhenu -- the generic cow. Her four legs are the scriptural Vedas; her horns are the triune gods Brahma (tip), Vishnu (middle) and Shiva (base); her eyes are the sun and moon gods, her shoulders the fire - god Agni and the wind - god Vayu and her legs the Himalayas. Kamadhenu is often depicted in this form in poster art.
Another representation of Kamadhenu shows her with the body of a white Zebu cow, crowned woman 's head, colourful eagle wings and a peacock 's tail. According to the Philadelphia Museum of Art, this form is influenced by the iconography of the Islamic Buraq, who is portrayed with a horse 's body, wings, and a woman 's face. Contemporary poster art also portrays Kamadhenu in this form.
A cow, identified with Kamadhenu, is often depicted accompanying the god Dattatreya. In relation to the deity 's iconography, she denotes the Brahminical aspect and Vaishnava connection of the deity contrasting with the accompanying dogs -- symbolizing a non-Brahminical aspect. She also symbolizes the Panch Bhuta (the five classical elements) in the icon. Dattatreya is sometimes depicted holding the divine cow in one of his hands.
The Mahabharata (Adi Parva book) records that Kamadhenu - Surabhi rose from the churning of the cosmic ocean (Samudra manthan) by the gods and demons to acquire Amrita (ambrosia, elixir of life). As such, she is regarded the offspring of the gods and demons, created when they churned the cosmic milk ocean and then given to the Saptarishi, the seven great seers. She was ordered by the creator - god Brahma to give milk, and supply it and ghee ("clarified butter '') for ritual fire - sacrifices.
The Anushasana Parva book of the epic narrates that Surabhi was born from the belch of "the creator '' (Prajapati) Daksha after he drank the Amrita that rose from the Samudra manthan. Further, Surabhi gave birth to many golden cows called Kapila cows, who were called the mothers of the world. The Satapatha Brahmana also tells a similar tale: Prajapati created Surabhi from his breath. The Udyoga Parva Book of the Mahabharata narrates that the creator - god Brahma drank so much Amrita that he vomited some of it, from which emerged Surabhi.
According to the Ramayana, Surabhi is the daughter of sage Kashyapa and his wife Krodhavasha, the daughter of Daksha. Her daughters Rohini and Gandharvi are the mothers of cattle and horses respectively. Still, it is Surabhi who is described as the mother of all cows in the text. However, in the Puranas, such as Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana, Surabhi is described as the daughter of Daksha and the wife of Kashyapa, as well as the mother of cows and buffaloes.
The Matsya Purana notes two conflicting descriptions of Surabhi. In one chapter, it describes Surabhi as the consort of Brahma and their union produced the cow Yogishvari, the eleven Rudras, "lower animals '', goats, swans and "high class drugs ''. She is then described as the mother of cows and quadrupeds. In another instance, she is described as a daughter of Daksha, wife of Kashyapa and the mother of cows. The Harivamsa, an appendix of the Mahabharata, calls Surabhi the mother of Amrita (ambrosia), Brahmins, cows and Rudras.
The Devi Bhagavata Purana narrates that Krishna and his lover Radha were enjoying dalliance, when they thirsted for milk. So, Krishna created a cow called Surabhi and a calf called Manoratha from the left side of his body, and milked the cow. When drinking the milk, the milk pot fell on the ground and broke, spilling the milk, which became the Kshirasagara, the cosmic milk ocean. Numerous cows then emerged from the pores of Surabhi 's skin and were presented to the cowherd - companions (Gopas) of Krishna by him. Then Krishna worshipped Surabhi and decreed that she -- a cow, the giver of milk and prosperity -- be worshipped at Diwali on Bali Pratipada day.
Various other scriptural references describe Surabhi as the mother of the Rudras including Nirrti (Kashyapa being the father), the cow Nandini and even the serpent - people nāgas. The Mahabharata also makes a passing reference to Surabhi as the mother of Nandini (literally "daughter '') in the context of the birth of Bhishma, an incarnation of a Vasu deity. Nandini, like her mother, is a "cow of plenty '' or Kamadhenu, and resides with sage Vashista. Nandini is stolen by the divine Vasus and thus cursed by the sage to be born on the earth. The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa mentions that king Dilip -- an ancestor of god Rama -- once passed by Kamadhenu - Surabhi, but failed to pay respects to her, thus incurring the wrath of the divine cow, who cursed the king to go childless. So, since Kamadhenu had gone to Patala, the guru of Dilip, Vasistha advised the king to serve Nandini, Kamadhenu 's daughter who was in the hermitage. The king and his wife propitiated Nandini, who neutralized her mother 's curse and blessed the king to have a son, who was named Raghu.
In the Ramayana, Surabhi is described to be distressed by the treatment of her sons -- the oxen -- in fields. Her tears are considered a bad omen for the gods by Indra, the god - king of heaven. The Vana Parva book of the Mahbharata also narrates a similar instance: Surabhi cries about the plight of her son -- a bullock, who is overworked and beaten by his peasant - master. Indra, moved by Surabhi 's tears, rains to stop the ploughing of the tormented bullock.
In Hindu Religion, Kamadhenu is often associated with the Brahmin ("priest class '' including sages), whose wealth she symbolizes. Cow 's milk and its derivatives such as ghee (clarified butter) are integral parts of Vedic fire sacrifices, which are conducted by Brahmin priests; thus the ancient Kamadhenu is sometimes also referred to the Homadhenu -- the cow from whom oblations are drawn. Moreover, the cow also offers the Brahmin -- who is prohibited to fight -- protection against abusive kings who try to harm them. As a goddess, she becomes a warrior, creating armies to protect her master and herself.
A legend narrates that the sacrificial cow Kamadhenu resided with sage Jamadagni. The earliest version of the legend, which appears in the epic Mahabharata, narrates that the thousand - armed Haihaya king, Kartavirya Arjuna, destroyed Jamadagni 's hermitage and captured the calf of Kamadhenu. To retrieve the calf, Jamadagni 's son Parashurama slew the king, whose sons in turn killed Jamadagni. Parashurama then destroyed the kshatriya ("warrior '') race 21 times and his father is resurrected by divine grace. Similar accounts of the abduction of the celestial cow or her calf, the killing of Jamadagni by Kartavirya Arjuna, and the revenge of Parashurama resulting in the death of Kartavirya Arjuna, exist in other texts. The Bhagavata Purana mentions that the king abducted Kamadhenu as well as her calf and Parashurama defeated the king and returned the kine to his father. The Padma Purana mentions that when Kartavirya Arjuna tried to capture her, Kamadhenu, by her own power, defeated him and his army and flew off to heaven; the enraged king then killed Jamadagni.
In the Brahmanda Purana, Kamadhenu creates a great city by her power to accommodate Kartavirya Arjuna 's army, when they visit Jamadagni 's hermitage. On returning to his kingdom, Kartavirya Arjuna 's minister, Chandragupta, persuades him to capture the divine cow. The minister returns to the hermitage and tries to convince the sage to give away the cow, but to no avail, so he tries to snatch Kamadhenu with force. In the ensuing fight, the sage is killed, but Kamadhenu escapes to the sky and Chandragupta takes her calf with him instead. The Brahmanda Purana narrates this Kamadhenu Sushila was given to Jamadagni by the Kamadhenu - Surabhi, who governs in Goloka.
The Brahma Vaivarta Purana narrates that the celestial cow -- called Kapila here -- produces various weapons and an army to aid Jamadagni defeat the king 's army, who had come to seize her. When the king himself challenged Jamadagni for battle, Kapila instructed her master in martial arts. Jamadagni led the army created by Kapila and defeated the king and his army several times; each time sparing the life of the king. Finally, with the aid of a divine spear granted to him by the god Dattatreya, the king killed Jamadagni.
The Ramayana presents a similar account about Kamadhenu, however, here the sage is Vashista and the king is Vishwamitra. Once, king Vishwamitra with his army arrived at the hermitage of sage Vashista. The sage welcomed him and offered a huge banquet -- to the army -- that was produced by Sabala -- as Kamadhenu is called in the text. The astonished king asked the sage to part with Sabala and instead offered thousand of ordinary cows, elephants, horses and jewels in return. However, the sage refused to part with Sabala, who was necessary for the performance of the sacred rituals and charity by the sage. Agitated, Vishwamitra seized Sabala by force, but she returned to her master, fighting the king 's men. She hinted Vashista to order her to destroy the king 's army and the sage followed her wish. Intensely, she produced Pahlava warriors, who were slain by Vishwamita 's army. So she produced warriors of Shaka - Yavana lineage. From her mouth, emerged the Kambhojas, from her udder Barvaras, from her hind Yavanas and Shakas, and from pores on her skin, Haritas, Kiratas and other foreign warriors. Together, the army of Sabala killed Vishwamitra 's army and all his sons. This event led to a great rivalry between Vashista and Vishwamitra, who renounced his kingdom and became a great sage to defeat Vashista.
Kamadhenu - Surabhi 's residence varies depending on different scriptures. The Anushasana Parva of the Mahabharata tells how she was given the ownership of Goloka, the cow - heaven located above the three worlds (heaven, earth and netherworld): the daughter of Daksha, Surabhi went to Mount Kailash and worshipped Brahma for 10,000 years. The pleased god conferred goddess - hood on the cow and decreed that all people would worship her and her children -- cows. He also gave her a world called Goloka, while her daughters would reside on earth among humans.
In one instance in the Ramayana, Surabhi is described to live in the city of Varuna -- the Lord of oceans -- which is situated below the earth in Patala (the netherworld). Her flowing sweet milk is said to form Kshiroda or the Kshirasagara, the cosmic milk ocean. In the Udyoga Parva book of the Mahabharata, this milk is said to be of six flavours and has the essence of all the best things of the earth. The Udyoga Parva specifies that Surabhi inhabits the lowest realm of Patala, known as Rasatala, and has four daughters -- the Dikpali s -- the guardian cow goddesses of the heavenly quarters: Saurabhi in the east, Harhsika in the south, Subhadra in the west and Dhenu in the north.
Apart from Goloka and Patala, Kamadhenu is also described as residing in the hermitages of the sages Jamadagni and Vashista. Scholar Mani explains the contradicting stories of Kamadhenu 's birth and presence in the processions of many gods and sages by stating that while there could be more than one Kamadhenu, all of them are incarnations of the original Kamadhenu, the mother of cows.
The Bhagavad Gita, a discourse by the god Krishna in the Mahabharata, twice refers to Kamadhenu as Kamadhuk. In verse 3.10, Krishna makes a reference to Kamadhuk while conveying that for doing one 's duty, one would get the milk of one 's desires. In verse 10.28, when Krishna declares to the source of the universe, he proclaims that among cows, he is Kamadhuk.
In the Anushasana Parva of the Mahabharata, the god Shiva is described as having cast a curse on Surabhi. This curse is interpreted as a reference to the following legend: Once, when the gods Brahma and Vishnu were fighting over who was superior, a fiery pillar -- linga (symbol of Shiva) -- emerged before them. It was that decided whoever found the end of this pillar was superior. Brahma flew to the skies to try to find the top of the pillar, but failed. So Brahma forced Surabhi (in some versions, Surabhi instead suggested that Brahma should lie) to falsely testify to Vishnu that Brahma had seen the top of the linga; Shiva punished Surabhi by putting a curse on her so that her bovine offspring would have to eat unholy substances. This tale appears in the Skanda Purana.
Some temples and houses have images of Kamadhenu, which are worshipped. However, she has never had a worship cult dedicated to her and does not have any temples where she is worshipped as the chief deity. In Monier - Williams 's words: "It is rather the living animal (the cow) which is the perpetual object of adoration ''. Cows are often fed outside temples and worshipped regularly on all Fridays and on special occasions. Every cow to "a pious Hindu '' is regarded as an Avatar (earthly embodiment) of the divine Kamadhenu.
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first african american to win a nobel peace prize | List of black Nobel laureates - Wikipedia
The Nobel Prize is an annual, international prize first awarded in 1901 for achievements in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace. An associated prize in Economics has been awarded since 1969. Nobel Prizes have been awarded to 881 individuals, of whom 15 -- 1.7 % - were black recipients.
Blacks have received awards in three of six award categories: eleven in Peace, three in Literature, and one in Economics. The first black recipient, American Ralph Bunche, was awarded the Peace Prize in 1950. The most recent as of 2017, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Leymah Gbowee, were awarded their Peace Prizes in 2011.
Two black laureates - Barack Obama and Ellen Johnson Sirleaf -- were presidents of their countries when they were awarded the prize. As of 2015, fifteen Nobel Prize laureates have been black.
An additional award, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was established in 1968 by the Bank of Sweden and was first awarded in 1969
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which of the following statements about political parties during the era of good feelings is true | Era of Good Feelings - wikipedia
The Era of Good Feelings marked a period in the political history of the United States that reflected a sense of national purpose and a desire for unity among Americans in the aftermath of the War of 1812. The era saw the collapse of the Federalist Party and an end to the bitter partisan disputes between it and the dominant Democratic - Republican Party during the First Party System. President James Monroe strove to downplay partisan affiliation in making his nominations, with the ultimate goal of national unity and eliminating parties altogether from national politics. The period is so closely associated with Monroe 's presidency (1817 -- 1825) and his administrative goals that his name and the era are virtually synonymous.
During and after the 1824 presidential election, the Democratic - Republican Party split between supporters and opponents of Jacksonian Nationalism, leading to the Second Party System.
The designation of the period by historians as one of good feelings is often conveyed with irony or skepticism, as the history of the era was one in which the political atmosphere was strained and divisive, especially among factions within the Monroe administration and the Democratic - Republican Party.
The phrase Era of Good Feelings was coined by Benjamin Russell, in the Boston Federalist newspaper, Columbian Centinel, on July 12, 1817, following Monroe 's visit to Boston, Massachusetts, as part of his good - will tour of the United States.
ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS During the late Presidential Jubilee many persons Have met at festive boards, in pleasant conversation, Centinel, July 12, 1817, introducing the term "Era of Good Feelings ''
The Era of Good Feelings started in 1815 in the mood of victory that swept the nation at the end of the War of 1812. Exultation replaced the bitter political divisions between Federalists and Republicans, the North and South, and the East Coast cities and settlers on the American frontier. The political hostilities declined because the Federalist Party had largely dissolved after the fiasco of the Hartford Convention in 1814 -- 15. As a party, Federalists "had collapsed as a national political force ''. The Democratic - Republican Party was nominally dominant, but in practice it was inactive at the national level and in most states.
The era saw a trend toward nationalization that envisioned "a permanent federal role in the crucial arena of national development and national prosperity ''. Monroe 's predecessor, President James Madison, and the Republican Party, had come to appreciate -- through the crucible of war -- the expediency of Federalist institutions and projects, and prepared to legislate them under the auspices of John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay 's American System.
Madison announced this shift in policy with his Seventh Annual Message to Congress in December 1815, subsequently authorizing measures for a national bank and a protective tariff on manufactures. Vetoing the Bonus Bill on strict constructionist grounds, Madison nevertheless was determined, as had been his predecessor, Thomas Jefferson, to see internal improvements implemented with an amendment to the US Constitution. Writing to Monroe, in 1817, Madison declared that "there has never been a moment when such a proposition to the states was so likely to be approved ''. The emergence of "new Republicans '' -- undismayed by mild nationalist policies -- anticipated Monroe 's "era of good feelings '' and a general mood of optimism emerged with hopes for political reconciliation.
Monroe 's landslide victory against Federalist Rufus King in the 1816 presidential election was so widely predicted that voter turnout was low. A spirit of reconciliation between Republicans and Federalists was well underway when Monroe assumed office in March 1817.
As president, James Monroe was widely expected to facilitate a rapprochement of the political parties in order to harmonize the country in a common national outlook, rather than party interests. Both parties exhorted him to include a Federalist in his cabinet to symbolize the new era of "oneness '' that pervaded the nation.
Monroe approached these developments with great caution and deliberation. As president - elect, he carefully crafted the stance he would assume towards the declining Federalists in a letter to General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee in December 1816.
First, Monroe reaffirmed his conviction -- an "anti-Federalist '' article of faith -- that the Federalist Party was committed to installing a monarch and overthrowing republican forms of government at the first opportunity. To appoint a member of such a party to a top executive position, Monroe reasoned, would only serve to prolong the inevitable decline and fall of the opposition. Monroe made absolutely clear in this document that his administration would never allow itself to become tainted with Federalist ideology.
Secondly, he was loath to arouse jealousies within his own party by appearing to accommodate any Federalist, at the expense of a Republican. This would only serve to create factions and a revival of party identity.
And third, Monroe sought to merge former Federalists with Republicans as a prelude to eliminating party associations altogether from national politics, including his own Republican party. All political parties, wrote Monroe, were by their very nature, incompatible with free government. Ideally, the business of governing was best conducted by disinterested statesmen, acting exclusively in the national interest -- not on behalf of sectional interests or personal ambition. This was "amalgamation '' -- the supposed end of party warfare and the beginning of the "politics of consensus ''.
His policy echoed the arguments put forth by President George Washington in his farewell address in 1796 and his warnings against political "factions ''.
The method Monroe employed to deflate the Federalist Party was through neglect: they were denied all political patronage, administrative appointments and federal support of any kind. Monroe pursued this policy dispassionately and without any desire to persecute the Federalists: his purpose was simply to extirpate them from positions of political power, both Federal and State, especially in its New England strongholds. He understood that any expression of official approval would only encourage hope for a Federalist revival, and this he could not abide.
In his public pronouncements, Monroe was careful to avoid any comments that could be interpreted as politically partisan. Not only did he never attack the Federalist party, he made no direct reference to them in his speeches whatsoever: officially, they ceased to exist. In his private encounters with Federalists, he made favorable impressions, committing himself to nothing, yet eliciting good feelings, and reassuring them that his policies would be generous, as he proceeded quietly with a program of "de-Federalization ''.
So thoroughly had Monroe reduced party politics that he essentially ran unopposed in the 1820 presidential election. The Federalists ran no candidate to oppose him, running only a vice-presidential candidate, Richard Stockton. Monroe and his vice president Daniel D. Tompkins would have won reelection unanimously through the electoral college, had there not been a handful of faithless electors; one presidential elector cast his vote for John Quincy Adams, while a handful of electors (mostly former Federalists) cast votes for a number of Federalist candidates for Vice President. It would be the last presidential election in which a candidate would run essentially unopposed.
The most perfect expression of the Era of Good Feelings was Monroe 's country - wide Goodwill tour in 1817 and 1819. His visits to New England and to the Federalist stronghold of Boston, Massachusetts, in particular, were the most significant of the tour. Here, the descriptive phrase "Era of Good Feelings '' was bestowed by a local Federalist journal.
The President 's physical appearance, wardrobe and personal attributes were decisive in arousing good feelings on the tour. He donned a Revolutionary War officer 's uniform and tied his long powdered hair in a queue according to the old - fashioned style of the 18th century. "Tall, rawboned, venerable '', he made an "agreeable '' impression and had a good deal of charm and "most men immediately liked him... (in) manner he was rather formal, having an innate sense of dignity, which allowed no one to take liberties. Yet in spite of his formality, he had the unusual ability to put men at their ease by his courtesy, lack of condescension, his frankness, and what his contemporaries looked upon as the essential goodness and kindness of heart which he always radiated. ''
Monroe 's visit to Boston elicited a huge outpouring of nationalist pride and expressions of reconciliation. New England Federalists were especially eager to demonstrate their loyalty after the debacle of the Hartford Convention. Amidst the festivities -- banquets, parades, receptions -- many took the opportunity to make the most "explicit and solemn declarations '' to remove, as Monroe wrote afterwards, "impressions of that kind, which they knew existed, and to get back into the great family of the union ''. Abigail Adams dubbed the catharsis an "expiation. ''
Here, in the heart of Federalist territory, Monroe gained the primary goal of his tour; in effect, permitting "the Federalists by solemn public demonstrations to reaffirm their loyalty to the government and their acceptance of Republican control ''. Even in this atmosphere of contrition, Monroe was assiduous in avoiding any remarks or expressions that might chasten or humiliate his hosts. He presented himself strictly as the head of state, and not as the leader of a triumphant political party.
In the ensuing years the New England states capitulated, and all but Massachusetts was in Republican Party hands. De-Federalization was virtually complete by 1820 and the appointment of former Federalist Party members seemed in order; however, Monroe feared a backlash even at this advanced stage in the process of amalgamation. Most anti-Federalist sentiments were political posturing, but Monroe was not so secure of support for his domestic and foreign programs and was concerned at the mounting hostilities over the upcoming presidential contest in 1824, a purely intraparty affair. Monroe 's final reconciling with the Federalists was never consummated.
Monroe 's success in mitigating party rancor produced an appearance of political unity, with almost all Americans identifying themselves as Republicans. His nearly unanimous electoral victory for reelection in 1820 seemed to confirm this.
Recognizing the danger of intraparty rivalries, Monroe attempted to include prospective presidential candidates and top political leaders in his administration. His cabinet comprised three of the political rivals who would vie for the presidency in 1824: John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun and William H. Crawford. A fourth, Andrew Jackson, held high military appointments. Here, Monroe felt he could manage the factional disputes and arrange compromise on national politics within administration guidelines. His great disadvantage was that amalgamation deprived him of appealing to Republican "solidarity '' that would have cleared the way for passage of his programs in Congress.
"From the moment that Monroe adopted as his guiding principle the maxim that he was head of a nation, not the leader of a party, he repudiated for all practical purposes the party unity '' that would have served to establish his policies. The result was a loss of party discipline. Absent was the universal adherence to the precepts of Jeffersonianism: state sovereignty, strict construction and stability of Southern institutions. Old Republican critics of the new nationalism, among them John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, had warned that the abandonment of the Jeffersonian scheme of Southern preeminence would provoke a sectional conflict, North and South, that would threaten the union. Former president James Madison had cautioned Monroe that in any free government, it was natural that party identity would take shape.
The disastrous Panic of 1819 and the Supreme Court 's McCulloch v. Maryland reanimated the disputes over the supremacy of state sovereignty and federal power, between strict construction of the US Constitution and loose construction. The Missouri Crisis in 1820 made the explosive political conflict between slave and free soil open and explicit. Only through the adroit handling of the legislation by Speaker of the House Henry Clay was a settlement reached and disunion avoided.
With the decline in political consensus, it became imperative to revive Jeffersonian principles on the basis of Southern exceptionalism. The agrarian alliance, North and South, would be revived to form Jacksonian Nationalism and the rise of the modern Democratic Party. The interlude of the Era of Good Feelings was at an end.
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what is one problem associated with using retroviruses as human gene therapy vectors | Vectors in gene therapy - wikipedia
Gene therapy utilizes the delivery of DNA into cells, which can be accomplished by several methods, summarized below. The two major classes of methods are those that use recombinant viruses (sometimes called biological nanoparticles or viral vectors) and those that use naked DNA or DNA complexes (non-viral methods).
All viruses bind to their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic ' instructions ' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hacking the body 's normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce additional copies of the virus, leading to more and more cells becoming infected. Some types of viruses insert their genome into the host 's cytoplasm, but do not actually enter the cell. Others penetrate the cell membrane disguised as protein molecules and enter the cell.
There are two main types of virus infection: lytic and lysogenic. Shortly after inserting its DNA, viruses of the lytic cycle quickly produce more viruses, burst from the cell and infect more cells. Lysogenic viruses integrate their DNA into the DNA of the host cell and may live in the body for many years before responding to a trigger. The virus reproduces as the cell does and does not inflict bodily harm until it is triggered. The trigger releases the DNA from that of the host and employs it to create new viruses.
The genetic material in retroviruses is in the form of RNA molecules, while the genetic material of their hosts is in the form of DNA. When a retrovirus infects a host cell, it will introduce its RNA together with some enzymes, namely reverse transcriptase and integrase, into the cell. This RNA molecule from the retrovirus must produce a DNA copy from its RNA molecule before it can be integrated into the genetic material of the host cell. The process of producing a DNA copy from an RNA molecule is termed reverse transcription. It is carried out by one of the enzymes carried in the virus, called reverse transcriptase. After this DNA copy is produced and is free in the nucleus of the host cell, it must be incorporated into the genome of the host cell. That is, it must be inserted into the large DNA molecules in the cell (the chromosomes). This process is done by another enzyme carried in the virus called integrase.
Now that the genetic material of the virus has been inserted, it can be said that the host cell has been modified to contain new genes. If this host cell divides later, its descendants will all contain the new genes. Sometimes the genes of the retrovirus do not express their information immediately.
One of the problems of gene therapy using retroviruses is that the integrase enzyme can insert the genetic material of the virus into any arbitrary position in the genome of the host; it randomly inserts the genetic material into a chromosome. If genetic material happens to be inserted in the middle of one of the original genes of the host cell, this gene will be disrupted (insertional mutagenesis). If the gene happens to be one regulating cell division, uncontrolled cell division (i.e., cancer) can occur. This problem has recently begun to be addressed by utilizing zinc finger nucleases or by including certain sequences such as the beta - globin locus control region to direct the site of integration to specific chromosomal sites.
Gene therapy trials using retroviral vectors to treat X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) represent the most successful application of gene therapy to date. More than twenty patients have been treated in France and Britain, with a high rate of immune system reconstitution observed. Similar trials were restricted or halted in the USA when leukemia was reported in patients treated in the French X-SCID gene therapy trial. To date, four children in the French trial and one in the British trial have developed leukemia as a result of insertional mutagenesis by the retroviral vector. All but one of these children responded well to conventional anti-leukemia treatment. Gene therapy trials to treat SCID due to deficiency of the Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) enzyme (one form of SCID) continue with relative success in the USA, Britain, Ireland, Italy and Japan.
Adenoviruses are viruses that carry their genetic material in the form of double - stranded DNA. They cause respiratory, intestinal, and eye infections in humans (especially the common cold). When these viruses infect a host cell, they introduce their DNA molecule into the host. The genetic material of the adenoviruses is not incorporated (transient) into the host cell 's genetic material. The DNA molecule is left free in the nucleus of the host cell, and the instructions in this extra DNA molecule are transcribed just like any other gene. The only difference is that these extra genes are not replicated when the cell is about to undergo cell division so the descendants of that cell will not have the extra gene. As a result, treatment with the adenovirus will require readministration in a growing cell population although the absence of integration into the host cell 's genome should prevent the type of cancer seen in the SCID trials. This vector system has been promoted for treating cancer and indeed the first gene therapy product to be licensed to treat cancer, Gendicine, is an adenovirus. Gendicine, an adenoviral p53 - based gene therapy was approved by the Chinese food and drug regulators in 2003 for treatment of head and neck cancer. Advexin, a similar gene therapy approach from Introgen, was turned down by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2008.
Concerns about the safety of adenovirus vectors were raised after the 1999 death of Jesse Gelsinger while participating in a gene therapy trial. Since then, work using adenovirus vectors has focused on genetically crippled versions of the virus.
The viral vectors described above have natural host cell populations that they infect most efficiently. Retroviruses have limited natural host cell ranges, and although adenovirus and adeno - associated virus are able to infect a relatively broader range of cells efficiently, some cell types are refractory to infection by these viruses as well. Attachment to and entry into a susceptible cell is mediated by the protein envelope on the surface of a virus. Retroviruses and adeno - associated viruses have a single protein coating their membrane, while adenoviruses are coated with both an envelope protein and fibers that extend away from the surface of the virus. The envelope proteins on each of these viruses bind to cell - surface molecules such as heparin sulfate, which localizes them upon the surface of the potential host, as well as with the specific protein receptor that either induces entry - promoting structural changes in the viral protein, or localizes the virus in endosomes wherein acidification of the lumen induces this refolding of the viral coat. In either case, entry into potential host cells requires a favorable interaction between a protein on the surface of the virus and a protein on the surface of the cell. For the purposes of gene therapy, one might either want to limit or expand the range of cells susceptible to transduction by a gene therapy vector. To this end, many vectors have been developed in which the endogenous viral envelope proteins have been replaced by either envelope proteins from other viruses, or by chimeric proteins. Such chimera would consist of those parts of the viral protein necessary for incorporation into the virion as well as sequences meant to interact with specific host cell proteins. Viruses in which the envelope proteins have been replaced as described are referred to as pseudotyped viruses. For example, the most popular retroviral vector for use in gene therapy trials has been the lentivirus Simian immunodeficiency virus coated with the envelope proteins, G - protein, from Vesicular stomatitis virus. This vector is referred to as VSV G - pseudotyped lentivirus, and infects an almost universal set of cells. This tropism is characteristic of the VSV G - protein with which this vector is coated. Many attempts have been made to limit the tropism of viral vectors to one or a few host cell populations. This advance would allow for the systemic administration of a relatively small amount of vector. The potential for off - target cell modification would be limited, and many concerns from the medical community would be alleviated. Most attempts to limit tropism have used chimeric envelope proteins bearing antibody fragments. These vectors show great promise for the development of "magic bullet '' gene therapies.
A replication - competent vector called ONYX - 015 is used in replicating tumor cells. It was found that in the absence of the E1B - 55Kd viral protein, adenovirus caused very rapid apoptosis of infected, p53 (+) cells, and this results in dramatically reduced virus progeny and no subsequent spread. Apoptosis was mainly the result of the ability of EIA to inactivate p300. In p53 (-) cells, deletion of E1B 55kd has no consequence in terms of apoptosis, and viral replication is similar to that of wild - type virus, resulting in massive killing of cells.
A replication - defective vector deletes some essential genes. These deleted genes are still necessary in the body so they are replaced with either a helper virus or a DNA molecule.
Replication - defective vectors always contain a "transfer construct ''. The transfer construct carries the gene to be transduced or "transgene ''. The transfer construct also carries the sequences which are necessary for the general functioning of the viral genome: packaging sequence, repeats for replication and, when needed, priming of reverse transcription. These are denominated cis - acting elements, because they need to be on the same piece of DNA as the viral genome and the gene of interest. Trans - acting elements are viral elements, which can be encoded on a different DNA molecule. For example, the viral structural proteins can be expressed from a different genetic element than the viral genome.
The Herpes simplex virus is a human neurotropic virus. This is mostly examined for gene transfer in the nervous system. The wild type HSV - 1 virus is able to infect neurons and evade the host immune response, but may still become reactivated and produce a lytic cycle of viral replication. Therefore, it is typical to use mutant strains of HSV - 1 that are deficient in their ability to replicate. Though the latent virus is not transcriptionally apparent, it does possess neuron specific promoters that can continue to function normally. Antibodies to HSV - 1 are common in humans, however complications due to herpes infection are somewhat rare. Caution for rare cases of encephalitis must be taken and this provides some rationale to using HSV - 2 as a viral vector as it generally has tropism for neuronal cells innervating the urogenital area of the body and could then spare the host of severe pathology in the brain.
Non-viral methods present certain advantages over viral methods, with simple large scale production and low host immunogenicity being just two. Previously, low levels of transfection and expression of the gene held non-viral methods at a disadvantage; however, recent advances in vector technology have yielded molecules and techniques with transfection efficiencies similar to those of viruses.
This is the simplest method of non-viral transfection. Clinical trials carried out of intramuscular injection of a naked DNA plasmid have occurred with some success; however, the expression has been very low in comparison to other methods of transfection. In addition to trials with plasmids, there have been trials with naked PCR product, which have had similar or greater success. Cellular uptake of naked DNA is generally inefficient. Research efforts focusing on improving the efficiency of naked DNA uptake have yielded several novel methods, such as electroporation, sonoporation, and the use of a "gene gun '', which shoots DNA coated gold particles into the cell using high pressure gas.
Electroporation is a method that uses short pulses of high voltage to carry DNA across the cell membrane. This shock is thought to cause temporary formation of pores in the cell membrane, allowing DNA molecules to pass through. Electroporation is generally efficient and works across a broad range of cell types. However, a high rate of cell death following electroporation has limited its use, including clinical applications.
More recently a newer method of electroporation, termed electron - avalanche transfection, has been used in gene therapy experiments. By using a high - voltage plasma discharge, DNA was efficiently delivered following very short (microsecond) pulses. Compared to electroporation, the technique resulted in greatly increased efficiency and less cellular damage.
The use of particle bombardment, or the gene gun, is another physical method of DNA transfection. In this technique, DNA is coated onto gold particles and loaded into a device which generates a force to achieve penetration of the DNA into the cells, leaving the gold behind on a "stopping '' disk.
Sonoporation uses ultrasonic frequencies to deliver DNA into cells. The process of acoustic cavitation is thought to disrupt the cell membrane and allow DNA to move into cells.
In a method termed magnetofection, DNA is complexed to magnetic particles, and a magnet is placed underneath the tissue culture dish to bring DNA complexes into contact with a cell monolayer.
Hydrodynamic delivery involves rapid injection of a high volume of a solution into vasculature (such as into the inferior vena cava, bile duct, or tail vein). The solution contains molecules that are to be inserted into cells, such as DNA plasmids or siRNA, and transfer of these molecules into cells is assisted by the elevated hydrostatic pressure caused by the high volume of injected solution.
The use of synthetic oligonucleotides in gene therapy is to deactivate the genes involved in the disease process. There are several methods by which this is achieved. One strategy uses antisense specific to the target gene to disrupt the transcription of the faulty gene. Another uses small molecules of RNA called siRNA to signal the cell to cleave specific unique sequences in the mRNA transcript of the faulty gene, disrupting translation of the faulty mRNA, and therefore expression of the gene. A further strategy uses double stranded oligodeoxynucleotides as a decoy for the transcription factors that are required to activate the transcription of the target gene. The transcription factors bind to the decoys instead of the promoter of the faulty gene, which reduces the transcription of the target gene, lowering expression. Additionally, single stranded DNA oligonucleotides have been used to direct a single base change within a mutant gene. The oligonucleotide is designed to anneal with complementarity to the target gene with the exception of a central base, the target base, which serves as the template base for repair. This technique is referred to as oligonucleotide mediated gene repair, targeted gene repair, or targeted nucleotide alteration.
To improve the delivery of the new DNA into the cell, the DNA must be protected from damage and positively charged. Initially, anionic and neutral lipids were used for the construction of lipoplexes for synthetic vectors. However, in spite of the facts that there is little toxicity associated with them, that they are compatible with body fluids and that there was a possibility of adapting them to be tissue specific; they are complicated and time consuming to produce so attention was turned to the cationic versions.
Cationic lipids, due to their positive charge, were first used to condense negatively charged DNA molecules so as to facilitate the encapsulation of DNA into liposomes. Later it was found that the use of cationic lipids significantly enhanced the stability of lipoplexes. Also as a result of their charge, cationic liposomes interact with the cell membrane, endocytosis was widely believed as the major route by which cells uptake lipoplexes. Endosomes are formed as the results of endocytosis, however, if genes can not be released into cytoplasm by breaking the membrane of endosome, they will be sent to lysosomes where all DNA will be destroyed before they could achieve their functions. It was also found that although cationic lipids themselves could condense and encapsulate DNA into liposomes, the transfection efficiency is very low due to the lack of ability in terms of "endosomal escaping ''. However, when helper lipids (usually electroneutral lipids, such as DOPE) were added to form lipoplexes, much higher transfection efficiency was observed. Later on, it was figured out that certain lipids have the ability to destabilize endosomal membranes so as to facilitate the escape of DNA from endosome, therefore those lipids are called fusogenic lipids. Although cationic liposomes have been widely used as an alternative for gene delivery vectors, a dose dependent toxicity of cationic lipids were also observed which could limit their therapeutic usages.
The most common use of lipoplexes has been in gene transfer into cancer cells, where the supplied genes have activated tumor suppressor control genes in the cell and decrease the activity of oncogenes. Recent studies have shown lipoplexes to be useful in transfecting respiratory epithelial cells.
Polymersomes are synthetic versions of liposomes (vesicles with a lipid bilayer), made of amphiphilic block copolymers. They can encapsulate either hydrophilic or hydrophobic contents and can be used to deliver cargo such as DNA, proteins, or drugs to cells. Advantages of polymersomes over liposomes include greater stability, mechanical strength, blood circulation time, and storage capacity.
Complexes of polymers with DNA are called polyplexes. Most polyplexes consist of cationic polymers and their fabrication is based on self - assembly by ionic interactions. One important difference between the methods of action of polyplexes and lipoplexes is that polyplexes can not directly release their DNA load into the cytoplasm. As a result, co-transfection with endosome - lytic agents such as inactivated adenovirus was required to facilitate nanoparticle escape from the endocytic vesicle made during particle uptake. However, a better understanding of the mechanisms by which DNA can escape from endolysosomal pathway, i.e. proton sponge effect, has triggered new polymer synthesis strategies such as incorporation of protonable residues in polymer backbone and has revitalized research on polycation - based systems.
Due to their low toxicity, high loading capacity, and ease of fabrication, polycationic nanocarriers demonstrate great promise compared to their rivals such as viral vectors which show high immunogenicity and potential carcinogenicity, and lipid - based vectors which cause dose dependence toxicity. Polyethyleneimine and chitosan are among the polymeric carriers that have been extensively studies for development of gene delivery therapeutics. Other polycationic carriers such as poly (beta - amino esters) and polyphosphoramidate are being added to the library of potential gene carriers. In addition to the variety of polymers and copolymers, the ease of controlling the size, shape, surface chemistry of these polymeric nano - carriers gives them an edge in targeting capability and taking advantage of enhanced permeability and retention effect.
A dendrimer is a highly branched macromolecule with a spherical shape. The surface of the particle may be functionalized in many ways and many of the properties of the resulting construct are determined by its surface.
In particular it is possible to construct a cationic dendrimer, i.e. one with a positive surface charge. When in the presence of genetic material such as DNA or RNA, charge complimentarity leads to a temporary association of the nucleic acid with the cationic dendrimer. On reaching its destination the dendrimer - nucleic acid complex is then taken into the cell via endocytosis.
In recent years the benchmark for transfection agents has been cationic lipids. Limitations of these competing reagents have been reported to include: the lack of ability to transfect some cell types, the lack of robust active targeting capabilities, incompatibility with animal models, and toxicity. Dendrimers offer robust covalent construction and extreme control over molecule structure, and therefore size. Together these give compelling advantages compared to existing approaches.
Producing dendrimers has historically been a slow and expensive process consisting of numerous slow reactions, an obstacle that severely curtailed their commercial development. The Michigan - based company Dendritic Nanotechnologies discovered a method to produce dendrimers using kinetically driven chemistry, a process that not only reduced cost by a magnitude of three, but also cut reaction time from over a month to several days. These new "Priostar '' dendrimers can be specifically constructed to carry a DNA or RNA payload that transfects cells at a high efficiency with little or no toxicity.
Inorganic nanoparticles, such as gold, silica, iron oxide (ex. magnetofection) and calcium phosphates have been shown to be capable of gene delivery. Some of the benefits of inorganic vectors is in their storage stability, low manufacturing cost and often time, low immunogenicity, and resistance to microbial attack. Nanosized materials less than 100 nm have been shown to efficiently trap the DNA or RNA and allows its escape from the endosome without degradation. Inorganics have also been shown to exhibit improved in vitro transfection for attached cell lines due to their increased density and preferential location on the base of the culture dish. Quantum dots have also been used successfully and permits the coupling of gene therapy with a stable fluorescence marker. Engineered organic nanoparticles are also under development, which could be used for co-delivery of genes and therapeutic agents.
Cell - penetrating peptides (CPPs), also known as peptide transduction domains (PTDs), are short peptides (< 40 amino acids) that efficiently pass through cell membranes while being covalently or non-covalently bound to various molecules, thus facilitating these molecules ' entry into cells. Cell entry occurs primarily by endocytosis but other entry mechanisms also exist. Examples of cargo molecules of CPPs include nucleic acids, liposomes, and drugs of low molecular weight.
CPP cargo can be directed into specific cell organelles by incorporating localization sequences into CPP sequences. For example, nuclear localization sequences are commonly used to guide CPP cargo into the nucleus. For guidance into mitochondria, a mitochondrial targeting sequence can be used; this method is used in protofection (a technique that allows for foreign mitochondrial DNA to be inserted into cells ' mitochondria).
Due to every method of gene transfer having shortcomings, there have been some hybrid methods developed that combine two or more techniques. Virosomes are one example; they combine liposomes with an inactivated HIV or influenza virus. This has been shown to have more efficient gene transfer in respiratory epithelial cells than either viral or liposomal methods alone. Other methods involve mixing other viral vectors with cationic lipids or hybridising viruses.
