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who killed stefano on days of our lives | Stefano DiMera - wikipedia
Stefano DiMera is a fictional character from the American soap opera, Days of Our Lives. Created by head writer Pat Falken Smith, he was portrayed by actor Joseph Mascolo. Stefano is the patriarch of the DiMera family and the father of Renée DuMonde, Megan Hathaway, Benjy Hawk, Lexie Carver (née Brooks), EJ DiMera and Chad DiMera and the stepfather of Antony DiMera; He is also the adoptive father of Peter and Kristen Blake. For a brief period, he believed he was the half - brother of longtime nemesis John Black. He had a nephew, André DiMera, who through plastic surgery became identical to Antony. In 2015, André was revealed to be Stefano 's son. Stefano is the ex-husband of Kate Roberts and Vivian Alamain. Stefano first entered the show as a wealthy European businessman who relocated to Salem, and gradually revealed substantial ties to organized crime, both at home and abroad. Over the years Stefano 's character has fluctuated between that of a syndicate boss (both on local and international scales), political terrorist, ruthless business tycoon, and loving (albeit heavy - handed) family man. Soap Opera Digest named him the all - time best villain.
In the early 1980s, then head writer, Pat Falken Smith created the role specifically for Mascolo after seeing his performance as real - life crime boss, Salvatore Maranzano on the NBC miniseries, The Gangster Chronicles in 1981. Mascolo first appeared as Stefano on January 18, 1982. He departed from the series on March 8, 1983, and returned a year later on March 2, 1984 before briefly departing on May 11, 1984 only to return on October 19 and depart again on February 22, 1985. Mascolo briefly returned to the series from November 4 to December 19, 1988. Actor Frank Fata appeared in the role of Stefano for two episodes which aired on December 3 and 4, 1991. Mascolo reclaimed the role on a contractual basis on September 17, 1993. He departed from the show on December 24, 1996, and re-appeared for a few episodes from February 7 to 13, 1997. Mascolo returned to the show full - time once again on June 13, 1997.
In late February 2001, a post on Mascolo 's official website revealed that contract negotiations were not going well and Mascolo was expected to last appear in May. However, a representative of Mascolo 's took to the website to deny the reports. In April 2001, rumors of Mascolo 's exit due to failed contract negotiations began to surface once again and the producers were apparently considering recasting the role. Days later, Mascolo was spotted at CBS 's The Bold and the Beautiful; despite the reports, neither Mascolo, NBC or CBS would comment on the rumors. In May 2001, Mascolo took to his website to confirm the news:
My contract is up in May and I tried to negotiate in good faith... Usually, one expects some give and take but the powers that be are adamant. They now feel that the character of Stefano should take a rest -- as if Stefano ever rests.
Though Mascolo seemed disappointed with the show 's decision to write the character out briefly, executive producer Ken Corday revealed plans to bring the character back by the fall of 2001 whether Mascolo was available or not. Mascolo made his last official appearance on June 14, 2001. Though Mascolo initially denied the reports, he did indeed debut in the role of Massimo Marone on The Bold and the Beautiful in August 2001.
In the fall of 2006, following Mascolo 's exit from B&B due to lack of storyline, reports began to surface claiming that Mascolo was going to reprise his role as Stefano. The series ' producers later confirmed plans to revive the DiMera family in order to stop a decline in ratings. A deathly ill, comatose Stefano began appearing on December 19, 2006. Though some sources list Mascolo in the cast credits for the episodes, neither Mascolo nor NBC have ever stated that he portrayed comatose Stefano. It was later confirmed that Mascolo would reappear in the role officially in 2007, along with costars Thaao Penghlis (Tony DiMera) and Leann Hunley (Anna DiMera). Mascolo made his first official appearance as Stefano on June 6, 2007. However the stint proved to be short - lived with Mascolo last appearing on February 29, 2008 and the character of Stefano was written out to allow the writers to come up with more story for him. In May 2008, the tabloid Globe confirmed that Mascolo had been fired and Stefano was written into another coma. This decision did not sit well with Mascolo who gave a heated interview to Soap Opera Digest accusing the executives of "double crossing '' him.
In the summer of 2008, it was confirmed that Mascolo would once again reprise his role as Stefano in August 2008. Mascolo later revealed in an interview that his initial anger was fueled by emotion following the death of his father. Following his initial ousting, fans took to his website to express how much they missed the character. The fan fervor allowed for Mascolo 's return upon a mutual agreement with executive producer, Ken Corday. Mascolo reappeared on August 5, 2008 just before Days went on hiatus for the Summer Olympics. In 2012, after breaking up the character 's marriage to Lauren Koslow 's Kate Roberts, making him responsible for his own daughter Lexie Carver 's (Renée Jones) death and undoing his father / son relationship with James Scott 's EJ DiMera, the character appeared to have been written into a corner. With nearly the entire town gunning for Stefano, several sources later confirmed that Stefano was indeed being killed off with Mascolo last appearing alive on June 4, 2012. Mascolo discussed his disapproval in an interview with Soap Opera Digest:
Every single thing that went wrong in Salem was Stefano 's fault. Every single thing. He got blamed for everything. When Stefano got blamed for this business with Lexie illness, I got very angry. Stefano and his daughter had an absolutely pure relationship. I adore Renee Jones (Lexie). When she came to my dressing room and said, "I 'm going to be leaving soon, and this is what is going to happen, '' I said, "Oh, no! ''
It was very difficult. The bottom line Stefano is will always be about family. So when they wrote that, I could n't figure it out. In all honesty, Stefano nor EJ would have had wanted it that way. As a matter of fact when James Scott (EJ) saw the business that Elvis was n't Stefano 's son, we both went, "No, that 's wrong. '' We did n't want it that way.
On June 13, 2012, Mascolo goes off - screen following the character 's funeral. Despite what was happening on - screen, certain sources reported that Mascolo could possibly reprise his role very soon. Following the change in head writers, it was confirmed that Mascolo was indeed on his way back; he made his first appearance on August 21, 2012. Mascolo discussed that the plan was always to have Stefano turn out to be alive, but he did n't agree with how the previous writing regime had scripted the story. With the return of former show runners Gary Tomlin and Christopher Whitesell, Mascolo seemed more "intrigued '' with their plans for his character. Mascolo 's return also coincides with Eileen Davidson 's return as Stefano 's daughter Kristen. Mascolo reappeared as Stefano on October 8, 2012.
Due to Mascolo 's own failing health, he departed the soap, last appearing on January 11, 2016. Mascolo made guest appearances on March 1, March 2, May 20, June 8 and July 7, 2016.
Mascolo died on December 8, 2016 in Los Angeles, California at the age of 87 after years of battling Alzheimer 's disease.
In early 2017, it was announced that Mascolo had filmed scenes prior to his death. Mascolo last appeared onscreen on February 9, 2017. However, it was later revealed that Mascolo appeared as Shane Donovan who was posing as Stefano.
Stefano first appears on - screen in January 1982 with his son Tony DiMera (Thaao Penghlis) surveying the citizens of Salem. Stefano travels to Salem shortly after being introduced as the friend of Lee DuMonde (Brenda Benet) and it is soon revealed he is the father of Lee 's daughter, Renée (Philece Sampler), which adds complications to her relationship with Tony. Stefano attempts to help Tony win back his wife, Liz Chandler while Stuart Whyland begins blackmailing him and Stefano kills him. In 1983, Stefano is sent to prison thanks to Detective Roman Brady (Wayne Northrop). Before his death, Stefano 's wife, Daphne (Madlyn Rhue), reveals that Tony is n't his biological son. Stefano returns in 1984 with his nephew, André, who has gotten plastic surgery to look like Tony. Together they plan to frame Roman for a string of murders; meanwhile Stefano discovers another daughter, Megan Hathaway. Her adoptive father, Maxwell, had access to the "Three Prisms '' that could cure Stefano 's brain tumor. In November 1984, in his quest to obtain one of the prisms, Stefano apparently kills Roman after pushing him off a cliff. In February 1985, Bo Brady 's (Peter Reckell) wife Hope (Kristian Alfonso) is framed for Megan 's murder and Stefano vows revenge on the entire family. He kidnaps Roman 's twins, Sami and Eric, and Roman 's widow Dr. Marlena Evans (Deidre Hall) shoots him, apparently killing him.
Stefano resurfaces in 1988 to claim his son Benjy who is about to be adopted by Kayla Brady (Mary Beth Evans) and her husband Steve Johnson (Stephen Nichols), as well as to attempt to "reprogram '' Roman, whom he had brainwashed in 1984 -- 85, to serve as one of his assassins (Stefano actually got the idea about brainwashing his "agents '' from former daughter - in - law Anna DiMera (Leann Hunley), who had hypnotized her own daughter Carrie into acting out against Roman as part of a plot to discredit him in the eyes of polite society). He traps several of Salem 's citizens on his island but his plans for revenge are foiled and he escapes. In this iteration, Stefano is presented as more of an assassin and international terrorist than a simple gangster.