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where is the f block located on the periodic table | Block (periodic table) - wikipedia
A block of the periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups. The term appears to have been first used by Charles Janet. The respective highest - energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same atomic orbital type. Each block is named after its characteristic orbital; thus, the blocks are:
The block names (s, p, d, f and g) are derived from the spectroscopic notation for the associated atomic orbitals: sharp, principal, diffuse and fundamental, and then g which follows f in the alphabet.
The following is the order for filling the "subshell '' orbitals, according to the Aufbau principle, which also gives the linear order of the "blocks '' (as atomic number increases) in the periodic table:
For discussion of the nature of why the energies of the blocks naturally appear in this order in complex atoms, see atomic orbital and electron configuration.
The "periodic '' nature of the filling of orbitals, as well as emergence of the s, p, d and f "blocks '' is more obvious, if this order of filling is given in matrix form, with increasing principal quantum numbers starting the new rows ("periods '') in the matrix. Then, each subshell (composed of the first two quantum numbers) is repeated as many times as required for each pair of electrons it may contain. The result is a compressed periodic table, with each entry representing two successive elements:
There is an approximate correspondence between this nomenclature of blocks, based on electronic configuration, and groupings of elements based on chemical properties. The s - block and p - block together are usually considered as the main group elements, the d - block corresponds to the transition metals, and the f - block are the lanthanides and the actinides. However, not everyone agrees on the exact membership of each set of elements, so that for example the group 12 elements Zn, Cd and Hg are considered as main group by some scientists and transition metals by others, because they are chemically and physically more similar to the p - block elements than the other d - block elements. Furthermore, the group 3 elements and the f - block are sometimes also considered main group elements due to their similarities to the s - block elements. Groups (columns) in the f - block (between groups 3 and 4) are not numbered.
Helium is coloured differently from the p - block elements surrounding it because is in the s - block, with its outer (and only) electrons in the 1s atomic orbital, although its chemical properties are more similar to the p - block noble gases due to its full shell. In addition to the blocks listed in this table, there is a hypothetical g - block which is not pictured here. The g - block elements can be seen in the expanded extended periodic table. Also, lanthanum and actinium are placed under scandium and yttrium to reflect their status as d - block elements, as they have no electrons in the 4f and 5f orbitals, respectively, while lutetium and lawrencium do.
The s - block is on the left side of the periodic table and includes elements from the first two columns, the alkali metals (group 1) and alkaline earth metals (group 2), plus helium. Helium is a controversial element for the scientists as it can be placed in the second group of s block as well as the 18th group of p - block, but most scientists consider it to rest at the top of group 18 i.e. above neon (atomic number 10) as it has many properties similar to the group 18 elements.
Most s - block elements are highly reactive metals due to the ease with which their outer s - orbital electrons interact to form compounds. The first period elements in this block, however, are nonmetals. Hydrogen is highly chemically reactive, like the other s - block elements, but helium is a virtually unreactive noble gas.
S - block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons (outermost electrons) are in the s orbital. The s - orbital is a single spherical cloud which can contain only one pair of electrons; hence, the s - block consists of only two columns in the periodic table. Elements in column 1, with a single s - orbital valence electron, are the most reactive of the block. Elements in the second column have two s - orbital valence electrons, and, except for helium, are only slightly less reactive.
The p - block is on the right side of the periodic table and includes elements from the six columns beginning with column 13 and ending with column 18. Helium, though being in the top of group 18, is not included in the p - block.
The p - block is home to the biggest variety of elements and is the only block that contains all three types of elements: metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Generally, the p - block elements are best described in terms of element type or group.
P - block elements are unified by the fact that their valence electrons (outermost electrons) are in the p orbital. The p orbital consists of six lobed shapes coming off a central point at evenly spaced angles. The p orbital can hold a maximum of six electrons, hence there are six columns in the p - block. Elements in column 13, the first column of the p - block, have one p - orbital electron. Elements in column 14, the second column of the p - block, have two p - orbital electrons. The trend continues this way until we reach column 18, which has six p - orbital electrons.
P - block metals have classic metal characteristics: they are shiny, they are good conductors of heat and electricity, and they lose electrons easily. Generally, these metals have high melting points and readily react with nonmetals to form ionic compounds. Ionic compounds form when a positive metal ion bonds with a negative nonmetal ion.
Of the p - block metals, several have fascinating properties. Gallium, in the 3rd row of column 13, is a metal that can melt in the palm of a hand. Tin, in the fourth row of column 14, is an abundant, flexible, and extremely useful metal. It is an important component of many metal alloys like bronze, solder, and pewter.
Sitting right beneath tin is lead, a toxic metal. Ancient people used lead for a variety of things, from food sweeteners to pottery glazes to eating utensils. It has been suspected that lead poisoning is related to the fall of Roman civilization, but further research has shown this to be unlikely. For a long time, lead was used in the manufacturing of paints. It was only within the last century that lead paint use has been restricted due to its toxic nature.
Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals, but the term ' metalloid ' lacks a strict definition. All of the elements that are commonly recognized as metalloids are in the p - block: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. Metalloids tend to have lower electrical conductivity than metals, yet often higher than nonmetals. They tend to form chemical bonds similarly to nonmetals, but may dissolve in metallic alloys without covalent or ionic bonding. Metalloid additives can improve properties of metallic alloys, sometimes paradoxically to their own apparent properties. Some may give a better electrical conductivity, higher corrosion resistance, ductility, or fluidity in molten state, etc. to the alloy.
Boron has many carbon - like properties, but is very rare. It has many uses, for example a P type semiconductor dopant.
Silicon is perhaps the most famous metalloid. It is the second most abundant element in Earth 's crust and one of the main ingredients in glass. It is used to make semiconductor circuits, from large power switches and high current diodes to microchips for computers and other electronic devices. It is also used in certain metallic alloys, e.g. to improve casting properties of alumimium. So valuable is silicon to the technology industry that Silicon Valley in California is named after it.
Germanium has properties very similar to silicon, yet this element is much more rare. It was once used for its semiconductor properties pretty much as silicon is now, and it has some superior properties at that, but is now a rare material in the industry.
Arsenic is a toxic metalloid that has been used throughout history as an additive to metal alloys, paints, and even makeup.
Antimony is used as a constituent in casting alloys such as printing metal.
Previously called inert gases, their name was changed as there are a few other gases that are inert but not noble gases, such as nitrogen. The noble gases are located in the far right column of the periodic table, also known as Group Zero or Group Eighteen. Noble gases are also called as aerogens but this nomenclature of the group is not officially accepted by the IUPAC.
All of the noble gases have full outer shells with eight electrons. However, at the top of the noble gases is helium, with a shell that is full with only two electrons. The fact that their outer shells are full means they rarely react with other elements, which led to their original title of "inert. ''
Because of their chemical properties, these gases are also used in the laboratory to help stabilize reactions that would usually proceed too quickly. As the atomic numbers increase, the elements become rarer. They are not just rare in nature, but rare as useful elements, too.
The second column from the right side of the periodic table, group 17, is the halogen family of elements. These elements are all just one electron shy of having full shells. Because they are so close to being full, they have the trait of combining with many different elements and are very reactive. They are often found bonding with metals and elements from Group One, as these elements in each have one electron.
Not all halogens react with the same intensity. Fluorine is the most reactive and combines with most elements from around the periodic table. As with other columns, reactivity decreases as the atomic number increases.
When a halogen combines with another element, the resulting compound is called a halide. One of the best examples of a halide is sodium chloride (NaCl).
The d - block is on the middle of the periodic table and includes elements from columns 3 through 12. These elements are also known as the transition metals because they show a transitivity in their properties i.e. they show a trend in their properties in simple incomplete d orbitals. Transition basically means d orbital lies between s and p orbitals and shows a transition from properties of s to p.
The d - block elements are all metals which exhibit two or more ways of forming chemical bonds. Because there is a relatively small difference in the energy of the different d - orbital electrons, the number of electrons participating in chemical bonding can vary. This results in the same element exhibiting two or more oxidation states, which determines the type and number of its nearest neighbors in chemical compounds.
D - block elements are unified by having in their outermost electrons one or more d - orbital electrons but no p - orbital electrons. The d - orbitals can contain up to five pairs of electrons; hence, the block includes ten columns in the periodic table.
The f - block is in the center - left of a 32 - column periodic table but in the footnoted appendage of 18 - column tables. These elements are not generally considered as part of any group. They are often called inner transition metals because they provide a transition between the s - block and d - block in the 6th and 7th row (period), in the same way that the d - block transition metals provide a transitional bridge between the s - block and p - block in the 4th and 5th rows.
The known f - block elements come in two series, the lanthanides of period 6 and the radioactive actinides of period 7. All are metals. Because the f - orbital electrons are less active in determining the chemistry of these elements, their chemical properties are mostly determined by outer s - orbital electrons. Consequently, there is much less chemical variability within the f - block than within the s -, p -, or d - blocks.
F - block elements are unified by having one or more of their outermost electrons in the f - orbital but none in the d - orbital or p - orbital. The f - orbitals can contain up to seven pairs of electrons; hence, the block includes fourteen columns in the periodic table.
The g - block is a hypothetical block of elements in the extended periodic table whose outermost electrons are posited to have one or more g - orbital electrons but no f -, d - or p - orbital electrons.
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who has won the most premier league's | List of English Football champions - wikipedia
The English football champions are the winners of the highest league in English men 's football, which since 1992 - 1993 is the Premier League.
Following the legalisation of professional football by the Football Association in 1885, the English Football League was established in 1888, after a series of meetings initiated by Aston Villa director William McGregor. At the end of the 1888 -- 89 season, Preston North End were the first club to be crowned champions after completing their fixtures unbeaten.
Representing the first fully professional football competition in the world the league saw its early years dominated by teams from the North and Midlands, where professionalism was embraced more readily than in the South. Its status as the country 's pre-eminent league was strengthened in 1892, when the rival Football Alliance was absorbed into the Football League. Former Alliance clubs comprised the bulk of a new Second Division, from which promotion to the top level could be gained. It was not until 1931 that a Southern club were crowned champions, when Herbert Chapman 's Arsenal secured the title. Arsenal scored 127 goals in the process, a record for a title - winning side (though runners - up Aston Villa scored one goal more, a record for the top division).
Rules stipulating a maximum wage for players were abolished in 1961. This resulted in a shift of power towards bigger clubs. Financial considerations became an even bigger influence from 1992, when the teams then in the First Division defected to form the FA Premier League. This supplanted the Football League First Division as the highest level of football in England, and due to a series of progressively larger television contracts, put wealth into the hands of top flight clubs in a hitherto unprecedented manner. The first five champions in the Premier League era - Arsenal, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Manchester City and Manchester United - had all won the title at least once prior to 1992. Leicester City were crowned champions for the first time in 2016, becoming the first (and to date only) team to win the Premier League without having previously won the First Division.
All the clubs which have ever been crowned champions are still in existence today and all take part in the top four tiers of the English football league system - the football pyramid. Sheffield Wednesday are the only club who have ever changed their name after winning a league title having been known as The Wednesday for the first three of their four titles.
Manchester United have won 20 titles, the most of any club. United 's rivals Liverpool are second with 18. Liverpool dominated during the 1970s and 1980s, while United dominated in the 1990s and 2000s under Sir Alex Ferguson. Arsenal are third; their 13 titles all came after 1930. Everton (nine) have enjoyed success throughout their history, and both Aston Villa (seven) and Sunderland (six) secured the majority of their titles before World War I. Huddersfield Town in 1924 -- 26, Arsenal in 1933 -- 35, Liverpool in 1982 -- 84 and Manchester United in 1999 -- 2001 and 2007 -- 09 are the only sides to have won the League title in three consecutive seasons.
Teams in bold are those who won the double of League Championship and FA Cup, or the European Double of League Championship and European Cup in that season.
Bold indicates Double winners -- i.e. League and FA Cup winners OR League and European Cup winners
Bold Italic indicates Treble winners -- i.e. League, FA Cup and European Cup winners
Teams in bold compete in the Premier League as of the 2017 -- 18 season.
See The Double and The Treble.
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women's right to vote in washington state | Women 's suffrage movement in Washington - wikipedia
The women 's suffrage movement in Washington State was part of the broader Women 's suffrage movement. In Washington, women gained and lost the right to vote repeatedly.
The first champion of women 's suffrage in Washington Territory was a man, Arthur A. Denny, who introduced a bill to the lower house of the territory in 1854, but it lost 8 to 9.
After the loss, the subject went silent for 10 years, until 1866 when the election code used language that could allow for women to vote, because it simply stated that "all white citizens '' could vote, Edward Eldridge stood on the house floor and stated that this interpretation included women. For a while many agreed with Eldridge 's statement until Mary Olney Brown attempted to cast her vote in Olympia in 1869 and was turned away and told she was not a citizen, in 1870 she tried again and was again denied. At the same time that she was trying to cast her ballot, her sister, Charlotte Olney French and several other women in Grand Mound, Washington cast their ballots successfully. Harry Morgan of Tacoma was a saloon owner who wanted to make sure that women had no vote, because he feared what they would do for his type of business. He was the backer of the case Harland V. Territory which was the first to officially deny women the right to vote. George Turner (U.S. politician) was a powerful voice in this case, because he argued that women should not be allowed on a jury, and that suffrage allowed them to do so, and that they needed to reverse women 's suffrage to keep them off the jury.
Another case that kept the right to vote from Washington from was the Nevada Bloomer case. Nevada Bloomer was the wife of a Spokane saloon owner, who cared little about women 's suffrage, but was a very dutiful wife. Her husband along with some local judges, devised a plan in which they would send Nevada to vote and then turn her away so that she could bring her case to the supreme court. The movement would do a lot to support the Bloomer case, although Nevada never had any intention of actually pursuing real action; the case was simply a diversion to keep the issue tied up in the courts and stop women from voting for prohibition.
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who sings the song and then he kissed me | Then He Kissed Me - wikipedia
"Then He Kissed Me '' is a song written by Phil Spector, Ellie Greenwich and Jeff Barry. The song, produced by Spector, was initially released as a single on Philles Records (# 115) in July 1963 by The Crystals. It is a narrative of a young woman 's encounter, romance, and eventual marriage with a fellow youth.
In 2004, this song was # 493 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Pitchfork placed it at number 18 on its list of "The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s ''. Billboard named the song # 8 on their list of 100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time.
The single is one of The Crystals ' most remembered songs. It was recorded at Gold Star Studios in Los Angeles in April of 1963. The lead vocal was sung by Dolores "LaLa '' Brooks, the arrangement of The Wrecking Crew 's Wall of Sound was by Jack Nitzsche and Larry Levine was the engineer. In the United States the single peaked at number six and in the United Kingdom the single peaked at number two. The single was The Crystals ' third single to chart in the top ten in the United States and their second to reach the top ten in the United Kingdom. The song was also a major hit in the Republic of Ireland, reaching number three in the charts there.
The song was re-worded to the title "Then I Kissed Her '' and released by The Beach Boys on their 1965 album Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) with Al Jardine on lead vocals and production by Brian Wilson. Beyond title and gender changes, new lyrics were written retelling the story of the Crystals ' song from the boyfriend 's point of view.
Two years after appearing on the album, in April 1967 the song was released as a single in the United Kingdom, appearing as a stop - gap release while work continued on the "Heroes and Villains '' single. This was reportedly done against the band 's wishes, Beach Boys band member Mike Love commented on May 7, 1967 "The record company did n't even have the decency to put out one of Brian 's own compositions. The reason for the hold up with a new single has simply been that we wanted to give our public the best and the best is n't ready yet. ''
"Then I Kissed Her '' charted at number four in the United Kingdom. The B - side of the single was "Mountain of Love '', a song off the band 's 1965 Beach Boys ' Party! album.
According to contemporary national charts sourced and cited by Billboard in 1967, it reached No. 2 in Sweden and South Africa and No. 9 in Belgium. It was No. 12 in Australia 's Go Set chart and No. 6 in New Zealand.
The Crystals ' version was used in its entirety in the 1990 film Goodfellas during the famous three - minute tracking shot through the Copacabana night club. In an homage to that scene, the song (in an artificially extended version) was used in the final episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart.
The song was also used during the opening credits of the film Adventures in Babysitting, as Elisabeth Shue dances and lip - syncs the song. It is also heard at the end of the film during the last scene and over part of the end credits.
It was used in a scene from The Simpsons 2006 episode "Marge and Homer Turn a Couple Play ''.
The song inspired The Sun front page headline And Then He Kissed Her on 30 July 1981, the day after the marriage of Prince Charles to Lady Diana Spencer.
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you just a baby boy you not the real mccoy | Bruno Mars - wikipedia
Peter Gene Hernandez (born October 8, 1985), known professionally as Bruno Mars (/ bruːnoʊˈmɑːrz /), is an American singer - songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, record producer, and choreographer. Born and raised in Honolulu, Hawaii, by a family of musicians, Mars began making music at a young age and performed in various musical venues in his hometown throughout his childhood. He graduated from high school and moved to Los Angeles to pursue a musical career. After being dropped by Motown Records, Mars signed a recording contract with Atlantic Records in 2009.
In 2009, he co-founded the production team The Smeezingtons, responsible for the singles "Nothin ' on You '' by B.o.B and "Billionaire '' by Travie McCoy. He featured on the hooks for both singles, becoming recognized as a solo artist. His debut studio album Doo - Wops & Hooligans (2010) included the international and U.S Billboard Hot 100 chart - topping singles "Just the Way You Are '' and "Grenade '', as well as the number - four single "The Lazy Song ''. Mars ' second album, Unorthodox Jukebox (2012), peaked at number one in the United States. The album spawned the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart - topping singles "Locked Out of Heaven '' and "When I Was Your Man '', as well as the number - five single "Treasure ''. In 2014, Mars lent his vocals to Mark Ronson 's "Uptown Funk '', a single which topped many charts worldwide, including the US, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and UK. His third studio album, 24K Magic (2016), yielded the successful singles "24K Magic '' and "That 's What I Like ''. To date, he has sold over 130 million records worldwide, making him one of the best - selling artists of all time. Mars has landed seven number - one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 since his career launched in 2010, attaining his first five faster than any male artist since Elvis Presley.
Mars has received many awards and nominations, including five Grammy Awards, three Brit Awards, one Guinness World Record, and was named one of Time 's 100 most influential people in the world in 2011. In December 2013, he ranked number one on the Forbes 30 under 30 list. Mars is known for his stage performances and retro showmanship. He is accompanied by his band, The Hooligans, who play a variety of instruments such as electric guitar, bass, piano, keyboards, drums and horns, and also serve as backup singers and dancers. Mars performs in a wide range of musical styles.
Peter Gene Hernandez was born on October 8, 1985, in Honolulu, Hawaii to Peter Hernandez and Bernadette San Pedro Bayot, and was raised in the Waikiki neighborhood of Honolulu.
His father is of half Puerto Rican and half Ashkenazi Jewish descent (from Ukraine and Hungary), and is originally from Brooklyn, New York. His mother emigrated from the Philippines to Hawaii as a child, and was of Filipino, and some Spanish, ancestry. His parents met while performing in a show in which his mother was a hula dancer and his father played percussion. At the age of two, he was nicknamed "Bruno '' by his father, because of his resemblance to professional wrestler Bruno Sammartino.
Mars is one of six children and came from a musical family which exposed him to a diverse mix of genres including: reggae, rock, hip hop, and R&B. His mother was both a singer and a dancer, and his father performed Little Richard rock and roll music. Mars ' uncle was an Elvis impersonator, and also encouraged three - year - old Mars to perform on stage. Mars performed songs by artists such as Michael Jackson, The Isley Brothers, and The Temptations. At age four, Mars began performing five days a week with his family 's band, The Love Notes, and became known on the island for his impersonation of Presley. In 1990, Mars was featured in MidWeek as "Little Elvis '', and later appeared in a cameo role in the film Honeymoon in Vegas (1992), and performed in the halftime show of the 1990 Aloha Bowl.
The time Mars spent impersonating Presley had a major impact on his musical evolution and performing techniques. He later began playing guitar after being inspired by Jimi Hendrix. In 2010, he also acknowledged his Hawaiian roots and musical family as an influence, explaining: "Growing up in Hawaii made me the man I am. I used to do a lot of shows in Hawaii with my father 's band. Everybody in my family sings, everyone plays instruments... I 've just been surrounded by it. '' When he attended President Theodore Roosevelt High School he performed in a group called The School Boys.
After Mars ' sister in Los Angeles played Mars ' demo for Mike Lynn, (the A&R at Dr. Dre 's Aftermath Entertainment), Lynn summoned Mars to Los Angeles. In 2003, shortly after graduating from high school at the age of 17, Mars moved to Los Angeles, California to pursue a musical career. He adopted his stage name from the nickname his father gave him, adding "Mars '' at the end because: "I felt like I did n't have (any) pizzazz, and a lot of girls say I 'm out of this world, so I was like I guess I 'm from Mars. '' Moreover, the adoption of his stage name was also due to "the music industry tried to pigeonhole him as another Latino artist, and even convinced him to sing in Spanish. ''
Shortly after moving to Los Angeles, Mars signed with Motown Records in 2004, in a deal that "went nowhere '', and had a conversation with Will.i.am 's management which turned out to be fruitless. However, Mars ' experience with Motown proved to be beneficial to his career when he met songwriter and producer Philip Lawrence, who was also signed to the label.
After Mars was dropped by the label less than a year after being signed, he stayed in Los Angeles and landed a music publishing deal in 2005 with Steve Lindsey and Cameron Strang at Westside Independent.
Lindsey showed Mars and Jeff Bhasker (who Mars met through Mike Lynn) the ins and outs of writing pop music, and acted as a mentor helping them to hone their craft. Bhasker explained that Lindsey would "mentor us, and kind of give us lectures as to what a hit pop song is, because you can have talent and music ability, but understanding what makes a hit pop song is a whole other discipline. '' Mars played cover songs around Los Angeles in a band with Bhasker and Eric Hernandez, (Mars ' brother), who is now The Hooligans ' drummer.
When Lawrence was first told he should meet Mars he was reluctant to do so since he did not even have money for bus fare. Keith Harris, drummer for The Black Eyed Peas, told him: "Whatever it costs you to get out here, I 'll reimburse you. '' Lawrence responded: "Just give me five dollars back for the bus. '' The pair began collaborating, writing songs for Mars, but they received many rejections from labels. On the verge of giving up, they received a call from Brandon Creed, who was looking for songs for a reunited Menudo. He liked their song "Lost '', which was written for Mars. The duo did not want to give the song away, but when they were offered $20,000 for it they agreed. The sale of this song allowed them to continue working, and Mars and Lawrence decided that they would write and produce songs together for other artists. Eventually, Creed became Mars ' manager for nine years.
In 2006, Lawrence introduced Mars to his future A&R manager at Atlantic Records, Aaron Bay - Schuck. After hearing him play a couple of songs on the guitar, Bay - Schuck wanted to sign him immediately, but it took roughly three years for Atlantic records to finally sign Mars to the label, because they felt it was too early and that he still needed to develop as an artist.
Before becoming a successful solo artist, Mars was an acknowledged music producer, writing songs for Alexandra Burke, Travie McCoy, Adam Levine, Brandy, Sean Kingston, and Flo Rida. He also co-wrote the Sugababes ' hit song "Get Sexy '' and provided backing vocals on their album Sweet 7. His first recorded appearance as a singer was on Far East Movement 's second studio album Animal, on the track "3D ''. He was also featured on pastor and hip hop artist Jaeson Ma 's debut single "Love '' in August 2009. He reached prominence as a solo artist after being featured on, and co-writing, B.o.B 's "Nothin ' on You '' and Travie McCoy 's "Billionaire ''; both songs peaked within the top ten on many charts worldwide.
He said of them: "I think those songs were n't meant to be full - sung songs. If I 'd sung all of "Nothin ' on You '', it might 've sounded like some ' 90s R&B. '' Following this success, Mars released his debut extended play (EP), titled It 's Better If You Do n't Understand, on May 11, 2010. The EP peaked at number 99 on the Billboard 200 and a music video was released for the song "The Other Side '' featuring singers CeeLo Green and B.o.B. Mars collaborated with Green once more in August 2010 composing his single "Fuck You '' with The Smeezingtons.
After serving as guest vocalist on B.o.B 's and Travies McCoy 's singles, Mars released "Just the Way You Are '' on July 19, 2010. The song was the lead single from his debut studio album, Doo - Wops & Hooligans, and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100, as well as several other charts worldwide. The song holds the record as the longest - reigning debut format hit, spending twenty weeks atop Adult Contemporary. He also released two digital singles -- "Liquor Store Blues '' featuring Damian Marley, and "Grenade '' to promote the album, -- before confirming the latter as the album 's second single on October 21, 2010. "Grenade '' reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and was also successful on other international charts. Released digitally on October 4, and physically on October 5, 2010, the album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, selling 55,000 copies. It received generally positive reviews from music critics, and has since sold six million copies worldwide. In February 2011, "The Lazy Song '' was released as the album 's third single becoming the album 's third consecutive top five on the Hot 100, peaking at number four.
"Marry You '' followed as the fourth single from Doo - Wops & Hooligans on August 22, 2011. Although it was not released as a single in the United States, it peaked at number 85 on the Hot 100 on January 15, 2011, thanks to strong digital sales. Since then it has sold 2.2 million digital copies. In November, "Count On Me '' was released as the album 's fifth single in Australia. Additionally, it was announced on Mars ' website, that he recorded and co-wrote a new song titled "It Will Rain '' for The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. The song was released for purchase on iTunes on September 27, 2011. It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100. During this period, he appeared on a number of collaborative singles, including "Lighters '', a duet with Bad Meets Evil released on July 5, 2011, "Mirror '', released on September 13, 2011, with Lil Wayne, and "Young, Wild & Free '' with Wiz Khalifa and Snoop Dogg, which was available for purchase on October 11, 2011. The songs peaked at number four, sixteen and seven on the Billboard Hot 100, respectively.
On September 19, 2010, Mars was arrested in Las Vegas at the Hard Rock Casino for possession of cocaine. While talking to a police officer, Mars reportedly declared that what he did was "foolish '' and that "he has never used drugs before. '' Mars pleaded guilty to felony drug possession and in return was told that the charges would be erased from his criminal record as long as he stayed out of trouble for a year. He paid a $2,000 fine, did 200 hours of community service, and completed a drug counseling course. Nevertheless, in a cover story for GQ magazine in 2013, Mars said "I was young, man! I was in f -- - ing Vegas... I was n't thinking '', he added: "I was given a number one record and I 'm out doing dumb sh --. '' Mars confessed that he lied to the authorities about having done cocaine before, saying "I do n't know where that came from '', adding: "I was really intoxicated. I was really drunk. So a lot of that is a big blur, and I try every day to forget and keep pushing. ''
He opened for Maroon 5 on the fall leg of their Hands All Over Tour starting October 6, 2010, and co-headlined with McCoy on a European tour starting October 18, 2010. From November 16, 2010, to January 28, 2012, Mars was on The Doo - Wops & Hooligans Tour, in support of the album.
On February 13, 2011, Mars won his first Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, having received six nominations: Best Rap Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for "Nothin ' on You '', Record of the Year for "Nothin ' on You '' and "Fuck You '', Song of the Year for "Fuck You '', and Producer of the Year, Non-Classical at the 53rd Grammy Awards. At the 54th Grammy Awards, Mars was nominated in six categories: Album of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Album for Doo - Wops & Hooligans, Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance for "Grenade '', and Producer of the Year, Non-Classical. However, Adele won all the categories in which he was nominated and he ended up by losing to Paul Epworth for Producer of the Year.
On March 22, 2012, it was announced that Mars had signed a worldwide publishing deal with BMG Chrysalis US. In September 2012, when interviewed by Billboard, Mars stated that his album would be more musically varied and refused to "pick a lane '', adding: "I listen to a lot of music, and I want to have the freedom and luxury to walk into a studio and say, ' Today I want to do a hip - hop, R&B, soul or rock record ' ". He announced the album title Unorthodox Jukebox along with the ten songs which would make the final cut on the album, and the title of the first single, "Locked out of Heaven '', which was released on October 1, 2012. The lead single from Unorthodox Jukebox reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and in Canada. It charted in the top ten in several countries worldwide.
Unorthodox Jukebox was released on December 11, 2012, and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with sales of 192,000 units. The album eventually peaked at number one on the Billboard 200, almost three months after its release. The album also charted number one in Switzerland and in the United Kingdom, becoming the fastest selling album by a solo artist in 2012 in the UK and has since sold six million copies worldwide. "When I Was Your Man '', was released as the second single from Unorthodox Jukebox on January 15, 2013, and peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, making Elvis Presley the only male who has achieved five number one singles on the Hot 100 more quickly than Mars. It reached the top ten in fifteen countries. The third single "Treasure '' peaked at number five in the United States but had less commercial success worldwide than the previous two. On May 24, 2013, Major Lazer released "Bubble Butt '' as the fourth single from their album Free the Universe which featured Tyga, 2 Chainz, Mystic, and Mars on vocals, peanking at number 56 on the Billboard Hot 100. In late 2013, "Gorilla '' and "Young Girls '' followed as the album 's fourth and fifth singles, and reached the top 35 on the Hot 100.
Mars ran his second headlining tour, The Moonshine Jungle Tour, from June 2013 to October 2014. The tour grossed $156, 4 million globally. On September 8, 2013, Mars was announced as the headline performer at the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show on February 2, 2014. The Red Hot Chili Peppers served as special guests for the show. It was the first Super Bowl halftime headlined by a performer under 30, and of Puerto Rican descent. The show was the most watched halftime show in the history of the Super Bowl, drawing a rating of 115.3 million viewers. The viewership was higher than the game itself. However, it was surpassed the following year by Katy Perry 's halftime show. He also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on May 16, 2015.
At the 56th Grammy Awards, Mars won the award for Best Pop Vocal Album for Unorthodox Jukebox and his single "Locked Out of Heaven '' was nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year, while "When I Was Your Man '' earned a nomination for Best Pop Solo Performance. Aside from his music career, Mars played the role of Roberto in the movie Rio 2 which was released in theaters on March 20, 2014. He also contributed the song "Welcome Back '' to the soundtrack. Like its predecessor, Rio 2 was a financial success and panned by critics. In October 2014, Mark Ronson announced that he would release a new single on November 10, 2014, titled "Uptown Funk '', featuring Mars ' vocals. The song was a commercial success reaching number one in the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK, and several other countries. According to Billboard Mars was the twelfth highest paid musician of 2013, with earnings of $18,839,681. In December 2013, he was named Artist of the Year by Billboard and ranked number one on the 2014 Forbes list 30 Under 30, a tally of the brightest stars in 15 different fields under the age of 30. In addition, he was thirteenth on the 2014 list of The World 's Most Powerful Celebrities with estimated earnings of $60 million.
After ending the Moonshine Jungle Tour, Mars began working on his third studio album, 24K Magic. He wrote on his Facebook page: "Now it 's time to start writing chapter 3 ''. The artist had not come up with a date for the release, stating: "Until it 's done... It 's got ta be just as good if not better ''. On March 25, 2015, the singer - songwriter was interviewed by that 's Shanghai magazine and provided some details of the new album, confirming Mark Ronson and Jeff Bhasker as producers. He added: "I want to write better songs, I want to put on better shows, I want to make better music videos. I want my next album to be better than the first and the second ''. In the same year, Mars was involved in the composition of "All I Ask '', a track from Adele 's third studio album, 25.
On December 2, 2015, it was announced that Coldplay would be headlining the Super Bowl 50 halftime show on February 7, 2016. Mars and Beyoncé were guest acts tying, at that time, with Justin Timberlake and Nelly for appearing twice on the Super Bowl halftime. They are only surpassed by Gloria Estefan, with three appearances. It became one of the most watched halftime shows. At the 2016 Grammy Awards, Ronson and Mars ' single, "Uptown Funk '', won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance and Record of the Year. In the same year, the singer was in the studio with his band 's bass player Jamareo Artis, engineer Charles Moniz, singer - songwriter Andrew Wyatt and EDM producer Skrillex. Moniz confirmed the album was close to being finished and Artis claimed it was set to be released in 2016. The album was to be issued in March, but Mars ' appearance at the Super Bowl halftime show led the release to be postponed several months. At that time seven songs were already recorded. On May, the singer not only split with his manager, Brandon Creed, but also starred in the second season of Jane the Virgin as a musical guest. The Guinness World Records recognized him in its 2017 edition as the "First Male Artist to achieve three 10 - million - selling - singles ''.
"24K Magic '' was released as the lead single from 24K Magic on October 7, 2016. It was promoted with his performance on Saturday Night Live and peaked at number four in the United States. In addition, it reached the top spot in Belgium, France and New Zealand. On 17 November, CBS announced an interview segment on "60 Minutes '', presented by Lara Logan, in which Mars talked about his new album and humble roots. This was his first television appearance in four years and went for broadcast on 20 November, coinciding with the release of 24K Magic, on November 18, 2016. The album received positive reviews from critics and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart. "That 's What I Like '' was released as the second single on January 30, 2017 and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100. However, it was less successful in international markets than the previous single. "Versace on the Floor '' was chosen as the third single from 24K Magic. The album version was issued to American radios, while a remix version with David Guetta was released internationally. It reached the top 35 of the Hot 100.
The singer 's third headlining tour, the 24K Magic World Tour, began in March 2017. On September 10, 2017, Us Weekly announced plans for a TV special by Mars at the Apollo Theater in New York. Later, on September 12, the singer confirmed that he would be starring in his first primetime TV special concert titled Bruno Mars: 24K Magic Live at the Apollo, a one - hour special, to be aired by CBS on November 29. The show was produced by Fulwell 73 Productions, alongside with Ben Winston and Mars as co-producers.
As a child, Mars spent time impersonating Elvis Presley. This playact had a major impact on his musical evolution; he later reflected:
I watch the best. I 'm a big fan of Elvis. I 'm a big fan of 1950s Elvis when he would go on stage and scare people because he was a force and girls would go nuts! You can say the same thing for Prince or The Police. It 's just guys who know that people are here to see a show, so I watch those guys and I love studying them because I 'm a fan. ''
He also impersonated Michael Jackson and Little Richard, both of whom are major inspirations of his. Mars was raised on his father 's doo - wop collection -- "simple four - chord songs that got straight to the point '' and on Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Frankie Lymon. The hip - hop productions by The Neptunes and Timbaland, that were played on the radio constantly, also influenced him.
Mars ' musical style gravitated initially towards R&B since he was influenced by artists such as Keith Sweat, Jodeci, and R. Kelly. As a child he also took notice of Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, New Edition, Bobby Brown, Boyz II Men, Teddy Riley and Babyface. At the same time, he also listened to 1950s rock ' n ' roll, doo - wop music, and Motown. In high school, he listened to classic rock groups such as Led Zeppelin, and The Beatles, whose influences can be heard in Mars ' work, as well as singers with high voices, like Stevie Wonder and Freddie Mercury. Bob Marley, and local bands in Hawaii, were a major influence and account for his reggae roots. Hip - hop acts like Jay - Z, The Roots, and Cody Chesnutt were among some of Mars ' favourites, and have influenced his composition skills. Each of these musical genres has influenced Mars ' musical style; he observed that: "It 's not easy to (create) songs with that mixture of rock and soul and hip - hop, and there 's only a handful of them. '' Mars also admires classical music.
Other artists Mars has said inspired his work include: Jimi Hendrix, Amy Winehouse, Sly Stone, Carlos Santana, George Clinton, Coldplay, and Usher. Mars has also stated that he is a fan of: Alicia Keys, Jessie J, Jack White, The Saturdays, and Kings of Leon.
Mars ' music has been noted for displaying a wide variety of styles, musical genres, and influences, including pop, rock, reggae, R&B, soul, and hip hop. His debut album Doo - Wops & Hooligans, a pop record, is influence by these genres. His subsequent release, Unorthodox Jukebox, as with his debut album, is infused with different influences including dance, rock reggae and soul, as well as balladry. Lyrically, the album is different than the former, addressing traditional notions of romance, male chauvinism, and sexuality. The explicit content in the song "Gorilla '' caused a controversy in Australia. Many of his songs, particularly on Doo - Wops & Hooligans, reflect "feel - good '', carefree, and optimistic sentiments. However, darker subjects are addressed in his songs, detailing failed relationships and self - destructive behaviour. Mars ' third album, 24K Magic, is significantly influence by R&B, soul music and funk. Lyrically, the album involve themes of money and sex. Mars has explained his writing process: "I do n't sit down and think, ' I 'm going to write a song ', inspiration hits me always unexpectedly: on a plane, when I 'm out or just before I go to bed. An idea will suddenly come to my mind, and sometimes I manage to turn it into lyrics the next day. Sometimes it 'll take me one year to get something real out of it. You ca n't force creativeness. ''
Mars claims that his work with other artists has influenced his musical style: "Nothin ' on You had a Motown vibe, Billionaire was a reggae acoustic guitar - driven song, though one of my favourites is the CeeLo Green song. I do n't think anyone else could 've sung that song. And there 's Just the Way You Are. If you know my story, you know I love all different genres of music. '' Mars states that growing up in Hawaii influenced his style, giving the songs a reggae sound. He explains: "In Hawaii some of the biggest radio stations are reggae. That music brings people together. It 's not urban music or pop music. It 's just songs. That 's what makes it cross over so well. The song comes first. ''
Philip Lawrence, one of his music partners from The Smeezingtons, stated: "What people do n't know is there 's a darker underbelly to Bruno Mars. '' Nevertheless, most of his music is romantic and Mars himself says: "I blame that on me singing to girls back in high school ''.
Mars possesses a three octave tenor vocal range. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that he is one of the most "versatile and accessible singers in pop, with a light, soul - influenced voice that 's an easy fit in a range of styles, a universal donor '', while Tim Sendra from AllMusic described Mars ' vocals on Doo - Wops & Hooligans as "the kind of smooth instrument that slips into your ear like honey. '' Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone called Mars a "nimble, soulful vocalist '' on Unorthodox Jukebox. Jim Farber of the New York Daily News praised Mars ' voice due to "the purity, cream and range of mid-period Michael Jackson '' in a review of a concert promoting Unorthodox Jukebox. Mars is also able to play drums, guitar, keyboard, bass, and piano. Mars usually plays the instrumentation or part of it, on his albums and on the songs he composes for other artists.
Mars is known for his retro showmanship which is widely acclaimed by tour critics and reviewers. A journalist from Mirrors Magazine says that "the showmanship on Bruno 's stage was like none other that I 've ever seen '' comparing him to Michael Jackson. Kevin C. Johnson of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch called Mars a "consummate performer. '' The Boston Globe music critique, Sarah Rodman, said that Mars shows an "indefatigable ecstatic approach to performing '' and "classic showmanship. '' In the same vein, Jim Farber of the Daily News stated of the halftime show at Super Bowl XLVIII that Mars "brings old - school showmanship to dynamic performance. ''
Rolling Stone magazine placed Mars at number 35 on its list of 50 Best Live Acts Right Now in 2013; he is the youngest act besides Janelle Monàe and Lady Gaga on the list. They wrote: "Anyone from the age of 5 to 95 can walk out of a Bruno Mars concert feeling like the show was designed just for them. Mars walks the old - school walk and talks the sexy talk, but he also nails the hits, leads a super-energetic nine - piece soul band, and rips a mean drum solo '', praising the "spectacular version '' of "Gorilla ''. Jason Lipshutz of Billboard described Mars ' performance as "entertaining... keeping smiles plastered on the faces of his onlookers, and he does a better job at it than almost anyone working in music right now ''. NFL executives Sarah Moll and Tracy Perlman stated that: "If you go to his concerts, it 's 11 - year - old girls to 65 - year - old women -- it 's everyone '', after seeing The Moonshine Jungle tour several times during the summer of 2013.
At most of his concerts Mars is accompanied by The Hooligans, a band that includes: a guitarist, bassist, drummer, keyboardist, and a horn section. They also serve as dancers and background singers. Mars ' shows feature all - band choreographed dancing arrangements, which include "fancy, slick and fantastic '' footwork that is inspired by James Brown and the splits. His shows are heavily influenced by the disco era with a soul revue - inspired set. In addition, long, mellow, and soft interludes that echo the smooth Contemporary R&B style which was popular during the 1990s are also part of the show. His set list blends several genres of music such as: pop, doo - wop, funk, R&B, soul and reggae. Mars ' shows usually feature pyrotechnics, strobe and laser lighting, and he typically plays the drums and guitar.