In December 1991, John Black (Drake Hogestyn) and Roman Brady discover Stefano in a Mayan pyramid in Mexico. The pyramid collapses and Stefano is once again believed to have perished. Though he survives the collapse, his brain tumor is slowly killing him. Stefano returns to Salem in 1993 and he is taken hostage by Curtis Reed (Nick Benedict) in his weakened state; Curtis 's attempt to extort money from Stefano 's adopted daughter, Kristen Blake (Eileen Davidson), is foiled after Stefano kills him. He then convinces Tony and Kristen to marry but the marriage is ruined when Stefano is revealed as the murderer. In an attempt to avoid capture, Stefano speeds away as John shoots out his tires and Stefano 's car explodes. Stefano retreats to his New Orleans estate, Maison Blanche where he kidnaps Marlena and John. After the mansion burns down, Stefano buys a penthouse in Salem, next door to Marlena. Stefano sneaks into her apartment every night and opens her soul, which leads to Marlena becoming possessed by a demon. Under possession, Marlena pushes Stefano out of a window; after the demon is exorcised, a guilt - ridden Marlena helps Stefano recover. In December 1995, Tony fakes his death and frames John. Stefano is later struck by lightning and becomes so obsessed with Marlena that he bribes the judge presiding over John 's murder trial to issue the death penalty. In August 1996 Stefano 's plans to frame John are soon revealed and he skips town with Marlena to Paris, where he is shot by his former lover Rachel Blake. Later, his longtime confidante, Celeste Perrault (Tanya Boyd) reveals that he fathered her daughter, Dr. Lexie Carver (Renée Jones) the wife of Salem 's police commissioner. Stefano brings Kristen 's lookalike, Susan Banks (Davidson) to town, impregnates her and plans to pass the baby off as Kristen 's baby, which she actually miscarried; Susan gives birth in February 1997 to Elvis and flees after discovering Stefano 's plan. After recovering from a heart attack, Stefano marries Vivian Alamain (Louise Sorel) on December 16, 1998, and plots to kill her to get back all of his belongings left to Vivian by her late husband -- who was also Stefano 's employee -- Steven "Jonesy '' Jones (Robert Mandan). In 1999, Stefano brainwashes Hope Brady into thinking she is Princess Gina Von Amberg (Alfonso) and Gina, now in love with John, kidnaps him; feeling betrayed, Stefano exiles her to Paris.
In early 2000, the Bradys rescue Hope from Paris. Hope learns she is pregnant and Stefano believes he is the father. Stefano convinces Lexie to adopt a child, and then switches Hope 's son with another, leaving the child with Lexie and husband Abe Carver (James Reynolds). In 2001, the truth about the baby switch is revealed and Stefano skips town in June 2001.
In 2006, an ill Stefano sends his son Elvis, now known as EJ (James Scott), to impregnate Sami Brady (Alison Sweeney) so they can use the fetus 's stem cells to improve Stefano 's health. After they steal John 's kidney, Stefano proposes that Sami and EJ marry and raise the child together so they can end the feud between the families. In 2008, the origins of the feud are known and it is revealed that Stefano 's father Santo DiMera had an affair, and fathered a child with Colleen Brady (Shirley Jones) -- Ryan. Ryan was initially believed to be John Black, but it was later revealed that Ryan died in childhood. Stefano had once again erased John 's memory in an attempt to turn him to the Pawn again. In 2009 Stefano EJ 's then wife Nicole Walker (Arianne Zucker) hide the fact that she switched another baby with Sami 's at birth. EJ is furious when he learns the truth and he kidnaps his daughter, Sydney and fakes her death, leaving everyone devastated, including Stefano. Stefano learns from Anna DiMera that EJ paid her to care for Sydney while everyone believed she was dead; he uses the information to rebuild his relationship with EJ. In September 2009, Stefano blackmails Kate Roberts (Lauren Koslow) into marrying him after helping her get out from under attempted murder charges.
In 2010, Madeline Peterson Woods (Jessica Tuck) returns to Salem and after she dies, it is revealed that her son, Chad (Casey Deidrick), was fathered by Stefano, and Madeline convinced Kate to keep the secret. In 2011, Stefano helps EJ kidnap Sami 's husband, Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering) and imprison him in the DiMera basement while putting a lookalike in his place. In 2012, the DiMera empire begins to crumble when Stefano learns EJ is n't really his son and Lexie is diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumor caused by exposure to toxic gasses when Stefano had André kidnap her. Meanwhile, Kate has an affair with Ian McAllister (Ian Buchanan), a past lover, and Stefano files for divorce, taking everything from her. Stefano also turns John and Hope back into the Pawn and Princess Gina after revealing they are married; he forces them to retrieve a precious coin from Alamainia for him. Several other schemes continue to backfire on Stefano, including his attempt to sabotage EJ 's mayoral campaign and him blackmailing Will Horton (Chandler Massey). Having angered many of his enemies, Stefano is shot and presumably killed in early June 2012. Suspicion for the murder quickly falls upon EJ, who continuously professes his innocence, but no one, save for Will or Sami, seems to believe him. After a series of explosions rock Salem in early August 2012, EJ flees with Sami in tow, and is subsequently abducted by Ian, who professes that he framed EJ for Stefano 's murder. Ian then pulls back a curtain, revealing a very much alive Stefano, who is unconscious, bound in a chair and wearing a mask. Ian also confesses to falsifying Alice 's letter, as well as the blood test that stated EJ was n't Stefano 's son. Stefano suddenly resurfaces in Europe where he reunites with Kristen and convinces her to come home and bring the family back together. Following the deaths of EJ and Kristen, Stefano forges a strong bond with Chad (Billy Flynn). He encourages him to pursue Abigail Deveraux (Kate Mansi) with a secret agenda to obtain Abigail 's inheritance but Chad foils his plans. In 2015, Stefano suffers a stroke and is left in a wheelchair which leads to André 's return and the reveal that they are father and son. Stefano advises André as he takes over running the family 's daily operations. In January 2016, a grief - stricken Hope kills Stefano believing he is responsible for Bo 's recent death. Rafe helps Hope cover it up by hiding Stefano 's body in an abandoned building and framing André. Stefano 's spirit lingers as he appears to Chad and they say their goodbyes. Stefano last appears to Chad in July 2016 when they were talking about him trusting André. In February 2017, it appears that Stefano has been captured in Prague having supposedly faked his death at the hands of Hope. However, it is later revealed that Steve Johnson and Shane Donovan (Charles Shaughnessy) have orchestrated Stefano 's appearance to exonerate Hope of his murder, with Shane posing as Stefano using a bodysuit and makeup. Later as Steve and Shane reminisce about the success of their plan they review some pictures the ISA took from afar of Shane pretending to be Stefano. Yet the setting of one of the pictures is a place Shane never recalls posing at. This leads the men to wonder if the man in the photograph could actually be Stefano, leaving the two men wondering fearfully if Stefano is really alive and is out there somewhere.
Hired by Stefano and EJ to take the place of the already - kidnapped Rafe Hernandez in order to terrorize Sami into divorce and EJ could get full custody of his kids.
The following list is a timeline of Stefano 's fake "deaths ''; he either faked them himself, was presumed dead, or was reported dead by others.
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where does the money come from for unemployment | Unemployment benefits - wikipedia
Unemployment benefits (depending on the jurisdiction also called unemployment insurance or unemployment compensation) are payments made by the state or other authorized bodies to unemployed people. In the United States, benefits are funded by a compulsory governmental insurance system, not taxes on individual citizens. Depending on the jurisdiction and the status of the person, those sums may be small, covering only basic needs, or may compensate the lost time proportionally to the previous earned salary.
Unemployment benefits are generally given only to those registering as unemployed, and often on conditions ensuring that they seek work and do not currently have a job, and are validated as being laid off and not fired for cause in most states.
In some countries, a significant proportion of unemployment benefits are distributed by trade / labour unions, an arrangement known as the Ghent system.
The first unemployment benefit scheme was introduced in the United Kingdom with the National Insurance Act 1911 under the Liberal Party government of H.H. Asquith. The popular measures were to combat the increasing influence of the Labour Party among the country 's working - class population. The Act gave the British working classes a contributory system of insurance against illness and unemployment. It only applied to wage earners, however, and their families and the unwaged had to rely on other sources of support, if any. Key figures in the implementation of the Act included Robert Laurie Morant, and William Braithwaite.
By the time of its implementation, the benefit was criticized by communists, who thought such insurance would prevent workers from starting a revolution, while employers and tories saw it as a "necessary evil ''.
The scheme was based on actuarial principles and it was funded by a fixed amount each from workers, employers, and taxpayers. It was restricted to particular industries, particularly more volatile ones like shipbuilding, and did not make provision for any dependants. After one week of unemployment, the worker was eligible for receiving 7 shillings / week for up to 15 weeks in a year. By 1913, 2.3 million were insured under the scheme for unemployment benefit.
The Unemployment Insurance Act 1920 created the dole system of payments for unemployed workers. The dole system provided 39 weeks of unemployment benefits to over 11 million workers -- practically the entire civilian working population except domestic service, farm workers, railroad men, and civil servants.
Unemployment benefits were introduced in Germany in 1927, and in most European countries in the period after the Second World War with the expansion of the welfare state. Unemployment insurance in the United States originated in Wisconsin in 1932. Through the Social Security Act of 1935, the federal government of the United States effectively encouraged the individual states to adopt unemployment insurance plans.
In Argentina, successive administrations have used a variety of passive and active labour market interventions to protect workers against the consequences of economic shocks. The government 's key institutional response to combat the increase in poverty and unemployment created by the crisis was the launch of an active unemployment assistance programme called Plan Jefas y Jefes de Hogar Desocupados (Program for Unemployed Heads of Households).
In Australia, social security benefits, including unemployment benefits, are funded through the taxation system. There is no compulsory national unemployment insurance fund. Rather, benefits are funded in the annual Federal Budget by the National Treasury and are administrated and distributed throughout the nation by the government agency, Centrelink. Benefit rates are indexed to the Consumer Price Index and are adjusted twice a year according to inflation or deflation.
There are two types of payment available to those experiencing unemployment. The first, called Youth Allowance, is paid to young people aged 16 -- 20 (or 15, if deemed to meet the criteria for being considered ' independent ' by Centrelink). Youth Allowance is also paid to full - time students aged 16 -- 24, and to full - time Australian Apprenticeship workers aged 16 -- 24. People aged below 18 who have not completed their High School education, are usually required to be in full - time education, undertaking an apprenticeship or doing training to be eligible for Youth Allowance. For single people under 18 years of age living with a parent or parents the basic rate is A $ 91.60 per week. For over-18 - to 20 - year - olds living at home this increases to A $110.15 per week. For those aged 18 -- 20 not living at home the rate is A $167.35 per week. There are special rates for those with partners and / or children.