On May 12, 2013, Mars tweeted a picture of himself using an electronic cigarette. On May 30, 2013, a press release was published reporting Mars ' investment in the NJOY Electronic Cigarette Company, "in order to quit smoking for his mother '', since the singer "believes in the product and the company 's mission. ''
Mars decided to invest in Chromatik, which makes digital versions of sheet music for the web and iPad. Mars said: "I love that Chromatik will bring better music education into schools ''... "(a) nd I 'm happy to be a part of it. ''
In 2014, Bruno Mars teamed up with three partners to launch the "Selvarey Rum '' brand which includes Selvarey White, made of blended three and five - year aged Panamanian rums and the five - year - old rum flavored with chocolate, Selvarey Cacao.
On February 26, 2014, it was announced that Mars had partnered with the Hawai'i Community Foundation and the GRAMMY Foundation to establish a GRAMMY Camp Scholarship Fund, in order to support the next generation of music makers with funds to provide financial assistance for qualified needs - based applicants from Hawaii. On September 27, 2017, Mars expanded his camp scholarship in order to include applicants from all over the United States. The singer established the partnership in honor of his late mother.
Mars ' donated $100,000 (US) to the orphans of Bantay Bata, who were among the victims of Typhoon Haiyan, in order to raise the morale of those who lost their families and homes. Bruno Mars performed at the Make It Right gala, whose campaign goal is to "help build homes for people in need. '' Mars also performed at the Robin Hood Foundation 's 2014 annual benefit in New York, whose goal is to "fight poverty in New York City by supporting more than 200 nonprofits with financial and technical assistance. '' A day before a concert in the Philippines the singer donated $100,000 (US) to the "Typhoon Yolanda '' survivors.
In 2017, Mars donated 1 million dollares from the show at the Palace in Auburn Hills, Michiga to help the victims of the Flint water crisis. The singer participated in the "Somos Una Voz '' relief initiative, created by Jennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony, in order to help survivors of the Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico and Mexico 's 7.1 earthquake.
Bruno Mars has earned numerous awards and honors throughout his career, including five Grammy Awards, three Brit Awards, one Guinness World Record and three MTV Europe Music Awards. In 2011, Mars made Time magazine 's 100 list and in 2013 he was considered the sixth best songwriter of that year by Billboard. The Smeezingtons, Mars ' former songwriting and record producing team, have earned several accolades. In 2014, Mars became the artist with the most top five entries on the Billboard Hot 100 since his first week on the chart. Along with Adele and John Legend, Mars is the only artist who has a song that features only piano and vocals to top the Hot 100. He is the first male artist to place two titles as a lead act in the Hot 100 's top 10 simultaneously. Mars was the most played artist on pop radio in 2013 according to Mediabase and became the first solo male artist whose first 13 Top 40 hits all reached the Top 10 on the American Top 40. In total, he has had seven number - one singles on the Hot 100 chart.
According to the International Federation of Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Just the Way You Are '' and "Grenade '' are two of the most successful digital singles of all time, with sales of 12.5 million and 10.2 million, respectively. This contributed to Mars becoming the biggest selling artist of 2012. His songs "Just The Way You Are '', "Grenade '', "Locked Out Of Heaven '', and "When I Was Your Man '' have each sold over 4 million digital copies, making him the first male artist to do so as a lead singer. Five of his singles are counted among the best - selling singles of all time. As of 2014, Mars has sold over 130 million records worldwide. Nevertheless, as a singer, featured artist, producer and songwriter his sales surpass 169 million singles worldwide.
Because of the ticket reselling that occurred during the week after the Super Bowl, and in order to limit that kind of profiteering, Hawaii Senate President Donna Mercado Kim introduced Senate Resolution 12, also known as the Bruno Mars Act. It limits all ticket purchases within 48 hours of the on - sale date to the physical box office. This ensures that anyone who comes to the box office to buy tickets for a show should almost certainly be guaranteed a ticket and discourages ticket scalping. The State Senate in Hawaii passed the law.
Mars 's brother, Eric has continuously served as the drummer for his backup band, The Hooligans. Their sisters, Tiara, Tahiti, and Presley, as well as their cousin Jaime, make up the all - girl music group The Lylas. When she was young, Jamie moved in with the siblings due to parental issues. Mars began dating model Jessica Caban in 2011. The two remain a couple as of 2016, residing together in a mansion in the Hollywood Hills with a Rottweiler named "Geronimo ''.
On June 2, 2013, a publicist for Atlantic Records confirmed to the Associated Press that Mars ' mother had suffered a brain aneurysm. She died on Saturday, June 1, 2013, at age 55, at Queens Medical Center in Honolulu, Hawaii. The singer only received the news when he landed in Los Angeles, he went on another plane this time flying to Hawaii. However, his mother died a day later. Later, on June 7, 2013, the singer broke his silence concerning the loss of his mother on Twitter writing: "So thankful for all the love during the most difficult time in my life. I 'll be back on my feet again soon. That 's what mom wants, she told me. ''
On January 28, 2014, Demetrius Orlandus Proctor filed a lawsuit, claiming he holds the copyright for the Travie McCoy and Mars ' track "Billionaire ''. Proctor claimed he owned the copyright to the music and lyrics of the track since March 31, 2011, though the song was released a year before. As evidence, Proctor has submitted a United States Copyright Office registration certificate for "Frisky Vol. 1 to 30 (Tapes) '', issued in 2000. Proctor accused the defendants of "willful and intentional '' copyright infringement, seeking destruction of all copies of the recording. Proctor claims he has exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the song. His only request: "Defendant shall destroy all copies of Plaintiffs ' Recording that Defendants have downloaded onto any computer hard drive or server without Plaintiffs ' authorization and shall destroy all copies of that downloaded recording transferred onto any (other) physical medium or device. ''
In April 2015, it was revealed that a settlement had been reached with The Gap Band 's publishing company, Minder Music, to add The Gap Band and producer Lonnie Simmons as co-writers, who will receive 17 % of the royalties from Mark and Mars ' hit "Uptown Funk ''. The claim on behalf of The Gap Band and Lonnie Simmons was entered into YouTube 's content management system preventing payments to the publisher. Later, on August 12, Serbian pop artist Viktorija has also argued that "Uptown Funk '' infringed on her track "Ulice mračne nisu za devojke ''. She stated that she had no hurry to sue them, since "these processes take a long time, and my life and career does not depend on lawsuits. '' She added, "for these lawsuits, there should be a lot of money, the lawyers are working on a percentage. If I still decide to sue them and I win, I have to figure out what to do with that money. ''
"Treasure '' was re-registered in ASCAP with new writing credits, which included Thibaut Jean - Marrie Michel Berland and Irfane Khan Christopher, due to the similarities with Breakbot 's "Baby I 'm Yours ''.
In a cover story for Entertainment Weekly, Mars stated that the song "Nothin ' on You '' was rejected by a "music industry decision - maker '' (a person he wo n't name) because of his race. That experience made him feel like a "mutant '', and he says that was his lowest point. "Even with that song in my back pocket to seal the deal, things like that are coming out of people 's mouths. It made me feel like I was n't even in the room. '' In April 2013, in a cover story for GQ magazine, Mars confessed that he changed his surname because people in the music industry took him as another Latino artist, and even tried to convince him to sing in Spanish saying: "Your last name 's Hernandez, maybe you should do the Latin music, this Spanish music... Enrique (Iglesias) is so hot right now ''. Nevertheless, Mars used his childhood nickname Bruno and changed his surname to Mars, in an effort to "avoid being stereotyped ''.
In the song "Yonkers '', Tyler, The Creator disparages numerous artists, including Bruno Mars. Tyler also disparages Mars in The Game 's song "Martians vs. Goblins '', in which he and Lil Wayne are featured artists. Mars, in response to the verse "stab Bruno Mars in his goddamn esophagus, '' said "(Tyler) has to wait in line if he wants to stab me... (Tyler 's) definitely not the first guy that 's said something like that to me and he 's not going to be the last ''. On April 24, 2015, Tyler admitted to being wrong regarding Mars ' talent and pointed to Mars performance of "Gorilla '' at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards as evidence.
During a performance on November 21, 2013, Kanye West gave his opinion regarding the MTV Video Music Awards, that were held on August 25, 2013. West said, "Bruno Mars won all the motherfucking awards and shit ''. He continued, "What I care about is if you 're an artist and you work hard as fuck and the streets say that you deserve that shit. Then ca n't no motherfucking networks try to gas everybody up so they can sell some product with the prettiest motherfucker out ''. Nevertheless, on February 26, 2015, he publicly apologized to Bruno Mars on Twitter while asking him to sing a hook on a song that he co-produced. West asked Tyler, the Creator to direct the music video. Mars confirmed that West called him and apologized.
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tu pyar hai kisi aur ka film name | Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin - Wikipedia
Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin (English: Being a heart (it) does n't understand) is a 1991 Indian Hindi romantic drama film. It was produced by Gulshan Kumar, directed by Mahesh Bhatt, and starred his daughter Pooja Bhatt in her first major lead female role, while the lead male role was played by Aamir Khan. Supporting roles were played by Anupam Kher, Sameer Chitre, and Tiku Talsania, while Deepak Tijori made a special appearance.
The movie was a box office success and earned a ' HIT ' verdict, boosting the career of newcomer Pooja Bhatt while cementing Aamir Khan 's status as a leading movie star. The movie revolves around a spoilt heiress who runs away from home to marry a gold - digging film star. En route she is helped by a smart - alecky journalist only to end up falling for him.
It is an unofficial remake of the 1956 Bollywood film Chori Chori, which in turn was adapted from the 1934 Hollywood film It Happened One Night. In turn, Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin was remade in Tamil as Kadhal Rojavae (2000) and inspired the Kannada movie Hudugaata (2007).
Pooja Dharamchand (Pooja Bhatt) is the daughter of a rich Bombay shipping tycoon, Seth Dharamchand (Anupam Kher). She is head - over-heels in love with movie star Deepak Kumar (Sameer Chitre), but her father strongly disapproves of their courtship. One night, Pooja escapes from her father 's yacht and hops onto a bus to Bangalore to be with Deepak, who is shooting for a film there. Meanwhile, Seth Dharamchand, realizing his daughter has run away, dispatches private detectives to locate her.
Aboard the bus, Pooja meets Raghu Jetley (Aamir Khan), a loud - mouth journalist who has just lost his job. He offers to help her in exchange for an exclusive story on her, which would revive his flagging career. Pooja is forced to agree to his demands, as he threatens to let her father know of her whereabouts should she not comply. After both of them happen to miss the bus, Raghu and Pooja go through various adventures together and find themselves falling in love with one another.
Raghu desires to marry Pooja, but knows that financially he is in no shape to do so. He simply wanted a story on her life and never wanted to win her heart. Pooja also falls for Raghu and she decides to go with him, but a misunderstanding leads her to believe that Raghu was just looking for a story and not her love.
She calls it quits, returns home and agrees to marry Deepak. However, her father learns about Raghu when he comes to him to take back his money, spent by Raghu on Pooja on his way to Bangalore. He realises how Raghu has taken care of Pooja during the trip. Pooja misunderstands him and believes that he might have come for the reward announced by her rich father. At last her father tells Pooja that Raghu is the right man for her and that he has not come for the reward. On the wedding day she realises that Raghu really loves her and then runs away from the marriage mandap to Raghu her father supports her.
The Soundtrack Of The Movie Is Composed By The Music Duo Nadeem - Shravan. The Song Lyrics Planned By Sameer and Faaiz Anwar. All the songs are sung by Anuradha Paudwal along with co-singers Kumar Sanu, Abhijeet, Babla Mehta & Debashish Dasgupta. The Songs Dil Tujhpe Aa Gaya and Galyat Sankali Sonyachi were originally voiced by Kumar Sanu but later was released with voiceover by Abhijeet and Babla Mehta respectively.
Anuradha paudwal won filmfare for song dil hai ke manta nahin in 1992.
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when did commercial petroleum production begin in new zealand | Oil and gas industry in New Zealand - wikipedia
The oil and gas industry in New Zealand explores and develops oil and gas fields, and produces petroleum products and natural gas.
In 2015, New Zealand 's self - sufficiency in oil (mmbls production divided by consumption) was 30 %, i.e. the country imports over two thirds its petroleum product needs (though actual imports are higher, as some of the local product is also exported). In 2015, 97 petajoules of crude were produced in New Zealand, 242 PJ of petroleum products imported (most of it crude), and 261 PJ consumed. The difference is exported or used for international travel (aviation fuel and similar).
Oil and gas are produced from 21 petroleum licenses / permits, all in the Taranaki basin. The most important fields are Kapuni, Maui, Pohokura and Kupe. Exploration for oil and gas reserves includes the Great South Basin and offshore areas near Canterbury and Gisborne.
New Zealand has one oil refinery, the Marsden Point Oil Refinery. The major industry body is the Petroleum Exploration and Production Association of New Zealand.
There are 2,600 kilometres of high - pressure natural gas transmission pipelines in the North Island. Most of these are owned and operated by First Gas, including the Maui pipeline, a 307 km pipeline that carries 78 % of all natural gas produced in New Zealand. The low - pressure gas pipelines that distribute gas to end users are owned by First Gas (Northland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, Kapiti Coast), Vector (Auckland), Powerco (Hawke 's Bay, Taranaki, Manawatu, Wellington) and GasNet (Wanganui).
The largest retailers of gas are Contact Energy and Vector. There is no natural gas transmission in the South Island. New Zealand has one underground gas storage facility, the Ahuroa Gas Storage Facility.
In 1865, the Alpha well was drilled near Mikotahi at New Plymouth. This was the first oil well in what is now the Commonwealth and one of the first in the world. A petroleum industry developed at Moturoa, including producing wells and refineries. The last refinery there was closed in 1972. The field continues to produce small quantities of oil.
The Kapuni gas field in South Taranaki was discovered in 1959 and brought into production in 1970. The North Island natural gas network started operating in 1970, initially supplying Kapuni gas to Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North and Wellington. The off - shore Maui field was discovered in 1969 and brought into production in 1978. This supported the development of many large energy projects, including gas fired power stations at New Plymouth and Huntly, ammonia - urea plant at Kapuni, gas to methanol plant at Waitara and the synthetic petrol plant at Motunui.
Proven and probable (P50) reserves, ultimate and remaining, as at 1 January 2016
Producing fields
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what animal is the pink one in backyardigans | The Backyardigans - wikipedia
The Backyardigans is a CGI - animated musical TV series created by Janice Burgess. It is a co-production of animation studio Nelvana and Nickelodeon Animation Studios. The series debuted on October 11, 2004 and ended on May 31, 2010; reruns of The Backyardigans continue to air on the Nickelodeon family of channels in the United States. The show airs on Treehouse TV in Canada. In 2015, the first season was included as part of Nick Jr. 's Noggin app, a mobile application featuring episodes of older Nick Jr. programs.
The series was based upon a live - action pilot produced in 1998 titled Me and My Friends.
The series follows a ritualistic pattern and centers around an assortment and musical pop group of neighboring playmates depicted as bipedal, anthropomorphic animals: Uniqua, Pablo, Tyrone, Austin, and Tasha. Designed to encourage imaginative play, the characters communicate with the viewers by constantly breaking the fourth - wall, albeit the series rests particular focus on the role - playing games in which the friends participate varying with each episode, and said games are visualized through dream sequences lasting for a majority of the episode and serving as the primary focus of that certain episode. Usually, the group will visualize a unique scenario, ranging from prehistoric times to adventurous fantasies, and they are often presented with multiple dilemmas along the way to accomplishing a certain goal or priority, or may be challenged with a major single obstacle to defeat or problem to solve. After season one, there is usually a villain in the episode, mainly played by one of the Backyardigans (thus another Backyardigan plays the role of the hero), but the villain of the episode always reforms in the end. The program also follows a musical format, featuring multiple musical numbers sung throughout the course of an episode regarding whatever imaginary predicament in which the characters have situated themselves or perhaps a challenge that they have met, every episode opening and concluding with a particular song. The adventures get more advanced after the first season. When the Backyardigans have achieved their mission or defeated any disadvantages, the fantasy sequence fades, restoring actuality to the setting of the episodes as the closing song is sung, the characters scurrying to their houses for a snack. The main character or characters then opens the snack host 's house door, fence, or around the corner, and shouts the main catchphrase for the final time and then closes the door. The picture then is lifeless with some background bird noises often heard as iris closes, ending the episode.
In one episode, "The Secret of Snow '', the episode does not start off in the backyard, but on a floor that has a red storybook on it. Also, Austin, though never shown, is the only Backyardigan who makes a physical appearance in the episode; the other four appear only in the storybook. This is the only time only one of the real Backyardigans appears.
Each of the five characters on the show have two voice actors: one for speaking, and the other for singing.
The dancing on the show is first performed by live - action dancers, and their movements are later transported to animation. Choreographer, Beth Bogush, describes the process: "What we do is we film the live footage in the studio, send that off and they do a Leica, and then they send it to the animators. The animators watch, and were pretty precise. What we film for that day is pretty close to what you see in the character. '' In season one, the Backyardigans usually wear the normal clothes while on an adventure, usually accompanied with accessories. They rarely wear their normal clothes in an adventure after the first season.
Pablo is a yellow - beaked blue penguin who wears a blue bow tie and a blue - and - yellow propeller beanie. Pablo tends to be the most excitable of the group and is best friends with Tyrone. Due to his energy and impetuousness, he often goes into a "panic attack '' when he faces an obstacle, running around in circles and telling everyone not to worry until someone interrupts him. The number of panic attacks decreased considerably after the first season, though in the episode The Flipper! his propensity for getting overexcited is a major plot point.
Pablo is absent for one episode, "Chichen - Itza Pizza. ''
Speaking voice: Zach Tyler Eisen (season 1) and Jake Goldberg (seasons 2 -- 4) Singing voice: Sean Curley (seasons 1 -- 4) Dancer: Tasha Cooper (seasons 1 -- 3) Jonathan Sandler (season 3) Steven Konopelski (seasons 3 -- 4) Jacob Wimar (season 4) Paul Flanagan (season 4)
A curious, self - confident and high - spirited pink spotted character, she 's also the most powerful leader of the bunch. The series uses the name "Uniqua '' for both the character and her species. She wears pink polka - dotted overalls and has a pair of swirled antennae on top of her head. Uniqua is sweet and friendly, though her strong opinions and occasional stubbornness get in the way of her relationships. While imagining herself having the roles that require brains and fortitude (such as a scientist or pirate captain) and despite her love of books (as seen in episodes such as "The Masked Retriever ''). Creator Janice Burgess describes Uniqua as the child she wishes she was like as a child. She is the only character to appear in every episode.
Speaking voice: Lashawn Tináh Jefferies (seasons 1 -- 4) Singing voice: Jamia Simone Nash (seasons 1 -- 3) and Avion Baker (season 4) Dancer: Hattie Mae Williams (seasons 1 -- 4)
Tyrone is a good - natured, yet somewhat fearful, red - haired orange moose who wears a red - and - blue striped shirt. He is almost the complete opposite of his best friend Pablo in terms of personality, despite his laid - back and cool - headed character and being known for his sarcastic comments, one of them being "That certainly was convenient. '' At the end of most episodes, he remarks, "That was an excellent (type) adventure, do n't you think? '' (though Pablo, Austin, and Tasha recite the line when he is absent). Despite not appearing to wear trousers (except on rare occasions), Tyrone somehow manages to put his hands in his pockets.
Speaking voice: Reginald Davis Jr. (seasons 1 -- 2), Jordan Coleman (seasons 2 -- 3) and Christopher Grant, Jr. (season 4) Singing voice: Corwin C. Tuggles (season 1), Leon G. Thomas III (seasons 2 -- 3), Damani Roberts (season 3) and Tyrel Jackson Williams (seasons 3 -- 4) Dancer: Greg Sinacori (seasons 1 -- 2, 4) Bradley Shelver (season 3) Andrew Cao (season 3)
A strong - willed yellow hippopotamus, Tasha wears an orange flowered dress and red shoes. She is a sweet girl on the outside, but is more rational and likes to get her own way. She is the most serious of the major characters, although Tasha can be just as easygoing from time to time. She is more tomboyish than her friend Uniqua. From the second season onward, she has a more amiable personality, as well as a more muscular appearance than the other characters. She tends to be grumpy if not the boss. Her catchphrase is "Oh, for goodness sakes! ''
Speaking voice: Naelee Rae (seasons 1 -- 2) and Gianna Bruzzese (seasons 3 -- 4) Singing voice: Kristin Danielle Klabunde (seasons 1 -- 3) and Gabriella Malek (seasons 3 -- 4) Dancer: Darlene Dirstine (seasons 1 -- 3) Amanda Ulibarri (season 4) Nancy Renee Braun (season 4)
Austin is a shy but fun - loving purple kangaroo. Though generally soft - spoken in the first season, due to recently moving in the neighborhood, Austin starts to come out of his shell as the series progresses. He is revealed to be smart and imaginative. Austin rarely appears in the spotlight, but takes the role of the lead character in several episodes. Says Bogush: "Austin 's usually the one pulling up the rear. He 's kind of a get - along guy. '' Austin has been shown to occasionally display a more villainous side, such as in the episodes "High Tea '' and "The Magic Skateboard. ''
Speaking voice: Jonah Bobo (seasons 1 -- 4) Singing voice: Thomas Sharkey (seasons 1 -- 3) and Nicholas Barasch (season 4) Dancer: Kristen Frost (seasons 1 -- 4)
All animal voices were portrayed by Dee Bradley Baker.
The characters live in houses adjoining a large backyard common to the three central houses (Uniqua 's, Pablo 's and Tyrone 's) that is transformed by imagination into various adventure settings. Each house roughly corresponds to the color scheme of the character: Uniqua in a pink house, Pablo lives in a blue one, and Tyrone in an orange one. Tasha 's house, which is to the left of the three central houses, is yellow and Austin 's, to the right, is partially obscured by a fence but what is visible is purple. The fence, which surrounds the combined properties of the three main characters (Uniqua, Pablo and Tyrone), has a gate in it which leads to Austin 's house. The curve of the cul - de-sac allows the play area to be roughly equal in distance from each house 's back door.
Not everything that appears in the imaginary world has a real - world counterpart. Often trees, boulders, brickwork, or similar objects appear where nothing originally existed. By the same token, even large trees in the real garden disappear completely when the imagination part of the story commences.
The series was based upon a live - action pilot titled "Me and My Friends, '' produced at Nickelodeon Studios in September 1998. This pilot was rejected by Nickelodeon, and the concept was reworked into an animated short in 2002. This pilot was greenlit by Nickelodeon to become a full - length series. The show is intended for children aged 2 to 5.
Dave Palmer began directing the show in the middle of season one, and directed all subsequent episodes. Evan Lurie (of The Lounge Lizards) and Douglas Wieselman composed the music for the show with lyrics by McPaul Smith. The characters were designed by children 's author and illustrator Dan Yaccarino.
A second season had been announced on April 30, 2006 by Nelvana and Nickelodeon. The third season was first released in the United States in January 2008. A fourth season was produced in 2009, and aired in 2010.
Production was wrapped up in late 2009.
Several The Backyardigans theatrical performances have toured Canada and the United States.
In Canada, three different performances have toured: "Musical Playdate '' (2006), "Quest for the Extra Ordinary Aliens '' (2008) and "Sea Deep in Adventure '' (2009). The "Musical Playdate '' performance had been promoted as "V.I.P. Appearance '' and "Backyardigans Mini Performance '' in earlier advertisements. All three tours were presented by Paquin Entertainment Group and produced by Koba Entertainment, both based in Winnipeg.
In the United States, two theatrical performances toured: 2008 's "Tale of the Mighty Knights '' and 2010 's "Storytime Live! '' (an event featuring four other Nick Jr. shows: Moose and Zee, Dora the Explorer, Wonder Pets! and Ni Hao, Kai - Lan).
In the United States, twenty - two DVDs featuring four episodes each were released from August 2005 until March 2011.
Five videotapes featuring two episodes each were released in 2005 and 2006; the titles were the same as the first five American DVDs.
All four seasons have been released on iTunes in Canada and the US; however, the US iTunes Store is missing three episodes from the first season: "Secret Mission, '' "It 's Great To Be A Ghost! '' and "The Tea Party '' (also known as "High Tea '').
There were four The Backyardigans albums released in North America, and one album released in Europe. Each has approximately 20 tracks, while Born To Play has four bonus tracks only available on the iTunes Store.
Released September 2004, this CD promoted the series ' debut. Because this was a promotional album sent via mail, it was not sold in stores. It contains four tracks from the first season, including the opening theme. The songs would later be included in the next album.
Released on July 12, 2005, under Nick Records ' label. This is the first album sold in stores. It contains nineteen tracks from the first season, including the opening theme.
This second CD was released on July 11, 2006, under Nick Records ' label. It contains eighteen tracks from seasons one and two. Target sold an exclusive release including Astronauts Never Give Up, totaling nineteen tracks.
The third and final The Backyardigans CD, was released on January 22, 2008, under Sony BMG 's label. It contains songs from seasons 1 - 2, as well as all the songs from Tale of the Mighty Knights. There is a total of 22 tracks. There 's also a special iTunes version of this album, containing 5 bonus tracks in addition to the 22 tracks, totaling 27 tracks. This album was released in a cardboard foldout case, rather than a jewel case like the previous two releases. Borders carried the jewel case release exclusively, which included a booklet. This booklet was also included on the iTunes release as a file with purchase of a digital download.
Bonus iTunes Tracks:
23. Betcha I Can 24. Phantom Footsteps 25. Do It Myself 26. The Call of the Mermaid
Released in 2006, as part of a series launch tour in the United Kingdom. The album is near identical to the American - released counterpart, with Please and Thank You replaced with Questing.
Activision released a The Backyardigans PC game, "Mission to Mars, '' in October 2006. In addition, there are interactive Backyardigans games available for the LeapPad and VTech 's V. Smile consoles. There is also a LeapFrog ClickStart game titled "Number Pie Samurai, '' teaching children basic computer skills.
From 2005 to 2007, Kohl 's had a section devoted to the series ' merchandise, including a clothing line and toys exclusively in store.
Over one hundred storybooks (both original stories and episode - based) were released throughout the series ' run. Most of these were released in both Canada and the United States; however, a 2006 series of educational books were exclusively sold in Canada under the license of Treehouse TV.
Fisher - Price produced numerous plush toys and interactive character toys (mostly Uniqua, Pablo and Tyrone). All merchandise produced by Fisher - Price has been discontinued as of 2009. There are also Beanie Babies of all the main characters available.
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who did the seahawks play in the super bowl | Seattle Seahawks - wikipedia
National Football League (1976 -- present)
College Navy, Action Green, Wolf Grey
League championships (1)
Conference championships (3)
Division championships (10)
The Seattle Seahawks are a professional American football franchise based in Seattle, Washington. The Seahawks compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) West division. The Seahawks joined the NFL in 1976 as an expansion team. The Seahawks are owned by Paul Allen and are currently coached by Pete Carroll. Since 2002, the Seahawks have played their home games at CenturyLink Field (formerly Qwest Field), located south of downtown Seattle. The Seahawks previously played home games in the Kingdome (1976 -- 1999) and Husky Stadium (1994, 2000 -- 2001).
The Seahawks are the only NFL franchise based in the Pacific Northwest region of North America, and thus attract support from a wide geographical area, including some parts of Oregon, Montana, Idaho, and Alaska, as well as Canadian fans in British Columbia and Alberta.
Seahawks fans have been referred to collectively as the "12th Man '', "12th Fan '', or "12s ''. The Seahawks ' fans have twice set the Guinness World Record for the loudest crowd noise at a sporting event, first on September 15, 2013, registering 136.6 dB during a game against the San Francisco 49ers and again on December 2, 2013, during a Monday Night Football game against the New Orleans Saints, with a then record - setting 137.6 dB.
Over the years several notable players have been Seahawks, including Shaun Alexander, Brian Blades, Brian Bosworth, Nate Boyer, Chad Brown, Dave Brown, Nate Burleson, Kenny Easley, Joey Galloway, Jacob Green, Matt Hasselbeck, Steve Hutchinson, Walter Jones, Cortez Kennedy, Dave Krieg, Steve Largent, Marshawn Lynch, Joe Nash, Eugene Robinson, Michael Robinson, Michael Sinclair, Mack Strong, Lofa Tatupu, Marcus Trufant, Curt Warner, Chris Warren, Fredd Young and Jim Zorn as well as, for a brief time, Hall of Famers Carl Eller, Franco Harris, Warren Moon, John Randle, and Jerry Rice. Largent (1995), Kennedy (2012), Jones (2014), and Easley (2017) have been voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame primarily or wholly for their accomplishments as Seahawks. Brown, Easley, Green, Jones, Kennedy, Krieg, Largent, Warner, and Zorn have been inducted into the Seahawks Ring of Honor along with Pete Gross (radio announcer) and Chuck Knox (head coach).
The Seahawks have won 10 division titles and three conference championships. They are the only team to have played in both the AFC and NFC Championship Games. They have appeared in three Super Bowls: losing 21 -- 10 to the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XL, defeating the Denver Broncos 43 -- 8 for their first championship in Super Bowl XLVIII, and losing 28 -- 24 to the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX. They are also the first, and to date only, post-merger expansion team in NFL history to play in consecutive Super Bowl games.
As per one of the agreed parts of the 1970 AFL -- NFL merger, the NFL began planning to expand from 26 to 28 teams. In June 1972, Seattle Professional Football Inc., a group of Seattle business and community leaders, announced its intention to acquire an NFL franchise for the city of Seattle. In June 1974, the NFL gave the city an expansion franchise. That December, NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle announced the official signing of the franchise agreement by Lloyd W. Nordstrom, representing the Nordstrom family as majority partners for the consortium.
In March 1975, John Thompson, former Executive Director of the NFL Management Council and a former Washington Huskies executive, was hired as the general manager of the new team. The name Seattle Seahawks ("Seahawk '' is another name for Osprey) was selected on June 17, 1975 after a public naming contest which drew more than 20,000 entries and over 1,700 names.
Thompson recruited and hired Jack Patera, a Minnesota Vikings assistant coach, to be the first head coach of the Seahawks; the hiring was announced on January 3, 1976. The expansion draft was held March 30 -- 31, 1976, with Seattle and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers alternating picks for rounds selecting unprotected players from the other 26 teams in the league. The Seahawks were awarded the 2nd overall pick in the 1976 draft, a pick they used on defensive tackle Steve Niehaus. The team took the field for the first time on August 1, 1976 in a pre-season game against the San Francisco 49ers in the then newly constructed Kingdome.
The Seahawks are the only NFL team to switch conferences twice in the post-merger era. The franchise began play in 1976 in the aforementioned NFC West but switched conferences with the Buccaneers after one season and joined the AFC West. This realignment was dictated by the league as part of the 1976 expansion plan, so that both expansion teams could play each other twice and every other NFL franchise once (the ones in their conference at the time) during their first two seasons. The Seahawks won both matchups against the Buccaneers in their first two seasons, the former of which was the Seahawks ' first regular season victory.
In 1983, the Seahawks hired Chuck Knox as head coach. Finishing with a 9 -- 7 record, the Seahawks made their first post-season appearance, defeating the Denver Broncos in the Wild Card Round, and then the Miami Dolphins, before losing in the AFC Championship to the Los Angeles Raiders. The following season, the Seahawks had their best season before 2005, finishing 12 -- 4. Knox won the NFL Coach of the Year Award.
In 1988, Ken Behring and partner Ken Hofmann purchased the team for $79 million or $99 million (both numbers have been reported). The Seahawks won their first division title in 1988, but from 1989 to 1998 had poor records; their best record in that span came in 1990, when the team finished 9 -- 7, and the lowest point came in 1992 when the team finished with its worst record in team history, 2 -- 14.
In 1996, Behring and Hoffman transferred the team 's operations to Anaheim, California, a widely criticized move, although the team continued to play in Seattle. The team almost relocated, and was in bankruptcy for a short period. The NFL threatened Behring with fining him $500,000 a day if he did n't move the team 's operations back to Seattle; with this, Behring and Hoffman sold the team to Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen in 1997, for $200 million, and in 1999 Mike Holmgren was hired as head coach. He would coach for 10 seasons. The Seahawks won their second division title, as well as a wild card berth in the playoffs.
In 2002, the Seahawks returned to the NFC West as part of an NFL realignment plan that gave each conference four balanced divisions of four teams each. This realignment restored the AFC West to its initial post-merger roster of original AFL teams Denver, San Diego, Kansas City, and Oakland.
In the 2005 season, the Seahawks had their best season in franchise history (a feat that would later be matched in 2013) with a record of 13 -- 3, which included a 42 - 0 rout of the Philadelphia Eagles on December 5, a game since referred to as the Monday Night Massacre. The 13 - 3 record earned them the number one seed in the NFC. They won the NFC Championship Game in 2005, but lost in Super Bowl XL against the Pittsburgh Steelers. The loss was controversial; NFL Films has Super Bowl XL at number 8 on its top ten list of games with controversial referee calls. Referee Bill Leavy later admitted that he missed calls that altered the game. Before 2005, Seattle had the longest drought of playoff victories of any NFL team, dating back to the 1984 season. That drought was ended with a 20 -- 10 win over the Washington Redskins in the 2005 playoffs.
In the 2009 NFL season, the Seahawks finished 3rd in the NFC West with a 5 - 11 record. Shortly after his first full season with the Seahawks, head coach Jim L. Mora was fired on January 8, 2010. Mora was replaced by former USC Trojans football head coach, Pete Carroll. Shortly thereafter, Mora became the head coach for the UCLA Bruins football team.
In the 2010 NFL season, the Seahawks made history by making it into the playoffs despite having a 7 -- 9 record. They had the best record in a division full of teams with losing seasons (Seahawks 7 -- 9, Rams 7 -- 9, 49ers 6 -- 10, Cardinals 5 -- 11) and won the decisive season finale against the Rams (not only by overall record, but by division record, as both teams coming into the game had a 3 -- 2 division record). In the playoffs, the Seahawks won in their first game against the defending Super Bowl XLIV champs, the New Orleans Saints, 41 -- 36. The Seahawks made even more history during the game with Marshawn Lynch 's 67 - yard run, breaking 7 or more tackles, to clinch the victory. After the run the fans reacted so loudly that a small earthquake (a bit above 2 on the Richter Scale) was recorded by seismic equipment around Seattle. The Seahawks lost to the Bears in their second game, 35 -- 24.
The 2012 NFL season started with doubt, as the Seahawks lost their season opener against the Arizona Cardinals, after the highly touted Seattle defense gave up a go - ahead score late in the fourth quarter, and rookie quarterback Russell Wilson failed to throw the game - winning touchdown after multiple attempts in the red - zone. However, Russell Wilson and the Seahawks went 4 -- 1 in their next five games en route to an 11 -- 5 overall record (their first winning record since 2007). Their 2012 campaign included big wins over the Green Bay Packers, New England Patriots, and San Francisco 49ers. The Seahawks went into the playoffs as the # 5 seed and the only team that season to go undefeated at home. In the Wild Card Round, the Seahawks overcame a 14 - point deficit to defeat the Washington Redskins. This was the first time since the 1983 Divisional Round that the Seahawks won a playoff game on the road. However, in the 2013 Divisional Round, overcoming a 20 - point, fourth quarter deficit would n't be enough to defeat the # 1 seed Atlanta Falcons. An ill - advised timeout and a defensive breakdown late in the game cost the Seahawks their season, as they lost, 30 -- 28. QB Russell Wilson won the 2012 Pepsi Max Rookie of the Year award.
In the 2013 NFL season, the Seahawks continued their momentum from the previous season, finishing tied with the Denver Broncos for an NFL - best regular season record of 13 -- 3, while earning the NFC 's # 1 playoff seed. Their 2013 campaign included big wins over the Carolina Panthers, New Orleans Saints, and the San Francisco 49ers. Six Seahawks players were named to the Pro Bowl: Quarterback Russell Wilson, center Max Unger, running back Marshawn Lynch, cornerback Richard Sherman, free safety Earl Thomas, and strong safety Kam Chancellor. However, none of them was able to play in the Pro Bowl, as the Seahawks defeated the New Orleans Saints 23 -- 15 and the San Francisco 49ers 23 -- 17, in the playoffs to advance to Super Bowl XLVIII against the Denver Broncos. On February 2, 2014, the Seahawks won the franchise 's first Super Bowl Championship, defeating Denver 43 -- 8. The Seahawks ' defense performance in 2013 was acclaimed as one of the best in the Super Bowl era.
The following season, Seattle advanced to Super Bowl XLIX, their second consecutive Super Bowl, but they were dethroned of their title by the New England Patriots by a score of 28 -- 24.
They got off to a slow start the next year starting 0 - 2 and 2 - 4 through 6 games but finished 10 - 6 on the year clinching a wild card berth. They beat the Minnesota Vikings 10 - 9 to advance to the divisional round. Against Carolina, they were down 31 - 0 at halftime before scoring 24 unanswered points. Their comeback attempt fell short and they failed to make the Super Bowl.
Most recently, the Seahawks and the San Francisco 49ers have begun to develop a rivalry, starting with the 49ers hiring of coach Jim Harbaugh for the 2011 NFL season. Harbaugh had coached against Seahawks coach Pete Carroll before in college at Stanford and Southern California, respectively. The 49ers won the first contest between the coaches at the NFL level, then proceeded to win a close game at CenturyLink Field to eliminate the Seahawks from playoff contention. 2012 brought a new season and another Seahawks loss, week 7 on NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, as they dropped a 13 -- 6 game where the offense failed to score a touchdown and 49ers quarterback Alex Smith did just enough to survive. Week 16 brought a fever anxiety as the Seahawks and 49ers prepared to face off in primetime on NBC Sunday Night Football. The Seahawks entered the game at 9 -- 5, with back - to - back blowouts in which the team scored more than 50 points in games against the Buffalo Bills and Arizona Cardinals. Quickly, the Seahawks imposed their will with a Marshawn Lynch 24 - yard touchdown run, two of quarterback Russell Wilson 's touchdown passes and a blocked field goal return had the Seahawks lead at halftime 28 -- 6. The Seahawks continued in the second half, eventually winning 42 -- 13 capped off by Seahawks strong safety Kam Chancellor 's hit on former 49ers tight end Vernon Davis. The 49ers, however, won the following week, locking up the division title for the second consecutive season. Since rejoining the NFC West, the Seahawks lead the series 18 -- 15 versus the 49ers, including playoffs. Colin Kaepernick and the 49ers lost their first 2013 season matchup against their NFC West rivals 29 -- 3, with the help of Marshawn Lynch 's three touchdowns, with the fans setting a new Guinness World Record for the loudest crowd roar at 136.6 dB. However, the Seahawks were defeated 19 -- 17 in their second 2013 game with the 49ers at Candlestick Park. This was largely due to a late game 51 - yard run by Frank Gore. The Seahawks had not won in San Francisco since 2008 until defeating the 49ers in convincing 19 -- 3 fashion on Thanksgiving Day in 2014. In the 2013 NFC Championship Game, the Seahawks defeated the 49ers 23 to 17, thanks to Malcolm Smith 's interception, which was tipped by Richard Sherman. This clinched the Seahawks ' berth into Super Bowl XLVIII.
The Seahawks have developed a rivalry with the Carolina Panthers. The two teams have played each other in the NFL playoffs three times: during the 2005 NFC Championship Game, which Seattle won 34 -- 14; the 2014 NFC Divisional playoffs, which the Seahawks won 31 -- 17; and the 2015 NFC Divisional playoffs, which the Panthers won 31 -- 24. The Seahawks lead the Panthers in the all - time series 8 -- 4.
From the 1980s to the 2002 league realignment, the Denver Broncos were a major rival for the Seahawks. With John Elway, the Broncos were one of the best teams in the NFL, going 200 -- 124 -- 1 overall, and were 32 -- 18 against the Seahawks. Since 2002, Seattle has won two of four interconference meetings, and the teams met in Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2, 2014, where the Seahawks won 43 -- 8.
During the Seahawks ' first ten seasons (1976 -- 85), the team 's headquarters was at Carillon Point on the shores of Lake Washington. The summer training camps were initially held at Eastern Washington University in Cheney, just southwest of Spokane. When the team 's new headquarters across town in Kirkland were completed in 1986, the Seahawks held training camp at home for the next eleven seasons (1986 -- 96), staying in the dormitories of the adjacent Northwest College. In Dennis Erickson 's third season as head coach, the team returned to the hotter and more isolated Cheney in 1997, where they held training camp through 2006. In 2007, training camp returned to their Kirkland facility, because of the scheduled China Bowl game that was later canceled. In 2008, the Seahawks held the first three weeks of camp in Kirkland, then moved to the new 19 - acre (92,000 sq yd) Virginia Mason Athletic Center (VMAC) on August 18 for the final week of training camp, where the team has held their training caps since. The new facility, adjacent to Lake Washington in Renton, has four full - size practice fields: three natural grass outdoors and one FieldTurf indoors.