The second kind of payment is called Newstart Allowance and is paid to unemployed people over the age of 21 and under the pension eligibility age. To receive a Newstart payment, recipients must be unemployed, be prepared to enter into an Employment Pathway Plan (previously called an Activity Agreement) by which they agree to undertake certain activities to increase their opportunities for employment, be Australian Residents and satisfy the income test (which limits weekly income to A $32 per week before benefits begin to reduce, until one 's income reaches A $397.42 per week at which point no unemployment benefits are paid) and the assets test (an eligible recipient can have assets of up to A $161,500 if he or she owns a home before the allowance begins to reduce and $278,500 if he or she does do not own a home). The rate of Newstart allowance as at the 12th January 2010 for single people without children is A $228 per week, paid fortnightly. (This does not include supplemental payments such as Rent Assistance.) Different rates apply to people with partners and / or children.
The system in Australia is designed to support recipients no matter how long they have been unemployed. In recent years the former Coalition government under John Howard has increased the requirements of the Activity Agreement, providing for controversial schemes such as Work for the Dole, which requires that people on benefits for 6 months or longer work voluntarily for a community organisation regardless of whether such work increases their skills or job prospects. Since the Labor government under Kevin Rudd was elected in 2008, the length of unemployment before one is required to fulfill the requirements of the Activity Agreement (which has been renamed the Employment Pathway Plan) has increased from six to twelve months. There are other options available as alternatives to the Work for the Dole scheme, such as undertaking part - time work or study and training, the basic premise of the Employment Pathway Plan being to keep the welfare recipient active and involved in seeking full - time work.
For people renting their accommodation, unemployment benefits are supplemented by Rent Assistance, which, for single people as at 29 June 2012, begins to be paid when weekly rent is more than A $53.40. Rent Assistance is paid as a proportion of total rent paid (75 cents per dollar paid over $53.40 up to the maximum). The maximum amount of rent assistance payable is A $60.10 per week, and is paid when the total weekly rent exceeds A $133.54 per week. Different rates apply to people with partners and / or children, or who are sharing accommodation.
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In Canada, the system now known as Employment Insurance was formerly called Unemployment Insurance. The name was changed in 1996, in order to alleviate perceived negative connotations. In 2015, Canadian workers pay premiums of 1.88 % of insured earnings in return for benefits if they lose their jobs.
The Employment and Social Insurance Act was passed in 1935 during the Great Depression by the government of R.B. Bennett as an attempted Canadian unemployment insurance programme. It was, however, ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada as unemployment was judged to be an insurance matter falling under provincial responsibility. After a constitutional amendment was agreed to by all of the provinces, a reference to "Unemployment Insurance '' was added to the matters falling under federal authority under the Constitution Act, 1867, and the first Canadian system was adopted in 1940. Because of these problems Canada was the last major Western country to bring in an employment insurance system. It was extended dramatically by Pierre Trudeau in 1971 making it much easier to get. The system was sometimes called the 10 / 42, because one had to work for 10 weeks to get benefits for the other 42 weeks of the year. It was also in 1971 that the UI program was first opened up to maternity and sickness benefits, for 15 weeks in each case.
The generosity of the Canadian UI programme was progressively reduced after the adoption of the 1971 UI Act. At the same time, the federal government gradually reduced its financial contribution, eliminating it entirely by 1990. The EI system was again cut by the Progressive Conservatives in 1990 and 1993, then by the Liberals in 1994 and 1996. Amendments made it harder to qualify by increasing the time needed to be worked, although seasonal claimants (who work long hours over short periods) turned out to gain from the replacement, in 1996, of weeks by hours to qualify. The ratio of beneficiaries to unemployed, after having stood at around 40 percent for many years, rose somewhat during the 2009 recession but then fell back again to the low 40s. Some unemployed persons are not covered for benefits (e.g. self - employed workers), while others may have exhausted their benefits, did not work long enough to qualify, or quit or were dismissed from their job. The length of time one could take EI has also been cut repeatedly. The 1994 and 1996 changes contributed to a sharp fall in Liberal support in the Atlantic provinces in the 1997 election.
In 2001, the federal government increased parental leave from 10 to 35 weeks, which was added to preexisting maternity benefits of 15 weeks. In 2004, it allowed workers to take EI for compassionate care leave while caring for a dying relative, although the strict conditions imposed make this a little used benefit. In 2006, the Province of Quebec opted out of the federal EI scheme in respect of maternity, parental and adoption benefits, in order to provide more generous benefits for all workers in that province, including self - employed workers. Total EI spending was $19.677 billion for 2011 - 2012 (figures in Canadian dollars).
Employers contribute 1.4 times the amount of employee premiums. Since 1990, there is no government contribution to this fund. The amount a person receives and how long they can stay on EI varies with their previous salary, how long they were working, and the unemployment rate in their area. The EI system is managed by Service Canada, a service delivery network reporting to the Minister of Employment and Social Development Canada.
A bit over half of EI benefits are paid in Ontario and the Western provinces but EI is especially important in the Atlantic provinces, which have higher rates of unemployment. Many Atlantic workers are also employed in seasonal work such as fishing, forestry or tourism and go on EI over the winter when there is no work. There are special rules for fishermen making it easier for them to collect EI. EI also pays for maternity and parental leave, compassionate care leave, and illness coverage. The programme also pays for retraining programmes (EI Part II) through labour market agreements with the Canadian provinces.
A significant part of the federal fiscal surplus of the Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin years came from the EI system. Premiums were reduced much less than falling expenditures - producing, from 1994 onwards, EI surpluses of several billion dollars per year, which were added to general government revenue. The cumulative EI surplus stood at $57 billion at March 31, 2008, nearly four times the amount needed to cover the extra costs paid during a recession. This drew criticism from Opposition parties and from business and labour groups, and has remained a recurring issue of the public debate. The Conservative Party, chose not to recognize those EI surpluses after being elected in 2006. Instead, the Conservative government cancelled the EI surpluses entirely in 2010, and required EI contributors to make up the 2009, 2010 and 2011 annual deficits by increasing EI premiums. On December 11, 2008, the Supreme Court of Canada rejected a court challenge launched against the federal government by two Quebec unions, who argued that EI funds had been misappropriated by the government.
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The level of benefit is set between the minimum wage and the minimum living allowance by individual provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities.
Each Member State of the European Union has its own system and in general a worker should claim unemployment benefits in the country where they last worked. For a person working in a country other than their country of residency (a cross-border worker), they will have to claim benefits in their country of residence. More specific rules and information is available on the Your Europe portal.
Two systems run in parallel, combining a Ghent system and a minimum level of support provided by Kela, an agency of the national government. Unionization rates are high (70 %), and union membership comes with membership in an unemployment fund. Additionally, there are non-union unemployment funds. Usually benefits require 26 weeks of 18 hours per week on average, and the unemployment benefit is 60 % of the salary and lasts for 500 days. When this is not available, Kela can pay either regular unemployment benefit or labor market subsidy benefits. The former requires a degree and two years of full - time work. The latter requires participation in training, education, or other employment support, which may be mandated on pain of losing the benefit, but may be paid after the regular benefits have been either maxed out or not available. Although the unemployment funds handle the payments, most of the funding is from taxes and compulsory tax - like unemployment insurance charges.
Regardless of whether benefits are paid by Kela or from an unemployment fund, the unemployed person receives assistance from the Työ - ja elinkeinokeskus (TE - keskus, or the "Work and Livelihood Centre ''), a government agency which helps people to find jobs and employers to find workers. In order to be considered unemployed, the seeker must register at the TE - keskus as unemployed. If the jobseeker does not have degree, the agency can require the jobseeker to apply to a school.
If the individual does not qualify for any unemployment benefit he may still be eligible for the housing benefit (asumistuki) from Kela and municipal social welfare provisions (toimeentulotuki). They are not unemployment benefits and depend on household income, but they have in practice become the basic income of many long - term unemployed.
France uses a quasi Ghent system, under which unemployment benefits are distributed by an independent agency (UNEDIC) in which unions and Employer organisations are equally represented. UNEDIC is responsible for 3 benefits: ARE, ACA and ASR The main ARE scheme requires a minimum of 122 days membership in the preceding 24 months and certain other requirements before any claims can be made. Employers pay a contribution on top of the pre-tax income of their employees, which together with the employee contribution, fund the scheme.
The maximum unemployment benefit is (as of March 2009) 57.4 % of EUR 162 per day (Social security contributions ceiling in 2011), or 6900 euros per month. Claimants receive 57, 4 % of their average daily salary of the last 12 months preceding unemployment with the average amount being 1,111 euros per month. In France tax and other payroll taxes are paid on unemployment benefits. In 2011 claimants received the allowance for an average 291 days.
Germany has two different types of unemployment benefits.
The unemployment benefit I in Germany is also known as the unemployment insurance. The insurance is administered by the federal employment agency and funded by employee and employer contributions. This in stark contrast to FUTA in the US and other systems; where only employers make contributions. Participation (and thus contributions) are generally mandatory for both employee and employer.
All workers with a regular employment contract (abhängig Beschäftigte), except freelancers and certain civil servants (Beamte), contribute to the system. Since 2006, certain previously excluded workers have been able to opt into the system on a voluntary basis.
The system is financed by contributions from employees and employers. Employees pay 1.5 % of their gross salary below the social security threshold and employers pay 1.5 % contribution on top of the salary paid to the employee. The contribution level was reduced from 3.25 % for employees and employers as part of labour market reforms known as Hartz. Contributions are paid only on earnings up to the social security ceiling (2012: 5,600 EUR).
The system is largely self - financed but also receives a subsidy from the state to run the Jobcenters.