When the Seahawks debuted in 1976, the team 's logo was a stylized royal blue and forest green osprey 's head based on Northwest Coast art. The helmet and pants were silver while the home uniforms were royal blue with white, blue and green arm stripes. The road uniform was white with blue and green arm stripes. Black shoes were worn for the first four seasons, one of the few NFL teams that did in the late 1970s. They then changed to white shoes in 1980.
In 1983, coinciding with the arrival of Chuck Knox as head coach, the uniforms were updated slightly. The striping on the arms now incorporated the Seahawks logo, and the TV numbers moved onto the shoulders. Helmet facemasks changed from gray to blue. Also, the socks went solid blue at the top, and white on bottom. In the 1985 season, the team wore 10th Anniversary patches on the right side of their pants. It had the Seahawks logo streaking through the number 10. Starting in the 1989 NFL season, jerseys were no longer sand - knit. In 1994, the year of the NFL 's 75th Anniversary, the Seahawks changed the style of their numbering to something more suitable for the team; Pro Block from then until 2001. That same year, the Seahawks wore a vintage jersey for select games resembling the 1976 -- 82 uniforms. However, the helmet facemasks remained blue. The logos also became sewn on instead of being screen - printed. In 2000, Shaun Alexander 's rookie year and Cortez Kennedy 's last, the Seattle Seahawks celebrated their 25th Anniversary; the logo was worn on the upper left chest of the jersey. In 2001, the Seahawks switched to the new Reebok uniform system still in their current uniforms, but it would be their last in this uniform after the season ended. Previously, the team 's uniforms were made by Wilson, Wilson / Staff, Russell Athletic, Logo Athletic, and Puma.
On March 1, 2002, to coincide with the team moving to the NFC as well as the opening of Seahawks Stadium (which would later be renamed Qwest Field, then CenturyLink Field), both the logo and the uniforms were heavily redesigned. The Wordmark was designed by Mark Verlander and the logo was designed by NFL Properties in - house design team. The colors were modified to a lighter "Seahawks Blue '', a darker "Seahawks Navy '' and lime green piping. The helmets also were changed from silver to the lighter "Seahawks Blue '' color after a fan poll was conducted. Silver would not be seen again until 2012. The logo artwork was also subtly altered, with an arched eyebrow and a forward - facing pupil suggesting a more aggressive - looking bird. At first, the team had planned to wear silver helmets at home and blue helmets on the road, but since NFL rules forbid the use of multiple helmets, the team held the fan poll to decide which color helmet would be worn. The team had usually worn all blue at home and all white on the road since 2003, but late in the 2009 season, the Seahawks wore the white jersey - blue pants combo. The blue jersey and white pants combo has been worn for only one regular season game, the 2005 season opener at the Jacksonville Jaguars, while the white jersey and blue pants combination has not been worn regularly since late in the 2002 season, with the exception of late in the 2009 season. In 2009, the Seahawks once again wore the white jersey and blue pants combination for road games against Minnesota (November 22), St. Louis (November 29), Houston (December 13) and Green Bay (December 27).
The Seahawks wore their home blue jerseys during Super Bowl XL despite being designated as the visitor, since the Pittsburgh Steelers, the designated home team, elected to wear their white jerseys.
Since the Oakland Raiders wore their white jerseys at home for the first time ever in a game against the San Diego Chargers on September 28, 2008, the Seahawks are currently the only NFL team never to have worn their white jerseys at home.
On September 27, 2009, the Seahawks wore lime green jerseys for the first time, paired with new dark navy blue pants in a game against the Chicago Bears. The jerseys matched their new sister team, the expansion Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer who wear green jerseys with blue pants. On December 6, 2009, the Seahawks wore their Seahawks blue jersey with the new dark navy blue pants for the first time, in a game against the San Francisco 49ers. The Seahawks broke out the same combo two weeks later against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and two weeks after that in the 2009 regular season finale against the Tennessee Titans. In December 2009, then - coach Jim Mora announced that the new lime green jerseys were being retired because the team did not win in them, because he liked the home jerseys better, and added that the home jersey is a better match for the navy pants. In the same press conference, he stated that the new navy pants "felt better '' on players as opposed to the Seahawks blue pants. For the 2010 season, Seattle returned to the traditional all "Seahawks Blue '' at home and all white on the road.
On April 3, 2012, Nike, which took over as the official uniform supplier for the league from Reebok, unveiled new uniform and logo designs for the Seahawks for the 2012 season. The new designs incorporate a new accent color, "Wolf Grey '', and the main colors are "College Navy '' and "Action Green ''. The uniforms incorporate "feather trims '', multiple feathers on the crown of the helmet, twelve feathers printed on the neckline and down each pant leg to represent the "12th Man '', referring to the team 's fans. The Seahawks have three different jersey colors: navy blue, white, and an alternate grey jersey. The Seahawks will have three different pants: navy blue with green feathers, gray with navy blue feathers, and white with navy blue feathers. Their new logo replaces the Seahawk blue with wolf grey. Altogether, there are nine (9) different uniform combinations possible.
The Seahawks wore their Nike home blue jerseys for the first regular season game on September 16, 2012 against the Dallas Cowboys. The uniform Marshawn Lynch wore in that game is preserved at the Pro Football Hall of Fame. On September 9, 2012, the Seahawks wore their Nike white away jerseys for the first regular season game against the Arizona Cardinals; on October 14, 2012, with the Carolina Panthers wearing white at home, they wore their blue jerseys with gray pants (and would do so again against the Miami Dolphins seven weeks later); and on December 16, 2012, they wore their Alternate Wolf Grey jerseys for the first time against the Buffalo Bills.
As of the end of the 2017 season, the Seattle Seahawks have competed in 42 NFL seasons, dating back to their expansion year of 1976. The team has compiled a 334 -- 323 - 1 record (16 -- 15 in the playoffs) for a. 508 winning percentage (. 516 in the playoffs). Seattle has reached the playoffs in 16 separate seasons, including in the 2005 season when they lost Super Bowl XL to the Pittsburgh Steelers, the 2013 season when they defeated the Denver Broncos to win Super Bowl XLVIII, and the 2014 season when they lost Super Bowl XLIX to the New England Patriots. In the 2010 season, the Seahawks became the first team in NFL history to earn a spot in the playoffs with a losing record (7 -- 9,. 438) in a full season; this was by virtue of winning the division. The Seahawks would go on to defeat the reigning Super Bowl champion New Orleans Saints in the Wild Card round, becoming the first team ever to win a playoff game with a losing record. Until Week 7 of the 2016 season, the Seahawks had never recorded a tied game in their history.
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Roster updated January 14, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 39 Active, 8 Inactive, 30 FAs
The 35th Anniversary team was voted upon by users on Seahawks.com and announced in 2010.
Note: Although Mike McCormack served as head coach, president, and general manager for the Seahawks, he is only listed in the Pro Football Hall of Fame for his contributions as a tackle for the New York Yanks and the Cleveland Browns.
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The Seahawks cheerleaders are called the Sea Gals. During the off - season, a select performing group from the Sea Gals travel parades and with other NFL Cheerleaders on the road.
The 12th man (also known as the 12s) refers to the fan support of the Seahawks. The team 's first home stadium, the Kingdome, was one of the loudest and most disruptive environments in the NFL. Opponents were known to practice with rock music blaring at full blast to prepare for the often painfully high decibel levels generated at games in the Kingdome.
In 2002, the Seahawks began playing at what is now CenturyLink Field. Every regular season and playoff game at CenturyLink Field since the 2nd week of the 2003 season has been played before a sellout crowd. Like the Kingdome before it, CenturyLink Field is one of the loudest stadiums in the league. The stadium 's partial roof and seating decks trap and amplify the noise and reflect it back down to the field. This noise has caused problems for opposing teams, causing them to commit numerous false - start penalties. From 2002 through 2012, there have been 143 false - start penalties on visiting teams in Seattle, second only to the Minnesota Vikings.
The Seahawks ' fans have twice set the Guinness World Record for the loudest crowd noise at a sporting event, first on September 15, 2013, registering 136.6 dB during a game against the San Francisco 49ers and again on December 2, 2013, during a Monday Night Football game against the New Orleans Saints, with a roar of 137.6 dB. As of September 29, 2014, the record of 142.2 dB is held in Arrowhead Stadium by fans of the Kansas City Chiefs.
Prior to kickoff of each home game, the Seahawks salute their fans by raising a giant # 12 flag at the south end of the stadium. Current and former players, coaches, local celebrities, prominent fans, Seattle - area athletes, and current owner Paul Allen have raised the flag. Earlier, the Seahawks retired the # 12 jersey on December 15, 1984 as a tribute to their fans. Before their Super Bowl win, the Seahawks ran onto the field under a giant 12th Man flag.
In September 1990, Texas A&M filed, and was later granted, a trademark application for the "12th Man '' term, based on their continual usage of the term since the 1920s. In January 2006, Texas A&M filed suit against the Seattle Seahawks to protect the trademark and in May 2006, the dispute was settled out of court. In the agreement, which expired in 2016, Texas A&M licensed the Seahawks to continue using the phrase, in exchange for a licensing fee, public acknowledgement of A&M 's trademark when using the term, a restriction in usage of the term to seven states in the Northwest United States, and a prohibition from selling any "12th Man '' merchandise. Once the agreement expired, the Seahawks were allowed to continue using the number "12 '' but were no longer permitted to use the "12th Man '' phrase. In August 2015, the Seahawks decided to drop their signage of the "12th Man '' term and shifted towards referring to their fans as the "12s '' instead.
Starting in the 1998 season, Blitz has been the Seahawks ' official mascot. In the 2003 and 2004 seasons, a hawk named Faith would fly around the stadium just before the team came out of the tunnel. However, because of her relative small size and an inability to be trained to lead the team out of a tunnel, Faith was replaced by an augur hawk named Taima before the start of the 2005 season. Taima started leading the team out of the tunnel in September 2006. Beginning in 2004, the Seahawks introduced their drum line, the Blue Thunder. The group plays at every home game as well as over 100 events in the Seattle community.
As of 2017, the Seahawks ' flagship station is KIRO (AM) 710 kHz -- KIRO - FM 97.3 MHz. Games are heard on 47 stations in five western states and Canada. Microsoft holds naming rights for the broadcasts for their web search engine under the moniker of the "Bing Radio Network ''. The current announcers are former Seahawks players Steve Raible (who was the team 's color commentator from 1982 to 2003) and Warren Moon. The Raible - Moon regular season pairing has been together since 2004 (during the preseason Moon works for the local television broadcast so the color commentary is split between former Seahawks Paul Moyer, Sam Adkins, and Brock Huard). Pete Gross, who called the games from 1976 until just days before his death from cancer in 1992, is a member of the team 's Ring of Honor. Other past announcers include Steve Thomas from 1992 to 1997, Lee Hamilton (also known as "Hacksaw '') from 1998 to 1999, and Brian Davis from 2000 to 2003.
Preseason games not shown on national networks were produced by Seahawks Broadcasting and televised by KING - TV, channel 5 (and, in 2008, also on sister station KONG - TV since KING, an NBC affiliate, was committed to the Summer Olympics in China). Seahawks Broadcasting is the Emmy Award Winning in - house production and syndication unit for the Seattle Seahawks. Curt Menefee (the host of Fox NFL Sunday) has been the Seahawks TV voice since the 2009 preseason. Since the 2012 season, KCPQ - TV, which airs most of the Seahawks regular season games (as the Seattle - Tacoma area 's Fox affiliate), is the television partner for the team and has replaced KING 5 as broadcaster for preseason games, while simulcasts of any Seahawks games on ESPN 's Monday Night Football or NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football airs on either KONG - TV or KZJO. In addition, any Saturday or Sunday afternoon games broadcast by CBS (with the Seahawks hosting an AFC opponent) will air on local CBS affiliate KIRO - TV.
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Explanatory notes
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how did the council of trent affect the music world | Council of Trent - wikipedia
The Council of Trent (Latin: Concilium Tridentinum), held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent, or Trento, in northern Italy. It was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.
The Council issued condemnations of what it defined to be heresies committed by Protestantism and key statements and clarifications of the Church 's doctrine and teachings, including scripture, the Biblical canon, sacred tradition, original sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass and the veneration of saints. The Council met for twenty - five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563. Pope Paul III, who convoked the Council, presided over the first eight sessions (1545 -- 47), while the twelfth to sixteenth sessions (1551 -- 52) were overseen by Pope Julius III and the seventeenth to twenty - fifth sessions (1562 -- 63) by Pope Pius IV.
The consequences of the Council were also significant as regards the Church 's liturgy and practices. During its deliberations, the Council made the Vulgate the official example of the Biblical canon and commissioned the creation of a standard version, although this was not achieved until the 1590s. In 1565, a year after the Council finished its work, Pius IV issued the Tridentine Creed (after Tridentum, Trent 's Latin name) and his successor Pius V then issued the Roman Catechism and revisions of the Breviary and Missal in, respectively, 1566, 1568 and 1570. These, in turn, led to the codification of the Tridentine Mass, which remained the Church 's primary form of the Mass for the next four hundred years.
More than three hundred years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council, was convened in 1869.
On 15 March 1517, the Fifth Council of the Lateran closed its activities with a number of reform proposals (on the selection of bishops, taxation, censorship and preaching) but not on the major problems that confronted the Church in Germany and other parts of Europe. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses in Wittenberg.
Luther 's position on ecumenical councils shifted over time, but in 1520 he appealed to the German princes to oppose the papal Church, if necessary with a council in Germany, open and free of the Papacy. After the Pope condemned in Exsurge Domine fifty - two of Luther 's theses as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters.
It took a generation for the council to materialise, partly because of papal reluctance, given that a Lutheran demand was the exclusion of the papacy from the Council, and partly because of ongoing political rivalries between France and Germany and the Turkish dangers in the Mediterranean. Under Pope Clement VII (1523 -- 34), troops of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, "raping, killing, burning, stealing, the like had not been seen since the Vandals ''. Saint Peter 's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. This, together with the Pontiff 's ambivalence between France and Germany, led to his hesitation.
Charles V strongly favoured a council, but needed the support of King Francis I of France, who attacked him militarily. Francis I generally opposed a general council due to partial support of the Protestant cause within France, and in 1533 he further complicated matters when suggesting a general council to include both Catholic and Protestant rulers of Europe that would devise a compromise between the two theological systems. This proposal met the opposition of the Pope for it gave recognition to Protestants and also elevated the secular Princes of Europe above the clergy on church matters. Faced with a Turkish attack, Charles held the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of whom delayed the opening of the Council of Trent.
In reply to the Papal bull Exsurge Domine of Pope Leo X (1520), Martin Luther burned the document and appealed for a general council. In 1522 German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII (1523 -- 1534) was vehemently against the idea of a council, agreeing with Francis I of France, after Pope Pius II, in his bull Execrabilis (1460) and his reply to the University of Cologne (1463), set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance.
Pope Paul III (1534 -- 1549), seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, but had won over various princes, particularly in Germany, to its ideas, desired a council. Yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was almost unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea. Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council. The Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise. The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537. It failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates. Protestants refused to attend as well. Financial difficulties in Mantua led the Pope in the autumn of 1537 to move the council to Vicenza, where participation was poor. The Council was postponed indefinitely on 21 May 1539. Pope Paul III then initiated several internal Church reforms while Emperor Charles V convened with Protestants at an imperial diet in Regensburg, to reconcile differences. Unity failed between Catholic and Protestant representatives "because of different concepts of Church and justification ''.
However, the council was delayed until 1545 and, as it happened, convened right before Luther 's death. Unable, however, to resist the urging of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council at Trent (at that time ruled by a prince - bishop under the Holy Roman Empire), on 13 December 1545; the Pope 's decision to transfer it to Bologna in March 1547 on the pretext of avoiding a plague failed to take effect and the Council was indefinitely prorogued on 17 September 1549. None of the three popes reigning over the duration of the council ever attended, which had been a condition of Charles V. Papal legates were appointed to represent the Papacy.
Reopened at Trent on 1 May 1551 by convocation of Pope Julius III (1550 -- 1555), it was broken up by the sudden victory of Maurice, Elector of Saxony over the Emperor Charles V and his march into surrounding state of Tirol on 28 April 1552. There was no hope of reassembling the council while the very anti-Protestant Paul IV was Pope. The council was reconvened by Pope Pius IV (1559 -- 1565) for the last time, meeting from 18 January 1562 at Santa Maria Maggiore, and continued until its final adjournment on 4 December 1563. It closed with a series of ritual acclamations honouring the reigning Pope, the Popes who had convoked the Council, the emperor and the kings who had supported it, the papal legates, the cardinals, the ambassadors present, and the bishops, followed by acclamations of acceptance of the faith of the Council and its decrees, and of anathema for all heretics.
The history of the council is thus divided into three distinct periods: 1545 -- 1549, 1551 -- 1552 and 1562 -- 1563. During the second period, the Protestants present asked for renewed discussion on points already defined and for bishops to be released from their oaths of allegiance to the Pope. When the last period began, all hope of conciliating the Protestants was gone and the Jesuits had become a strong force.
The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably. The council was small to begin with, opening with only about 30 bishops. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the First Council of Nicaea (which had 318 members) nor of the First Vatican Council (which numbered 744). The decrees were signed in 1563 by 255 members, the highest attendance of the whole council, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty - five archbishops, and 168 bishops, two - thirds of whom were Italians. The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers. At the passage of the most important decrees, not more than sixty prelates were present.
The French monarchy boycotted the entire council until the last minute; a delegation led by Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine finally arrived in November 1562. The first outbreak of the French Wars of Religion had been earlier in the year, and the French had experience of a significant and powerful Protestant minority, iconoclasm and tensions leading to violence in a way Italians and Spaniards did not. Among other influences, the last minute inclusion of a decree on sacred images was a French initiative, and the text, never discussed on the floor of the council or referred to council theologians, was based on a French draft.
The main objectives of the council were twofold, although there were other issues that were also discussed:
The doctrinal decisions of the council are divided into decrees (decreta), which contain the positive statement of the conciliar dogmas, and into short canons (canones), which condemn the dissenting Protestant views with the concluding "anathema sit '' ("let him be anathema '').
The doctrinal acts are as follows: after reaffirming the Niceno - Constantinopolitan Creed (third session), the decree was passed (fourth session) confirming that the deuterocanonical books were on a par with the other books of the canon (against Luther 's placement of these books in the Apocrypha of his edition) and coordinating church tradition with the Scriptures as a rule of faith. The Vulgate translation was affirmed to be authoritative for the text of Scripture.
Justification (sixth session) was declared to be offered upon the basis of human cooperation with divine grace as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of passive reception of grace. Understanding the Protestant "faith alone '' doctrine to be one of simple human confidence in divine mercy, the Council rejected the "vain confidence '' of the Protestants, stating that no one can know who has received the grace of God. Furthermore, the Council affirmed -- against Protestant doctrine -- that the grace of God can be forfeited through mortal sin.
The greatest weight in the Council 's decrees is given to the sacraments. The seven sacraments were reaffirmed and the Eucharist pronounced to be a true propitiatory sacrifice as well as a sacrament, in which the bread and wine were consecrated into the Eucharist (thirteenth and twenty - second sessions). The term transubstantiation was used by the Council, but the specific Aristotelian explanation given by Scholasticism was not cited as dogmatic. Instead, the decree states that Christ is "really, truly, substantially present '' in the consecrated forms. The sacrifice of the Mass was to be offered for dead and living alike and in giving to the apostles the command "do this in remembrance of me, '' Christ conferred upon them a sacerdotal power. The practice of withholding the cup from the laity was confirmed (twenty - first session) as one which the Church Fathers had commanded for good and sufficient reasons; yet in certain cases the Pope was made the supreme arbiter as to whether the rule should be strictly maintained. On the language of the Mass, "contrary to what is often said '', the council condemned the belief that only vernacular languages should be used, while insisting on the use of Latin.
Ordination (twenty - third session) was defined to imprint an indelible character on the soul. The priesthood of the New Testament takes the place of the Levitical priesthood. To the performance of its functions, the consent of the people is not necessary.
In the decrees on marriage (twenty - fourth session) the excellence of the celibate state was reaffirmed, concubinage condemned and the validity of marriage made dependent upon the wedding taking place before a priest and two witnesses, although the lack of a requirement for parental consent ended a debate that had proceeded from the 12th century. In the case of a divorce, the right of the innocent party to marry again was denied so long as the other party was alive, even if the other party had committed adultery. However the council "refused... to assert the necessity or usefulness of clerical celibacy.
In the twenty - fifth and last session, the doctrines of purgatory, the invocation of saints and the veneration of relics were reaffirmed, as was also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed by the Church according to the power given her, but with some cautionary recommendations, and a ban on the sale of indulgences. Short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, were to have great impact on the development of Catholic Church art. Much more than the Second Council of Nicaea (787) the Council fathers of Trent stressed the pedagogical purpose of Christian images.
The council appointed, in 1562 (eighteenth session), a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books (Index Librorum Prohibitorum), but it later left the matter to the Pope. The preparation of a catechism and the revision of the Breviary and Missal were also left to the pope. The catechism embodied the council 's far - reaching results, including reforms and definitions of the sacraments, the Scriptures, church dogma, and duties of the clergy.
On adjourning, the Council asked the supreme pontiff to ratify all its decrees and definitions. This petition was complied with by Pope Pius IV, on 26 January 1564, in the papal bull, Benedictus Deus, which enjoins strict obedience upon all Catholics and forbids, under pain of excommunication, all unauthorised interpretation, reserving this to the Pope alone and threatens the disobedient with "the indignation of Almighty God and of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul. '' Pope Pius appointed a commission of cardinals to assist him in interpreting and enforcing the decrees.
The Index librorum prohibitorum was announced in 1564 and the following books were issued with the papal imprimatur: the Profession of the Tridentine Faith and the Tridentine Catechism (1566), the Breviary (1568), the Missal (1570) and the Vulgate (1590 and then 1592).
The decrees of the council were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Poland and by the Catholic princes of Germany at the Diet of Augsburg in 1566. Philip II of Spain accepted them for Spain, the Netherlands and Sicily inasmuch as they did not infringe the royal prerogative. In France they were officially recognised by the king only in their doctrinal parts. The disciplinary sections received official recognition at provincial synods and were enforced by the bishops. No attempt was made to introduce it into England. Pius IV sent the decrees to Mary, Queen of Scots, with a letter dated 13 June 1564, requesting her to publish them in Scotland, but she dared not do it in the face of John Knox and the Reformation.
These decrees were later supplemented by the First Vatican Council of 1870.
The most comprehensive history is still Hubert Jedin 's The History of the Council of Trent (Geschichte des Konzils von Trient) with about 2500 pages in four volumes: The History of the Council of Trent: The fight for a Council (Vol I, 1951); The History of the Council of Trent: The first Sessions in Trent (1545 -- 1547) (Vol II, 1957); The History of the Council of Trent: Sessions in Bologna 1547 -- 1548 and Trento 1551 -- 1552 (Vol III, 1970, 1998); The History of the Council of Trent: Third Period and Conclusion (Vol IV, 1976).
The canons and decrees of the council have been published very often and in many languages (for a large list consult British Museum Catalogue, under "Trent, Council of ''). The first issue was by Paulus Manutius (Rome, 1564). The best Latin editions are by Judocus Le Plat (Antwerp, 1779) and by Johann Friedrich von Schulte and Aemilius Ludwig Richter (Leipzig, 1853). Other good editions are in vol. vii. of the Acta et decreta conciliorum recentiorum. Collectio Lacensis (7 vols., Freiburg, 1870 -- 90), reissued as independent volume (1892); Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, epistularum,... collectio, ed. Sebastianus Merkle (4 vols., Freiburg, 1901 sqq.); not to overlook Mansi, Concilia, xxxv. 345 sqq. Note also Carl Mirbt, Quellen, 2d ed, pp. 202 -- 255. The best English edition is by James Waterworth (London, 1848; With Essays on the External and Internal History of the Council).
The original acts and debates of the council, as prepared by its general secretary, Bishop Angelo Massarelli, in six large folio volumes, are deposited in the Vatican Library and remained there unpublished for more than 300 years and were brought to light, though only in part, by Augustin Theiner, priest of the oratory (d. 1874), in Acta genuina sancti et oecumenici Concilii Tridentini nunc primum integre edita (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874).
Most of the official documents and private reports, however, which bear upon the council, were made known in the 16th century and since. The most complete collection of them is that of J. Le Plat, Monumentorum ad historicam Concilii Tridentini collectio (7 vols., Leuven, 1781 -- 87). New materials (Vienna, 1872); by JJI von Döllinger (Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient) (2 parts, Nördlingen, 1876); and August von Druffel, Monumenta Tridentina (Munich, 1884 -- 97).
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed. (1914). "article name needed ''. New Schaff -- Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (third ed.). London and New York: Funk and Wagnalls.
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what year did the ls engines come into production | LS based GM small - block engine - wikipedia
The LS based GM small - block engine is the primary V - 8 used in General Motors ' line of rear - wheel - drive cars and trucks. Introduced in January 1995, it is a "clean sheet '' design with only rod bearings and bore spacing in common with the longstanding Chevrolet small block V8 that preceded it as the basis for GM small - block V8s. The basic LS variations use cast iron blocks, while performance editions are all aluminium with cast iron cylinder liners.
The LS small - block has been manufactured in three Generations -- III, IV, and V -- with preceding Generations I and II of modular GM small - block engines having been based on the Chevrolet small - block V8 originally designed in 1955. GM recycled the "LT '' designation beginning with the LS Generation V "LT1 '' in 2014.
Several versions of the LS were used in the Chevrolet Corvette, beginning with the LS1 in 1997 through the LS9 and others in 2013. Variants of the LT version of the GM small - block have been used since.
The GM Generation I and Generation II (LT) engine families both derived from the longstanding Chevrolet small block V8. The Generation III small - block V8 was a "clean sheet '' design, which replaced the Gen I and Gen II engine families in 2003 and 1996 respectively.
Like the previous two generations, the Buick and Oldsmobile small blocks, the gen III / IV can be found in many different brands. The engine blocks were cast in aluminium for car applications, and iron for most truck applications (notable exceptions include the Chevrolet TrailBlazer SS, Chevrolet SSR and a limited run of Chevrolet / GMC Extended Cab Standard Box Trucks).
The architecture of the LS series makes for an extremely strong engine block with the aluminium engines being nearly as strong as the iron generation I and II engines. The LS engine also used coil - near - plug style ignition to replace the distributor setup of all previous small - block based engines.
The traditional five - bolt pentagonal cylinder head pattern was replaced with a square four - bolt design (much like the 64 - 90 Oldsmobile V8), and the pistons are of the flat - topped variety (in the LS1, LS2, LS3, LS6, LS7, LQ9 and L33), while all other variants, including the new LS9 and LQ4 truck engine received a dished version of the GM hypereutectic piston.
The cylinder firing order was changed to 1 - 8 - 7 - 2 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3, so that the LS series now corresponds to the firing pattern of other modern V8 engines (for example the Ford Modular V8).
The first of the Generation IIIs, the LS1 was the progenitor of the new architecture design that would transform the entire V8 line and influence the last of the Big Blocks.
The Generation III 5.7 L shares little other than similar displacement, external dimensions, and rod bearings, with its predecessor (LT1). It is an all - aluminium 5,665 cc (5.665 L; 345.7 cu in) pushrod engine with a bore of 3.898 in (99.0 mm) and a stroke of 3.62 in (92 mm).
LS1
When introduced in the 1997 Corvette the LS1 was rated at 345 hp (257 kW) at 5,600 rpm and 350 lbf ⋅ ft (470 N ⋅ m) at 4,400 rpm. After improvements to the intake and exhaust manifolds in 2001 the rating improved to 350 hp (260 kW) and 365 lbf ⋅ ft (495 N ⋅ m). The LS1 was used in the Corvette from 97 - 04. It was also used in 98 - 02 GM F - Body (Camaro & Trans Am) cars with a rating of 305 -- 325 + HP, which was rumored to be conservative. The extra horsepower was claimed to come from the intake ram - air effect available in the SS and WS6 models. In Australia, continuous modifications were made to the LS1 engine throughout its lifetime, reaching 380 hp / 365 ft - lb in the HSV 's YII series, and a Callaway modified version named "C4B '' was fitted to HSV GTS models producing 400 hp and 405 ft - lb, which was always considered over rated due to never being able to keep up with the Ford XR6 turbo of that same era which had a lower but more modest power output.
Applications:
LS6
The LS6 is a higher - output version of GM 's LS1 engine and retains the same capacity. The initial 2001 LS6 produced 385 bhp (287 kW) and 385 lbf ⋅ ft (522 N ⋅ m), but the engine was modified for 2002 through 2004 to produce 405 bhp (302 kW) and 400 lbf ⋅ ft (540 N ⋅ m) of torque. The LS6 was originally only used in the high - performance C5 Corvette Z06 model, with the Cadillac CTS V - Series getting the 400 bhp (300 kW) engine later. The V - Series used the LS6 for two years before being replaced by the LS2 in 2006. For 2006, the Z06 replaced the LS6 with the new LS7. The LS6 shares its basic block architecture with the GM LS1 engine, but other changes were made to the design such as windows cast into the block between cylinders, improved main web strength and bay to bay breathing, an intake manifold and MAF - sensor with higher flow, a camshaft with higher lift and more duration, a higher compression ratio of 10.5: 1, sodium - filled valves, and a revised oiling system better suited to high lateral acceleration. LS6 intake manifolds were also used on all 2001 + LS1 / 6 engines. The casting number, located on the top rear edge of the block, is 12561168. Applications:
The 4.8 L and the 5.3 L are smaller truck versions of the LS1 and were designed to replace the 305 and the 350 in trucks. Both the 4.8 L and the 5.3 L share the same engine block, heads (upper end) and as they share architecture, some parts interchange freely between these engines and other variants in the LS family.
The Vortec 4800 LR4 (VIN code "V '') is a Generation III small block V8 truck engine. Displacement is 4.8 L (293 cu in) with a 96.01 mm (3.78 inch) bore and 83 mm (3.267 inch) stroke. It is the smallest of the Generation III Vortec truck engines and was the replacement for the 5.0 L 5000 L30. The LR4 engines in 1999 produced 255 hp (190 kW) while the 2000 and above models made 270 -- 285 hp (201 -- 213 kW) and all have a torque rating between 285 -- 295 lb ⋅ ft (386 -- 400 N ⋅ m), depending on the model year and application. The 2005 - 2006 models made 285 hp (213 kW) and 295 lb ⋅ ft (400 N ⋅ m), LR4s are manufactured at St. Catharines, Ontario and Romulus, Michigan. It uses flat top pistons.
LR4 applications:
The Vortec 5300, or LM7 / L59 / LM4, is a V8 truck engine. It is a longer - stroked (by 9 mm (0.35 in)) version of the Vortec 4800 and replaced the L31. L59 denoted a flexible fuel version of the standard fuel LM7 engine. Displacement is 5.3 L (5,328 cc (325.1 cu in)) from 3.78 - inch (96 mm) bore and 3.622 - inch (92.0 mm) stroke. Vortec 5300s are built in St. Catharines, Ontario and Romulus, Michigan. Another engine variant, the L33, shares the same displacement, but has an aluminum block with cast in cylinder liners, much like the LS1.
The Vortec 5300 LM7 (VIN code 8th digit "T '') was introduced in 1999. It has a cast iron block and aluminum heads, and can be considered the "garden variety '' version of the Generation III V8s.
The 1999 LM7 engine produced 270 hp (201 kW) and 315 lb ft of torque (427 N m).
The 2000 - 2003 engines made 285 hp (213 kW) and 325 lb ft (441 N m).
The 2004 - 2007 engines made 295 hp and 335 lb ft of torque.
The stock cam specs @. 050 duration are: 190 / 191 duration,. 466 /. 457 lift, 114 LSA, 112 / 116 Timing
LM7 applications:
The Vortec 5300 L59 (VIN code "Z '') is a flexible fuel version of the LM7. The 2002 - 2003 made 285 hp (213 kW) and 320 lb ⋅ ft (434 N ⋅ m), while the 2004 - 2007 L59s made 295 hp (220 kW) and 335 lb ⋅ ft (454 N ⋅ m).
L59 applications:
The Vortec 5300 LM4 (VIN code "P '') is an aluminum block version of the LM7, and had a short production life. The LM4s made 290 hp (216 kW) and 325 lb ⋅ ft (441 N ⋅ m), It should not be confused with the L33 described below.
LM4 applications:
The Vortec 5300 L33 (VIN code "B '') is an aluminum block version of the LM7, and was referred to as the Vortec 5300 HO in marketing materials. However it should be noted that the L33 uses a flat top piston from the 4.8 L instead of the standard dish piston found in the LM7. It also uses 799 cylinder heads, which are identical to the 243 casting found on the LS6 and LS2 with the exception to the Corvette spec valve springs, and hollow stem exhaust valves on the 2002 - 2004 LS6. This combination increased the compression from 9.5: 1 to 10.0: 1. The L33 also had a specific camshaft not shared with any other engine, The cam specs @. 050 duration are: 193 duration,. 482 lift, 116 LSA. As a result, power increased by 15 hp (11 kW), to 310 hp (230 kW) and 335 lb ft (441 N m). It was only available on extended cab 4WD pickup trucks. Only 25 % of trucks made in 2005 had the L33 engine.
L33 applications:
The 6.0 L is a larger truck version of the LS motor, with the exception that the blocks were cast of iron, and was designed to bridge the gap between the new small blocks and big blocks in truck applications. There were two version of this engine: the LQ4 and the LQ9, the latter being more performance oriented. Although the block of the 6.0 L looks similar to the LS1, they are iron instead of aluminum.
The Vortec 6000 is a V8 truck engine. Displacement is 5.97 L (364 cu in) from 101.6 mm (4.00 ") bore and 92 mm (3.622 '') stroke. It is an iron / aluminum (1999 & 2000 model year engines had cast iron heads) design and produces 300 horsepower (220 kW) to 345 horsepower (257 kW) and 360 lbf ⋅ ft (490 N ⋅ m) to 380 lbf ⋅ ft (520 N ⋅ m).
The Vortec 6000 LQ4, is a V8 truck engine. Displacement is 5.97 L (364 cu in) from a 4.0 - inch (101.6 mm) bore and 3.622 - inch (92.0 mm) stroke. It is an iron / aluminum (1999 & 2000 model year engines had cast iron heads) design and produces 300 hp (224 kW) to 325 hp and 360 lb ⋅ ft (488 N ⋅ m) to 370 lb ⋅ ft (502 N ⋅ m). LQ4s are built in Romulus, Michigan and Silao, Mexico.
(VIN U) Applications:
The Vortec HO 6000 or VortecMAX is a special high - output version of the Vortec 6000 V8 truck engine originally designed for Cadillac. This engine was renamed as the VortecMAX for 2006. It features high - compression (10: 1) flat - top pistons for an extra 10 hp (7 kW) and 10 lb ⋅ ft (14 N ⋅ m), bringing output to 345 hp (257 kW) and 380 lb ⋅ ft (515 N ⋅ m). LQ9s are built only in Romulus, Michigan.
LQ9 (VIN N) Applications:
In 2005, the Generation III was superseded by the Generation IV. This category of engines has provisions for high - displacement ranges up to 7,011 cc (7.011 L; 427.8 cu in) and power output to 638 bhp (476 kW). Based on the Generation III design, Generation IV was designed with displacement on demand in mind, a technology that allows every other cylinder in the firing order to be deactivated. It can also accommodate variable valve timing.
A 3 - valve per cylinder design was originally slated for the LS7, which would have been a first for a GM pushrod engine; but the idea was shelved owing to design complexities and when the same two - valve configuration as the other Generation III and IV engines proved to be sufficient to meet the goals for the LS7.
This family of blocks were the first of the generation IV small block with the LS2 being the progenitor of this family and generation. This family of blocks has seen a wide range of applications from performance vehicles to truck usage.
The Generation IV 6000 is a V8 engine that displaces 5,967 cc (364.1 cu in) from 101.6 mm (4.000 in) bore and 92 mm (3.622 in) stroke. It features either a cast iron or aluminum engine block with cast aluminum heads. Certain versions feature variable cam phasing, Active Fuel Management, and Flex - fuel capability.
LS2
The LS2 was introduced as the Corvette 's new base engine for the 2005 model year. It also appeared as the standard powerplant for the 2005 -- 2006 GTO. It produces 400 bhp (300 kW) at 6000 rpm and 400 lb ⋅ ft (542 N ⋅ m) at 4400 rpm from a slightly larger displacement of 5,967 cc (5.967 L; 364.1 cu in). It is similar to the high - performance LS6, but with improved torque throughout the rpm range. The LS2 uses the "243 '' casting heads used on the LS6 (although without the sodium - filled valves), a smaller camshaft, and an additional 18 cubic inches. The compression of the LS2 was also raised to 10.9: 1 compared to the LS1s ' 10.25: 1 and the LS6s ' 10.5: 1. The LS2 in the E-series HSVs are modified in Australia to produce 412 bhp (307 kW) and 412 lbft. The LS2 in the Chevrolet Trailblazer SS and the Saab 9 - 7X Aero are rated at 395 bhp (295 kW) (2006 -- 2007) or 390 bhp (290 kW) (2008 -- 2009) and 400 lb ⋅ ft (542 N ⋅ m) of torque due to a different (sometimes referred to as a "truck '') intake manifold that produces more torque at lower RPMs.
The LS2 is also used as the basis of the NASCAR Specification Engine that is used as an optional engine in NASCAR 's Camping World Series East and West divisions starting in 2006, and starting in 2010 may also be used on tracks shorter than two kilometers (1.25 miles) in the Camping World Truck Series.
A version of NASCAR V8 cylinder block cast in Compacted Graphite Iron by Grainger & Worrall won the UK 's Casting of the Year Award 2010.
Applications:
L76
The L76 is derived from the LS2. And like the LS2 it features an aluminum engine block. However, the L76 does feature Active fuel management (AFM). While the displacement on demand technology was disabled on Holdens, this feature is enabled on the 2008 Pontiac G8 GT and subsequently refitted in the 2009 model Holdens with AFM enabled, but only on models fitted with the 6L80 Automatic Transmission. The engine also meets Euro III emissions requirements. Output is 348 bhp (260 kW) at 5600 rpm and 376 lb ⋅ ft (510 N ⋅ m) at 4400 rpm for the Holden variant, and 361 bhp (269 kW) and 385 lb ⋅ ft (522 N ⋅ m) for the G8 GT. The Vortec 6000 or new VortecMax version is based on the Holden L76 engine, and features variable cam phasing, along with Active Fuel Management. It can be considered the replacement for the Generation III LQ9 engine. It produces 367 hp (274 kW) at 5400 rpm and 375 lb ⋅ ft (508 N ⋅ m) at 4400 rpm. Production of the Vortec 6000 started in late 2006, and is only available with the new body style Silverado and Sierra. The final year for the option of the VortecMax engine was 2009 in the Silverado and Sierra.
Applications:
L98
The L98 is a slightly modified version of the L76. Since Holden did not use the displacement on demand technology of the L76, some redundant hardware was removed to form the L98. Power increased to 362 bhp (270 kW) at 5700 rpm and 391 lb ⋅ ft (530 N ⋅ m) at 4400 rpm.
Applications:
L77
L77 engines were released in the Holden Commodore Series II VE range in both manual and automatic transmissions, along with the Chevrolet Caprice police car. The L77 differs from the L76 with its inclusion of Flex - fuel capability, allowing it to run on E85 ethanol. The L77 is rated at 362 hp (270 kW) and 391lbft (530Nm) of torque in the manual Commodore SS and SS - V, in automatic Commodores it is rated at 348 hp (260 kW) and 382lbft (517Nm) of torque.
Applications:
LY6
The LY6 is a Generation IV small block V8 truck engine with a cast iron block. It shares the same bore and stroke as its LQ4 predecessor. Like other Gen IV engines, it features variable valve timing. It generated 361 horsepower at 5,600 rpm and 385 lb - ft of torque at 4,400 rpm using "regular '' gas, or ~ 87 octane. Redline is 6,000 rpm and compression ratio is 9.6: 1. This engine uses L92 / LS3 style rectangle port cylinder heads, though without the sodium - filled exhaust valves of the LS3.