Unemployed workers are entitled to:
Unemployed benefit is paid to workers who have contributed at least during 12 months preceding their loss of a job. The allowance is paid for half of the period that the worker has contributed. Claimants get 60 % of their previous net salary (capped at the social security ceiling), or 67 % for claimants with children. The maximum benefit is therefore 2964 Euros (in 2012). In 2011 the federal Work Agency had revenues and expenses of 37.5 bn EUR
After a change in German law effective since 2008, provided their job history qualifies them, benefit recipients aged 50 to 54 now receive an unemployment benefit for 15 months, those 55 to 57 for 18 months and those 58 or older receive benefits for 24 months. For those under the age of 50 who have not been employed for more than 30 months in a job which paid into the social security scheme, full unemployment benefit can be received for a maximum period of 12 months. Note how the duration of eligibility is variegated in Germany to account for the difficulty older people have re-entering the job market.
If a worker is not eligible for the full unemployment benefits or after receiving the full unemployment benefit for the maximum of 12 months, he is able to apply for benefits from the so - called Arbeitslosengeld II (Hartz IV) programme, an open - ended welfare programme which ensures people do not fall into penury. A person receiving Hartz IV benefits is paid 404 EUR (2016) a month for living expenses plus the cost of adequate housing (including heating) and health care. Couples can receive benefits for each partner including their children. Additionally, children can get "benefits for education and participation ''. Germany does not have an EBT (electronic benefits transfer) card system in place and, instead, disburses welfare in cash or via direct deposit onto the recipient 's bank account. People who receive Hartz 4 are obligated to seek for jobs and can be forced to take part in social programs or Mini jobs in order to receive this Hartz 4 money. Most of these programs and Mini jobs oblige the employee to work the same hours as a normal full time job each day, 5 days a week.
Unemployment benefits in Greece are administered through ΟΑΕΔ (Greek: Οργανισμός Απασχόλησης Εργατικού Δυναμικού, Manpower Employment Organization) and are available only to laid - off salaried workers with full employment and social security payments during the previous two years. The self - employed do not qualify, and neither do those with other sources of income. The monthly benefit is fixed at the "55 % of 25 minimum daily wages '', and is currently 360 euros per month, with a 10 % increase for each under - age child. Recipients are eligible for at most twelve months; the exact duration depends on the collected number of ensema ένσημα, that is social security payment coupons - stamps collected (i.e. days of work) during the 14 months before being laid off; the minimum number of such coupons, under which there is no eligibility, is 125, collected in the first 12 of the 14 aforementioned months. Eligibility since January 1, 2013, has been further constrained in that one applying for unemployment benefits for a second or more time, must not have received more than the equivalent of 450 days of such benefits during the last four years since the last time one had started receiving such benefits; if one has received unemployment benefits in this period for more than 450 days then there is no eligibility while if one has received less, then one is only eligible for at most the remaining days up until the maximum of 450 days is reached.
People aged 18 and over and who are unemployed in Ireland can apply for either the Jobseeker 's Allowance (Liúntas do Lucht Cuardaigh Fostaíochta) or the Jobseeker 's Benefit (Sochar do Lucht Cuardaigh Fostaíochta). Both are paid by the Department of Social Protection and are nicknamed "the dole ''.
Unemployment benefit in Ireland can be claimed indefinitely for as long as the individual remains unemployed. The standard payment is € 193 per week for those aged 26 and over. For those aged 18 to 24 the rate is € 100 per week. For those aged 25 the weekly rate is € 144. Payments can be increased if the unemployed has dependents. For each adult dependent, another € 124.80 is added, € 100 if the recipient (as opposed to the dependent) is aged 18 to 24, and for each child dependent € 29.80 is added.
There are more benefits available to unemployed people, usually on a special or specific basis. Benefits include the Rent Supplement, the Mortgage Interest Supplement and the Fuel Allowance, among others. People on a low income (which includes those on JA / JB) are entitled to a Medical Card (although this must be applied for separately from the Health Service Executive) which provides free health care, optical care, limited dental care, aural care and subsidised prescription drugs carrying a € 2.50 per item charge to a maximum monthly contribution of € 25 per household (as opposed to subsidised services like non medical - card holders).
To qualify for Jobseekers Allowance, claimants must satisfy the "Habitual Residence Condition '': they must have been legally in the state (or the Common Travel Area) for two years or have another good reason (such as lived abroad and are returning to Ireland after become unemployed or deported). This condition does not apply to Jobseekers Benefit (which is based on Social Insurance payments).
More information on each benefit can be found here:
In Israel, unemployment benefits are paid by Bituah Leumi (the National Insurance Institute), to which workers must pay contributions. Eligible workers must immediately register with the Employment Service Bureau upon losing their jobs or jeopordize their eligibility, and the unemployment period is considered to start upon registration with the Employment Service Bureau. To be eligible for unemployment benefits, an employee must have completed a "qualifying period '' of work for which unemployment insurance contributions were paid, which varies between 300 and 360 days. Employees who were involuntarily terminated from their jobs or who terminated their own employment and can provide evidence of having done so for a justified reason are eligible for immediately receiving unemployment benefits, while those who are deemed to have terminated their employment of their own volition with no justified reason will only begin receiving unemployment benefits 90 days from the start of their unemployment period. Unemployment benefits are paid daily, with the amount calculated based on the employee 's previous income over the past six months, but not exceeding the daily average wage for the first 125 days of payment and two - thirds of the daily average wage from the 126th day onwards. During the unemployment period, the Employment Service Bureau assists in helping locate suitable work and job training, and regularly reporting to the Employment Service Bureau is a condition for continuing to receive unemployment benefits. A person who was offered suitable work or training by the Employment Service Bureau but refused will only receive unemployment benefits 90 days after the date of the refusal, and 30 days ' worth of unemployment benefits will be deducted for each subsequent refusal.
Unemployment benefits in Italy consists mainly in cash transfers based on contributions (Assicurazione Sociale per l'Impiego, ASPI), up to the 75 percent of the previous wages for up to sixteen months. Other measures are:
In the Italian unemployment insurance system all the measures are income - related, and they have an average decommodification level. The basis for entitlement is always employment, with more specific conditions for each case, and the provider is quite always the state. An interesting feature worthy to be discussed is that the Italian system takes in consideration also the economic situation of the employers, and aims as well at relieving them from the costs of crisis.
Unemployment benefits in Japan are called "unemployment insurance '' and are closer to the US or Canadian "user pays '' system than the taxpayer funded systems in place in countries such as Britain, New Zealand, or Australia. It is paid for by contributions by both the employer and employee.
On leaving a job, employees are supposed to be given a "Rishoku - hyo '' document showing their ID number (the same number is supposed to be used by later employers), employment periods, and pay (which contributions are linked to). The reason for leaving is also documented separately. These items affect eligibility, timing, and amount of benefits. The length of time that unemployed workers can receive benefits depends on the age of the employee, and how long they have been employed and paying in.
It is supposed to be compulsory for most full - time employees. If they have been enrolled for at least 6 months and are fired or made redundant, leave the company at the end of their contract, or their contract is non-renewed, the now - unemployed worker will receive unemployment insurance. If a worker quit of their own accord they may have to wait between 1 and 3 months before receiving any payment.
Mexico lacks a national unemployment insurance system, but it does have five programs to assist the unemployed:
Unemployment benefits in the Netherlands were introduced in 1949. Separate schemes exist for mainland Netherlands and for the Caribbean Netherlands.
The scheme in mainland Netherlands entails that, according to the Werkloosheidswet (Unemployment Law, WW), employers are responsible for paying the contributions to the scheme, which are deducted from the salary received by the employees. In 2012 the contribution was 4.55 % of gross salary up to a ceiling of 4,172 euros per month. The first 1,435.75 euros of an employees gross salaries are not subject to the 4.55 % contribution.
Benefits are paid for a maximum period of 38 months and claimants get 75 % of last salary for 2 months and 70 % thereafter with a maximum benefit of 3128 euros, depending on how long the claimant has been employed previously. Workers older than 50 years who are unemployed for over 2 months are entitled to a special benefit called the IOAW, if they do not receive the regular unemployment benefit (WW).
In New Zealand, Jobseeker Support, previously known as the Unemployment Benefit and also known as "the dole '' provides income support for people who are looking for work or training for work. It is one of a number of benefits administered by Work and Income, a service of the Ministry of Social Development.
To get this benefit, a person must meet the conditions and obligations specified in section 88A to 123D Social Security Act 1964. These conditions and obligations cover things such as age, residency status, and availability to work.
The amount that is paid depends on things such as the person 's age, income, marital status and whether they have children. It is adjusted annually on 1 April and in response to changes in legislature. Some examples of the maximum after tax weekly rate at 1 April 2011 are:
More information about this benefit and the amounts paid are on the Work and Income website.
External links
The Spanish unemployment benefits system is part of the Social security system of Spain. Benefits are managed by the State Public Employment Agency (SEPE). The basis for entitlement is having contributed for a minimum period during the time preceding unemployment, with further conditions that may be applicable. The system comprises contributory benefits and non-contributory benefits.
Contributory benefits are payable to those unemployed persons with a minimum of 12 months contributions over a period of 6 years preceding unemployment. The benefit is payable for 1 / 3 of the contribution period. The benefit amount is 70 % of the legal reference salary plus additional amounts for persons with dependants. The benefit reduces to 60 % of the reference salary after 6 months. The minimum benefit is 497 euros per month and the maximum is 1087, 20 euros per month for a single person. The non-contributory allowance is available to those persons who are no longer entitled to the contributory pension and who do not have income above 75 % of the national minimum wage.
Sweden uses the Ghent system, under which a significant proportion of unemployment benefits are distributed by union unemployment funds. Unemployment benefits are divided into a voluntary scheme with income related compensation up to a certain level and a comprehensive scheme that provides a lower level of basic support. The voluntary scheme requires a minimum of 12 months membership and 6 months employment during that time before any claims can be made. Employers pay a fee on top of the pre-tax income of their employees, which together with membership fees, fund the scheme (see Unemployment funds in Sweden).
The maximum unemployment benefit is (as of July 2016) SEK 980 per day. During the first 200 days the unemployed will receive 80 percent of his or her normal income during the last 12 months. From day 201 - 300 this goes down to 70 percent and from day 301 - 450 the insurance covers 65 percent of the normal income (only available for parents to children under the age of 18). In Sweden tax is paid on unemployment benefits, so the unemployed will get a maximum of about SEK 10,000 per month during the first 100 days (depending on the municipality tax rate). In other currencies, as of June 2017, this means a maximum of approximately £ 900, $1,150, or € 1,000, each month after tax. Private insurance is also available, mainly through professional organisations, to provide income related compensation that otherwise exceeds the ceiling of the scheme. The comprehensive scheme is funded by tax.
Saudi Arabia is an economic welfare state with free medical care and unemployment benefits. However, the country relies not on taxation but mainly oil revenues to maintain the social and economic services to its populace.
Payment: 2000 SAR (USD $534) for only 12 months for unemployed person from ages 18 -- 35
External links
JSA for a single person is changed annually, and at August 3, 2012 the maximum payable was £ 71.00 per week for a person aged over 25 and £ 56.25 per week for a person aged 18 -- 24. The rules for couples where both are unemployed are more complex, but a maximum of £ 112.55 per week is payable, dependent on age and other factors. Income - based JSA is reduced for people with savings of over £ 6,000, by a reduction of £ 1 per week per £ 250 of savings, up to £ 16,000. People with savings of over £ 16,000 are not able to get IB - JSA at all. The British system provides rent payments as part of a separate scheme called Housing Benefit.
Unemployment benefit is commonly referred to as "the dole ''; to receive the benefit is to be "on the dole ''. "Dole '' here is an archaic expression meaning "one 's allotted portion '', from the synonymous Old English word dāl.
In the United States, there are 50 state unemployment insurance programs plus one each in the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and United States Virgin Islands. Though policies vary by state, unemployment benefits generally pay eligible workers as high as $783.00 per week in the Massachusetts to a low as $235 per week maximum in Mississippi. Benefits are generally paid by state governments, funded in large part by state and federal payroll taxes levied against employers, to workers who have become unemployed through no fault of their own. Eligibility requirements for unemployment insurance vary by state, but generally speaking, employees not fired for misconduct ("terminated for cause '') are eligible for unemployment benefits, while those fired for misconduct (this sometimes can include misconduct committed outside the workplace, such as a problematic social media post or committing a crime) are not. In every state, employees who quit their job without "good cause '' are not eligible for unemployment benefits, but the definition of good cause varies by state. In some states, being fired for misconduct permanently bars the employee from receiving unemployment benefits, while in others it only disqualifies the employee for a short period. This compensation is classified as a type of social welfare benefit. According to the Internal Revenue Code, these types of benefits are to be included in a taxpayer 's gross income.
The standard time - length of unemployment compensation is six months, although extensions are possible during economic downturns. During the Great Recession, unemployment benefits were extended to 73 weeks.
The Supreme Court held that federal unemployment law is constitutional and does not violate the Tenth Amendment in Steward Machine Company v. Davis, 301 U.S. 548 (1937).
Unemployment insurance is a federal - state program financed through federal and state payroll taxes (federal and state UI taxes). In most states employers pay state and federal unemployment taxes if:
To facilitate this program, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Unemployment Tax Act (FUTA), which authorizes the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to collect an annual federal employer tax used to fund state workforce agencies. FUTA covers the costs of administering the Unemployment Insurance and Job Service programs in all states. In addition, FUTA pays one - half of the cost of extended unemployment benefits which are triggered in periods of high state unemployment. FUTA also provides a fund from which states UI funds may borrow to pay benefits. As originally established, the states paid the federal government.
The FUTA tax rate was originally three percent of taxable wages collected from employers who employed at least four employees, and employers could deduct up to 90 percent of the amount due if they paid taxes to a state to support a system of unemployment insurance which met Federal standards, but the rules have recently changed. The FUTA tax rate is now, as of June 30, 2011, 6.0 percent of taxable wages of employees who meet both the above and following criteria, and the taxable wage base is the first $7,000 paid in wages to each employee during a calendar year. Employers who pay the state unemployment tax on time receive an offset credit of up to 5.4 percent regardless of the rate of tax they pay their state. Therefore, the net FUTA tax rate is generally 0.6 percent (6.0 percent - 5.4 percent), for a maximum FUTA tax of $42.00 per employee, per year (. 006 X $7,000 = $42.00). State law determines individual state unemployment insurance tax rates. In the United States, unemployment insurance tax rates use experience rating.
Although the taxable wage base for each state / territory is at least $7,000 as mandated by FUTA, only four states or territories still remain at this minimum. These states / territories include Arizona, California, Florida, and Puerto Rico. Florida and Puerto Rico maintain tax rates similar to those of other states, but Arizona and California both have a higher maximum tax rate. Florida 's minimum tax rate is 0.1 % and the state maximum is 5.4 % and in Puerto Rico, employers are taxed between 2.4 % and 5.4 % depending on their experience rating. As of 2015, Arizona 's minimum was 0.03 %, but its maximum was 7.79 %. California 's tax rate on the taxable wage base is currently higher than the federal minimum of 6.0 %. Employers are currently on a tax schedule that requires them to pay a minimum of 1.5 % and a maximum 6.2 % of the taxable wage base. Even with the federal tax credit of 5.4 %, Arizona employers could end up paying $175 per employee ((. 0779 -. 054) x $7,000) and California employers could pay $56 per employee ((. 062 -. 054) x $7,000) versus the FUTA maximum of $42.
Within the above constraints, the individual states and territories raise their own contributions and run their own programs. The federal government sets broad guidelines for coverage and eligibility, but states vary in how they determine benefits and eligibility.
Federal rules are drawn by the United States Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration. For most states, the maximum period for receiving benefits is 26 weeks. There is an extended benefit program (authorized through the Social Security Acts) that may be triggered by the state unemployment rate. Congress has often passed temporary programs to extend benefits during recessions. This was done with the Temporary Extended Unemployment Compensation (TEUC) program in 2002 - 2003, which has since expired, and remained in force through June 2, 2010, with the Extended Unemployment Compensation 2008 legislation. In July 2010, legislation that provides an extension of federal extended unemployment benefits through November 2010 was signed by the president. The legislation extended benefits for 2.3 million unemployed workers who had exhausted their unemployment benefits.
The federal government lends money to the states for unemployment insurance when states run short of funds which happens when the state 's UI fund can not cover the cost of current benefits. A high unemployment rate shrinks UI tax revenues and increases expenditures on benefits. State UI finances and the need for loans are exacerbated when a state cuts taxes and increases benefits. FUTA loans to state funds are repaid with interest.
Congressional actions to increase penalties for states incurring large debts for unemployment benefits led to state fiscal crises in the 1980s.
One interesting feature of the UI tax is that it targets firms that have recently had layoffs, potentially hitting distressed firms. Recent work shows that UI tax increases significantly reduce hiring and employment in affected firms, potentially eroding the macroeconomics stabilizing influence of the UI program.
To Keynesians, unemployment insurance acts as an automatic stabilizer. Benefits automatically increase when unemployment is high and fall when unemployment is low, smoothing the business cycle; however, others claim that the taxation necessary to support this system serves to decrease employment.
In order to receive benefits, a person must have worked for at least one quarter in the previous year and have been laid - off by an employer. Workers who were temporary or were paid under the table are not eligible for unemployment insurance. If a worker quits without good cause or is fired for misconduct, then they are normally not eligible for UI benefits. There are five common reasons a claim for unemployment benefits are denied: the worker is unavailable for work, the worker quit his or her job without good cause, the worker was fired for misconduct, refusing suitable work, and unemployment resulting from a labor dispute. In practice, it is only practical to verify whether the worker quit or was fired. If the worker 's claim is denied, then they have the right to appeal. If the worker was fired for misconduct, then the employer has the burden to prove that the termination of employment is a misconduct defined by individual states laws. However, if the employee quit their job, then they must prove that their voluntary separation must be good cause.
Generally, the worker must be unemployed through no fault of his / her own although workers often file for benefits they are not entitled to; when the employer demonstrates that the unemployed person quit or was fired for cause the worker is required to pay back the benefits they received. The unemployed person must also meet state requirements for wages earned or time worked during an established period of time (referred to as a "base period '') to be eligible for benefits. In most states, the base period is usually the first four out of the last five completed calendar quarters prior to the time that the claim is filed. Unemployment benefits are based on reported covered quarterly earnings. The amount of earnings and the number of quarters worked are used to determine the length and value of the unemployment benefit. The average weekly in 2010 payment was $293.
As a result of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act passed in February 2009, many unemployed people receive up to 99 weeks of unemployment benefits; this may depend on State legislation. Before the passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the maximum number of weeks allowed was 26.
It generally takes two weeks for benefit payments to begin, the first being a "waiting week '', which is not reimbursed, and the second being the time lag between eligibility for the program and the first benefit actually being paid.
To begin a claim, the unemployed worker must apply for benefits through a state unemployment agency. In certain instances, the employer initiates the process. Generally, the certification includes the affected person affirming that they are "able and available for work '', the amount of any part - time earnings they may have had, and whether they are actively seeking work. These certifications are usually accomplished either over the Internet or via an interactive voice response telephone call, but in a few states may be by mail. After receiving an application, the state will notify the individual if they qualify and the rate they will receive every week. The state will also review the reason for separation from employment. Many states require the individual to periodically certify that the conditions of the benefits are still met.
If a worker 's reason for separation from their last job is due to some reason other than a "lack of work, '' a determination will be made about whether they are eligible for benefits. Generally, all determinations of eligibility for benefits are made by the appropriate State under its law or applicable federal laws. If a worker is disqualified or denied benefits, they have the right to file an appeal within an established time - frame. The State will advise a worker of his or her appeal rights. An employer may also appeal a determination if they do not agree with the State 's determination regarding the employee 's eligibility. If the worker 's claim is denied, then they have the right to appeal. If the worker was fired for misconduct, then the employer has the burden to prove substantially that the termination of employment is a misconduct defined by individual states laws. However, if the employee quit their job, then they must prove that their voluntary separation must be good cause. Success rate of unemployment appeals is two - thirds, or 67 % of the time for the most claimants.In the State of Oklahoma, claimants generally win 51.5 % of the time in misconduct cases.