Applications:
L96
The L96 is essentially identical to its predecessor, the LY6. The primary difference is that the former is Flex Fuel capable, while the latter was not.
Applications:
LFA
The LFA is a Generation IV small block V8 truck engine. The LFA variant is used in the GM 's "two mode '' hybrid GMT900 trucks and SUVs, and is an all - aluminum design. It has a 10.8: 1 compression ratio and produces 332 hp (248 kW) at 5100 rpm and 367 lb ⋅ ft (498 N ⋅ m) at 4100 rpm. Engine VIN code of 5.
In 2008 this engine was selected by Wards as one of the 10 best engines in any regular production vehicle.
Applications:
LZ1
The LZ1 is almost entirely based on its predecessor, the LFA, but with some revisions, such as including up - integrated electronic throttle control, long - life spark plugs, GM 's Oil Life System, Active Fuel Management and variable valve timing. It has the same compression ratio, power and torque ratings as its predecessor, the LFA.
Applications:
This family of blocks is just an updated version of its Generation III predecessor with Generation IV updates and capabilities. Applications of this family were mainly for trucks but did see some mild usage (with some modifications) in front - wheel - drive cars.
The Vortec 4800 LY2 (VIN code "C '') is a Generation IV small block V8 truck engine. Like its LR4 predecessor, it gets its displacement from a 96.01 mm (3.780 in) bore and 83 mm (3.268 in) stroke. The smallest member of the Generation IV engine family, it is unique in that it is the only member of that family that is used in trucks that does not feature variable valve timing.It has a cast iron block. Power output is 260 -- 295 hp (194 -- 220 kW) and torque is 295 -- 305 lb ⋅ ft (400 -- 414 N ⋅ m).
LY2 applications:
The Vortec 4800 L20 makes more power and features variable valve timing. The system adjusts both intake and exhaust timing, but does not come with Active Fuel Management. The L20 has a cast iron block and power output is 260 -- 302 hp (194 -- 225 kW) while torque is 295 -- 305 lb ⋅ ft (400 -- 414 N ⋅ m). The Vortec 4800 base engines were dropped from the Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon in favor of the 5300 with Active Fuel Management.
L20 applications:
The Generation IV 5.3 L engines share all the improvements and refinements found in other Generation IV engines. 8 versions of the Gen IV 5.3 L engine were produced: 3 iron blocks (LY5, LMG, and LMF) and 5 aluminum blocks (LH6, LH8, LH9, LC9, and LS4). All versions featured Active Fuel Management except for the LH8, LH9 and LMF.
Introduced in 2010, the LMF is a lower tech version used in the lower volume half ton vehicles cargo vans with AWD that still used the 4 speed automatic, and do not use Active Fuel Management. 2014 was the last year for the GM full size 1 / 2 ton cargo vans. 3 / 4 and 1 ton are still in production.
LMF applications:
The Vortec 5300 LH6 (VIN code "M '') with Active Fuel Management replaced the LM4 for 2005, and was the first of the Generation IV small block V8 truck engines to go into production. The LH6 produced 300 hp (220 kW) to 315 hp (235 kW) and 330 lb ⋅ ft (447 N ⋅ m) to 338 lb ⋅ ft (458 N ⋅ m). It is the aluminum block counterpart to the LY5.
LH6 applications:
Introduced in 2007, the Vortec 5300 LY5 (VIN code "J '') is the replacement for the LM7 Generation III engine. For SUV applications, it is rated at 320 hp (239 kW) and 340 lb ⋅ ft (461 N ⋅ m) of torque; for pickup truck applications, it is rated at 315 -- 320 hp (235 -- 239 kW) at 5200 rpm and 335 -- 340 lb ⋅ ft (454 -- 461 N ⋅ m) at 4000 rpm
LY5 applications:
The Vortec 5300 LMG (VIN code "0 '') is the flexible - fuel version of the LY5. Power and torque ratings for SUV and pickup truck applications are the same as each application 's LY5 rating. Variable valve timing was added for the 2010 model year.
LMG applications:
The Vortec 5300 LC9 (VIN code "3 '') is the aluminum block Flex - Fuel version of the LH6, and is found in 4WD models. SUV applications are rated at 320 hp (239 kW) @ 5400 rpm and 335 lb ⋅ ft (454 N ⋅ m) @ 4000 rpm of torque. Pickup truck applications are rated at 315 hp (235 kW) @ 5300 rpm and 335 lb ⋅ ft (454 N ⋅ m) @ 4000 rpm of torque. Variable valve timing was added for the 2010 model year.
LC9 applications:
The Vortec 5300 LH8 is a variant of the 5.3 L Gen IV small block V8 modified to fit in the engine bay of the GMT 345 SUV and GMT 355 trucks. It produces 300 hp (220 kW) at 5200 rpm and 320 lb ⋅ ft (434 N ⋅ m) at 4000 rpm. It has a displacement of 5,328 cc (325.1 cu in).
LH8 applications:
The Vortec 5300 LH9 is a variant of the 5.3 L Gen IV small block V8 modified to fit in the engine bay of the GMT 355 trucks. It has Variable Valve Timing (VVT) and produces 300 hp (220 kW) at 5200 rpm and 320 lb ⋅ ft (434 N ⋅ m) at 4000 rpm. It has a displacement of 5,328 cc (325.1 cu in).
LH9 applications:
The LS4 is a 5,328 cc (5.328 L; 325.1 cu in) version of the Generation IV block. Though it has the same displacement as the Vortec 5300 LY5, it features an aluminum block instead of iron, and it uses the same cylinder head casting as the Generation III LS6 engine. The bellhousing bolt pattern differs from the rear - wheel drive blocks.
This engine is adapted for transverse front - wheel drive applications. According to GM, "The crankshaft is shortened 13 mm -- 3 mm at the flywheel end and 10 mm at the accessory drive end -- to reduce the length of the engine compared to the 6.0 L. All accessories are driven by a single serpentine belt to save space. The water pump is mounted remotely with an elongated pump manifold that connects it to the coolant passages. Revised oil pan baffles, or windage trays, are incorporated into the LS4 to ensure that the oil sump stays loaded during high - g cornering. '' Active Fuel Management is also used. Output of this version is 303 hp (226 kW) / 300 hp on LaCrosse Super and 323 lb ⋅ ft (438 N ⋅ m).
Applications:
Inspired by the LS1. R in size and performance goals, this family of blocks was designed for race oriented performance. The only engine with this bore size that was used in a production vehicle is the LS7 with the LSX being only for aftermarket use. One unique feature of this family is that the cylinders are siamesed, no water passages between neighboring cylinders. This was done to increase both bore size and block strength.
LS7
The LS7 is a 7,011 cc (7.011 L; 427.8 cu in) engine, based on the Gen IV architecture. The block is changed, with sleeved cylinders in an aluminum block and a larger 4.125 in (104.775 mm) bore and longer 4.00 in (101.6 mm) stroke than the LS2. The small - block 's 4.4 in (110 mm) bore spacing is retained, requiring pressed - in cylinder liners. The crankshaft and main bearing caps are forged steel for durability, the connecting rods are forged titanium, and the pistons are hypereutectic. The two - valve arrangement is retained, though the titanium intake valves by Del West have grown to 2.20 in (56 mm) and sodium - filled exhaust valves are up to 1.61 in (41 mm).
Peak output is 505 hp (377 kW) at 6300 rpm and 470 lb ⋅ ft (640 N ⋅ m) at 4800 rpm with a 7100 rpm redline During GM 's reliability testing of this engine in its prototype phase, the LS7 was remarked to have been repeatedly tested to be 8000 rpm capable, although power was not recorded at that rpm level, due to the constraints of the camshaft 's hydraulic lifters and the intake manifold ability to flow required air at that engine speed.
The LS7 is hand - built by the General Motors Performance Build Center in Wixom, Michigan. Most of these engines are installed in the Z06, some are also sold to individuals by GM as a crate engine. While it has the same displacement the Hennessey Venom GT utilizes an iron block LSX, not an LS7.
After an extensive engineering process over several years, Holden Special Vehicles fitted the LS7 to a special edition model, the W427. The HSV - tuned engine produced 375 kW (503 hp) and 640 N ⋅ m (470 lb ⋅ ft). The W427 was unveiled at the Melbourne International Motor Show on February 29, 2008 and went on sale in August 2008. The first Australian car to be fitted with this engine, however, was the CSV GTS of 2007, which was claimed to have a power output of 400 kW (536 hp) and 600 N ⋅ m (440 lb ⋅ ft).
Applications:
This family was designed as a replacement for the LS2 but enlarged to better accommodate variable valve timing and Active Fuel Management while still generating good performance. This family of engines has mainly seen duty in performance cars and high - end SUVs.
L92
The 2007 Cadillac Escalade has a 6.2 l (380 cu in) Vortec 6200 (RPO L92) engine. It is an all - aluminum design which, while still a pushrod engine, boasts variable valve timing. The system adjusts both intake and exhaust timing between two settings. This engine produces 403 hp (301 kW) and 417 lb ⋅ ft (565 N ⋅ m) in the GMC Yukon Denali / XL Denali, GMC Sierra Denali, Hummer H2, and briefly in the Chevrolet Tahoe LTZ (midway through MY 2008 through MY 2009) and rated at 403 hp (301 kW) and 415 lb ⋅ ft (563 N ⋅ m). It was also available in the Chevrolet Silverado and GMC Sierra starting in MY 2009 (as the L9H) with power ratings of 403 hp (301 kW) and 417 lb ⋅ ft (565 N ⋅ m). The L92 was modified with Flex Fuel capability for MY 2009 and became the L9H, and was further modified with Active Fuel Management for MY 2010 (and becoming the L94) in the Cadillac Escalade and GMC Yukon Denali 's (Active Fuel Management hardware was present in 2007 engines, but the software was not present in the PCM).
Applications:
LS3
The LS3 was introduced as the Corvette 's new base engine for the 2008 model year. It produces 430 bhp (321 kW; 436 PS) at 5900 rpm and 424 lb ⋅ ft (575 N ⋅ m) at 4600 rpm without the optional Corvette exhaust and is SAE certified. The block is an updated version of the LS2 casting featuring a larger bore of 4.06 in (103 mm) creating a displacement of 6,162 cc (6.162 L; 376.0 cu in). It also features higher flowing cylinder heads sourced from the L92, a more aggressive camshaft with 0.551 - inch (14.0 mm) lift, a 10.7: 1 compression ratio, a revised valvetrain with 6 mm (0.24 in) offset intake rocker arms, a high - flow intake manifold and 47 lb / hr fuel injectors from the LS7 engine.
The L76 / L92 / LS3 cylinder heads use 2.165 in (55.0 mm) intake valves, and 1.59 in (40 mm) exhaust valves. Improved manufacturing efficiency makes these heads cheaper than the outgoing LS6 heads, and severely undercuts aftermarket heads. The large valves, however, limit maximum rpm - 6000 in the L76 (with AFM), and 6600 in the LS3 (with hollow stem valves).
In addition to the above, a dual - mode exhaust package with a bypass on acceleration was available on C6 Corvettes. The dual - mode exhaust uses vacuum - actuated outlet valves, which control engine noise during low - load operation, but open for maximum performance during high - load operation. The system is similar to the C6 Z06, but uses a 2.5 in (64 mm) diameter exhaust compared to the Z06 's 3 in (76 mm). Power is boosted to 436 hp (325 kW) and 428 lb ⋅ ft (580 N ⋅ m) with this option. A similar system was optional on later model 5th generation Chevrolet Camaros and standard on the 2016 - 2017 Chevrolet SS, but no horsepower or torque increases were advertised on those vehicles.
From April 2008, Australian performance car manufacturer, HSV, adopted the LS3 as its standard V8 throughout the range, replacing the LS2. The LS3 received modifications for its application to HSV E Series models, producing 425 bhp (317 kW). The LS3 engine in the E Series II GTS (released September 2009) was upgraded to produce 436 bhp (325 kW). All HSV MY12. 5 excluding the base Maloo and Clubsport variants have been upgraded to produce 436 bhp (325 kW).
From September 2015 Holden introduced the LS3 in all V8 models of the VF II Commodore and WN II Caprice - V, replacing the 6.0 L L77.
Applications:
L99
The L99 is derived from the LS3 with reduced output but adds Active Fuel Management (formerly called Displacement on Demand) and variable valve timing, which allows it to run on only four cylinders during light load conditions.
Applications:
LS9
The Gen IV LS9 is a supercharged 6,162 cc (6.162 L; 376.0 cu in) engine, based on the LS3; the LS7 block was not used due to the higher cylinder pressures created by the supercharger requiring the thicker cylinder walls of the LS3. Cylinder dimensions are now 4.06 in (103 mm) bore and 3.62 in (92 mm) stroke. It is equipped with an Eaton four - lobe Roots type supercharger and has a compression ratio of 9.1: 1. Power output is rated 638 bhp (476 kW) at 6500 rpm and 604 lb ⋅ ft (819 N ⋅ m) at 3800 rpm. Note: GM previously used the LS9 RPO code on 1969 and later Chevrolet trucks (both 2WD and 4WD) including Blazers, Jimmys, Suburbans, as well as car carriers. The original LS9 was a 350 cu in V8, developing 160 hp and 245 Ft / lbs of torque.
Applications:
LSA
The supercharged 6.2 L LSA is similar to the LS9 and debuted in the 2009 CTS - V. The LSA has been SAE certified at 556 bhp (415 kW) at 6100 rpm and 551 lb ⋅ ft (747 N ⋅ m) at 3800 rpm. GM labeled it "the most powerful ever offered in Cadillac 's nearly 106 - year history ''. The LSA features a smaller 1.9 L capacity supercharger rather than the 2.3 L variant of the LS9. Other differences include a slightly lower 9.0: 1 compression ratio, single unit heat exchanger and cast pistons.
A 580 bhp (430 kW) and 556 lb ⋅ ft (754 N ⋅ m) version of the LSA engine is used in the 2012 Camaro ZL1. On May 15, 2013, Holden Special Vehicles announced that this version of the LSA engine will also be used in the GEN - F GTS.
Applications:
In 2007, wardsauto.com reported that the LS3 (used by 2008 Chevrolet Corvette) and Vortec 6000 LFA (used by 2008 Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid) engines would be the final two designs in the Generation IV small - block engine family, and the future designs would be part of the Generation V engine family. An experimental engine was built based on L92 engine from Cadillac Escalade, GMC Yukon Denali and Hummer H2, and reported to generate 450 bhp (340 kW) on gasoline via direct fuel injection, increased compression ratio to 11.5: 1, and a modified engine controller. The first Gen V LT engine was the LT1, announced in 2012 as the initial powerplant for the redesigned C7 Corvette, succeeding the LS engine family. The new logo formally adopts the Small Block name for the engines.
The fifth generation of the iconic GM small block engine family features the same cam - in - block architecture and 4.400 - inch bore centers (the distance between the centers of each cylinder) that were born with the original small block in 1955. Structurally, the Gen - V small - block is similar to the Gen III / IV engines, including a deep - skirt cylinder block. Refinements and new or revised components are used throughout, including a revised cooling system and all - new cylinder heads.
All Gen V engine are aluminum blocks with aluminum cylinder heads and include features such as direct injection, piston cooling jets, active fuel management, variable displacement oil pump, continuously variable valve timing and aluminum cylinder heads and block. However, it does retain its ancestors ' two - valve pushrod valvetrain.
This family of blocks were the first of the generation V small block with the LT1 being the progenitor of this family and generation. This family of blocks has seen a wide range of applications from performance vehicles to truck usage.
LT1
The 6.2 l (380 cu in) LT1 engine debuted in the 2014 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray and is the first Generation V small block engine. Like its LS3 predecessor, it gets its displacement from 103.25 mm (4.060 in) bore and 92 mm (3.62 in) stroke with a compression ratio of 11.5 to 1.
Applications:
L86
The 6.2 l (380 cu in) EcoTec3 is a Generation V small block V8 truck engine. (VIN Code "J '') The L86 is an LT1 engine modified for truck use with a compression ratio of 11.5 to 1.
Applications:
LT4
The 6.2 l (380 cu in) LT4 engine builds on the design strengths of the previous LS9 supercharged engine used in the sixth - generation Corvette ZR1 and leverages the technologies introduced on the seventh - generation Corvette Stingray, including direct injection, cylinder deactivation and continuously variable valve timing, to take Corvette performance to an all - new level. The LT4 engine is based on the same Gen 5 small block foundation as the Corvette Stingray 's LT1 6.2 L naturally aspirated engine, incorporating several unique features designed to support its higher output and the greater cylinder pressures created by forced induction, including: Rotocast A356T6 aluminum cylinder heads that are stronger and handle heat better than conventional aluminum heads, lightweight titanium intake valves, forged powder metal steel connecting rods which are highly machined to an optimized geometry for increased strength while eliminating unnecessary reciprocating mass, 10.0: 1 compression ratio, high for a forced - induction engine, enhances performance and efficiency and is enabled by direct injection, forged aluminum pistons with unique, stronger structure to ensure strength under high cylinder pressures, stainless steel exhaust manifolds for structure at higher temperatures, aluminum balancer for reduced mass, and standard dry - sump oiling system with a dual - pressure - control oil pump. The engine uses a 1.7 L Eaton TVS supercharger. Although smaller than the previous 2.3 l supercharger used on the sixth - gen ZR1, it spins 5000 RPM faster thus generating boost quicker while making only slightly less total boost than the LS9 engine.
Applications:
LT5
The 6.2 L (376 cu in) LT5 engine debuted in the seventh - generatiion Corvette ZR1 at the 2017 Dubai Motor Show. It draws its inspiration from the already venerable LT4 small block V8 but improves with a 2.6 L Eaton TVS Supercharger and an improved cooling and fuel injection system. Power output is 755 hp (563 kW) @ 6400 rpm and 715 lb - ft (969 NM) @ 3600 rpm.
Applications:
Unlike the previous Generation III / IV 3.78 in bore block families, there is no 4.8 L displacement variant (having been ' replaced ' by GM 's 5th Generation LT V8 - based V6, the 4.3 L / 262 Cu In LV3).
L83
Dubbed EcoTec3 5.3 L is a Generation V small block V8 truck engine. (VIN Code "C '') Like its Vortec 5300 Generation IV predecessor, it gets its displacement from 96.01 mm (3.78 in) bore and 92 mm (3.62 in) stroke with a compression ratio of 11.0 to 1.
Applications:
L8B
The L8B is an eAssist mild hybrid version of the L83 featuring a. 45 - KWH lithium ion battery pack. This setup can improve fuel efficiency by about 13 %. This adds about 100 lb (45 kg) to the total weight of the truck but provides an additional 13 hp (10 kW) and 44 lb ⋅ ft (60 N ⋅ m).
Applications:
These V6 engines are based on the V8 version of the Gen - V family, but with two fewer cylinders - a design lineage that dates back to the previous 4.3 L V6, which was itself a Gen - I small block with a pair of cylinders removed. Of special note, there were no V6 engines based on Generation II / III / IV small blocks.
LV3
Dubbed EcoTec3 4.3 L is a Generation V small block V6 truck engine. It gets its displacement from 99.6 mm (3.921 in) bore and 92 mm (3.62 in) stroke with a compression ratio of 11.0 to 1. Firing order is 1 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2. This engine replaces the unrelated 4.3 L V6 that have a lineage that dates back to 1978.
Applications:
Note 1: depending upon vehicle application; horsepower, torque, and fuel requirements will vary. vin code indicating engine RPO may also not be consistent between vehicle types (cars or trucks) or years. with few exceptions, RPM redline is generally 6000 or higher Note 2: block features are generally dependent upon the Generation but not always built - in. typical features are AFM (Advanced Fuel Management), VVT (Variable Valve Train), Front Wheel Drive (FWD) and other improvements. features marked with an * indicate that only certain model years have that feature
In the early production run of the LS - series engine, some engines encountered ' piston slap ' during the first couple minutes after a cold engine start - this sound is caused by the pistons rocking slightly in the cylinder until they reach operating temperature / size. ' Piston slap ' sometimes sounds more like a knock or the sound of a diesel engine running. It is typically only present when the engine is cold and disappears as the engine reaches operating temperature. The noise of ' piston slap ' often is louder when listening for it below the oil pan.
Another common problem with the 2001 - 2006 5.3 L engines was cracking cylinder heads. This is commonly called the ' Castech Head ' failure on the internet. GM issued a TSB on this failure to help service techs identify the problem. The head casting (which can be viewed from the passenger side of the vehicle just in front of the valve cover) was 706. Some heads with this casting number would fail (but not all of them) as GM had different suppliers for the same head. The failure was due to undetected porosity around the oil drains in the head.
In 2011, Chevrolet Performance began to offer the build your own engine program for LS7 (part number 19259944) or LS9 (part number 19259945) crate engines. It also provides customers the experience of visiting GM 's unique Performance Build Center in Wixom, Mich., where they will join a specially trained engine builder to assist in the start - to - finish assembly of the engine they purchased -- from installing the crankshaft in the cylinder block to topping off the engine with its intake system. In the case of the LS9, it also means installing the supercharger assembly. Upon completion, a personalized nameplate is added to the engine.
The build - your - own engine program associated with the V8 engines, available for buyers of Chevrolet Corvette, Cadillac XLR and certain top - spec Chevrolet Camaro models, were temporarily halted after the closure of GM Performance Build Center in Wixom, Michigan. The program 's venue was reported to be relocated to the Corvette assembly plant in Bowling Green, Kentucky.
LS7. R
The LS7. R engine is a variation of the LS7 used in the highly successful C6. R American Le Mans Series racecar. It was crowned as Global Motorsport Engine of the Year by a jury of 50 race engine engineers on the Professional Motorsport World Expo 2006 in Cologne, Germany.
LSX
LSx is also used to denote any LS engine.
At the 2006 SEMA show, GM Performance Parts introduced the LSX engine, an all - new cast - iron racing block based on the LS7 engine. It was designed with help from drag racing legend Warren Johnson. It offers displacements ranging from 364 cu in (5,965 cc) to 511 cu in (8,374 cc) (4.25 in (108 mm) Bore x 4.5 in (110 mm) Stroke) and is capable of withstanding 2,500 bhp (1,900 kW). This block incorporates two extra rows of head - bolt holes per bank for increased clamping capacity. The six bolt steel main caps are the same ones used on the LS7 engine. The engine debuted at the auto show in a customized 1969 Camaro owned by Reggie Jackson. The LSX will be available starting the second quarter of 2007, set to be available in authorized dealerships and retailers on March 31, 2007. Hennessey Venom GT uses LSX engine based on LS7.
Chevrolet Performance LSX Bowtie block includes LSX specific six - bolts - per - cylinder head bolt pattern, billet - steel six - bolt dowel - located main bearing caps, extra-thick deck for maximum clamping force, extra-thick cylinder walls allow increased bore capacity (maximum 4.200 - inch bore still allows 0.200 - inch minimum wall thickness), true priority main oiling system, main web bay - to - bay breathing holes reduce crank windage, orange powder coat finish, machined bore at 3.880 is ready for final boring / honing.
LSX376
Chevrolet Performance LSX376 crate engines are updated versions of LSX crate engine family designed to support up to 1,000 horsepower. All models use Chevrolet Performance LSX Bowtie block.
LSX376 - B15 (part number 19299306) includes forged steel crankshaft, forged H - beam rods and forged aluminum pistons (9.0: 1 compression), high - flow rectangular - port six - bolt LSX - LS3 heads for supercharged and turbocharged combinations producing up to 15 pounds of boost and up to about 1,000 horsepower.
LSX376 - B8 (part number 19171049) is a more economical version that is capable of approximately 8 pounds of boost, for engine producing approximately 600 horsepower. It is designed for production - style supercharger and turbo systems used without enhancements or modifications.
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is there a city of gold in the amazon | El Dorado - wikipedia
El Dorado (pronounced (el doˈɾaðo), English: / ˌɛl dəˈrɑːdoʊ /; Spanish for "the golden one ''), originally El Hombre Dorado (the golden man), or El Rey Dorado (the golden king), was the term used by the Spanish Empire to describe a mythical tribal chief (zipa) of the Muisca native people of Colombia, who, as an initiation rite, covered himself with gold dust and submerged in Lake Guatavita. The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to a city, to a kingdom, and then finally an empire.
A second location for El Dorado was inferred from rumors, which inspired several unsuccessful expeditions in the late 1500s in search of a city called Manõa on the shores of Lake Parime. Two of the most famous of these expeditions were led by Sir Walter Raleigh. In pursuit of the legend, Spanish conquistadors and numerous others searched Colombia, Venezuela, and parts of Guyana and northern Brazil for the city and its fabulous king. In the course of these explorations, much of northern South America, including the Amazon River, was mapped. By the beginning of the 19th century most people dismissed the existence of the city as a myth.
The Muisca occupied the highlands of Cundinamarca and Boyacá departments of Colombia in two migrations from outlying lowland areas, one starting ~ 1270 BCE, and a second between 800 BCE and 500 BCE. At those times, other more ancient civilizations also flourished in the highlands. The Muisca Confederation was as advanced as the Aztec, Maya and Inca civilizations.
In the mythology of the Muisca, Mnya the Gold or golden color, represents the energy contained in the trinity of Chiminigagua, which constitutes the creative power of everything that exists. Chiminigagua is related to Bachué, Cuza, Chibchacum, Bochica, and Nencatacoa.
The original narrative can be found in the rambling chronicle El Carnero of Juan Rodriguez Freyle. According to Freyle, zipa of the Muisca, in a ritual at Lake Guatavita near present - day Bogotá, was said to be covered with gold dust, which he then washed off in the lake while his attendants threw trinkets made of gold, emeralds, and precious stones into the lake.
In 1638, Freyle wrote this account of the ceremony, addressed to the cacique or governor of Guatavita:
The ceremony took place on the appointment of a new ruler. Before taking office, he spent some time secluded in a cave, without women, forbidden to eat salt, or to go out during daylight. The first journey he had to make was to go to the great lagoon of Guatavita, to make offerings and sacrifices to the demon which they worshipped as their god and lord. During the ceremony which took place at the lagoon, they made a raft of rushes, embellishing and decorating it with the most attractive things they had. They put on it four lighted braziers in which they burned much moque, which is the incense of these natives, and also resin and many other perfumes. The lagoon was large and deep, so that a ship with high sides could sail on it, all loaded with an infinity of men and women dressed in fine plumes, golden plaques and crowns... As soon as those on the raft began to burn incense, they also lit braziers on the shore, so that the smoke hid the light of day.
At this time, they stripped the heir to his skin, and anointed him with a sticky earth on which they placed gold dust so that he was completely covered with this metal. They placed him on the raft... and at his feet they placed a great heap of gold and emeralds for him to offer to his god. In the raft with him went four principal subject chiefs, decked in plumes, crowns, bracelets, pendants and ear rings all of gold. They, too, were naked, and each one carried his offering... when the raft reached the centre of the lagoon, they raised a banner as a signal for silence.
The gilded Indian then... (threw) out all the pile of gold into the middle of the lake, and the chiefs who had accompanied him did the same on their own accounts... After this they lowered the flag, which had remained up during the whole time of offering, and, as the raft moved towards the shore, the shouting began again, with pipes, flutes and large teams of singers and dancers. With this ceremony the new ruler was received, and was recognised as lord and king.
This is the ceremony that became the famous El Dorado, which has taken so many lives and fortunes.
There is also an account by poet - priest and historian of the Conquest Juan de Castellanos, who had served under Jiménez de Quesada in his campaign against the Muisca, written in the mid-16th century but not published until 1850:
The Quest of El Dorado
Who in the town of Quito did abide. And neighbor claimed to be of Bogata, There having come, I know not by what way, Did with him speak and solemnly announce A country rich in emeralds and gold.
Also, among the things which them engaged, A certain king he told of who, disrobed, Upon a lake was wont, aboard a raft, To make oblations, as himself had seen, His regal form overspread with fragrant oil On which was laid a coat of powdered gold From sole of foot unto his highest brow, Resplendent as the beaming of the sun.
Arrivals without end, he further said, Were there to make rich votive offerings Of golden trinkets and of emeralds rare And divers other of their ornaments; And worthy credence these things he affirmed; The soldiers, light of heart and well content, Then dubbed him El Dorado, and the name By countless ways was spread throughout the world.
According to Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo (1478 -- 1557):
He went about all covered with powdered gold, as casually as if it were powdered salt. For it seemed to him that to wear any other finery was less beautiful, and that to put on ornaments or arms made of gold worked by hammering, stamping, or by other means, was a vulgar and common thing.
In the Muisca territories, there were a number of natural locations considered sacred, including lakes, rivers, forests and large rocks. People gathered here to perform rituals and sacrifices mostly with gold and emeralds. Important lakes were Lake Guatavita, Lake Iguaque, Lake Fúquene, Lake Tota, the Siecha Lakes, Lake Teusacá and Lake Ubaque.
El Dorado is applied to a legendary story in which precious stones were found in fabulous abundance along with gold coins. The concept of El Dorado underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the previous myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost city. The resulting El Dorado myth enticed European explorers for two centuries. Among the earliest stories was the one told on his deathbed by Juan Martinez, a captain of munitions for Spanish adventurer Diego de Ordaz, who claimed to have visited the city of Manoa. Martinez had allowed a store of gunpowder to catch fire and was condemned to death, however his friends let him escape downriver in a canoe. Martinez then met with some local people who took him to the city:
The canoa was carried down the stream, and certain of the Guianians met it the same evening; and, having not at any time seen any Christian nor any man of that colour, they carried Martinez into the land to be wondered at, and so from town to town, until he came to the great city of Manoa, the seat and residence of Inga the emperor. The emperor, after he had beheld him, knew him to be a Christian, and caused him to be lodged in his palace, and well entertained. He was brought thither all the way blindfold, led by the Indians, until he came to the entrance of Manoa itself, and was fourteen or fifteen days in the passage. He avowed at his death that he entered the city at noon, and then they uncovered his face; and that he traveled all that day till night through the city, and the next day from sun rising to sun setting, ere he came to the palace of Inga. After that Martinez had lived seven months in Manoa, and began to understand the language of the country, Inga asked him whether he desired to return into his own country, or would willingly abide with him. But Martinez, not desirous to stay, obtained the favour of Inga to depart.
The fable of Juan Martinez was founded on the adventures of Juan Martin de Albujar, well known to the Spanish historians of the Conquest; and who, in the expedition of Pedro de Silva (1570), fell into the hands of the Caribs of the Lower Orinoco.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Europeans, still fascinated by the New World, believed that a hidden city of immense wealth existed. Numerous expeditions were mounted to search for this treasure, all which ended in failure. The illustration of El Dorado 's location on maps only made matters worse, as it made some people think that the city of El Dorado 's existence had been confirmed. The mythical city of El Dorado on Lake Parime was marked on numerous maps until its existence was disproved by Alexander von Humboldt during his Latin America expedition (1799 -- 1804).
Meanwhile, the name of El Dorado came to be used metaphorically of any place where wealth could be rapidly acquired. It was given to El Dorado County, California, and to towns and cities in various states. It has also been anglicized to the single word Eldorado, and is sometimes used in product titles to suggest great wealth and fortune, such as the Cadillac Eldorado line of luxury automobiles.
El Dorado is also sometimes used as a metaphor to represent an ultimate prize or "Holy Grail '' that one might spend one 's life seeking. It could represent true love, heaven, happiness, or success. It is used sometimes as a figure of speech to represent something much sought after that may not even exist, or, at least, may not ever be found. Such use is evident in Edgar Alan Poe 's poem "El Dorado ''. In this context, El Dorado bears similarity to other myths such as the Fountain of Youth and Shangri - la. The other side of the ideal quest metaphor may be represented by Helldorado, a satirical nickname given to Tombstone, Arizona (United States) in the 1880s by a disgruntled miner who complained that many of his profession had traveled far to find El Dorado, only to wind up washing dishes in restaurants. The South African city Johannesburg is commonly interpreted as a modern - day El Dorado, due to the extremely large gold deposit found along the Witwatersrand on which it is situated.
Spanish conquistadores had noticed the native people 's fine artifacts of gold and silver long before any legend of "golden men '' or "lost cities '' had appeared. The prevalence of such valuable artifacts, and the natives ' apparent ignorance of their value, inspired speculation as to a plentiful source for them.
Prior to the time of Spanish conquest of the Muisca and discovery of Lake Guatavita, a handful of expeditions had set out to explore the lowlands to the east of the Andes in search of gold, cinnamon, precious stones, and anything else of value. During the Klein - Venedig period in Venezuela (1528 -- 1546), agents of the German Welser banking family (which had received a concession from Charles I of Spain) launched repeated expeditions into the interior of the country in search of gold, starting with Ambrosius Ehinger 's first expedition in July of 1529.
Spanish explorer Diego de Ordaz, then governor of the eastern part of Venezuela known as Paria (named after Paria Peninsula), was the first European to explore the Orinoco river in 1531 -- 32 in search of gold. A veteran of Hernán Cortés 's campaign in Mexico, Ordaz followed the Orinoco beyond the mouth of the Meta River but was blocked by the rapids at Atures. After his return he died, possibly poisoned, on a voyage back to Spain. After the death of Ordaz while returning from his expedition, the Crown appointed a new Governor of Paria, Jerónimo de Ortal, who diligently explored the interior along the Meta River between 1532 and 1537. In 1535, he ordered captain Alonso de Herrera to move inland by the waters of the Uyapari River (today the town of Barrancas del Orinoco). Herrera, who had accompanied Ordaz three years before, explored the Meta River but was killed by the indigenous Achagua near its banks, while waiting out the winter rains in Casanare.
The earliest reference to the name El Dorado was in 1535 or 1536, before Spanish contact with the Muisca people.
Between 1531 and 1538, the German conquistadors Nikolaus Federmann and Georg von Speyer searched the Venezuelan lowlands, Colombian plateaus, Orinoco Basin and Llanos Orientales for El Dorado. Subsequently Philipp von Hutten accompanied Von Speyer on a journey (1536 -- 38) in which they reached the headwaters of the Rio Japura, near the equator. In 1541 Hutten led an exploring party of about 150 men, mostly horsemen, from Coro on the coast of Venezuela in search of the Golden City. After several years of wandering, harassed by the natives and weakened by hunger and fever, he crossed the Rio Bermejo, and went on with a small group of around 40 men on horseback into Los Llanos, where they engaged in battle with a large number of Omaguas and Hutten was severely wounded. He led those of his followers who survived back to Coro in 1546. On Hutten 's return, he and a traveling companion, Bartholomeus VI. Welser, were executed in El Tocuyo by the Spanish authorities.
In 1535, Captains Anasco and Ampudia were dispatched by Spanish conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, one of Francisco Pizarro 's chief lieutenants, to discover the valley of Dorado in pursuit of the splendid riches of the Zaque, or chieftain of Cundinamarca, described by a wandering Indian of Tacumga.
In 1536 Gonzalo Díaz de Pineda had led an expedition to the lowlands to the east of Quito and had found cinnamon trees but no rich empire.
In 1536, stories of El Dorado drew the Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada and his army of 800 men away from their mission to find an overland route to Peru and up into the Andean homeland of the Muisca for the first time. The southern Muisca settlements and their treasures quickly fell to the conquistadors in 1537 and 1538. On the Bogotá savanna, the Spanish received reports about El Dorado from captured natives, and of the initiation rite of the new zipa, which used to take place in Lake Guatavita. The Spanish captured large amounts of gold from the Muisca, which led them to spread the word that El Dorado was near.
After his brother Gonzalo had left for Spain in May 1539, Spanish conquistador Hernán Pérez de Quesada set out a new expedition in September of 1540, leaving with 270 Spanish soldiers and countless indigenous porters to explore the Llanos Orientales. One of his main captains on this journey was Baltasar Maldonado. Their expedition was unsuccessful and after reaching Quito, the troops returned to Santafe de Bogotá.
In 1540, Gonzalo Pizarro, the younger half - brother of Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish conquistador who toppled the Incan Empire in Peru, was made the governor of the province of Quito in northern Ecuador. Shortly after taking lead in Quito, Gonzalo learned from many of the natives of a valley far to the east rich in both cinnamon and gold. He banded together 340 soldiers and about 4000 natives in 1541 and led them eastward down the Rio Coca and Rio Napo. Francisco de Orellana accompanied Pizarro on the expedition as his lieutenant. Gonzalo quit after many of the soldiers and natives had died from hunger, disease, and periodic attacks by hostile natives. He ordered Orellana to continue downstream, where he eventually made it to the Atlantic Ocean. The expedition found neither cinnamon nor gold, but Orellana is credited with discovering the Amazon River (so named because of a tribe of female warriors that attacked Orellana 's men while on their voyage).
In 1560, Basque conquistadors Pedro de Ursúa and Lope de Aguirre journeyed down the Marañón and Amazon Rivers, in search of El Dorado, with 300 Spaniards and hundreds of natives; the actual goal of Ursúa was to send idle veterans from the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire away, to keep them from trouble - making, using the El Dorado myth as a lure. A year later, Aguirre participated in the overthrow and killing of Ursúa and his successor, Fernando de Guzmán, whom he ultimately succeeded. He and his men reached the Atlantic (probably by the Orinoco River), destroying native villages on the way.
While the existence of a sacred lake in the Eastern Ranges of the Andes, associated with Indian rituals involving gold, was known to the Spaniards possibly as early as 1531, its location was only discovered in 1537 by conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada while on an expedition to the highlands of the Eastern Ranges of the Andes in search of gold.
Conquistadores Lázaro Fonte and Hernán Perez de Quesada attempted (unsuccessfully) to drain the lake in 1545 using a "bucket chain '' of labourers. After 3 months, the water level had been reduced by 3 metres, and only a small amount of gold was recovered, with a value of 3000 -- 4000 pesos (approx. US $100,000 today; a peso or piece of eight of the 15th century weighs 0.88 oz of 93 % pure silver).
A later more industrious attempt was made in 1580, by Bogotá business entrepreneur Antonio de Sepúlveda. A notch was cut deep into the rim of the lake, which managed to reduce the water level by 20 metres, before collapsing and killing many of the labourers. A share of the findings -- consisting of various golden ornaments, jewellery and armour -- was sent to King Philip II of Spain. Sepúlveda 's discovery came to approximately 12,000 pesos. He died a poor man, and is buried at the church in the small town of Guatavita.
In 1801, Alexander von Humboldt made a visit to Guatavita, and on his return to Paris, calculated from the findings of Sepúlveda 's efforts that Guatavita could offer up as much as $300 million worth of gold.
In 1898, the Company for the Exploitation of the Lagoon of Guatavita was formed and taken over by Contractors Ltd. of London, in a deal brokered by British expatriate Hartley Knowles. The lake was drained by a tunnel that emerged in the centre of the lake. The water was drained to a depth of about 4 feet of mud and slime. This made it impossible to explore, and when the mud had dried in the sun, it had set like concrete. Artifacts worth only about £ 500 were found, and auctioned at Sotheby 's of London. Some of these were donated to the British Museum. The company filed for bankruptcy and ceased activities in 1929.
In 1965, the Colombian government designated the lake as a protected area. Private salvage operations, including attempts to drain the lake, are now illegal.
The Spanish Governor of Trinidad, Antonio de Berrio (nephew of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada), made three failed expeditions to look for El Dorado. Between 1583 and 1589 he carried out his first two expeditions, going through the wild regions of the Colombian plains and the Upper Orinoco. In 1590 he began his third expedition, ascending the Orinoco to reach the Caroní River with his own expeditionaries and another 470 men under command of Domingo de Vera. In March of 1591, while he was waiting for supplies on Margarita Island, his entire force was taken captive by Walter Raleigh, who proceeded up the Orinoco in search of El Dorado, with Berrio as a guide. Berrio took them to the territories he had previously explored by himself years before. After several months Raleigh 's expedition returned to Trinidad, and he released Berrio at the end of June 1595 on the coast of Cumaná in exchange for some English prisoners. His son Fernando de Berrío y Ourña (1577 -- 1622) also made numerous expeditions in search of El Dorado.