Each Thursday, the Department of Labor issues the Unemployment Insurance Weekly Claims Report. Its headline number is the seasonally adjusted estimate for the initial claims for unemployment for the previous week in the United States. This statistic, because it is published weekly, is depended on as a current indicator of the labor market and the economy generally.
In 2016, the number of people on unemployment benefits fell to around 1.74 the lowest in the last 4 decades.
Twice a year, the Office of Management and Budget delivers an economic assessment of the unemployment insurance program as it relates to budgetary issues. As it relates to the FY 2012 budget, the OMB reports that the insured unemployment rate (IUR) is projected to average 3.6 % in both FY 2011 and in FY 2012. State unemployment regular benefit outlays are estimated at $61 billion in FY 2011 and $64.3 billion in FY 2012, down somewhat from Midsession estimates. Outlays from state trust fund accounts are projected to exceed revenues and interest income by $16.0 billion in FY 2011 and $15.1 billion in FY 2012. State trust fund account balances, net of loans, are projected to continue to fall, from - $27.4 billion at the end of FY 2010 to - $62.7 billion at the end of FY 2013, before starting to grow again. Net balances are not projected to become positive again until well beyond FY 2016. Up to 40 states are projected to continue borrowing heavily from the Federal Unemployment Account (FUA) over the next few years. The aggregate loan balance is projected to increase from $40.2 billion at the end of FY 2010 to a peak end - of - year balance of $68.3 billion in FY 2013. Due to the high volume of state loans and increased EB payments, FUA and EUCA are projected to borrow $26.7 billion from the general fund in FY 2011 and an additional $19.4 billion in FY 2012, with neither account projected to return to a net positive balance before 2016. The general fund advances must be repaid with interest.
The economic argument for unemployment insurance comes from the principle of adverse selection. One common criticism of unemployment insurance is that it induces moral hazard, the fact that unemployment insurance lowers on - the - job effort and reduces job - search effort.
Adverse selection refers to the fact that "workers who have the highest probability of becoming unemployed have the highest demand for unemployment insurance. '' Adverse selection causes profit maximizing private insurance agencies to set high premiums for the insurance because there is a high likelihood they will have to make payments to the policyholder. High premiums work to exclude many individuals who otherwise might purchase the insurance. "A compulsory government program avoids the adverse selection problem. Hence, government provision of UI has the potential to increase efficiency. However, government provision does not eliminate moral hazard. ''
"At the same time, those workers who managed to obtain insurance might experience more unemployment otherwise would have been the case. '' The private insurance company would have to determine whether the employee is unemployed through no fault of their own, which is difficult to determine. Incorrect determinations could result in the payout of significant amounts for fraudulent claims or alternately failure to pay legitimate claims. This leads to the rationale that if government could solve either problem that government intervention would increase efficiency.
In the Great Recession, the "moral hazard '' issue of whether unemployment insurance -- and specifically extending benefits past the maximum 99 weeks -- significantly encourages unemployment by discouraging workers from finding and taking jobs was expressed by Republican legislators. Conservative economist Robert Barro found that benefits raised the unemployment rate 2 %. Disagreeing with Barro 's study were Berkeley economist Jesse Rothstein, who found the "vast majority '' of unemployment was due to "demand shocks '' not "(unemployment insurance) - induced supply reductions. '' A study by Rothstein of extensions of unemployment insurance to 99 weeks during the Great Recession to test the hypothesis that unemployment insurance discourages people from seeking jobs found the overall effect of UI on unemployment was to raise it by no more than one - tenth of one percent.
A November 2011 report by the Congressional Budget Office found that even if unemployment benefits convince some unemployed to ignore job openings, these openings were quickly filled by new entrants into the labor market. A survey of studies on unemployment insurance 's effect on employment by the Political Economy Research Institute found that unemployed who collected benefits did not find themselves out of work longer than those who did n't have unemployment benefits; and that unemployed workers did not search for work more or reduce their wage expectations once their benefits ran out.
One concern over unemployment insurance increasing unemployment is based on experience rating benefit uses which can sometimes be imperfect. That is, the cost to the employer in increased taxes is less than the benefits that would be paid to the employee upon layoff. The firm in this instance believes that it is more cost effective to lay off the employee, causing more unemployment than under perfect experience rating.
An alternative rationale for unemployment insurance is that it may allow for improving the quality of matches between workers and firms. Marimon and Zilibotti argued that although a more generous unemployment benefit system may indeed increase the unemployment rate, it may also help improve the average match quality. A similar point is made by Mazur who analyzed the welfare and inequality effects of a policy reform giving entitlement for unemployment insurance to quitters. Arash Nekoei and Andrea Weber present empirical evidence from Austria that extending unemployment benefit duration raises wages by improving reemployment firm quality. Similarly, Tatsiramos studied data from European countries and found that although unemployment insurance does increase unemployment duration, the duration of subsequent employment tends to be longer (suggesting better match quality).
An alternative to unemployment insurance intended to reduce the moral hazard costs would introduce mandated individual saving accounts for workers to draw on after being laid off. The plan, by Martin Feldstein would pay any positive account balance at retirement to the employee.
Another issue with unemployment insurance relates to its effects on state budgets. During recessionary time periods, the number of unemployed rises and they begin to draw benefits from the program. The longer the recession lasts, depending on the state 's starting UI program balance, the quicker the state begins to run out of funds. The recession that began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009 has significantly impacted state budgets. According to The Council of State Governments, by March 18, 2011, 32 states plus the Virgin Islands had borrowed nearly $45.7 billion. The Labor Department estimates by the fourth quarter of 2013, as many as 40 states may need to borrow more than $90 billion to fund their unemployment programs and it will take a decade or more to pay off the debt.
Possible policy options for states to shore up the unemployment insurance funds include lowering benefits for recipients and / or raising taxes on businesses. Kentucky took the approach of raising taxes and lowering benefits to attempt to balance its unemployment insurance program. Starting in 2010, a claimant 's weekly benefits will decrease from 68 % to 62 % and the taxable wage base will increase from $8,000 to $12,000, over a ten - year period. These moves are estimated to save the state over $450 million.
The argument for taxation of social welfare benefits is that they result in a realized gain for a taxpayer. The argument against taxation is that the benefits are generally less than the federal poverty level.
Unemployment compensation has been taxable by the federal government since 1987. Code Section 85 deemed unemployment compensation included in gross income. Federal taxes are not withheld from unemployment compensation at the time of payment unless requested by the recipient using Form W - 4V. In 2003, Rep. Philip English introduced legislation to repeal the taxation of unemployment compensation, but the legislation did not advance past committee. Most states with income tax consider unemployment compensation to be taxable. Prior to 1987, unemployment compensation amounts were excluded from federal gross income. For the US Federal tax year of 2009, as a result of the signing of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 signed by Barack Obama on February 17, 2009 the first $2,400 worth of unemployment income received during the ' tax year ' of 2009 will be exempted from being considered as taxable income on the Federal level, when American taxpayers file their 2009 IRS tax return paperwork in early 2010.
Job sharing or work sharing and short time or short - time working refer to situations or systems in which employees agree to or are forced to accept a reduction in working time and pay. These can be based on individual agreements or on government programs in many countries that try to prevent unemployment. In these, employers have the option of reducing work hours to part - time for many employees instead of laying off some of them and retaining only full - time workers. For example, employees in 18 states of the United States can then receive unemployment payments for the hours they are no longer working.
In 2013, it was reported that most U.S. states deliver unemployment benefits to recipients who do not have a bank account through a prepaid debit card. The federal government uses the Direct Express Debit Mastercard prepaid debit card offered by Mastercard and Comerica Bank to give some federal assistance payments to people who do not have bank accounts. Many states have similar programs for unemployment payments and other assistance.
International Labour Organization has adopted the Employment Promotion and Protection against Unemployment Convention, 1988 for promotion of employment against unemployment and social security including unemployment benefit.
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who did the giants draft the last time they had the #2 pick | List of New York Giants first - round Draft picks - wikipedia
The New York Giants are a National Football League (NFL) franchise founded in the 1925 season, the NFL 's sixth. Eleven years later, the league introduced the NFL draft after team owners voted on it in 1935. The intention of the draft was to make the NFL more competitive, as a few stronger teams, including the Giants, had an advantage in signing young players because they were able to offer higher salaries and an opportunity to compete for championships. Since that first draft, the Giants have selected 75 players in the first round. The team 's first - round pick in the inaugural NFL draft was Art Lewis, a tackle from Ohio University; he was the 9th overall selection. In the most recent draft, held in 2018, the Giants chose Penn State running back Saquon Barkley.
Officially known as the "NFL Annual Player Selection Meeting '', but more often called the NFL draft, the event is the NFL 's primary mechanism for distributing newly professional players finished with their college football careers to its teams. The draft order is determined based on the previous season 's standings; the teams with the worst win -- loss records receive the earliest picks. Teams that qualified for the NFL playoffs select after non-qualifiers, and their order depends on how far they advanced. The final two selections in the first round are reserved for the Super Bowl runner - up and champion. Draft picks are tradable, and players or other picks can be acquired with them.