Walter Raleigh 's 1595 journey with Antonio de Berrio had aimed to reach Lake Parime in the highlands of Guyana (the supposed location of El Dorado at the time). He was encouraged by the account of Juan Martinez, believed to be Juan Martin de Albujar, who had taken part in Pedro de Silva 's expedition of the area in 1570, only to fall into the hands of the Caribs of the Lower Orinoco. Martinez claimed that he was taken to the golden city in blindfold, was entertained by the natives, and then left the city and could n't remember how to return. Raleigh had set many goals for his expedition, and believed he had a genuine chance at finding the so - called city of gold. First, he wanted to find the mythical city of El Dorado, which he suspected to be an actual Indian city named Manõa. Second, he hoped to establish an English presence in the Southern Hemisphere that could compete with that of the Spanish. His third goal was to create an English settlement in the land called Guyana, and to try to reduce commerce between the natives and Spaniards.
In 1596 Raleigh sent his lieutenant, Lawrence Kemys, back to Guyana in the area of the Orinoco River, to gather more information about the lake and the golden city. During his exploration of the coast between the Amazon and the Orinoco, Kemys mapped the location of Amerindian tribes and prepared geographical, geological and botanical reports of the country. Kemys described the coast of Guiana in detail in his Relation of the Second Voyage to Guiana (1596) and wrote that indigenous people of Guiana traveled inland by canoe and land passages towards a large body of water on the shores of which he supposed was located Manoa, Golden City of El Dorado.
Though Raleigh never found El Dorado, he was convinced that there was some fantastic city whose riches could be discovered. Finding gold on the riverbanks and in villages only strengthened his resolve. In 1617, he returned to the New World on a second expedition, this time with Kemys and his son, Watt Raleigh, to continue his quest for El Dorado. However, Raleigh, by now an old man, stayed behind in a camp on the island of Trinidad. Watt Raleigh was killed in a battle with Spaniards and Kemys subsequently committed suicide. Upon Raleigh 's return to England, King James ordered him to be beheaded for disobeying orders to avoid conflict with the Spanish. He was executed in 1618.
In early 1611 Sir Thomas Roe, on a mission to the West Indies for Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, sailed his 200 - ton ship, the Lion 's Claw, some 320 kilometres (200 mi) up the Amazon, then took a party of canoes up the Waipoco (probably the Oyapock River) in search of Lake Parime, negotiating thirty - two rapids and traveling about one hundred miles before they ran out of food and had to turn back.
In 1637 - 38, two monks, Acana and Fritz, undertook several journeys to the lands of the Manoas, indigenous peoples living in western Guyana and what is now Roraima in northeastern Brazil. Although they found no evidence of El Dorado, their published accounts were intended to inspire further exploration.
In November 1739, Nicholas Horstman, a German surgeon commissioned by the Dutch Governor of Guiana, traveled up the Essequibo River accompanied by two Dutch soldiers and four Indian guides. In April 1741 one of the Indian guides returned reporting that in 1740 Horstman had crossed over to the Rio Branco and descended it to its confluence with the Rio Negro. Horstman discovered Lake Amucu on the North Rupununi but found neither gold nor any evidence of a city.
In 1740, Don Manuel Centurion, Governor of Santo Tomé de Guayana de Angostura del Orinoco in Venezuela, hearing a report from an Indian about Lake Parima, embarked on a journey up the Caura River and the Paragua River, causing the deaths of several hundred persons. His survey of the local geography, however, provided the basis for other expeditions starting in 1775.
From 1775 to 1780, Nicholas Rodriguez and Antonio Santos, two entrepreneurs employed by the Spanish Governors, set out on foot and Santos, proceeding by the Caroní River, the Paragua River, and the Pacaraima Mountains, reached the Uraricoera River and Rio Branco, but found nothing.
Between 1799 and 1804, Alexander von Humboldt conducted an extensive and scientific survey of the Guyana river basins and lakes, concluding that a seasonally - flooded confluence of rivers may be what inspired the notion of a mythical Lake Parime, and of the supposed golden city on the shore, nothing was found. Further exploration by Charles Waterton (1812) and Robert Schomburgk (1840) confirmed Humboldt 's findings.
By the mid-1570s, the Spanish silver strike at Potosí in Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) was producing unprecedented real wealth.
In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I of England died, bringing to an end the era of Elizabethan adventurism. A bit later, in 1618, Sir Walter Raleigh, the great inspirer, was beheaded for insubordination and treason.
In 1695, bandeirantes in the south struck gold along a tributary of the São Francisco River in the highlands of State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The prospect of real gold overshadowed the illusory promise of "gold men '' and "lost cities '' in the vast interior of the north.
It appears today that the Muisca obtained their gold in trade, and while they possessed large quantities of it over time, no great store of the metal was ever accumulated.
In 1987 -- 1988, an expedition led by John Hemming of the Royal Geographical Society of London failed to uncover any evidence of the ancient city of Manoa on the island of Maracá in north - central Roraima. Members of the expedition were accused of looting historic artifacts but an official report of the expedition described it as "an ecological survey. ''
Although it was dismissed in the 19th century as a myth, some evidence for the existence of a lake in northern Brazil has been uncovered. In 1977 Brazilian geologists Gert Woeltje and Frederico Guimarães Cruz along with Roland Stevenson, found that on all the surrounding hillsides a horizontal line appears at a uniform level approximately 120 metres (390 ft) above sea level. This line registers the water level of an extinct lake which existed until relatively recent times. Researchers who studied it found that the lake 's previous diameter measured 400 kilometres (250 mi) and its area was about 80,000 square kilometres (31,000 sq mi). About 700 years ago this giant lake began to drain due to tectonic movement. In June 1690, a massive earthquake opened a bedrock fault, forming a rift or a graben that permitted the water to flow into the Rio Branco. By the early 19th century it had dried up completely.
Roraima 's well - known Pedra Pintada is the site of numerous pictographs dating to the pre-Columbian era. Designs on the sheer exterior face of the rock were most likely painted by people standing in canoes on the surface of the now - vanished lake. Gold, which was reported to be washed up on the shores of the lake, was most likely carried by streams and rivers out of the mountains where it can be found today.
Voltaire 's 1759 satire Candide describes a place called El Dorado, a geographically isolated utopia where the streets are covered with precious stones, there exist no priests, and all of the king 's jokes are funny.
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largest underground chambers in the world at gunung mulu is | Sarawak Chamber - wikipedia
Sarawak Chamber is the largest known cave chamber in the world by area and the second largest by volume after the Miao Room in China. It is in Gua Nasib Bagus (Good Luck Cave), which is located in Gunung Mulu National Park, in the Malaysian state of Sarawak on the island of Borneo.
The chamber was discovered by three British cavers, Andy Eavis, Dave Checkley and Tony White, in January 1981 during the Mulu'80 Expedition. The story of how it was discovered is told in the books Underground Worlds and Giant Caves of Borneo.
Later named Sarawak Chamber, it measures 600 metres (2,000 ft) long, 435 metres (1,427 ft) wide and a maximum of 115 metres (377 ft) high, and was estimated as three times the size of the Big Room in Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico, then thought to be the largest underground chamber. Its volume and area were checked by laser scanning in 2011 and were found to be 9,579,205 cubic metres (338,286,400 cu ft) and 164,459 square metres (1,770,220 sq ft) respectively.
To reach Sarawak Chamber, one must follow a river upstream from the cave entrance. This long passage has a roof up to 60 metres (200 ft) high, and may require some swimming and a traverse along a ledge. Accompanied visits can be arranged by the national Park.
Sarawak Chamber is formed in Melinau Limestone, a reef complex of Upper Eocene to Lower Miocene age. It was formed by karstic solutional processes in addition to the erosion of its sandstone basement. Its exceptional area is thought to be the result of the stability provided by the structure of the rocks in which it lies, dipping strata forming an anticline flank close to a syncline axis.
The feeling of agoraphobia experienced by one of the discoverers is referenced in the novel House of Leaves by Mark Z. Danielewski.
Coordinates: 4 ° 04 ′ 19 '' N 114 ° 52 ′ 37 '' E / 4.071895 ° N 114.876823 ° E / 4.071895; 114.876823
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mere rashke kamar song is of which film | Mere Rashke Qamar - Wikipedia
"Mere Rashke Qamar '' (Urdu: میرے رشک قمر ; Hindi: "मेरे रश्के कमर ''; lit. "The moon is also jealous of your beauty '') is a ghazal - qawwali written by lyricist Fana Buland Shehri and composed by the prominent Sufi singer of Pakistan, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. It was first performed in 1988 by Khan, and popularised by him and his nephew Rahat Fateh Ali Khan several times in different concerts.
It was recreated and released as a single on 5 April 2013 by A1melodymaster for the album Reformed; which released on 16 March 2017 with different renewed songs of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.
The song was recreated by lyricist Manoj Muntashir and composer Tanishk Bagchi for Milan Luthria 's 2017 Hindi film Baadshaho; written by Rajat Arora. It features original version of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan 's voice with new version of Rahat Fateh Ali Khan 's voice. The video; starring Ajay Devgn & Ileana D'Cruz; has been shot in different locales of Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer.
Despite other controversies; created after 2016 Uri attack, due to which Pakistani artistes were banned from working in India; producer Bhushan Kumar said that he was working for last one - and - a-half year on a track "that brings out the chemistry between Ajay and Ileana 's characters ''. He said, "I was sure it had to be Nusrat saab 's composition. I procured the rights and I 'm thankful to Rahat for singing it '', he feels happy with the response on the new version.
The soundtrack has a female version for the film too, in voice of Tulsi Kumar, which released on 21 August. Its music video was released on 25 August by her father 's company T - Series, featuring Kumar herself.
The 2013 remix achieved chart success in 2017 in the UK, spending a number of weeks on the Official Charts Company before and after the release of 2017 version. Ten days after 2017 version 's release, both were on top 14 on the Asian music chart by BBC. The latter than topped the Indian music charts by iTunes, BBC, Bollywood Hungama, Saavn and Gaana.com, and remained number 1 on international level until beaten by Taylor Swift 's "Look What You Made Me Do '' in India.
The song is very popular in Pakistan and India, and also has been adapted as cover version by many local artistes.
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is a farewell to arms fiction or nonfiction | A Farewell to Arms - wikipedia
A Farewell to Arms is a novel by Ernest Hemingway set during the Italian campaign of World War I. First published in 1929, it is a first - person account of an American, Frederic Henry, serving as a lieutenant ("tenente '') in the ambulance corps of the Italian Army. The title is taken from a poem by the 16th - century English dramatist George Peele.
The novel, set against the backdrop of World War I, describes a love affair between the expatriate Henry and an English nurse, Catherine Barkley. Its publication ensured Hemingway 's place as a modern American writer of considerable stature. The book became his first best - seller, and has been called "the premier American war novel from that debacle World War I. ''
The novel has been adapted a number of times, initially for the stage in 1930; as a film in 1932 and again in 1957, and as a three - part television miniseries in 1966. The 1996 film In Love and War, directed by Richard Attenborough and starring Chris O'Donnell and Sandra Bullock, depicts Hemingway 's life in Italy as an ambulance driver in the events prior to his writing of A Farewell to Arms.
The novel is divided into five sections. In the first, Frederic Henry, an American paramedic serving in the Italian Army, is introduced to Catherine Barkley, an English nurse, by his good friend and roommate, Rinaldi, a surgeon. Frederic attempts to seduce her; although he does n't want a serious relationship, his feelings for Catherine build. Frederic is wounded in the knee by a mortar on the Italian Front and sent to a hospital in Milan, where Catherine is also sent.
The second section shows the growth of Frederic and Catherine 's relationship as they spend time together in Milan over the summer. Frederic and Catherine gradually fall in love. After his knee heals, Frederic is diagnosed with jaundice but is soon kicked out of the hospital and sent back to the front after it is discovered he concealed alcohol. By the time he is sent back, Catherine is three months pregnant.
In the third section, Frederic returns to his unit, and discovers morale has severely dropped. Not long afterwards, the Austro - Hungarians break through the Italian lines in the Battle of Caporetto, and the Italians retreat. Due to a slow and chaotic retreat, Frederic and his men go off trail and quickly get lost, and a frustrated Frederic kills a sergeant for insubordination. After catching up to the main retreat, Frederic is taken to a place by the "battle police, '' where officers are being interrogated and executed for the "treachery '' that supposedly led to the Italian defeat. However, after seeing and hearing that everyone interrogated has been killed, Frederic escapes by jumping into a river. He heads to Milan to find Catherine only to discover that she has been sent to Stresa.
In the fourth section, Catherine and Frederic reunite and spend some time in Stresa before Frederic learns he will soon be arrested. He and Catherine then flee to neutral Switzerland in a rowboat given to him by a barkeep. After interrogation by Swiss authorities, they are allowed to stay in Switzerland.
In the final section, Frederic and Catherine live a quiet life in the mountains until she goes into labor. After a long and painful birth, their son is stillborn. Catherine begins to hemorrhage and soon dies, leaving Frederic to return to their hotel in the rain.
The novel was based on Hemingway 's own experiences serving in the Italian campaigns during the First World War. The inspiration for Catherine Barkley was Agnes von Kurowsky, a nurse who cared for Hemingway in a hospital in Milan after he had been wounded. He had planned to marry her but she spurned his love when he returned to America. Kitty Cannell, a Paris - based fashion correspondent, became Helen Ferguson. The unnamed priest was based on Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. Although the sources for Rinaldi are unknown, the character had already appeared in In Our Time.
Michael Reynolds, however, writes that Hemingway was not involved in the battles described. Because his previous novel, The Sun Also Rises, had been written as a roman à clef, readers assumed A Farewell to Arms to be autobiographical. A Farewell to Arms was begun during his time at Willis M. Spear 's guest ranch in Wyoming 's Bighorns. Some pieces of the novel were written in Piggott, Arkansas, at the home of his then wife Pauline Pfeiffer, and in Mission Hills, Kansas while she was awaiting delivery of their baby. Pauline underwent a caesarean section as Hemingway was writing the scene about Catherine Barkley 's childbirth.
The novel was first serialized in Scribner 's Magazine in the May 1929 to October 1929 issues. The book was published in September 1929 with a first edition print - run of approximately 31,000 copies. The success of A Farewell to Arms made Hemingway financially independent.
The Hemingway Library Edition was released in July 2012, with a dust jacket facsimile of the first edition. The newly published edition presents an appendix with the many alternate endings Hemingway wrote for the novel in addition to pieces from early draft manuscripts.
The JFK Library Hemingway collection has two handwritten pages with possible titles for the book. Most of the titles come from The Oxford Book of English Verse. One of the possible titles Hemingway considered was In Another Country and Besides. This comes from The Jew of Malta by Christopher Marlowe. The poem Portrait of a Lady by T.S. Eliot also starts off by quoting this Marlowe work: "Thou hast committed / Fornication: but that was in another country, / And besides, the wench is dead. '' Hemingway 's library included both works by Eliot and Marlowe.
There are at least two copies of the first edition in which Hemingway re-inserted the censored text by hand, so as to provide a corrected text. One of these copies was presented to Maurice Coindreau; the other, to James Joyce. Hemingway 's corrected text has not been incorporated into modern published editions of the novel; however, there are some audiobook versions that are uncensored.
Also, the novel could not be published in Italy until 1948 because the Fascist regime considered it detrimental to the honor of the Armed Forces, both in its description of the Battle of Caporetto, and for a certain anti-militarism implied in the work. More than one biographer suggests that at the base of the censorship of the Fascist regime in the novel there had also been a personal antipathy between the writer and Benito Mussolini. Hemingway had interviewed him in 1923, shortly after he seized power, and in his article in the Toronto Star he poured scorn on Mussolini, calling him "the biggest bluff in Europe. '' But, apart from the official reactions, it is known that Mussolini did not like the article at all: Hemingway described Mussolini as trying to impress the media by pretending to be deeply absorbed in reading, while in reality holding a French - English dictionary -- held upside down. The Italian translation had in fact already been prepared illegally in 1943 by Fernanda Pivano, leading to her arrest in Turin.
A Farewell to Arms was met with favorable criticism and is considered one of Hemingway 's best literary works.
Gore Vidal wrote of the text: "... a work of ambition, in which can be seen the beginning of the careful, artful, immaculate idiocy of tone that since has marked... (Hemingway 's) prose. '' The last line of the 1929 New York Times review reads: "It is a moving and beautiful book. ''
However, since publication, A Farewell to Arms has also been the target of various controversy. Upon its flimsy publication -- due to the medium of its release -- through Scriber 's Magazine, it was banned from Boston newsstands due to accusations of a pornographic nature, despite Hemingway 's deliberate exclusion of graphic descriptions of sex, using omission as a literary device.
The novel was first adapted for the stage by Laurence Stallings in 1930, then as a film in 1932, with a 1957 remake. A three - part television miniseries was made in 1966.
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brand new full album the devil and god | The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me - wikipedia
The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me is the third studio album by American rock band Brand New. It was released on November 21, 2006, through Interscope Records, making it their major label debut. Recorded from 2005 - 2006 in studios on Long Island and Massachusetts with producer Mike Sapone, the album arose following the online leaking of several unfinished demos that were meant to be early blueprints of an upcoming record. Two singles from the album were released -- "Sowing Season '' on November 21, 2006, and "Jesus Christ '' on April 30, 2007. The album peaked at # 31 on the Billboard 200, becoming the band 's highest - charting record at the time of its release.
The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me received positive reviews from critics initially, with many music publications pronouncing it as one of the best albums of the decade. Its legacy has grown immensely in the years since, and it is now credited as one of the most important and influential albums in the genres of alternative rock, post-hardcore and emo by fellow musicians, critics and music writers. Considered Brand New 's best work by various sources including the band itself, the album was acclaimed for further foraying away from the adolescent, breakup - based lyricism of their 2001 debut Your Favorite Weapon, continuing their progression and maturity as lyricists and songwriters by delving into darker subject matters such as existentialism, death, depression and religion. Musically, Brand New abandoned their pop punk origins and added in elements of indie rock, experimental rock and post-hardcore. The band embarked on a tour in 2016 to specifically commemorate the ten - year anniversary of the album 's release, playing the seminal album in its entirety.
In mid-2004 after five years of regular touring and recording as Brand New, its members decided to take time off and concentrate on returning to their lives and pursuing other projects. At this point, the band had already written and recorded "10 or 11 songs '' that they believed would form the next album. In late 2005 when the band reunited to continue work on the album they found that the music they were writing was entirely different to the tracks they had previously recorded for the album, leading them to start over.
Jesse Lacey, Brand New lyricist and vocalist, talking about the band 's stylistic progression on their third record
When the band reentered the recording studio they began working with producer Dennis Herring in Oxford, Mississippi. Lacey recalled that Herring understood exactly what the band was trying to do with the album, but due to time constraints and lack of money they instead opted to work with Mike Sapone, with whom they had worked with on their first album. Sapone acted more as a "fifth or sixth bandmember '' than as a producer, Lacey recalled, which allowed the band the involvement and control over the production that they were looking for, as well as allowing the band freedom to be more experimental. Throughout the writing and recording, Jesse Lacey, Vincent Accardi, Garrett Tierney, Brian Lane and Derrick Sherman were each plagued with death and illness amongst their families and friends. Lacey recalled that each of them had become a little too comfortable with the idea of a funeral.
Recording with Sapone took place over the winter of 2005 through until the spring of 2006 at Longview Farm and later Cove City and Sapone 's studio in the basement of his house.
Live guitarist Derrick Sherman who had been touring with the band for some time was also present during the recording sessions, contributing parts to all of the album 's tracks. After the initial scrapped album session from 2004 and leaked demos in 2006 the band had written and recorded around forty tracks for the album.
As the band 's first release on a major label, the band expressed hesitancy and nervousness over their increased fame. In an interview with their street team, Tierney said his biggest fear was "get (ting) too big '', while Lacey 's was that he was "scared of the hype '' and "scared of people who never heard our band trying to sell it to people who are, you know, breathing it already. ''
Brand New guitarist Vincent Accardi speaking about the leak of the demos
On January 24, 2006, nine untitled demos for the album leaked onto the Internet. The band was disappointed to hear of the leak; however, they had already been performing new tracks at live shows.
Initially leaked without song titles, two of the songs would be re-recorded for the album, with two others being re-recorded and released on singles from the album. Early versions of "Sowing Season '' and "Luca '' (with a possible early title of "Mamas '') feature on the demos, with the original recording of the latter seeing official release in the UK edition of the album as "Luca (Reprisal Version) ''. "Brother 's Song '' was reworked as "aloC - acoC '' and released on the "Sowing Season '' single, while the original demo featured the "Jesus Christ '' single under the title "Brothers ''. A completed version of "(Fork and Knife) '' recorded during the The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me sessions was released as a standalone single in 2007.
Music writer Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic commended the band for their reaction to the leaks, praising them for starting over and recording original tracks that showed more growth and development than the demos. "It was probably the best thing that could have happened to Brand New, '' he said, "because it forced them to rewrite the album with an even greater purpose and attention to detail. ''
Colloquially referred to by fans as Fight Off Your Demons, the batch of leaked demos were remastered and officially released to the public on December 2, 2015 as Leaked Demos 2006, made available digitally and on cassette. On July 13, 2016, the band released 3 Demos, Reworked, an EP that consisted of re-recorded versions of "Brother 's Song '', "Missing You '' and "1996 ''.
Vocalist and guitarist Jesse Lacey wrote lyrics for all of the album 's tracks with the exception of "Handcuffs '', which was written by Vincent Accardi. The tracks "Degausser '' and "Sowing Season '' were composed spontaneously as a band, whilst Accardi composed the music for "Handcuffs '', "Not the Sun '' and "Welcome to Bangkok '', with Lacey writing the rest.
Vocalist Jesse Lacey on how his depression impacted the album 's writing
Death and illness became two of the main themes present on the record. In an interview Lacey commented that the band purposely immersed themselves in the loss of friends and family in order to channel it into their songwriting and expel it. The liner notes dedicate the album to "Robert Sherman, Red Lacey, Leo Lacey, Bill and Virginia Sherman, James McAuliffe, Rosemary Kancelerski, Frances Ambrosio, Manfred Cardone III, Sid Rosen, Seymour Lane, Michelle Lane, George Moe, Alexander Lambros, and Omir Ortega, all of whom left us between the start and completion of the record. ''
Lacey suffered from depression during the writing stage of the album due to anxiety revolving around the high expectations put upon the band following the critical success of Deja Entendu.
As with previous Brand New records, Lacey drew inspiration from popular culture and literature for his lyrics. Lacey also wrote about subjects that he would discuss with his friend Kevin Devine, with some of Lacey 's lyrics directly responding to questions that Devine would ask him during writing.
The second verse to opening track "Sowing Season '' is inspired by the Rudyard Kipling poem If -- whilst the title of "Sowing Season '' is a reference from Stephen King 's novel Secret Window, Secret Garden, where the main character had written a short story of the same title. The song deals with topics such as death (as per the notable opening line of the album, "was losing all my friends, was losing them to drinking and to driving '') and the desire to better oneself.
"Millstone '', track two, is described by Sputnikmusic as being about "not a loss of hope but rather a loss of innocence '', citing lines such as "I used to pray that God was listening / I used to make my parents proud '' as examples of such. "Jesus Christ '' is about "analyzing crises of faith '' in a conversation with God, making references to Biblical figures such as Thomas the Apostle and Elijah. Its lyrics touch on loneliness, the validity of the afterlife and the struggle to maintain faith, influenced by Lacey 's religious upbringing and his attending of the South Shore Christian School during his adolescence. The single 's artwork pays homage to the album Goat by The Jesus Lizard.
Fourth track "Degausser '' borrows the lyric "Take apart the demon, in the attic to the left '' from the Roky Erickson track "Bloody Hammer ''. The song is rumored to be about fellow musician Sherri DuPree of the band Eisley, an ex-girlfriend of Lacey 's who rejected his marriage proposal and ended up marrying Max Bemis, the lead singer of Say Anything, instead.
Fifth song on the album "Limousine '' is about the death of seven - year - old Katie Flynn from the band 's hometown of Long Island. Travelling home with her family after a wedding, their limousine was hit by drunk driver Martin Heidgen, a few miles from where Lacey was living at the time, leading to the decapitation of the young Flynn, whose severed head fell into her mother 's arms. In the track, Lacey tells the story from various perspectives, including that of Flynn 's mother, Heidgen and Flynn herself. Lacey has commented that the story particularly resonated with him as he knew people who drove drunk the week the accident took place. Producer Mike Sapone had the idea to include samples of explosions in the track, hence the subtitle "MS Rebridge '', with MS being Sapone 's initials. At seven minutes and forty - two seconds, it remained Brand New 's longest song until 2017 's "Batter Up, '' which is eight minutes and twenty - eight seconds long. The track 's bridge repeats itself seven times as Lacey counts up, one for each year of Flynn 's life. "Limousine '' is often cited as Brand New 's greatest song.
Writing for Team Rock, Mischa Pearlman believed the title and lyrics of "Luca '' reference the fictional character Luca Brasi of the 1972 American crime film The Godfather. "The Archers ' Bows Have Broken '' is described as being about people who use religion for self - serving purposes instead of the intentions of the prophets, including in politics. Its aural traits include "the sound of nihilism and religion converging, and the world burning down as a result. ''
-- Jesse Lacey discussing the album 's title
The name of the album came from a conversation Jesse Lacey had with a friend regarding Daniel Johnston, a musician who suffers from schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
The album cover is a picture titled "Untitled # 44 '' from Nicholas Prior 's "Age of Man '' collection which the band saw at an art show in New York City. The outside of the cardboard case contains no song listings, and does n't contain the name of the album or the band name anywhere but on the spine. The record company instead placed stickers on the plastic wrapping to indicate the name of the album and band, and on the UK version to indicate that it had the bonus track.
In June and July 2006, the band went on their first tour in three years, during which, they debuted "Sowing Season '', "Degausser '' and "You Wo n't Know ''. The album was announced September 10, 2006. On October 5, the album 's title and track listing was revealed. From mid October to early December, the band went on a U.S. tour alongside Dashboard Confessional. On October 18, the album 's cover art was revealed. Two days later, "Sowing Season '' was made available for streaming via the band 's Myspace account. Throughout October and November the band performed a series of in - store acoustic gigs. On November 14, "Degausser '' was made available for streaming via the band 's PureVolume account. The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me was made available for streaming on November 20, and released a day later through Interscope. The album was original planned to be released on DreamWorks, but the label was folded into Interscope. People that pre-ordered the album received a CD single of "Sowing Season '' with the B - side "Coca Cola ''. People that pre-ordered the album from BestBuy were able to download a video for "-- ''.
In January 2007, the band announced they were in the process of making a music video. In February, the band went on their first UK tour in three years. After touring and promoting previous record Déjà Entendu, the band became increasingly reluctant to give interviews or talk to the press in promotion of the record. In one of a few exceptions during the UK tour, Lacey discussed that this was due to many journalists and publications misrepresenting and taking quotes out of context in order to make their interviews more interesting. Lacey also felt "more comfortable '' not having to worry about photo shoots and music videos and instead just concentrate on writing and performing music. Few television, radio or online performances were given either. Lead singer Jesse Lacey was interviewed by WFNX on 24 April 2007 at the First Act Guitar Studio, Boston as part of an acoustic performance for VW Green Room that was subsequently made available to download. The track "Jesus Christ '' was performed on both NBC 's Late Night with Conan O'Brien and the Late Show with David Letterman on CBS.
In March and April 2007, the band went on a tour of the U.S. "Jesus Christ '' was released to radio on March 27. The song peaked at # 30 on Billboard 's Alternative Songs chart, beating the # 37 peak of "The Quiet Things That No One Ever Knows '' to become the band 's biggest hit on alternative radio. In July and August, Lacey went on a solo tour with Kevin Devine and Grace Read. From mid October to mid December, the band went on a tour of the U.S. with Thrice and MewithoutYou. A music video for "Jesus Christ '' directed by Moh Azima was produced; however, it was never used by the band. Originally made available in 2009 before being taken down, Azima made the video available to stream on his own website in January 2012.
"Archers '' was featured in the 2008 racing video game Burnout Paradise, and "Sowing Season '' was included in the 2009 rhythm music game Guitar Hero 5. A live fancam performances of "Sowing Season '' from the band 's show at The Academy in Newcastle in February 2012 was made available by O2, with another performance from Brasil in July 2014.
After a July 30, 2008 solo show, Lacey stated that the long wait for the vinyl release of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me was due primarily to the band 's failure to secure the rights of Nicholas Prior 's photograph. Lacey continued on saying that after the band either secured the rights to the picture, or chose an alternate cover, only then would the album be released on vinyl. The band managed to secure the rights to the image by 2010, and released the album on vinyl in that same year.
On January 11, 2010, Brand New announced via their Twitter account that The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me would be released as a double vinyl LP set through Procrastinate! Music Traitors and Triple Crown Records. This version included a lyric sheet that was not included with the original CD. The vinyl set was made available in stores on March 23, 2010. Another pressing of the album was done by Academy Fight Song, which went up for pre-order on their website on May 17, 2010. This pressing was released on September 17, 2010. The album was repressed by Music on Vinyl in late 2013.
Upon the album 's release, the band requested in the liner notes for fans to send them $1 in the mail to receive a lyric booklet. In April 2015 the band began sending out lyric booklets to fans that had sent them $1 nine years previously. The first pressing of the lyric booklets titled Pogolith 000 contained a number of stickers, patches and a poster alluding to the release of the leaked demos from the album. A second "no thrills '' version was subsequently made available at the band 's merchandise kiosk at shows and on their website.
The Devil and God are Raging Inside Me received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 78, based on 17 reviews. Critics emphasized the album 's artistic leap in songwriting from the band 's previous records.
Channing Freeman, a Sputnikmusic staff member, gave the album a perfect five stars, firmly declaring "there are hundreds of albums to which I am connected in unique ways but this is the only one that asks me big questions, expects big answers, and does not hold it against me when I come up with the same old pile of bullshit that I always do. '' Praising "Limousine '' as Lacey 's best song lyrically and a "pinnacle of modern songwriting '' along with "Degausser '', "Sowing Season '' and "You Wo n't Know '', Freeman stated that the album "features one of the largest progressions I have ever seen from a band... most bands do n't show that sort of growth even once throughout their career, but Brand New have done it twice. ''
Writing for AllMusic, Corey Apar called the record "dark and dense, yet accessible, a shadowy air permeating every crevice where Jesse Lacey 's plaintive and often tortured lyrics are n't already residing. '' believing the album would give them to opportunity to break into the mainstream if they wanted to. Alternative Press highlighted how there was not a song on the album that could even be compared to material from their debut Your Favorite Weapon, whilst only "Not the Sun '' and "Archers '' bared any resemblance to material from Déjà Entendu believing the album to be dark, difficult, depressing and desolate, "Devil is the sound of four men hitting absolute rock bottom and desperately trying to rescue themselves through any means necessary; we as listeners are forced to hear the band suffer as a means to reach catharsis - all presumably for our edification '' likening it to Modest Mouse and Radiohead 's The Bends. Ben Sisario of Blender proclaimed the album to be "as creepy as it is magnificent '' hailing Lacey 's ability to write songs that "teeter between the gorgeously placid and the exhilaratingly hideous, Lacey leads a bipolar odyssey of blood and guts and desperate prayer ''. Andrew Blackie of PopMatters praised the album, calling it "certainly more mature, putting breakup and self - infliction clichés, thankfully, behind them ''.
The album debuted at # 31 on the Billboard 200, in comparison to the # 63 debut of their prior album Deja Entendu. It sold 60,000 copies in its first week. It also peaked at # 5 on Billboard 's Digital Albums Chart. A 2014 vinyl repressing of the album led to a # 10 peak on the August 23, 2014 edition on the Billboard Vinyl Albums chart.
The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me was Brand New 's most critically acclaimed record until the release of "Science Fiction '' in 2017 and was frequently considered to be their best album. During a 2012 interview, Lacey said the album "saved Brand New '', calling it a "course correction '' for the band 's musical path. In 2016, ten years after its release, Lacey mentioned this album as a particularly important work for the band, and one that they "still use as a measuring post with which we compare the music we make now ''.
It was rated the best album of 2006 by Punknews and placed at number 74 in NME 's list of the one - hundred best albums of the 2000s. Sputnikmusic 's ranked the album # 20 on their list of the Top 100 Best Albums of the 2000s, as voted by staff members, and it was ranked at number 16 in Kerrang! 's "50 Albums You Need to Hear Before You Die '' list.
The tenth anniversary of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me spawned several discussions regarding the album 's legacy on Brand New, on the genres of post-hardcore, indie rock and emo, and on music as a whole. In a retrospective review, Ian Cohen of Pitchfork said that "by leaving his words and intentions up to interpretation, Lacey unwittingly shifted from a minor celebrity to a generational voice '', giving the album an 8.5 out of 10 and comparing it to other critically acclaimed indie rock records of the 2000s such as Kid A and The Moon & Antarctica. Nina Corcoran of Consequence of Sound credited Brand New for "end (ing) the need to feel ashamed for connecting to emo '', noting that the album 's influence "altered the path of emo and alternative rock bands at large, blurred genre lines and bolded something beyond the band. '' In an article titled "The Immortality of Brand New 's ' The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me ' '', Vice staff writer Ryan Bassil declared "by cutting to the core of the darkest elements of the human experience, never answering any questions, but presenting the feeling within them, it is a record that has the ability to grow with the listener, gaining more and more significance as life goes on. '' Matt Tolander of Medium stated that the album is "one of the most gripping and spiritually honest recordings ever put to tape, more appropriately compared to The Joshua Tree or Slow Train Coming than Tell All Your Friends or Bleed American. ''
Fellow musicians also commented on the album 's influence and legacy. Tour mate and friend of the band Kevin Devine reflected on the first time he heard the track "Jesus Christ '', praising it as "the best song (Brand New) had ever written... emotionally, educationally, intellectually, structurally, in every way ''. Labeling "Degausser '' and "You Wo n't Know '' as other album highlights, Devine referred to the bridge of "Not the Sun '' as "(his) favorite minute of music in their catalog '' and the album 's legacy as "The Dark Side of the Moon but for emo '', a comparison that he did not expect upon first listen. Andy Hull, frontman of American indie rock band Manchester Orchestra, complimented Lacey on being "a very clever songwriter '', while guitarist Mike Weiss of mewithoutYou compared the influence of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me to that of Nirvana 's Nevermind in how it "acted as sort of a pioneering watermark for musical genres that existed in our country '', noting how it "broke the barrier (and)... destroyed that entire limitation, that boundary - and that is the importance of this record. '' Dustin Kensrue, lead singer of the American post-hardcore band Thrice, included his rendition of "Jesus Christ '' on his live covers album Thoughts That Float on A Different Blood, and introduced the song live as "by a band that has been a kindred spirit in the past years '', with the song being "an example of some of that '' during his December 16, 2015 concert in Santa Ana. Pop singer Halsey has referred to Brand New and this album in particular as a major influence, once referencing the title of this album in her Instagram biography.
The album 's cover art, "Untitled # 44 '' by Nicholas Prior, has been regarded as "iconic ''. The young girl depicted in the image, four years old when the picture was taken, was seventeen at the time of the record 's tenth anniversary. When discussing her opinions on being the subject of such a notable image, Prior answered, "She 's seen her likeness in stores, on T - shirts and tattooed on people 's arms... while it 's always meant something positive to her, I think the significance of it grows and evolves and she does. '' In a text to Prior, the girl replied, "The album art contributes a lot to the music 's meaning, so by simply being in the photo, I feel like I 'm contributing to an emotion felt by (their) fans. I consider myself a small part of the vehicle to help people learn more about themselves and what they love, which is a real honor. ''
In August 2016, Brand New announced that they would be touring the United States in the autumn with Modern Baseball and The Front Bottoms as supporting acts, playing smaller cities and venues that were not covered on the band 's summer tour with Modest Mouse. A month later, as the band postponed the release of their unreleased fifth album from 2016 to 2017, they announced that they would be playing the entirety of The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me on the tour, honoring the tenth anniversary of their most important album.
All lyrics written by Jesse Lacey; all music composed by Lacey, except where noted.
Note: Certain copies of the album refer to track 1 as "Sowing Season (Yeah) '', track 3 as "Jesus '', track 5 as "Limousine '' and track 11 as "Archers ''.
Brand New
Production and recording
Additional musicians
Art and design
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when does the new season of american grit start | American Grit - wikipedia
American Grit is an American reality television series that premiered on Fox on April 14, 2016. The series stars WWE wrestler John Cena. Fox ordered ten episodes for the first season of the competition series. On July 29, 2016, Fox renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on Sunday, June 11, 2017.
Competitors are divided into four teams of four, each led by a military veteran who is designated as the team 's Cadre and compete in a series of Team Challenges. All members of the winning team are safe from elimination and advance to the next round, while a member of each losing team is chosen to participate in an Elimination Challenge. The elimination continues until one contestant quits, fails the challenge, or becomes physically unable to continue, at which point he or she is eliminated from the competition. Eliminated competitors ring a ship 's bell on the site before departing, after the tradition of Navy SEAL trainees "ringing out '' if they choose to withdraw from the program. In the finale, the remaining competitors take part in an elimination challenge that concludes with a winner being named and receiving a $250,000 cash prize.
Filmed at the foothills of Mount Rainier in Eatonville, Washington, the first season focuses on "pushing teams to the brink '' and features sixteen contestants with a variety of fitness backgrounds. Competitors who lose during Team Challenges, called "Evolutions '', are selected by their own Cadre to participate in the Elimination Challenge. As long as a team has at least two members, a contestant can not be sent to two consecutive Elimination Challenges. The Elimination Challenge begins with an obstacle course, called "The Circus '', followed by an endurance test. The obstacle course remains constant, but the endurance test differs in each episode. The endurance test begins once all three participants have completed the obstacle course, with the first - and second - place finishers receiving an advantage over the third - place finisher, and concludes with the elimination of one competitor. As a team - based competition, all surviving members of the last remaining team are eligible to win. The season was won by Clare Painter and Mark Bouquin of Team Noah.
Taking place in Hampton Island, Georgia in a location referred to as "Camp Grit '', the second season focuses on "helping competitors find their grit '' and features contestants with various issues "who either have lost their grit or never had it ''. Seventeen competitors appear at the start of the competition, one of whom is eliminated before the teams are formed. The Cadre of the winning team chooses the members of the losing teams who will be sent to the Elimination Challenge and consecutive appearances are allowed. Only an endurance test is featured in the Elimination Challenge and no advantages are provided to its participants. Depending on the Elimination Challenge, it concludes with one or two contestants being eliminated. The competition eventually becomes contestant - based, with all remaining competitors ultimately competing against each other and only one winner being named. Winning the second season was Gigi Gustin of Team Grady.
The contestants of Season 1 range in age from 22 to 54.
The second season contains 17 contestants, ranging in age from 20 to 48.
^ Note 1 George was originally on Team Grady, but later became a member of Team Burk.
Sixteen competitors are split into teams of four. Led by the Cadre, four retired military members, the teams face the Evolution, which challenges their team skills. Team Noah wins the Evolution, an obstacle course where a log must be carried through holes in walls, carried over three miles, and placed in a locked hole. The other three teams pick Chris (Tee), Goldie (Rorke), and Jim (Nick). The three must hold a rope weighted with a sandbag. Chris drops the bag first, and rings out.
After Chris ' departure, the members of Team Tee find themselves one person down. The Evolution involves collecting a raft after climbing over a wall. They must row across a cold lake. Once on the other side, the teams must get a paddle back across the lake, either by opening a locked box, or by bringing the 100 - pound lockbox. Team Noah wins again, followed by Team Tee. Tee sends Brooke to the Circus competition, Nick send KJoy, and Rorke sends Haze. Haze sets the record for the fastest time in the Circus. The endurance test is to do ten burpees, then submerge themselves in ice water. After many cycles of doing this, Brooke passes out and is eliminated.
The teams are challenged to move a full camp and set it up exactly the way they found it. Tee 's group, being two members down, finds an advantage because they only have to set up two tents, while the other teams set up four. After packing the equipment into big suitcases, the teams must swim across the lake, build a wheelbarrow, and take all the wheelbarrow parts to the new campsite. Team Noah wins, followed by Team Tee, in the closest finish so far in the season. Tee sends Tony to the Circus, Rorke sends Marc, and Nick sends Cam. The endurance test is to stand on a wooden post, then switch to a higher and narrower post fifteen minutes later. Marc falls off while transitioning to the third and final post, and is eliminated.
The teams must find and remember eight pictures to put on a board. Team Noah wins once again, extending the winning streak to four. In the Circus, Ivette must go because Tony went the previous week. Nick sends Maria, and Rorke sends Haze (who was the only person to previously face the Circus). Ivette arrives first after rolling over and passing Haze. The endurance portion is to hold onto a band of a pole, then switching to a lower band after 20 minutes. Maria is eliminated after slipping while adjusting back to the higher post.