Of the 75 players drafted by the Giants in the first round, 27 played at one of the running back positions. Of these, 10 were halfbacks and six were fullbacks, and the remaining 11 are credited as backs, blocking backs, or running backs. Among other frequently drafted positions, the Giants have chosen eight defensive backs, eight offensive tackles, six defensive ends, five wide receivers, four defensive tackles, and four quarterbacks. Five of the Giants ' first - round picks attended the University of Notre Dame, more than any other college. Four picks came from Miami, while seven universities have had three players selected. The Giants have held the first overall pick twice, in 1951 and 1965, selecting Kyle Rote and Tucker Frederickson. Three of the team 's first - round picks -- George Connor, Frank Gifford, and Lawrence Taylor -- have been elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The Giants did not draft a player in the first round on 11 occasions. Two of those picks, for the 1967 and 1968 drafts, were traded to the Minnesota Vikings in 1967 as part of a deal for quarterback Fran Tarkenton. During the 1974 season, the Giants dealt their 1975 first - round choice to the Dallas Cowboys for another quarterback, Craig Morton. In another case when the Giants used first - round draft picks to trade for a quarterback, the team acquired 2004 first overall pick Eli Manning from the San Diego Chargers, in a deal that included their 2004 and 2005 first - round picks; the Giants had already selected Philip Rivers with the 2004 pick, the fourth in that year 's draft. The Giants used multiple first - round selections in 1951, 1972, and 1984; in the second instance; they gained a selection by trading Tarkenton back to the Vikings.
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who suggested imitation as a method in translation | Metaphrase - wikipedia
Metaphrase is a term referring to literal translation, i.e., "word by word and line by line '' translation. In everyday usage, metaphrase means literalism; however, metaphrase is also the translation of poetry into prose. Unlike "paraphrase, '' which has an ordinary use in literature theory, the term "metaphrase '' is only used in translation theory.
Metaphrase is one of the three ways of transferring, along with paraphrase and imitation, according to John Dryden. Dryden considers paraphrase preferable to metaphrase (as literal translation) and imitation.
The term "metaphrase '' is first used by Philo Judaeus (20 BCE) in De vita Mosis. Quintilian draws a distinction between metaphrase and paraphrase in the pedagogical practice of imitation and reworking classical texts; he points out that metaphrase changes a word, and paraphrase, a phrase: a distinction that is also followed by Renaissance scholars.
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how to calculate the dew point from relative humidity | Dew point - wikipedia
Dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor. When further cooled, the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid water (dew). When air cools to its dew point through contact with a surface that is colder than the air, water will condense on the surface. When the temperature is below the freezing point of water, the dew point is called the frost point, as frost is formed rather than dew. The measurement of the dew point is related to humidity. A higher dew point means there will be more moisture in the air.
Given that all the other factors influencing humidity remain constant, at ground level the relative humidity rises as the temperature falls. This is because less vapor is needed to saturate the air so, vapor condenses as the temperature falls. Dew point temperature is never greater than the air temperature because relative humidity can not exceed 100 %.
In technical terms, the dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor in a sample of air at constant barometric pressure condenses into liquid water at the same rate at which it evaporates. At temperatures below the dew point, the rate of condensation will be greater than that of evaporation, forming more liquid water. The condensed water is called dew when it forms on a solid surface, or frost if it freezes. The condensed water is called either fog or a cloud, depending on its altitude, when it forms in the air.
A high relative humidity implies that the dew point is closer to the current air temperature. A relative humidity of 100 % indicates the dew point is equal to the current temperature and that the air is maximally saturated with water. When the moisture content remains constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases.
General aviation pilots use dew point data to calculate the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog, and to estimate the height of a cumuliform cloud base.
At a given temperature but independent of barometric pressure, the dew point is a consequence of the absolute humidity, the mass of water per unit volume of air. If both the temperature and pressure rise, however, the dew point will increase and the relative humidity will decrease accordingly. Reducing the absolute humidity without changing other variables will bring the dew point back down to its initial value. In the same way, increasing the absolute humidity after a temperature drop brings the dew point back down to its initial level. If the temperature rises in conditions of constant pressure, then the dew point will remain constant but the relative humidity will drop. For this reason, a constant relative humidity with different temperatures implies that when it is hotter, a higher fraction of the air is present as water vapor compared to when it is cooler.
At a given barometric pressure but independent of temperature, the dew point indicates the mole fraction of water vapor in the air, or, put differently, determines the specific humidity of the air. If the pressure rises without changing this mole fraction, the dew point will rise accordingly. Reducing the mole fraction, i.e., making the air less humid, would bring the dew point back down to its initial value. In the same way, increasing the mole fraction after a pressure drop brings the relative humidity back up to its initial level. Considering New York (33 ft or 10 m elevation) and Denver (5,280 ft or 1,610 m elevation), for example, this means that if the dew point and temperature in both cities are the same, then the mass of water vapor per cubic meter of air will be the same, but the mole fraction of water vapor in the air will be greater in Denver.
When the air temperature is high, the human body uses the evaporation of sweat to cool down, with the cooling effect directly related to how fast the perspiration evaporates. The rate at which perspiration can evaporate depends on how much moisture is in the air and how much moisture the air can hold. If the air is already saturated with moisture, perspiration will not evaporate. The body 's thermoregulation will produce perspiration in an effort to keep the body at its normal temperature even when the rate it is producing sweat exceeds the evaporation rate, so one can become coated with sweat on humid days even without generating additional body heat (such as by exercising).
As the air surrounding one 's body is warmed by body heat, it will rise and be replaced with other air. If air is moved away from one 's body with a natural breeze or a fan, sweat will evaporate faster, making perspiration more effective at cooling the body. The more unevaporated perspiration, the greater the discomfort.
A wet bulb thermometer also uses evaporative cooling, so it provides a good measure for use in evaluating comfort level.
Discomfort also exists when the dew point is low (below around − 30 ° C or − 22 ° F). The drier air can cause skin to crack and become irritated more easily. It will also dry out the airways. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration recommends indoor air be maintained at 20 -- 24.5 ° C (68 -- 76 ° F) with a 20 -- 60 % relative humidity, equivalent to a dew point of − 4.5 to 15.5 ° C (24 to 60 ° F).
Lower dew points, less than 10 ° C or 50 ° F, correlate with lower ambient temperatures and the body requires less cooling. A lower dew point can go along with a high temperature only at extremely low relative humidity, allowing for relatively effective cooling.
People inhabiting tropical and subtropical climates acclimatize somewhat to higher dew points. Thus, a resident of Darwin or Miami, for example, might have a higher threshold for discomfort than a resident of a temperate climate like London or Chicago. Those accustomed to temperate climates often begin to feel uncomfortable when the dew point reaches between 15 and 20 ° C (59 -- 68 ° F), while others might find dew points below 18 ° C (64 ° F) comfortable. Most inhabitants of these areas will consider dew points above 21 ° C or 70 ° F oppressive and tropical - like.
Devices called hygrometers are used to measure dew point over a wide range of temperatures. These devices consist of a polished metal mirror which is cooled as air is passed over it. The temperature at which dew forms is, by definition, the dew point. Manual devices of this sort can be used to calibrate other types of humidity sensors, and automatic sensors may be used in a control loop with a humidifier or dehumidifier to control the dew point of the air in a building or in a smaller space for a manufacturing process.
A dew point of 33 ° C (91 ° F) was observed at 14: 00 EDT on July 12, 1987, in Melbourne, Florida. A dew point of 32 ° C (90 ° F) has been observed in the United States on at least two other occasions: Appleton, Wisconsin, at 17: 00 CDT on July 13, 1995, and New Orleans Naval Air Station at 17: 00 CDT on July 30, 1987. A dew point of 35 ° C (95 ° F) was observed at Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, at 15: 00 AST on July 8, 2003, which caused the heat index to reach 81 ° C (178 ° F), the highest value recorded.
A well - known approximation used to calculate the dew point, T, given just the actual ("dry bulb '') air temperature, T (in degrees Celsius) and relative humidity (in percent), RH, is the Magnus formula:
The more complete formulation and origin of this approximation involves the interrelated saturated water vapor pressure (in units of millibars, also called hectopascals) at T, P (T), and the actual vapor pressure (also in units of millibars), P (T), which can be either found with RH or approximated with the barometric pressure (in millibars), BP, and "wet - bulb '' temperature, T is (unless declared otherwise, all temperatures are expressed in degrees Celsius):
For greater accuracy, P (T) (and therefore γ (T, RH)) can be enhanced, using part of the Bögel modification, also known as the Arden Buck equation, which adds a fourth constant d:
where
There are several different constant sets in use. The ones used in NOAA 's presentation are taken from a 1980 paper by David Bolton in the Monthly Weather Review:
These valuations provide a maximum error of 0.1 %, for − 30 ° C ≤ T ≤ 35 ° C and 1 % < RH < 100 %. Also noteworthy is the Sonntag1990,
Another common set of values originates from the 1974 Psychrometry and Psychrometric Charts, as presented by Paroscientific,
Also, in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, Arden Buck presents several different valuation sets, with different minimum accuracies for different temperature ranges. Two particular sets provide a range of − 40 ° C to + 50 ° C between the two, with even greater minimum accuracy than all of the other, above sets (maximum error at extremes of temperature range):
There is also a very simple approximation that allows conversion between the dew point, temperature, and relative humidity. This approach is accurate to within about ± 1 ° C as long as the relative humidity is above 50 %:
This can be expressed as a simple rule of thumb:
For every 1 ° C difference in the dew point and dry bulb temperatures, the relative humidity decreases by 5 %, starting with RH = 100 % when the dew point equals the dry bulb temperature.
The derivation of this approach, a discussion of its accuracy, comparisons to other approximations, and more information on the history and applications of the dew point are given in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.
For temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit, these approximations work out to
For example, a relative humidity of 100 % means dew point is the same as air temp. For 90 % RH, dew point is 3 ° F lower than air temperature. For every 10 percent lower, dew point drops 3 ° F.
The frost point is similar to the dew point, in that it is the temperature to which a given parcel of humid air must be cooled, at constant barometric pressure, for water vapor to be deposited on a surface as ice without going through the liquid phase. (Compare with sublimation.) The frost point for a given parcel of air is always higher than the dew point, as the stronger bonding between water molecules on the surface of ice requires higher temperature to break.