The teams must show survival skills by setting up a tent, purifying water, and making fire tall enough to ignite two flares. Cena then reveals there are two paths: a longer one with easier steps, and a shorter one with harder, longer steps. Team Nick breaks Team Noah 's winning streak, by finishing first. In the Circus, Tony is forced to enter, Rorke chooses Mario, and Noah chooses Lisa. The endurance portion is to run laps between logs in under twenty seconds. The time shortens to 15 seconds after the fifteenth lap, and 10 seconds after the twentieth lap. After lap 25, Lisa is unable to touch the log in under ten seconds. She rings out and leaves.
The Evolution involves the teams using supplies to build bridges across various obstacles strewn across a 60 - foot long field without their feet touching the ground. If a member 's feet touch the ground, they must restart that portion of the obstacle. Team Noah wins the event and regains their confidence. They win a weightlifting workout with Cena as a reward. For the Circus, Team Tee is forced to send Ivette, Team Rorke sends Goldie, and Team Nick sends Jim. The endurance portion involves squatting to fit inside of a three - foot by five - foot frame while balancing a small cylinder on a plank. The first person to drop the cylinder or leave the frame is eliminated. Eventually, Ivette 's cylinder falls, and she rings out and leaves.
All the teams receive land navigation compasses, and most teams struggle to learn to use them, but Mark from Team Noah has land nav experience and teaches the rest of the team how to use the device. Early the next morning, the teams are all blindfolded and taken to an unknown location in the woods. From there, they must use the compass and gear they are supplied to locate a checkpoint, solve a navigation problem at the checkpoint to get a map, then carry their gear to the finish. In a close finish, Team Noah wins again and is rewarded with massages. Rorke gives his team gifts of custom ammo shells to help inspire them. At the Circus, Tony is forced to go, while Rorke sends Mario and Nick sends KJoy. The endurance challenge involves carrying sandbags uphill and over a set of steps, and they must move at a constant pace. If a contestant stops or slows down too much, they will be eliminated. After over an hour of this endurance, KJoy can not go any further and she quits, ringing out and going home.
At base camp, the teams are told the winners of the next Evolution will win visits from their loved ones. The Evolution involves one team member building a barricade with various materials in thirty minutes around a bunker with flags inside it. After thirty minutes, another team member must attempt to breach an opponent 's bunker with a pair of pliers and retrieve their flag. Tony, on his own, barely beats out Mario and wins immunity and a visit from his family. Cam and Haze have a date and Nick is concerned that Haze is playing with Cam 's emotions. Tony surprises Haze by sacrificing his reward so that she can visit her father instead. For the Circus, Nick chooses Cam, Rorke chooses Goldie, and Noah chooses Mark. Cena reveals that for this Circus, the military Cadre can not assist. The endurance challenge involves stilts held together at the top with chains and three sets of increasingly smaller footholds on them. The contestants must climb the stilts and switch to the higher and narrower footholds at Cena 's signal. After 45 minutes of this endurance, Cam slips and falls, and he is forced to ring out and go home.
The Evolution involves obstacles over a five mile course: a tire shuffle, freeing a tire from a puzzle, crawling through a mud pit, and solving another tire puzzle, while each time grabbing a tire and carrying it back to a post at the start / finish line, and teams with multiple members must travel together. Tony wins his second Evolution in a row, guaranteeing him a spot in the finals. The Cadre each bring in a guest military member to give inspirational stories to their teams. Jim is forced to go to the Circus, while Noah sends Mark and Rorke sends Mario, which means by default that Clare and Haze are automatically in the finals, while Mark and Goldie are also automatically in due to being exempt from the Circus this week. The endurance trial involves a ladder that contestants must constantly climb down, under, up, and over within one minute. At the top of the ladder is a button which must be pressed, and the contestants must wait for all other contestants to press the button before the next cycle begins. In a rain - soaked Circus, Mario finishes the course first, but after over 71 rotations, he forgets to hit the button and is eliminated, ringing out and going home. Cena then reveals that the remaining contestants have only 30 minutes to gear up and get ready for the next challenge.
The contestants must cross a suspended traverse line hand - over-hand that spans over a 125 - foot high waterfall, and for teams with multiple members, the average time of the team will be what counts, with the winning team earning an advantage in the final Circus. Team Noah wins this challenge. Cena explains that the final Circus has been expanded, and he spends some time thanking the remaining contestants before bringing in their family members for a visit. Cena explains that all seven remaining contestants must run the tougher Circus twice, with a fifteen - minute endurance in between the two runs. The endurance involves a rope suspended from a pole with two knots tied into it. After the first run, contestants must hold on via the top knot, and after the second run, they must hold on via the bottom knot. Contestants will be eliminated one after another until one team remains and the remaining members of that team will be the winners. Team Noah 's advantage is a one - minute head start in the first run, which they use to gain the advantage in the first endurance. All teams make it through to the second run, and Tony from Team Tee finishes it first, Jim from Team Nick finishes second, Team Noah is third, and Team Rorke finishes fourth. Haze drops out in seventh place, David finishes in sixth, Goldie drops out in fifth and eliminates Team Rorke. Jim drops out next in fourth and eliminates Team Nick. After over 90 minutes of endurance, Tony drops out in third place eliminating Team Tee, and giving the win and the $250,000 prize to both Clare and Mark from Team Noah.
At the new location known as Camp Grit, John Cena and the new Cadre meet the 17 new competitors. Cena tells them that there are only 16 beds in the cabin, and that one contestant will go home before the team challenges start. The contestants race around a lake to claim one of the beds. The next day, the contestants are hung upside down over a lake, and the first person to give up will be eliminated. After over 30 minutes of the players being repeatedly dunked in the lake, no one gives up, and Cena ends the contest with no one eliminated. On day three, the contestants must spin a beach ball over their heads until the Cadre pick them for a team and only 16 players will be on the teams. Eventually, Heather is not chosen for a team and she is eliminated.
The four teams must complete a relay race where they must pass through a gate and get a flag then plant the flags at the finish line. In addition, when a gate is reached, one of the team members must complete a task of either putting on a shock collar, drinking a liquefied alligator tail, or stripping naked. Team Burk wins the race, but Cena tells them they will not be immune unless the fourth member who did not complete a task has their head shaved. Melanie agrees to have her head shaved and thus Team Burk wins immunity and Burk gets to choose one member of the other three teams for the Elimination Challenge. He chooses Nathalie, George, and Gill. The Elimination Challenge has the contestants hold a bar while standing inside a frame suspended over the lake. Every 15 minutes, the frame will be tilted forward. The first person to drop will be eliminated. Nathalie drops out first, ending her day.
The Team Challenge has the four teams blindfolded and in a canoe race where they must navigate a series of gates while being led by one member designated as team captain who is able to see. Team Grady wins the race and Grady chooses the other three team captains, Gill, Janessa, and Hannah, for the Elimination Challenge. In this challenge, the contestants have a set of four wheels slightly separate from one another which they must constantly keep spinning. The first contestant to have a wheel stop spinning is eliminated. After over an hour of endurance, one of Gill 's wheels stops turning and she is eliminated.
Cena advises the contestants that this week will have a double elimination. The Team Challenge has the members tethered together at the waist by a rope and they must complete a muddy race through a swamp. Team Grady wins the challenge, but Hannah from Team Burke is injured. She receives medical attention and is okay the next day. Grady selects Carla, Shermon, and Will for the Elimination Challenge. This challenge has the contestants balance on a platform while holding a ball over their heads suspended over the lake. When the ball is let go, it will swing into a bell to signal the elimination of that contestant. After an hour, Will loses control of the ball and is eliminated. After three hours, Shermon loses control of the ball and is also eliminated.
The Team Challenge has the members releasing triangle - shaped puzzle pieces that must be placed on stakes to spell out the words love, money, or power. If the winning team spells love, they win a visit from their families, while spelling money wins the team $1,000 each, and spelling power gives the team the ability to move members around. Team Chloe wins by spelling out love, and they earn a visit from their families. Chloe chooses Carla, Herman, and Melanie for the Elimination Challenge. In this challenge, there is an hourglass filled with sand which will slowly drain out. The competitors must repeatedly cross a balance beam and refill the sand using either a small bag or a larger bucket with holes in it. They also have one bucket of sand near the hourglass for a single use. The contestant whose hourglass drains out first is eliminated. Eventually, Melanie 's hourglass empties and she is sent home.
Cena tells the Cadre that they will not be beside their team for the challenge. The challenge tasks each individual to pick whether they would choose to do something for the team (worth more points) or something personally for themselves (worth less points). Team Burk wins and also gets the reward to steal someone from another team, while Carla secures a safety which grants her next week free of elimination. Chris, having won the reward for his team, takes George from Grady 's team. Burk sends Janessa, Scarlett, and Herman to the Elimination Challenge, which is a double elimination this week. The challenge is to hold on to an outcrop on a 45 ° slope with water running down it. Scarlett slides into the water and has to ring out, while an hour later, Janessa does too. Cena then reveals if all of one Cadre 's team has rung out, the Cadre too must ring out.
This week 's challenge looks nearly identical to the last Elimination Challenge in that there is a 45 ° slope with water running down it and a handle at the top, but this time, the Cadre are the ones who will participate. Grady wins the challenge and his team selects Richard, Alison, and Chris for the Elimination Challenge. In this challenge, three floating balls are under ropes, and the contestants must balance on the balls while using the ropes to prevent floating away. The first one to drop will be eliminated. Richard falls quickly and is sent home.
For this week 's Team Challenge there is a rotating set of four basketball hoops on one end of a court, a pile of colored balls on another, and large bungee cords in the middle. The contestants must run with the bungee attached to them to grab a ball then shoot it into an opponent 's colored basket. The first three teams that have five balls in their baskets will go to elimination, which this week is another double elimination. Alison secures the win for Team Chloe. By default, Carla is sent to elimination while Allison selects George and Herman. In this challenge, the competitors are harnessed to an underwater pulley system which supports a box that holds 50 % of each competitor 's weight. They must hold on to a rope while in the water to support the box. The first two competitors to let go will both be eliminated. Carla drops out first, eliminating Team Riki altogether. After over 50 minutes, George loses his grip and is eliminated.
With Riki 's team being eliminated, Riki becomes the first - ever Cadre to ring out. Cena visits the contestants and shares with them a story with details about his life. For the Team Challenge, Cena quizzes the contestants about details of his story, and they must slide down a ramp into a mud pit to grab a tile with the correct answer, then return it to the start. The first team with four correct answers is safe from another double elimination. Team Grady wins the challenge. All members of the other teams must compete in the Elimination Challenge. This challenge has the contestants balance a weighted ball on a shelf while also balancing themselves on an unstable platform. After ten minutes, they must transition to another platform that is more unstable. The first two contestants to drop their balls will be eliminated. After about 36 minutes, Alison drops her ball, thus also eliminating Team Chloe. A few minutes later, Chris drops his ball and is also eliminated.
Cena tells the remaining contestants that they are now competing as individuals and their Cadre can no longer assist them. In the first challenge, the contestants have a puzzle where every piece is the face of a former contestant, and they must put them in the order that they were eliminated. Michael solves the puzzle first, and he gets to choose two other people to compete with him in the finals. He chooses Hannah and Gigi to move on, thus eliminating Herman.
For the final challenge, the contestants are suspended over the lake while holding on to a crossbar. They will be quizzed on facts that occurred during the course of the season, and must answer them by releasing either their left or right hand. Getting a wrong answer results in a penalty of holding the bar with one hand for three minutes. The last competitor to hold on will be the winner. After over an hour, Hannah loses her grip and is eliminated in third place. After over two hours, Cena runs out of trivia questions and forces the two contestants to hold on with one hand for the remainder. Michael loses his grip and is eliminated, making Gigi the winner of season two of American Grit and the $250,000 prize.
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who holds the record for the fastest lap of silverstone on a motogp bike | Silverstone circuit - wikipedia
Silverstone Circuit is a motor racing circuit in England next to the Northamptonshire villages of Silverstone and Whittlebury. The circuit straddles the Northamptonshire and Buckinghamshire border, with the current main circuit entry on the Buckinghamshire side. The Northamptonshire towns of Towcester (5 miles) and Brackley (7 miles) and Buckinghamshire town of Buckingham (6 miles) are close by, and the nearest large towns are Northampton and Milton Keynes.
Silverstone is the current home of the British Grand Prix, which it first hosted in 1948. The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created World Championship of Drivers. The race rotated between Silverstone, Aintree and Brands Hatch from 1955 to 1986, but relocated permanently to Silverstone in 1987.
The circuit also hosts the British round of the MotoGP series.
On 30 September 2004 British Racing Drivers ' Club president Jackie Stewart announced that the British Grand Prix would not be included on the 2005 provisional race calendar and, if it were, would probably not occur at Silverstone. However, on 9 December an agreement was reached with Formula One rights holder Bernie Ecclestone ensuring that the track would host the British Grand Prix until 2009 after which Donington Park would become the new host. However, the Donington Park leaseholders suffered economic problems resulting in the BRDC signing a 17 - year deal with Ecclestone to hold the British Grand Prix at Silverstone.
Silverstone is built on the site of a World War II Royal Air Force bomber station, RAF Silverstone, which opened in 1943. The airfield 's three runways, in classic WWII triangle format, lie within the outline of the present track.
Silverstone was first used for motorsport by an ad hoc group of friends who set up an impromptu race in September 1947. One of their members, Maurice Geoghegan, lived in nearby Silverstone village and was aware that the airfield was deserted. He and eleven other drivers raced over a two - mile circuit, during the course of which Geoghegan himself ran over a sheep that had wandered onto the airfield. The sheep was killed and the car written off, and in the aftermath of this event the informal race became known as the Mutton Grand Prix.
The next year the Royal Automobile Club took a lease on the airfield and set out a more formal racing circuit. Their first two races were held on the runways themselves, with long straights separated by tight hairpin corners, the track demarcated by hay bales. However, for the 1949 International Trophy meeting, it was decided to switch to the perimeter track. This arrangement was used for the 1950 and 1951 Grands Prix. In 1952 the start line was moved from the Farm Straight to the straight linking Woodcote and Copse corners, and this layout remained largely unaltered for the following 38 years. For the 1975 meeting a chicane was introduced to try to tame speeds through the mighty Woodcote Corner (although MotoGP would still use the circuit without the chicane up until 1986), and Bridge Corner was subtly rerouted in 1987.
The track underwent a major redesign between the 1990 and 1991 races, transforming the ultra-fast track (where in its last years every corner was taken in no lower than fourth or fifth gear, depending on the transmission of the car, except for the Bridge chicane, which was usually taken in second gear) into a more technical track. The reshaped track 's first F1 race was perhaps the most memorable of recent years, with Nigel Mansell coming home first in front of his home crowd. On his victory lap back to the pits Mansell even found time to pick up stranded rival Ayrton Senna and give him a lift on his side - pod after Senna 's McLaren had run out of fuel on the final lap of the race.
Following the deaths of Senna and fellow Grand Prix driver Roland Ratzenberger at Imola in 1994, many Grand Prix circuits were modified in order to reduce speed and increase driver safety. As a consequence of this the entry from Hangar Straight into Stowe Corner was modified in 1995 so as to make its entry less dangerous. In addition, the flat - out Abbey kink was modified to a chicane in just 19 days before the 1994 GP. Parts of the circuit, such as the starting grid, are 17 metres wide, complying with the latest safety guidelines.
After a new pit building, the Silverstone Wing, was completed in time for the 2011 race, the start of the track was relocated to between Club Corner and Abbey Corner. Almost flat out, the right - hander of Abbey leads immediately into the left - hander of Farm before cars brake heavily into the second gear, right - handed turn three; Village Corner. The even slower left - hander of the Loop comes immediately after, and leads into the flat - out left - hander of Aintree, before cars head down the DRS zone of the Wellington Straight; designed in 2010 to promote overtaking at the track. Turn 6, the left hander of Brooklands, is taken by drivers in second gear and leads immediately into Luffield, another second gear curve; a right - hand hairpin. The right - handed kink of Woodcote leads cars down the old pit straight, before the difficult sixth - gear right - hander of Copse, with a minimum speed of 175 mph in the dry for Formula One cars. Then, the challenging complex of Maggotts, Becketts and Chapel - a left - right - left - right - left complex with a minimum speed of 130 mph - lead cars down the 770 - metre Hangar Straight with the fifth - gear right - hander of Stowe at the end. The fifteenth turn of the track, Stowe, has a minimum speed of 125 mph and precedes a short straight, named Vale, which leads cars downhill towards the Club complex. Heavy braking is required for the left - hander of turn 16, and understeer can be an issue for the next right - handers of turns 17 and 18, as cars tentatively accelerate round to the start - finish straight.
The fastest ever lap of the current circuit configuration was 1: 26.600 recorded in qualifying for the 2017 British Grand Prix by Lewis Hamilton, while the official race lap record is 1: 30.621 also set by Lewis Hamilton at the same event.
With the termination of hostilities in Europe in 1945, the first motorsport event in the British Isles was held at Gransden Lodge in 1946 and the next on the Isle of Man, but there was nowhere permanent on the mainland which was suitable.
In 1948, Royal Automobile Club (RAC), under the chairmanship of Wilfred Andrews, set its mind upon running a Grand Prix and started to cast around public roads on the mainland. There was no possibility of closing the public highway as could happen on the Isle of Man, or the Channel Islands; it was a time of austerity and there was no question of building a new circuit from scratch so some viable alternative has to be found.
A considerable number of ex-RAF airfields existed, and it was to these the RAC turned their attention to with particular interest being paid to two near the centre of England -- Snitterfield near Stratford - upon - Avon and one behind the village of Silverstone. The latter was still under the control of the Air Ministry, but a lease was arranged in August 1948 and plans put into place to run the first British Grand Prix since the RAC last ran one at Brooklands in 1927 (those held at Donington Park in the late 1930s had the title of ' Donington Grand Prix ').
In August 1948, Andrews employed James Brown on a three - month contact to create the Grand Prix circuit in less than two months. Nearly 40 years later, Brown died while still employed by the circuit.
Despite possible concerns about the weather, the 1948 British Grand Prix began at Silverstone on Thursday 30 September 1948. The race took place on 2 October. The new circuit was marked out with oil drums and straw bales and consisted of the perimeter road and the runaways running into the centre of the airfield from two directions. Spectators were contained behind rope barriers and the officials were housed in tents. An estimated 100,000 spectators watched the race.
There were no factory entries but Scuderia Ambrosiana sent two Maserati 4CLT / 48s for Luigi Villoresi and Alberto Ascari who finished in that order (notwithstanding having started from the back of the grid of 25 cars) ahead of Bob Gerard in his ERA R14B / C. The race was 239 miles long and was run at an average speed of 72.28 mph. Fourth place went to Louis Rosier 's Talbot - Lago T26, followed home by ' Biba ' in another Maserati 4CLT / 48.
The second Grand Prix at Silverstone was scheduled for May 1949 and was officially designated the British Grand Prix. It was to use the full perimeter track with a chicane inserted at Club Corner. The length of the second circuit was exactly three miles and the race run over 100 laps, making it the longest post-war Grand Prix held in England. There were again 25 starters and victory went to a ' San Remo ' Maserati 4CLT / 48, this time in the hands of Toulo de Graffenried, from Bob Gerard in his familiar ERA and Louis Rosier in a 41⁄2 - litre Talbot - Lago. The race average speed had risen to 77.31 mph. The attendance was estimated at anything up to 120,000.
Also in 1949, the first running took place of what was to become an institution at Silverstone, the International Trophy sponsored by the Daily Express and which become virtually a second Grand Prix. The first International Trophy was run on 20 August in two heats and a final. Victory in heat one went to Prince Birabongse (' Bira ') and the second to Giuseppe Farina -- both driving Maserati 4CLT / 48s, but the final went to a Ferrari Tipo 125 driven by Alberto Ascari from Farina, with Luigi Villoresi third in another Ferrari. For this meeting, the chicane at Club Corner was dispensed with and the circuit took up a shape that was to last for 25 years.
The 1950 British Grand Prix was a significant occasion for two reasons: it was the first ever World Championship Grand Prix, carrying the title of the European Grand Prix; and the event was graced by the presence of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth -- the first and only time a reigning monarch has attended a motor race in Britain.
The year was the institution of the World Championship for Driver, and Silverstone witnessed the first time that Alfa Romeo 158 ' Alfettas ' had been seen in England, and they took the first three places in the hands of Giuseppe Farina, Luigi Fagioli and Reg Parnell, with the race average having increased to 90.96 mph; however the race distance had been reduced to 205 miles.
1951 was memorable for it saw the defeat of the Alfas, with victory going to the popular Argentinian driver, Froilán González driving the Ferrari 375. His fellow countryman Juan Manuel Fangio was second in an Alfa Romeo 159B, and Luigi Villoresi in another Ferrari 375 was third. The race distance had increased to 263 miles, and the race average speed was now 96.11 mph.
1951 also saw the British Racing Drivers ' Club (BRDC) take over the lease from the RAC, and set about making the circuit into something more permanent.
The International Trophy attracted the cream of Formula One, including the seemingly invincible Alfas, driven by Fangio and Farina. However, the weather worsened for the final and visibility was almost nil, and in those conditions the Alfettas with their supercharged engines were at a distinct disadvantage. When the race was abandoned after only six laps, Reg Parnell was in the lead in the '' Thinwall Special ''; no official winner was declared.
In 1952, the RAC decided it no longer wished to run the circuit, and on 1 January the lease was taken on by the BRDC, with James Brown continuing as track manager. The lease covered only the perimeter track and other areas at specific times. The original pits between Abbey and Woodcote were demolished, and new pit facilities were constructed between Woodcote and Copse. Coinciding with the BRDC taking over the running of the Grand Prix, there was a little unrest within the sport which led to the downgrading of Grand Prix racing to Formula Two, which was won by Alberto Ascari at 90.9 mph from his Ferrari teammate Piero Taruffi -- both driving the Tipo 500. The podium was completed by Mike Hawthorn driving a Cooper - Bristol T12.
The International Trophy was notable in 1952, in that it saw a rare victory for Hersham and Walton Motors when Lance Macklin had a win.
The same situation continued into 1953 with the World Championship being run for Formula Two cars. The race was a straight fight between the Maserati and Ferrari teams, with victory going to Ascari at 92.9 mph aboard a Ferrari Tipo 500, from the Maserati A6GCM of Fangio and another Tipo 500 of Farina. The racecard included a Formula Libre race which put the Grand Prix into perspective; Farina drove the Thinwall Special to victory at a higher speed than the actual GP, setting the first lap record at over 100 mph, at 100.16 mph.
The 1954 Grand Prix season was the new 2.5 - litre Formula One and had attracted interest from some major players. Lancia had joined the fray with their D50, and Daimler - Benz were back; the appearance of Lancia meant that there were three Italian teams completing at the highest level, the others being Ferrari and Maserati. The British were catered for by the Owen Racing Organisation with their BRMs, the Vanwall of Tony Vandervell and Connaught still competing, while Cooper - Bristol were not to be forgotten. At the start of the season, Mercedes - Benz had swept all before them, but Silverstone was a débâcle for the team, which returned to Untertürkheim in defeat. The 263 - mile race was won by González from Hawthorn in the works 625s, with Onofre Marimón third in the works Maserati 250F. The best Mercedes driver was pole - man Fangio in his W196.
From 1955, the Grand Prix was alternated between Aintree and Silverstone, until 1964 when Brands Hatch took over as the alternative venue.
By the time the Grand Prix returned to Silverstone in 1956, Mercedes - Benz had gone, as had Lancia as an independent entrant, the cars having been handed to Scuderia Ferrari, who ran them as ' Lancia - Ferraris '. The great Fangio scored his only British Grand Prix win in one of these cars. Second was another Lancia - Ferrari which had started the race in the hands of Alfonso de Portago, but was taken over by Peter Collins at half - distance and third place was Jean Behra in a Maserati 250F.
Matters were somewhat happier for the British enthusiast at the International Trophy; a quality field had been attracted including Fangio and Collins in their Lancia - Ferraris, but the 13 laps of the race were led by the new BRM P25 driven by Hawthorn. When the engine of the BRM expired, Stirling Moss in the Vanwall took over, going on to win. With the Lancias broken by the Brit, the rest of the podium was taken by the Connaughts of Archie Scott Brown and Desmond Titterington.
For 1958 drastic rule changes were introduced into Formula One, Fangio had retired and Maserati had withdrawn due to financial difficulties. Throughout the season the battle was between Ferrari and Vanwall and it was fervently hoped that Vandervell would success at home but it was not to be; the green cars fell apart, Stuart Lewis - Evans the best placed finisher in fourth. Victory went to Collins from Hawthorn, both driving Ferrari Dino 246s. The crowd of 120,000 witnessed a hat - trick of English drivers on the podium with Roy Salvadori coming home third in one of John Cooper 's Coventry - Climax rear - engined powered cars.
At the British Grand Prix of 1960, the front - engined cars were completely outclassed, the podium going to the Coventry - Climax - powered cars, with victory going to Jack Brabham in the works Cooper T53 from John Surtees and Innes Ireland in their Lotus 18s. Although the race is remembered as the race lost by Graham Hill, rather than won by Brabham. Hill stalled his BRM on the grid, left the line in last place, then proceeded to carve through the whole field. Once in the lead, the BRM was troubled by fading brakes which led to Hill spinning off at Copse Corner.
1961 was the year of the new 1.5 litre Formula One introduced by the governing body on safety grounds -- it met with strong opposition in Britain which gave birth to the short - lived ' Inter-Continental Formula ', which extended the life of the now - obsolete Formula One cars. The International Trophy was run to this Formula and produced a notable first and last -- the first and only appearance of the American Scarab and the last appearance of the Vanwall, in the hands of Surtees. The race was wet and Moss demonstrated his supreme prowess in Rob Walker 's Cooper by lapping all but Brabham twice.
In 1962, the second year of the Formula, the International Trophy was run for the 1.5 litre cars. This was the classic occasion when Hill in the BRM crossed the finishing line almost sideways to snatch victory from Jim Clark 's Lotus 24; both drivers were credited with the same race time.
Clark was to win the British Grand Prix when it returned to Silverstone in 1963, driving the Lotus - Climax 25. By now, even Ferrari had succumbed to the rear - engined layout, but sent only one to Northamptonshire for Surtees (Ferrari 156). He finished second, ahead of three BRM P57 's of Hill, Richie Ginther and Lorenzo Bandini.
For the 1965 season, BRM had taken a chance and signed Jackie Stewart straight from Formula Three; the International Trophy was only his fourth Formula One race, but despite this he won handsomely from Surtees in the Ferrari. When the Formula One returned for the British Grand Prix later that year, Stewart finished a creditable fifth. Fellow Scot, Clark won the race in his Lotus - Climax 33 from the BRM P261 of Hill and the Ferrari of Surtees.
The following year, the new 3 - litre Formula One was heralded as the ' Return of Power ', however the first Grand Prix under these regulations was held at Brands Hatch. It was not until 1967 that the big - engined cars came to Northamptonshire. The result remained unchanged, with Clark winning in the Lotus - Cosworth 49 at a race average speed of 117.6 mph. Second was Kiwi Denny Hulme aboard the Brabham - Repco, from the Ferrari 312 of his fellow countrymen Chris Amon.
There was a frightening increase in race average speed in 1969, for it rose by 10mph, to 127.2 mph when Stewart won in his Matra - Cosworth MS80 from Jacky Ickx (Brabham - Cosworth BT26) and Bruce McLaren driving one of his own Cosworth - powered M7Cs.
By 1971, the 3 - litre era was now into its fifth season; it was also the year when sponsorship came to the fore. Ken Tyrrell became a constructor and Jackie Stewart won at Silverstone driving the Tyrrell 003 on his way to a second World Championship. Ronnie Peterson was second in March 711 from Emerson Fittipaldi in Lotus 72 D; all were Cosworth - powered in what fast becoming Formula Super Ford; the race average was 130.5 mph.
1973 was the year that Jody Scheckter lost control of his McLaren at the completion of the first lap, spinning into the pit wall and setting in motion the biggest accident ever seen on a British motor racing circuit. The race was stopped on lap two and the carnage cleared away; it speaks highly for the construction of the cars that only one driver was injured. The race was won Scheckter 's teammate, Peter Revson (McLaren M23 - Cosworth) from Peterson (Lotus 72E) and Denny Hulme (McLaren M23). The race average speed had risen again to 131.75 mph.
The 1973 débâcle wrought changes upon Silverstone as it was deemed necessary to slow these cars through Woodcote, therefore a chicane was inserted. ' Formula Super Ford ' reached its peak in 1975, when 26 of the 28 entries were Cosworth - powered, there being just two Ferraris to challenge them. Tom Pryce placed his Shadow DN5 on pole for the 1975 Grand Prix, but an accident destroyed his chances as the race was run in appalling weather and it stopped at two - thirds distance. Victory went to Fittipaldi (McLaren M23) from Carlos Pace (Brabham BT44 B) and Scheckter (Tyrrell 007).
International motor racing at Silverstone is not concerned solely to Formula One, however, and 1976 saw one of the closest finished in endurance racing during the Silverstone Six - Hour race, which was a round of the World Championship for Makes. The series was almost a German benefit that season as the main contenders were the Porsche 935s and BMW 3 - litre CSLs (common known as the ' Batmobiles '). Porsche had had the upper hand in the opening rounds of the series, but at Silverstone things were different. John Fitzpatrick and Tom Walkinshaw kept their BMW ahead to win by 197 yards (1.18 secs) from the Bob Wollek / Hans Heyer Porsche 935 Turbo. Third was a Porsche 934 Turbo in the hands of Leo Kinnunen and Egon Evertz.
The 1977 British Grand Prix saw the beginning of a revolution in Formula One, for towards the back of the grid was the product of Règie Renault which was exploiting a rule in F1 regulations that allowed the use of 1.5 - litre turbocharged engines. The Renault RS01 expired early in the race. Ulsterman John Watson had an early battle with James Hunt, but the fuel system in Watson 's Brabham - Alfa Romeo let him down and the winner Hunt (McLaren M26) won at a speed of 130.36, with Niki Lauda second for Ferrari from Gunnar Nilsson in a Lotus.
Once the most prestigious race of the motorcycle calendar, the Isle of Man TT had been increasingly boycotted by the top riders, and finally succumbed to pressure and was dropped, being replaced by the British Motorcycle Grand Prix. 1977 marked the beginning of this era, and Silverstone was the chosen venue. It took place on 14 August, with Pat Hennen riding a Suzuki RG500 to victory from Steve Baker (Yamaha).
The International Trophy attracted World Championship contenders for the last time in 1978 but the race witnessed the début of the epoch - making Lotus 79 in the hands of Mario Andretti. Such events as this gave the Formula One also - rans a chance to start, which they were normally denied in Grand Prixs; two such were the Theodore and Fittipaldi. Keke Rosberg won the former in atrocious conditions from Fittipaldi in his namesake car.
14 May witnessed the running of the Silverstone Six - Hours, a round of the World Championship for Makes. A 3.2 - litre Porsche 935 won in the hands of Jacky Ickx and Jochen Mass from a 3.0 - litre version driven by Wollek and Henri Pescarolo; third and fourth were BMW 320s handled by Harald Grohs / Eddy Joosen and Freddy Kottulinsky / Markus Hotz. The race was run over 235 laps of the Grand Prix circuit to make a total of a little over 689 miles which the winning car covered at 114.914 mph.
Come the 1979 Grand Prix and the passage of two years had made a great difference to the performance of the turbocharged Renaults; the car which qualified on the last row in 1977 was now on the front row beside Alan Jones in the Williams FW07. When Jones 's Cosworth expired, his teammate Clay Regazzoni moved into the lead, going on to win from René Arnoux in the Renault RS10 with Jean - Pierre Jarier third in the Tyrrell 009. The winners average speed was 138.80 mph.
The 1979 British Motorcycle Grand Prix was again held at Silverstone and would be one of the closest races in the history of Motorcycle Grand Prix racing. The 1978 winner Kenny Roberts and the pair of works Suzuki riders, Barry Sheene and Wil Hartog broke away from the rest of the field. After a few laps, Hartog fell off the pace as Sheene and Roberts continued to swap the lead throughout the 28 - lap event, the American winning for the second time ahead of Sheene by a narrow margin of just three - hundreds of a second.
In May 1980, World Championship for Makes -- sports cars in other words - returned in form of the Silverstone Six - Hours, which was won by Alain de Cadenet driving a car bearing his own name, partnered by Desiré Wilson; the 235 laps (687 miles) being completed at 114.602 mph. The only other to complete the full race distance was the Siegfried Brunn / Jürgen Barth (Porsche 908 / 3), with a Porsche 935K Turbo driven by John Paul and Brian Redman third, a lap down.
The passage of a further two years saw the arrival of the one - one - one grid in 1981, albeit staggered in two rows. The turbocharged era had arrived for not only did Renault occupy the front row of the grid, but turbo - engined Ferraris were fourth and eighth. The Renaults dominated the race, but total reliability was still lacking and the day went to John Watson in a McLaren MP4 / 1. Second place went to Carlos Reutemann in the Williams FW07 C from the Talbot - Ligier JS17 of Jacques Laffite, a lap down; the race speed was down a little at 137.64 mph.
For 1982, endurance sport car racing entered a rejuvenated phrase with the coming of Group C; the BRDC and l'Automobile Club de l'Ouest instituted a joint Silverstone / Le Mans Challenge Trophy. The trophy eventually went to Jacky Ickx and Derek Bell in a Porsche 956, but at Silverstone they could not make maximum use of the fuel allowance and victory went to the Lancia LC1 of Riccardo Patrese and Michele Alboreto. The winning car completed the 240 laps at a speed of 128.5 mph, with the second - place car three laps adrift, that of Ickx / Bell. The final podium place went to the Joest Racing Porsche 936C Turbo of Bob Wollek / Jean - Michel Martin / Philippe Martin.
The big sports cars returned to Northamptonshire on 8 May 1983 to contest the Silverstone 1000 kilometres, which was a round of the newly instigated World Endurance Championship. It was a Porsche benefit with Derek Bell and Stefan Bellof bringing their 956 home ahead of Wollek and Stefan Johansson in an identical car -- in fact 956s filled the first five places.
In the 1983 British Grand Prix, the first Cosworth - powered car was in 13th place on the grid, all the cars ahead of it were being powered by turbocharged engines. Fuel consumption of the turbos was heavy and refuelling mid-race had become de rigueur, the mechanics now playing as important part as the drivers. With the ever - increasing power, speeds were continually on the up and in practice René Arnoux became the first person to lap the circuit in under 1: 10.000 with a time of 1: 09.462 in his Ferrari 126C3, a lap at over 150 mph. In the race, the lap record was raised to over 140 mph by Frenchman Alain Prost who won the race in the Renault RE40 at an average speed of 139.218 mph, from Nelson Piquet in the Brabham - BMW BT52B and Patrick Tambay in a Ferrari. Finishing fourth, also using Renault power, was the Lotus 94T of future British hero, Nigel Mansell.
The 1985 International Trophy (run 24 March) saw the race again make history, as it was the inaugural event under the regulations for the new International Formula 3000. Kiwi racer Mike Thackwell wrote himself into the record books by winning the International Trophy for the third time, and the first F3000 race in the process, driving a Ralt RT20 from John Nielsen in a similar car. The lower step on the podium went a March 85B driven by Michel Ferté.
Six weeks later, the big sports cars returned for the Silverstone 1000 km. This turned out to be a Porsche benefit, the Stuttgart cars taking the five of the top six placings in the shape of four 962Cs and a 956. The winners were the works pairing of Ickx / Mass from their teammates Bell and Hans Stuck but third was the Lancia - Martini of Patrese and Alessandro Nannini.
The 1985 British Grand Prix saw Keke Rosberg in his 1,150 bhp (858 kW; 1,166 PS) Williams FW10 - Honda set a qualifying lap at over 160 mph. Three others clocked an average lap speed of over 159 mph. Making Rosberg 's lap even more remarkable was that he had a deflating rear tyre and the track was still slightly damp from the rain that hit the circuit during the day. The turbo era had reached its zenith. This was a peak in the history of Silverstone and while Prost put the new lap record up to 150.035 mph, like most races of the era it was something of an economy run as the FIA had limited fuel capacities (220 litres per car per race). Prost went on the win in the race, in the McLaren MP4 / 2B, at an average of 146.246 mph from the Ferrari 156 / 85 of Alboreto and the Ligier JS25 of Laffite.
The International season opened on 13 April with the first round of the Intercontinental F3000 Championship. The first home was Pascal Fabré with a Lola T86 / 50 from Emanuele Pirro (March) and Nielsen (Ralt).
In 1986, the Silverstone 1000 km run on 5 May was a round of the World Endurance Championship, which Silk Cut Jaguar (Tom Walkinshaw Racing) won in a year when everything did not exactly go their way. However, the Derek Warwick / Eddie Cheever XJR9 was the only car to complete the distance of 212 laps, at a speed of 129.05 mph. The Stuck / Bell Porsche 962C was two laps down in second place, with a 962C a further three laps adrift in the hands of Jo Gartner and Tiff Needell.
Someone had become rather more than a little concerned over the 160 mph lap in 1985, for by the time the Grand Prix returned in Silverstone in 1987, a new corner was inserted before Woodcote which changed the character of the circuit. However, the first International meeting in 1987 was the initial round of the Intercontinental F3000 Championship on 12 April. The race was run at 103.96 mph, the winner being Maurício Gugelmin in a Ralt from Michel Trollé in a Lola and Roberto Moreno aboard another Ralt.
Things went somewhat better for Jaguar in 1987 for they won the Silverstone 1000 km, their fourth successive win in the World Sports Car Championship - the XJR8s putting on a truly impressive demonstration to take a one - two finish. The first car home was that of Cheever and Raul Boesel, followed by Jan Lammers and Watson, with the Porsche 962C of Stuck and Bell third; these three crews covered the whole lap distance of 210 laps of the full GP circuit, the winning Jaguar averaging 123.42 mph.
And so to the 1987 British Grand Prix, the event now firmly established at Silverstone. The first two placings were a repeat of the 1986 race at Brands Hatch, Mansell winning from his Williams - Honda teammate Piquet at 146.208 mph and Ayrton Senna in the Lotus - Honda. The race will always be remembered the inter-team rivalry of the Williams pairing. Following a late pit stop in a bid to cure a vibration in the car, Mansell found himself 16.8 secs behind Piquet with only 17 laps to go. But Mansell proceeded to eat into Piquet 's lead -- more than a second per lap -- until with five laps to go the gap was only 1.6 seconds. With two laps to go Mansell slipstreamed Piquet down the Hangar Straight, jinked left and then dived right to pass Piquet into Stowe. To a tumultuous reception, Mansell went on to win the race.
1987 saw the inaugural World Touring Car Championship arrive at Silverstone. Luis Pérez - Sala had a meeting no one would believe; he led the race until the penultimate lap, with nearly one minute lead, but then his Bigazzi - entered BMW M3 retired. He was n't even sure that the car would start the race after Olivier Grouillard rolled the car in practice. However, the Munich marque still took victory when the CiBiEmme Sport 's M3 finished first, in the hands of Enzo Calderari and Fabio Mancini. The Schnitzer M3 of Roberto Ravaglia, Roland Ratzenberger and Pirro managed to finished second, ahead of the Alfa Romeo 75 Turbo of Giorgio Francia and Nicola Larini.
The 1988 race was won at 124.142 mph, the dramatic reduction in race speed is attributable to the monsoon - like conditions, the entire race being run in pouring rain. Senna splashed his way to victory abroad his McLaren from Mansell (Williams) and Nannini (Benetton).
The 1988 Silverstone 1000 km saw Cheever take a hat - trick of victories for Jaguar, this time partnered by Martin Brundle. The XJR9 won at 128.02 mph from the Sauber - Mercedes C9 driven by Jean - Louis Schlesser and Mass. The second Sauber driven by Mauro Baldi and James Weaver, was third, two laps down, while third on the road was the Porsche 962C of Bell and Needell which was disqualified for an oversize fuel tank.
April at Silverstone is not the warmest place to be but nonetheless F3000 contingent contested the first round of the 1989 International F3000 Championship. Thomas Danielsson won at the wheel of a Reynard 89D, at a speed of 131.56 mph. Second by 0.5 secs was Philippe Favre in a Lola T89 / 50 from Mark Blundell and Jean Alesi in Reynards.
Mid-July is the traditional time for the British Grand Prix and on the 16th, over 90,000 spectators converged upon the circuit to see Prost score his 38th GP win in the McLaren - Honda MP4 / 5, at 143.694 mph. Mansell brought the Ferrari 641 into second place from Nannini 's Benetton.
The weekend of 19 / 20 May 1990 was a busy one at Silverstone, for on the Saturday, a round of the FIA F3000 Championship was run on the Grand Prix circuit, and on the Sunday the contenders in the World Sports - Prototype Championship had their turn. In the F3000 race, Scotland 's Allan McNish led Érik Comas home from Marco Apicella. The first two were Lola - Mugen T90 / 50 mounted, while the third - placed car was a Reynard - Mugen 90D. The sports cars again ran over 300 miles, contesting the Shell BRDC Empire Trophy. The first three places went to British cars, with Jaguar first and second from a Spice - Cosworth in the hands of Fermín Vélez and Bruno Giacomelli. The winning Jaguar XJR11 of Martin Brundle and Michel Ferté was the only to run the full distance of 101 laps, lapping even the second - placed XJR11 of Jan Lammers and Andy Wallace.
And so to July, and the British Grand Prix; once again it was over 190 miles and was won at 145.253 mph; Alain Prost was now driving for Ferrari and his victory from Thierry Boutsen in the Williams and Ayrton Senna 's McLaren.
After the Grand Prix, it had already been decided to extensively redesign Silverstone 's layout. Nearly every part of Silverstone (except Copse, Abbey and all of the straights, save the Farm Straight) was redesigned. The ultra-high speed Club and Stowe corners were made slower and a chicane was placed before Stowe. Maggotts, Becketts and Chapel were re-designed as very fast snaky esses that proved to be even more challenging than the original series of corners - the considerable amount of lateral g from side to side became the highlighted challenge of the new circuit. A new twisty infield section called Luffield was created in place of the Farm straight and the Bridge chicane. Despite these alterations, the Grand Prix and World Sportscar circuses both very much approved of the new layout; Silverstone was still fast, which is what it has always been known for.
When the Group C cars returned in 1991, they raced for the World Sports Car Championship, but the race distance was reduced to 269 miles (83 laps of the GP circuit) and it was a straight battle between Jaguar and Mercedes - Benz, with victory going to the Jaguar XJR14 of Teo Fabi and Derek Warwick at a speed of 122.048 mph. In second place, four laps behind, came the Mercedes C291 of Michael Schumacher and Karl Wendlinger, followed by the singleton driver XJR14 of Brundle.
July came, of course with it the Grand Prix. The almost unbelievably popular victory was Nigel Mansell 's 18th Grand Prix win, making him the most successful English driver ever. Only two other drivers completed the full race distance; Gerhard Berger for McLaren and Prost for Ferrari.
1992 was once more a very busy International season for Silverstone with a round of the International F3000 Championship, the World Sports Car Championship, and of course, the Grand Prix. The first two were run on the same day, 10 May. Although the practice was spoilt by hailstorm, the races were run in bright weather. The F3000 victor was Jordi Gené who completed the 37 laps at a speed of 121.145 mph in a Reynard - Mugen 92D, from a similar Judd - engined example in the hands of Rubens Barrichello. Lola - Cosworth were third and fourth, driven by Olivier Panis and Emanuele Naspetti.
The sports car race was a sad affair, with but a handful of cars coming to the grid; there were 11 starters and just five finishers. The race was won by the Peugeot 905 of Warwick and Yannick Dalmas at 122.661 mph, two laps ahead of the Maurizio Sandro Sala / Johnny Herbert Mazda MXR - 01 which was four laps ahead of the Lola - Judd T92 / 10 driven by Jésus Pareja and Stefan Johansson. At the end of the season, the World Sports Car Championship was no more.
The Grand Prix was a happier affair with Williams - Renaults of Mansell and Riccardo Patrese taking top honours from the Benettons of Brundle and Schumacher. Mansell dominated practice and the race, winning at 133.772 mph.
Six days after competing at Donington Park, the F3000 guys were at Silverstone for the second round of the 1993 International F3000 Championship. Gil de Ferran won at 119.462 mph from David Coulthard and Michael Bartels -- all were driving Cosworth powered Reynard 93Ds.
Despite back - to - back Grand Prix victories for Williams, Mansell would not be back in 1993 to try for a famous hat - trick as he was racing in the States. However, things looked good his replacement, Damon Hill after he set fastest time in practice, but Prost (now at Williams) pipped him to pole by just 0.128 secs and he went on to win the race after Hill 's engine exploded 18 laps from home. Second and third were the Benettons of Schumacher and Patrese.
A year later, the Grand Prix was a race of controversy which rumbled on for most of the season; Hill was barely ahead of Schumacher on the grid and on the green flag lap the young German sprinted ahead of the Englishmen which is not allowed under the rules, cars being required to maintain station during the green flag lap. The race authorities informed Benetton that their man had been penalised 5sec for his transgression but they did not realise that it was a stop / go penalty and did not call Schumacher in, so he was black - flagged; which he ignored for six laps. For failing to respond to the black flag, Schumacher was disqualified, having finished second on the road. Hill won the race at 125.609 mph from Jean Alesi in the Ferrari and Mika Häkkinen (McLaren).
The 1994 F3000 race was an all Reynard 94D affair. The 38 - lap race was won by Franck Lagorce winning at 119.512 mph, from Coulthard and de Ferran. The race distance for the following season had increased by two. Victorious on this occasion was Riccardo Rosset driving Super Nova 's Reynard - Cosworth AC 95D from his teammate Vincenzo Sospiri; Allan McNish was third in a Zytek - Judd KV - engined 95D.
Hill and Schumacher were not having a happy 1995 and managed to take each other off after the final pit stops, leaving Coulthard in the lead which he lost when he had to take a 10 sec ' stop / go ' penalty for speeding in the pit lane. All of this left Herbert to take his maiden Grand Prix win -- he was euphoric and was held shoulder high on the podium by the second and third - placed men, Coulthard and Alesi.
On 12 May 1996, the Northamptonshire circuit hosted a round of the International BPR series which was very a British affair. First was the McLaren F1 GTR of Andy Wallace and Olivier Grouillard followed by the Jan Lammers / Perry McCarthy Lotus Esprit and another McLaren in the hands of James Weaver and Ray Bellm.
At the Grand Prix on 14 July, the pressures on Hill as national favourite and son of a famous father (Graham Hill) were not inconsiderable, but he responded well, setting pole. Unfortunately he muffed the start and later spun out of contention when a front wheel nut became loose, and his teammate Jacques Villeneuve went on to win at a fraction over 124 mph, from Berger 's Benetton and the McLaren of Häkkinen.
The 1997 Grand Prix was again won by Villeneuve at the wheel of a Williams - Renault at a speed of 128.443 mph from the Benettons of Alesi and Alexander Wurz.
From the start of 1998, the FIA decreed that all Formula One grids must be straight: in order to comply with this, the RAC moved the start line forward at Silverstone but not, significantly, the finish line. This led to some confusion at the end of the Grand Prix, which was scheduled for 60 laps, but was effectively 59.95 laps: it was more than a little fortunate that the timing was being taken from the finish line and not the start line as the winning car was in the pits at the end of the race and the Ferrari pit was situated between the two lines. The chequered flag is supposed to be waved at the winning car and then showed to the other competitors, but it was waved at the second man who thought that he had won!
Victory went to Schumacher at the wheel of a Ferrari in appalling conditions. It was something of a farce, for in addition to the pit lane confusion, he was penalised 10sec for passing another racer under a yellow flag. The stewards failed to inform the teams of their decision in the proper manner so Schumacher took his stop go penalty in the pits, after the race was over! McLaren appealed to the FIA, but the appeal was rejected and the results were confirmed, with Häkkinen second in the McLaren and Eddie Irvine third in the second Ferrari.
Victory in the 1999 British Grand Prix went to Coulthard at the wheel of a McLaren - Mercedes with an average speed of 124.256 mph from Irvine 's Ferrari and the other Schumacher, Ralf.
For Silverstone 's first Grand Prix of the 21st Century, the FIA decreed that the race should be moved to April, and the event took place over Easter, with the GP itself run on Easter Sunday. In hindsight this was a poor decision by the FIA, who failed to take into account the unpredictable weather in Britain at this time of year. It rained almost continually for the best part of three weeks before the event and most of Good Friday; by Easter Saturday the car parks had virtually collapsed and were completely closed. Although most of the race day itself was fine, the damage was done and many thousands of spectators were unable to get to Silverstone to witness David Coulthard win his second straight victory in the event, from his McLaren teammate Mika Häkkinen, with Michael Schumacher third for Ferrari.
On 14 May, the FIA GT Championship came to Northants, in slightly more clement conditions and victory went to Julian Bailey and Jamie Campbell - Walter driving a Lister Storm GT from no fewer than four Chrysler Viper GTS - Rs.
The 2000 Silverstone 500 USA Challenge was the first American Le Mans Series race to be held outside of North America. It served as a precursor to the creation of the European Le Mans Series by gauging the willingness of European teams from the FIA Sportscar Championship and FIA GT Championship to participate in a series identical to the American Le Mans Series. This event also shared the weekend at Silverstone with an FIA GT round, with some GT teams running both events. The race was won by the Schnitzer Motorsport 's BMW V12 LMP of Jörg Müller and JJ Lehto.
Formula One returned for the 2001 British Grand Prix in July to see Häkkinen triumph having managing to overtake the driver in pole, Schumacher. Schumacher, driving for Ferrari finished second while teammate Barrichello gained the final spot in the podium.
The 2002 British Grand Prix saw Ferrari return to the top two steps of the podium with Schumacher beating Barrichello, while pole - sitter and Williams driver Juan Pablo Montoya finished in third. These three drivers, as well as gaining the top three qualifying places, were the only drivers to finish on the lead lap.
Although the 2003 Grand Prix was won by pole - sitter Barrichello for Ferrari, the race is probably most remember for a track invasion by the defrocked priest, Neil Horan, who ran along Hangar Straight, head - on to the 175 mph train of cars, wearing a saffron kilt and waving religious banners. Kimi Räikkönen (McLaren) was pressured by Barrichello into losing the lead and an unforced error later on allowed Montoya to seize second.
Neil Hodgson had a brilliant World Superbike meeting in 2003. The Fila Ducati rider withstood the attention of James Toseland in the first race and then fellow Ducati pilot, Gregorio Lavilla in the second, just 0.493 secs ahead of the Spaniard. Ruben Xaus claimed two third - place finishes.
Schumacher celebrated his 80th Grand Prix victory of his career at the 2004 event after taking the lead from Räikkönen during the first round of pit stops. Ferrari 's strategy won the day with Schumacher 's two stops to Räikkönen 's three. Barrichello completed the podium in third, and coming home in fourth was BAR 's Jenson Button.
A crowd of 68,000 saw Renegade Ducati 's Noriyuki Haga and Ten Kate Honda 's Chris Vermeulen take a win each in the 2004 World Superbike event. Haga pulled off a close finish in race one, just beating Vermeulen. In race two, the roles were reversed with the Honda beating the Ducati.
When the Le Mans Prototypes returned in 2004, they raced for the Le Mans Series over a distance of 1000 km. It was a straight battle between the pair of Audi R8 's of Audi Sport UK Team Veloqx and Team Goh 's singleton R8, with victory going to the Veloqx pair of Allan McNish and Pierre Kaffer. In second place, one lap behind was Rinaldo Capello and Seiji Ara for Team Goh, followed by the all English pair of Johnny Herbert and Jamie Davies for Veloqx.
A crowd of 27,000 welcomed back the World Touring Car Championship. The Alfa Romeo drivers dominated the first race, on a sunny 15 May 2005. Gabriele Tarquini scored a lights to flag victory, leading home an Alfa quartet. Behind the Italian, a tough fight for second between James Thompson and Fabrizio Giovanardi, with a number of overtaking and paint swapping moves, also involving the BMW 320i of Andy Priaulx. Augusto Farfus completed the quartet, with Priaulx dropping back to fifth. After a superb start, Priaulx led most of race two, until side - lined with a puncture. This enabled the SEAT duo of Rickard Rydell and Jason Plato to take the win for the Spanish manufacturer, with Tarquini in third.
Ducati took both legs of the 2005 World Superbike double - header. Regis Laconi scored the first win and Toseland doubled Ducati 's pleasure. Laconi beat Troy Corser to the finishing line by 0.096 secs. Toseland claimed third on the podium. Toseland turn came to Race 2, when he passed Croser and Haga.
Fernando Alonso and Montoya fought a cat - and - mouse battle for the victory in the 2005 British Grand Prix, with the deciding factor being the back - markers. In a straight line the McLaren of Montoya was probably quicker than Alonso 's Renault, but in the heat of battle, with different strategies going and different computer projections, Montoya came through to win the race from Alonso, with Räikkönen driving for McLaren in third.
In the 2005 Le Mans Series race, Team ORECA Audi R8 scored a prestigious victory, with McNish, this time paired with Stéphane Ortelli, winning after a thrilling race - long battle with the Creation Autosportif 's DBA 03S of Nicolas Minassian and Campbell - Walter, a car that provided much of the season 's excitement.
Alonso would see the chequered flag first as he wins again at Silverstone in 2006. In doing so, the Spaniard became the youngest driver to get the hat - trick (pole position, winning and fastest lap). Alonso won by nearly 14 seconds from Schumacher and Räikkönen took third again.
Troy Bayliss gained a pair of wins in the 2006 World Superbike, aboard his Xerox Ducati. Haga (Yamaha) and Toseland (Honda) joined Bayliss on the podium in both races.
Following Hamilton 's victory in the 2007 Canadian Grand Prix, Silverstone reported that ticket sales had "gone through the roof ''; circuit director Ian Phillips added, "we have n't seen this level of interest since Mansell - mania in the late 80s and early 90s ''. Hamilton did not disappoint on the Saturday and qualified his McLaren on pole. However, race day saw Räikkönen move ahead during the first round of pit stops. The other McLaren driver, Alonso, also finished ahead in second.
Bayliss (Ducati) took the chequered flag in a solitary 2007 World Superbike race, with a heavy downpour causing the first race to be run in the wet, with Race 2 cancelled altogether. Naga and Corser completed the podium line - up.
After a one - year hiatus, the Le Mans Series returned to Silverstone. At the head of the field, the Team Peugeot 908 HDi 's lead was unchallenged and Minassian achieved his goal to do one better, partnered by Marc Gené. Emmanuel Collard / Jean - Christophe Boullion finished two laps down in second. Third place on the podium was for the Rollcentre Pescarolo, piloted by Stuart Hall and Joao Barbosa.
Hamilton made amends in the 2008 British Grand Prix, when he crossed the line to win by 68secs, from Nick Heidfeld (BMW - Sauber). The margin of victory was the largest in Formula One since 1995. Once again, Barrichello finished on the podium, this time in a Honda.
A spirited drive from the 2008 Le Mans winners Rinaldo Capello and McNish saw their Audi R10 TDI progress through the field after a trip in the gravel early in the race, all the way up to second behind their sister car. When the leading Audi came in for an unplanned pit stop and was pulled into the pit for some rear suspension repairs, this handed the lead to McNish and Capello, who took a well deserved win. The Charouz Lola - Aston Martin B08 / 60 was second, driven by Jan Charouz and Stefan Mücke. The Pescarolo of Romain Dumas and Boullion got a well deserved podium finish.
The 2009 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was due to be the last in Northamptonshire, as the event was moving to Donington Park from the 2010 season. The race was won by Sebastian Vettel for Red Bull Racing, 15.1 secs ahead of his teammate Mark Webber. A further 25.9 secs behind was that regular visitor to the podium, Barrichello, in his Brawn. However, due to Donington Park funding issues, the Grand Prix would remain at Silverstone until at least 2027.
The 2009 1000 km of Silverstone saw Oreca take the chequered flag with the aid of their drivers Olivier Panis and Nicolas Lapierre. The next three cars home were also on the lead lap after 195 laps of racing, with second place going to Speedy Racing 's Lola - Aston Martin B08 / 60 of Marcel Fässler, Andrea Belicchi and Nicolas Prost. The newer Lola - Aston Martin B09 / 60 of Aston Martin Racing took the next two places, with the partnership of Tomáš Enge, Charouz and Mücke claiming the final step on the podium.
Mark Webber (Red Bull) claimed the silverware in the 2010 British Grand Prix, just over a second ahead of McLaren 's Hamilton. Nico Rosberg claimed third place for Mercedes team.
The FIM World Superbike Championship round at Silverstone in 2010 will go down in history as being totally dominated by British riders. In both race, the top step was the property of Yamaha Sterilgarda 's Cal Crutchlow. Also, second in both races was Jonathan Rea. Alstare Suzuki 's Leon Haslam and Aprilla 's Leon Camier made appearances in the top three, giving Britain a complete podium sweep of the event.
The 2010 British motorcycle Grand Prix returned to Silverstone for the first time since 1986, although the category had evolved into MotoGP. Jorge Lorenzo dominated the event for Fiat Yamaha, finishing nearly seven seconds clear of a battle for second place. Andrea Dovizioso winning the battle for second for Repsol Honda, with the Tech 3 Yamaha of Ben Spies third, after passing fellow American Nicky Hayden on the last lap.
The victory for Anthony Davidson and Minassian for Peugeot in the 2010 1000 km of Silverstone was but a small consolation for the disastrous Le Mans race but did wipe away the bad memories of Silverstone in 2008. The second place was enough for the Oreca team to be crowned as the 2010 champions, who were using a Peugeot instead their own race winning chassis from the 2009 event. This time Lapierre was co-driven by Stéphane Sarrazin. Audi were third with the R15 TDI of Capello and Timo Bernhard.
The 2011 British Grand Prix was Alonso 's return to the top step for Ferrari -- sixteen seconds ahead of the Red Bull pairing of Vettel and Webber.
The Althea Racing Ducati of Carlos Checa robbed Yamaha 's Eugene Laverty from taking victory in both races of the 2011 World Superbike meeting, with Laverty 's teammate Marco Melandri finishing on the podium, again in both races.
The MotoGP guys returned in June 2011 only to find conditions less than ideal, but the rain did n't stop the Repsol Hondas totally dominating the race with pole - man Casey Stoner beating his teammate Dovizioso by more than 15sec. The Tech 3 Yamaha of Colin Edwards completed the podium.
The 2011 6 Hours of Silverstone, witnessed a nose - to - tail fight between the Audi R18 of Bernhard and Fässler and the Peugeot 908 of Sébastien Bourdais and Simon Pagenaud, but was temporarily finished after a spin by Bernhard. A conservative drive from Pagenaud saw Fässler close the gap right down again and in fact jump into the lead. Pagenaud picked up the pace and the two cars were on each other 's tails until the end of the fourth hour when damaged rear bodywork needed replacing on the Audi. This gave the Peugeot a one - minute advantage that it did not give up. Third was the OAK Racing 's Pescarolo 01 piloted by Olivier Pla and Alexandre Prémat.
The F1 cars returned in Silverstone on 8 July 2012, for the Grand Prix. The race was won for the second time by Webber, with pole - sitter Alonso second for Ferrari, finishing 3secs behind. Red Bull Racing and Webber 's teammate Vettel rounded off the podium.
Silverstone is often the site of unpredictable weather, the 2012 World Superbike event proved to be no exception. Due to fluctuating weather, the riders were greeted with a track in - between wet and dry for Race 1. Kawasaki Racing 's Loris Baz posted an astonishing finish to win from the BMW 's of Michel Fabrizio and Ayrton Badovini. Baz then took second behind PATA Racing 's Ducati, piloted by Sylvain Guintoli in a shortened Race2. Jakub Smrz took third, as nine riders went down before the official called an early end after eight laps.
The 2012 British MotoGP went the way of the Yamaha factory rider, Lorenzo. He crossed the line 3.313 secs ahead of the Respol Honda of Stoner, with Dani Pedrosa third on the other Honda.
The 2012 Le Mans 24 Hours winners Benoît Tréluyer, André Lotterer and Fässler steered their Audi R18 e-tron Quattro hybrid car to victory in the 6 Hours of Silverstone on 26 August 2012. The win, added to third place for the sister car of Allan McNish, Rinaldo Capello and Tom Kristensen, enabled Audi to get both their cars to finish on the podium. Audi did n't have everything its own way though as the Toyota TS030 hybrid of Alex Wurz, Kazuki Nakajima and Nicolas Lapierre challenged hard, leading early on, to finish a richly deserved second.
The opening round of the 2013 World Endurance Championship saw Audi Sport Team Joest dominating. The race soon developed into a pattern of 2 Audi R18 e-tron quattros followed by 2 Toyota TS030 Hybrids and backed up by 2 Rebellion Lola B12 / 60s. Audis had a better early stage of the race when Toyota tyres did not work well and by the middle of the race they were securely leading the race by one lap. Toyota also did not manage to go through a middle race rain shower so well as Audi did. Despite that, the race was still very interesting until the end, when McNish was behind Tréluyer by more than 20 seconds with some 15 laps to go. But McNish (partnered by Kristensen and Loïc Duval), and motivated to win the RAC Tourist Trophy award for the race, very quickly ate the gap and finally manage to overtake Tréluyer (supported by Lotterer and Fässler) some two laps before the finish. The podium was completed the Toyota of Davidson / Sarrazin / Sébastien Buemi.
Mercedes ' Rosberg held off Red Bull 's Webber to win a dramatic 2013 British Grand Prix overshadowed by a series of Pirelli tyre failures. In a race featuring two safety car interventions and tyre failures on five cars (four of which blew the rear - right tyre), Ferrari 's Alonso fought up to third from ninth on the grid. Rosberg 's teammate, pole - man Hamilton, dropped to last with tyre failure, but fought back to fourth ahead of Lotus ' Räikkönen.
Pata Honda 's Jonathan Rea took advantage of the fluctuating weather conditions to take the lead mid-distance during the 2013 World Superbike Race 1, which he held until the end. Aprilia Racing 's Eugene Laverty followed home for second place, with Crescent Suzuki 's Leon Camier third. Race 2 started dry and deteriorated to treacherously damp by mid-race. This saw Baz prevailing, replicating his victory from 2012, in similar conditions, after a spirited battle. Jules Cluzel took his Crescent Suzuki up to second place, followed home by Laverty in third.
Reigning World MotoGP Champion, Lorenzo, ended Marc Márquez 's four - race winning streak to take victory in the 2013 British MotoGP after a classic last lap. Yamaha factory - rider, Lorenzo swapped the lead three times with Márquez through the last few corners, but Lorenzo managed to make the crucial pass and win. Márquez 's Repsol Honda teammate, Pedrosa finished third, while Crutchlow was seventh. Meanwhile, in the supporting Moto2 race, Scott Redding took the spoils, much to the delight of the Silverstone crowd.
Easter Sunday 2014, saw the return of Porsche to top - level sportscar racing in the World Endurance Championship event. However, it was Toyota who stole the show with a dominant one - two. The Toyota TS040 Hybrid of Sébastien Buemi, Anthony Davidson and Nicolas Lapierre took victory by a clear lap over their teammates, Alex Wurz, Kazuki Nakajima and Stéphane Sarrazin, at the end of a race that was red - flagged before its scheduled finish courtesy of heavy rain. Porsche claimed a podium on its return with the 919 Hybrid. The partnership of Mark Webber, Timo Bernhard and Brendon Hartley took third, finishing two laps down on the winner and one down on the second - placed Toyota.
Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton delighted the 120,000 Formula One fans by winning the 2014 British Grand Prix. Hamilton was catching his teammate and championship rival, Nico Rosberg, at the half - way stage of the race when Rosberg suffered a gearbox failure and was forced to retire, with Williams 's Valtteri Bottas coming from 14th on the grid to finish second. Red Bull 's Daniel Ricciardo took third. The race had to be red flagged following a high speed crash on the opening lap for Ferrari 's Kimi Räikkönen.
The reigning world champion Marc Márquez won a thrilling Hertz British MotoGP to make it 11 wins in 12 starts. The Honda rider, overtook last year 's winner Jorge Lorenzo on a Yamaha with three laps to go to cross the line 0.732 seconds in front. The second works - Yamaha of Valentino Rossi completed the podium, after fending off Honda 's Dani Pedrosa.
Silverstone also hosts many club racing series and the world 's largest historic race meeting, the Silverstone Classic. It is also host to one of the UK 's only 24 - hour car races, the Britcar 24, which is gaining in popularity, having run between 2005 and 2012.
It has in the past hosted exhibition rounds of the D1 Grand Prix both in 2005 and 2006. The course, starting from the main straight used in club races, makes use of both Brooklands and Luffield corners to form an S - bend -- a requirement in drifting -- and is regarded by its judge, Keiichi Tsuchiya, as one of the most technical drifting courses of all. The section, used in drifting events since 2002, is currently used to host a European Drift Championship round. The Course also hosts the Formula Student Competition by the iMechE yearly.
In 2010 Silverstone hosted its very first Superleague Formula event.
Lewis Hamilton 's lap of 1: 30.621 in the 2017 British Grand Prix is the outright lap record for the current Grand Prix configuration, which has only been in existence since 2011. The diagram at right illustrates the changes in configuration which have been made, a detailed description of the changes which have been made, see development history of Silverstone Circuit.
Official lap records are set in a race, although qualifying laps are often faster.
Further information, see Silverstone race results
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how does the magician cut a person in half | Sawing a woman in half - wikipedia
Sawing a woman in half is a generic name for a number of stage magic tricks in which a person (traditionally a female assistant) is apparently sawn or divided into two or more pieces.
There remains a debate about the origin of sawing illusions, with some sources saying a magician named Torrini may have performed the first version in front of Pope Pius VII in 1809. However, it is more likely that the story is a fiction which has its roots in the writings of the famous French magician Jean Robert - Houdin. In his Memoirs, written in 1858, Robert - Houdin described a sawing illusion performed by a magician named Torrini.
Modern magic inventor and historian Jim Steinmeyer has concluded that there was probably no real Torrini and the story was merely a way for Robert - Houdin to play with ideas. It was suggested during a court case in 1922 that the trick can be traced back to ancient Egypt; however, this claim has not been substantiated. Wherever the idea originated, until the 1920s it remained just an idea for an effect, rather than a practical application of a method.
It is generally accepted that the first public performance of a sawing illusion was achieved by British magician P.T. Selbit in January 1921 at the Finsbury Park Empire theatre in London. In fact Selbit had previously performed the illusion in December 1920 before a select audience of promoters and theatrical agents at the St. George 's Hall, London, to try to persuade one of them to book his new act for public shows. His trick, which he billed as "Sawing Through A Woman '', was significantly different from what a modern audience would expect. Selbit 's assistant was locked inside a closed wooden crate and could not be seen. The impression that she could not evade the saw was created by the confined space in the box and by ropes tied to her hands, feet, and neck, which were held throughout the illusion by spectators from the audience.
The question of who was the first woman to be sawn in half has received much less publicity than the question of which magician first presented the illusion. According to Jim Steinmeyer the woman who participated in the December 1920 demonstration was Jan Glenrose, who was Selbit 's main assistant at that time and who was also the partner of magician Fred Culpitt. In the public performance the role of victim was taken by principal assistant, Betty Barker.
Later in 1921, Horace Goldin, a magician working in the United States, presented the first version which might look familiar to modern audiences. Goldin 's assistant lay in a box from which her feet, head and hands protruded. Goldin sawed through the middle of the box, inserting metal sheets to cover the cut ends, and then pushed the two halves a little way apart. This process was then reversed, and the assistant released unharmed. Goldin later developed a sawing illusion that dispensed with boxes and used a large buzzsaw. The success of Selbit and then Goldin led to more and more magicians trying to imitate them with copies or improved versions of sawing illusions. By November 1921 the Thayer magic company in America was advertising a version for sale. A complete prop from Thayer would cost $175 or they would sell plans for $5.
There are many sawing tricks with significant differences in their basic effect. In some, the illusion is merely of a blade passing through an assistant 's body, while in others it appears that the assistant is severed into two pieces that are moved apart. Some so - called "sawing '' illusions do not actually involve a saw but instead use plain blades or blunt dividing panels.
One major group of tricks involves an assistant in a box, which conceals his or her body from view while any cutting takes place. This group includes the "Selbit '', "Wakeling '' and "Thin Model '' tricks as well as several versions associated with Horace Goldin. Most "box '' sawings give the illusion of the two halves of the assistant being moved apart, although there are versions where the effect is simply that a blade must have passed through the assistant 's body. In some versions the box completely covers the assistant while in others the assistant 's head, hands and feet remain in view during the trick.
Several volunteers are recruited from the audience. One or more of these people are invited to tie ropes around the assistant 's wrists, ankles and neck. The assistant then steps into a wooden crate or box, which is similar in proportion to but slightly larger than a coffin. The ropes are threaded through holes in the box and the ends are given to volunteers, who are instructed to pull them tight and keep hold of them (the neck rope has an added knot to prevent the assistant being strangled). The assistant is thus secured in a standing spreadeagle position in the box. The box is then closed and lifted into a horizontal position on a set of trestles. The magician then slides glass plates through the crate (and apparently through his assistant).
The magician then saws right through the centre of the box, dividing it into two. The sections are pulled slightly apart and the assistant 's torso is visible. The impression is that the saw blade must have passed through the assistant 's midriff. The assistant is then released from the box and is revealed to be unharmed. This was the illusion performed at the Finsbury Park Empire theatre in London on 17 January 1921.
Goldin presented several sawing illusions that involved a box. To audiences they all appeared largely similar but they involved differing methods, which were steadily improved as time went on and as earlier methods were exposed. His first performance was at the Society of American Magicians annual banquet at the McAlpin Hotel, New York, on 3 June 1921. On that occasion the trick was not well received. The box he used was large and not very deceptive and instead of an attractive woman he employed a bellboy as an assistant. The impression given was that he was clumsily and hurriedly trying to cash in on Selbit 's success in Britain. However, fellow magician Howard Thurston, who was in the audience, realised the potential of the trick and persuaded Goldin to let him help in its development.
Thurston employed an established magician and prop builder named Harry Jansen to perfect the illusion. Jansen 's improved version of the apparatus featured a smaller box from which the victim 's head and feet would protrude during the sawing. Goldin, Thurston and various other magicians employed by Goldin toured the United States performing this trick with great success at theatres belonging to the Keith - Orpheum group. Goldin had great promotional acumen and was fond of resorting to legal action to block anyone else, including Selbit, from competing with him in the USA. As a result, Goldin was sometimes wrongly credited as the originator of the sawing illusion.
The basic form of Goldin 's box sawings was as follows. The magician presents a box which is similar in size and proportion to that used in the Selbit sawing but which is already in a horizontal position. An assistant climbs into the box and lies down. In the process her head and hands are seen to emerge from holes in one end of the box and her feet from the other. The box is closed and then sawn through across the middle. Dividers are placed into the box either side of the cut and it is then pulled apart so the sections can be seen clearly separated. The assistant 's head and hands are seen sticking out of one section and her feet out of the other. The box is then pushed together again and opened and the assistant emerges unharmed.
The magician presents a rectangular table just big enough to accommodate a person lying upon it. An assistant is introduced and several assistants are recruited from the audience. The magician presents a set of restraints consisting of a sturdy collar and a pair of ankle straps, each attached to a length of chain or rope. The assistant sits on the table with her legs stretched out and volunteers are invited to fasten the restraints around her neck and ankles.
The ropes or chains are threaded through holes in the table and the ends given to volunteers, who are instructed to pull them tight and hold them that way throughout the illusion. The assistant is thus pulled down onto her back and secured in that position. Two halves of a large box are presented and fixed in place over the assistant, covering her completely. Side panels are opened to show the assistant is still in place lying flat on her back. The assistant is then divided into two. Sometimes the division is accomplished merely by pushing two metal dividing panels into slots near where the two halves meet.
Sometimes the cutting of the assistant is emphasised by sawing between the two halves of the box before sliding the dividers into place. Catches are released to allow the table to be separated into two halves along with the box. The halves are parted and the assistant thus appears to have been cut into two completely disconnected pieces. The box and table are then pushed together, the restraints are released and the box is opened to allow the assistant to emerge unharmed.
This version of the trick is generally associated with magician and inventor Alan Wakeling. Whilst Wakeling performed this illusion and perfected aspects of it, the general configuration and method have been attributed to an earlier magician, Virgil Harris Mulkey (1900 -- 1989), aka. "The Great Virgil '', who first performed it in 1942 and later passed on the idea to Wakeling.
The thin model sawing is one of the most common variants performed by contemporary magicians. The basic arrangement and sequence of events is similar to that described for the Goldin box sawings (see above). However, the box appears very shallow in comparison to Goldin 's, which was large by modern standards. The ends of the box are initially open when the assistant climbs in. Once the assistant is lying down she is secured in place by having stocks placed over her neck and ankles. The stocks form the ends of the box. The shallow box adds to the impression that the assistant could not possibly find room to evade the saw blade even if she could release herself from the stocks and try to curl up in one half of the box.
Magician Les Arnold is reported to have been the first to have devised a clear box sawing (known as the "Crystal Sawing '') as far back as 1976. The Pendragons performed a variation called "Clearly Impossible '', in which the box used is both particularly slim and also transparent. The concept of "Clearly Impossible '' has been credited to Jonathan Pendragon and the major distinguishing feature of The Pendragons ' illusion from the Les Arnold concept is that the transparent boxes are seemingly never covered.
The "double sawing illusion '' is a way of adding an extra effect to box - type sawings. It is generally associated with the "thin - model '' sawing apparatus. The magician saws two people in half using two sets of apparatus. The people are usually chosen or dressed so as to be clearly distinguishable. For example, they might be in different colored costumes, of different skin colors, or of different genders. After the box halves are separated they are jumbled up and then re-assembled so that the bottom half of one box is matched to the top of the other and vice versa. When the victims emerge, each appears to have been given the other 's lower half.
The creation of this version has been credited to magician Alan Wakeling, who devised it for fellow magician Channing Pollock to perform.
An assistant lies down on a table. A frame is placed over her middle. The magician then presents an electric jigsaw and proceeds to align the blade into a slot in the frame. The magician switches on the saw and apparently uses it to slice through the assistant 's waist, which remains obscured by the frame. The saw emerges from the opposite side of the frame. Once the sawing is finished the frame is removed and the assistant is revealed to be in one piece.
This variant begins in a similar way to the jig sawing, with the assistant lying on a table and having a frame fixed over her midriff. The magician then presents a bow saw and proceeds to saw through the assistant, with the blade guided within the frame. Once the blade has apparently passed all the way through the assistant the frame is released and removed. It is then revealed that the assistant is encircled by the handle and blade of the bow saw. Then he / she will have a member of audience come up and look at the props.
A large apparatus is presented, consisting of a sturdy frame supporting a large buzzsaw or circular saw and a table sufficiently large to carry a person lying flat. It is shown that the table travels beneath the saw, leaving little or no gap, so that anything placed upon it in the path of the saw would be sliced through. The table is moved either by an electric mechanism or by some form of manual crank. The buzzsaw is generally driven by an electric motor. To demonstrate the saw is completely genuine, a piece of wood is placed on the table and sliced in two in full view. An assistant is introduced and placed in a horizontal position on the table.
Sometimes the magician might give the impression of hypnotizing the assistant into a rigid trance before having her lifted onto the table. She is secured in place with two metal "straps '' that close over her waist and which align close to the plane of the saw. She might also be further secured with straps or manacles at her wrists and ankles. A strip of wood is pushed beneath her waist in line with the saw. The saw is then started and the table set in motion. The saw visibly passes through the assistant and generally sounds like it is sawing through something.
Once the table reaches the end of its travel and the saw is switched off the assistant is released and shown to be in one piece and uninjured. The strip of wood that had been placed beneath her is shown to have been sawn into two strips, thus reinforcing that the saw really did cut in the manner it appeared to. Harry Blackstone, Sr. was performing this effect in the United States in the 1930s.
The Death Saw is presented as an escape gone wrong. Its best known performer is David Copperfield. The performer is secured to a table beneath a large buzzsaw or blade, which is set to descend upon them under the control of a timing mechanism. After being secured with various manacles the performer is enclosed in a box. The saw is then set going.
After a while the sides of the box fall away to reveal the performer struggling to escape the manacles. Finally the saw drops before the performer has time to escape. The blade slices right through the performer 's body. The two halves of the table are rolled apart so that the performer is clearly separated into two sections. The performer then appears to command the whole process to reverse: The body halves go back together, the saw rises, the box closes. Finally the performer emerges unharmed from the box.
Copperfield has claimed exclusive rights to this illusion; however, others, including Tennessee - based illusion builder Jeff Davis, have asserted that the method and effect were previously published in two magazine articles during the 1960s. The March 1965 edition of The Linking Ring contains text and diagrams from an Indian author called B. Rakshit giving the basic sawing method. An article in the September 1969 Genii Magazine outlines the routine including the idea of the saw descending a tower.
Although not generally classified as a "sawing '' illusion, Modern Art is sometimes billed as an "upright dividing the lady in two ''. The prop is a vertical cabinet which stands alongside a table - like structure that is half its height. The assistant enters the cabinet through a door in the side away from the table structure. The assistant 's face can be seen peering from an opening at the top of the cabinet and a panel at the bottom of the front of the cabinet is opened to show the assistant 's legs. A sword or blade is then placed into a slot at the point where the top of the half - height table meets the cabinet. The top of the cabinet then slides across onto the table, giving the impression that the top half of the assistant has been moved sideways and in the process been severed from the legs by the blade. Panels in the front of the cabinet are opened to show the top and bottom halves of the assistant apparently separate. The top of the cabinet is then slid back into its original position and the assistant emerges unharmed. The effect and method are credited to designer Jim Steinmeyer.
Criss Angel performed a trick in which he appeared to pull a woman in half with his hands during an outdoor performance and half of her crawled away. The trick involved a woman with sacral agenesis and a contortionist. Magician and historian Ricky Jay has written that a version of this trick was previously performed by another magician. The magician that inspired Criss Angel 's trick was Rajah Raboid, who performed this trick with Johnny Eck and his twin brother, Robert, in 1937.
As suggested by the various effects, detailed above, there are numerous methods for accomplishing sawing illusions. Over the years a number of these have been exposed and several have been published and are easily obtainable.
Publishing of magic methods has proved a controversial subject at times. It has involved battles between those determined to expose methods and magicians, who have sometimes resorted to legal action to try to preserve secrecy. The sawing illusion has had a prominent role in the history of such battles and has thus contributed to case law.
In September 1921, motivated by concerns about preventing competition from other magicians who might copy him, Horace Goldin forwent secrecy and applied for a patent for Sawing a woman in half. He was awarded U.S. patent number 1,458,575 on 12 June 1923. The following is an outline summary the patent:
Penn and Teller use the second variant of this trick on a regular basis in Las Vegas. They have also performed this trick on television at least twice: on Home Improvement and during the 2007 NBA All - Star Weekend. They always reveal how the trick is done.
A number of performances or depictions of sawing illusions have achieved particular fame or notoriety.
Jim Steinmeyer has argued that Selbit 's introduction of the sawing illusion was a turning point in the history of magic after which gentler styles represented by the likes of John Nevil Maskelyne were in irreversible decline to be replaced by more sensational presentations that owed something to the shock effect of Grand Guignol theatre. In particular, Steinmeyer identifies the sawing illusion as the beginning of a fashion for magic featuring female assistants in the role of victim. He says the cliche of "pretty ladies teased and tortured by magicians '' was not a cliche prior to Selbit 's illusion.
Male assistants were common in magic history and in the Victorian era; the cumbersome clothes imposed on women by the fashions of the time made it impractical for them to squeeze into confined spaces required by some tricks. Changing fashions in the early 20th century made Selbit 's choice of a female victim a practical proposition. It was also true that an illusion designed for a lithe woman might be more compact and deceptive than one tailored to fit a man. However, more controversially, a combination of the emancipation of women and a population desensitized by war and exposed to new entertainment phenomena meant Selbit 's choice struck a chord in the public imagination. In Steinmeyer 's words: "beyond the practical concerns, the image of the woman in peril became a specific fashion in entertainment ''.
Modern magicians, including female performers, have responded by placing a male performer in the role originally filled by a woman. Magician Dorothy Dietrich, who established herself as a leading magician as a teenager has been called the "First woman to saw a man in half. ''
Australian magician Sue - Anne Webster performs a variation on the "thin model '' sawing in which she saws husband Tim Ellis in two with a chainsaw.
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