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who hoisted the national flag of india for the first time | Flag of India - wikipedia
The National Flag of India is a horizontal rectangular tricolour of India saffron, white and India green; with the Ashoka Chakra, a 24 - spoke wheel, in navy blue at its centre. It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July 1947, and it became the official flag of the Dominion of India on 15 August 1947. The flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India. In India, the term "tricolour '' (Hindi: तिरंगा, translit. Tiraṅgā) almost always refers to the Indian national flag. The flag is based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya.
By law, the flag is to be made of khadi, a special type of hand - spun cloth or silk, made popular by Mahatma Gandhi. The manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, who allocates it to regional groups. As of 2009, the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha has been the sole manufacturer of the flag.
Usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India and other laws relating to the national emblems. The original code prohibited use of the flag by private citizens except on national days such as the Independence day and the Republic Day. In 2002, on hearing an appeal from a private citizen, Naveen Jindal, the Supreme Court of India directed the Government of India to amend the code to allow flag usage by private citizens. Subsequently, the Union Cabinet of India amended the code to allow limited usage. The code was amended once more in 2005 to allow some additional use including adaptations on certain forms of clothing. The flag code also governs the protocol of flying the flag and its use in conjunction with other national and non-national flags.
According to the Flag code of India, the Indian flag has a ratio of two by three (where the length of the flag is 1.5 times that of the width). All three stripes of the flag (saffron, white and green) are to be equal in width and length. The size of the Ashoka Chakra is not specified in the Flag code, but it has twenty - four spokes that are evenly spaced. In section 4.3. 1 of "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '', there is a chart that details the size of the Ashoka Chakra on the nine specific sizes of the national flag. In both the Flag code and IS1, they call for the Ashoka Chakra to be printed or painted on both sides of the flag in navy blue. Below is the list of specified shades for all colours used on the national flag, with the exception of Navy Blue, from "IS1: Manufacturing standards for the Indian Flag '' as defined in the 1931 CIE Colour Specifications with illuminant C. The navy blue colour can be found in the standard IS: 1803 - 1973.
Note that the values given in the table correspond to CIE 1931 color space. Approximate RGB values for use may be taken to be: India saffron # FF9933, white # FFFFFF, India green # 138808, navy blue # 000080. Pantone values closest to this are 130 U, White, 2258 C and 2735 C.
Gandhi first proposed a flag to the Indian National Congress in 1921. The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya. In the centre was a traditional spinning wheel, symbolising Gandhi 's goal of making Indians self - reliant by fabricating their own clothing. The design was then modified to include a white stripe in the centre for other religious communities, and provide a background for the spinning wheel. Subsequently, to avoid sectarian associations with the colour scheme, saffron, white and green were chosen for the three bands, representing courage and sacrifice, peace and truth, and faith and chivalry respectively.
A few days before India became independent on 15 August 1947, the specially constituted Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A modified version of the Swaraj flag was chosen; the tricolour remained the same saffron, white and green. However, the charkha was replaced by the Ashoka Chakra representing the eternal wheel of law. The philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who later became India 's first Vice President and second President, clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows:
A number of flags with varying designs were used in the period preceding the Indian Independence Movement by the rulers of different princely states; the idea of a single Indian flag was first raised by the British rulers of India after the rebellion of 1857, which resulted in the establishment of direct imperial rule. The first flag, whose design was based on western heraldic standards, were similar to the flags of other British colonies, including Canada and Australia; its blue field included the Union Flag in the upper - left quadrant and a Star of India capped by the royal crown in the middle of the right half. To address the question of how the star conveyed "Indianness '', Queen Victoria created the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India to honour services to the empire by her Indian subjects. Subsequently, all the Indian princely states received flags with symbols based on the heraldic criteria of Europe including the right to fly defaced British red ensigns.
In the early twentieth century, around the coronation of Edward VII, a discussion started on the need for a heraldic symbol that was representative of the Indian empire. William Coldstream, a British member of the Indian Civil Service, campaigned the government to change the heraldic symbol from a star, which he considered to be a common choice, to something more appropriate. His proposal was not well received by the government; Lord Curzon rejected it for practical reasons including the multiplication of flags. Around this time, nationalist opinion within the realm was leading to a representation through religious tradition. The symbols that were in vogue included the Ganesha, advocated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Kali, advocated by Aurobindo Ghosh and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Another symbol was the cow, or Gau Mata (cow mother). However, all these symbols were Hindu - centric and did not suggest unity with India 's Muslim population.
The partition of Bengal (1905) resulted in the introduction of a new flag representing the Indian independence movement that sought to unite the multitude of castes and races within the country. The Vande Mataram flag, part of the Swadeshi movement against the British, comprised Indian religious symbols represented in western heraldic fashion. The tricolour flag included eight white lotuses on the upper green band representing the eight provinces, a sun and a crescent on the bottom red band, and the Vande Mataram slogan in Hindi on the central yellow band. The flag was launched in Calcutta bereft of any ceremony and the launch was only briefly covered by newspapers. The flag was not covered in contemporary governmental or political reports either, but was used at the annual session of the Indian National Congress. A slightly modified version was subsequently used by Madam Bhikaji Cama at the second International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart in 1907. Despite the multiple uses of the flag, it failed to generate enthusiasm amongst Indian nationalists.
Around the same time, another proposal for the flag was initiated by Sister Nivedita, a Hindu reformist and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. The flag consisted of a thunderbolt in the centre and a hundred and eight oil lamps for the border, with the Vande Mataram caption split around the thunderbolt. It was also presented at the Indian National Congress meeting in 1906. Soon, many other proposals were initiated, but none of them gained attention from the nationalist movement.
In 1909, Lord Ampthill, former Governor of the Madras Presidency, wrote to The Times of London in the run up to Empire Day pointing out that there existed "no flag representative of India as a whole or any Indian province... Surely this is strange, seeing that but for India there would be no Empire. ''
In 1916, Pingali Venkayya submitted thirty new designs, in the form of a booklet funded by members of the High Court of Madras. These many proposals and recommendations did little more than keep the flag movement alive. The same year, Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement. The flag included the Union Jack in the upper left corner, a star and crescent in the upper right, and seven stars displayed diagonally from the lower right, on a background of five red and four green alternating bands. The flag resulted in the first governmental initiative against any nationalistic flag, as a magistrate in Coimbatore banned its use. The ban was followed by a public debate on the function and importance of a national flag.
In the early 1920s, national flag discussions gained prominence across most British dominions following the peace treaty between Britain and Ireland. In November 1920, the Indian delegation to the League of Nations wanted to use an Indian flag, and this prompted the British Indian government to place renewed emphasis on the flag as a national symbol.
In April 1921, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi wrote in his journal Young India about the need for an Indian flag, proposing a flag with the charkha or spinning wheel at the centre. The idea of the spinning wheel was put forth by Lala Hansraj, and Gandhi commissioned Pingali Venkayya to design a flag with the spinning wheel on a red and green banner, the red colour signifying Hindus and the green standing for Muslims. Gandhi wanted the flag to be presented at the Congress session of 1921, but it was not delivered on time, and another flag was proposed at the session. Gandhi later wrote that the delay was fortuitous since it allowed him to realise that other religions were not represented; he then added white to the banner colours, to represent all the other religions. Finally, owing to the religious - political sensibilities, in 1929, Gandhi moved towards a more secular interpretation of the flag colours, stating that red stood for the sacrifices of the people, white for purity, and green for hope.
On 13 April 1923, during a procession by local Congress volunteers in Nagpur commemorating the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, the Swaraj flag with the spinning wheel, designed by Pingali Venkayya, was hoisted. This event resulted in a confrontation between the Congressmen and the police, after which five people were imprisoned. Over a hundred other protesters continued the flag procession after a meeting. Subsequently, on the first of May, Jamnalal Bajaj, the secretary of the Nagpur Congress Committee, started the Flag Satyagraha, gaining national attention and marking a significant point in the flag movement. The satyagraha, promoted nationally by the Congress, started creating cracks within the organisation in which the Gandhians were highly enthused while the other group, the Swarajists, called it inconsequential.
Finally, at the All India Congress Committee meeting in July, 1923, at the insistence of Jawaharlal Nehru and Sarojini Naidu, Congress closed ranks and the flag movement was endorsed. The flag movement was managed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel with the idea of public processions and flag displays by common people. By the end of the movement, over 1500 people had been arrested across all of British India. The Bombay Chronicle reported that the movement drew from diverse groups of society including farmers, students, merchants, labourers and "national servants ''. While Muslim participation was moderate, the movement enthused women, who had hitherto rarely participated in the independence movement.
While the flag agitation got its impetus from Gandhi 's writings and discourses, the movement received political acceptance following the Nagpur incident. News reports, editorials and letters to editors published in various journals and newspapers of the time attest to the subsequent development of a bond between the flag and the nation. Soon, the concept of preserving the honour of the national flag became an integral component of the independence struggle. While Muslims were still wary of the Swaraj flag, it gained acceptance among Muslim leaders of the Congress and the Khilafat Movement as the national flag.
Detractors of the flag movement, including Motilal Nehru, soon hailed the Swaraj flag as a symbol of national unity. Thus, the flag became a significant structural component of the institution of India. In contrast to the subdued responses of the past, the British Indian government took greater cognisance of the new flag, and began to define a policy of response. The British parliament discussed public use of the flag, and based on directives from England, the British Indian government threatened to withdraw funds from municipalities and local governments that did not prevent the display of the Swaraj flag. The Swaraj flag became the official flag of Congress at the 1931 meeting. However, by then, the flag had already become the symbol of the independence movement.
A few days before India gained its independence in August 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed. To select a flag for independent India, on 23 June 1947, the assembly set up an ad hoc committee headed by Rajendra Prasad and including Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Sarojini Naidu, C. Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi and B.R. Ambedkar as its members.
On 14 July 1947, the committee recommended that the flag of the Indian National Congress be adopted as the National Flag of India with suitable modifications, so as to make it acceptable to all parties and communities. It was also resolved that the flag should not have any communal undertones. The spinning wheel of the Congress flag was replaced by the Chakra (wheel) from the Lion Capital of Ashoka. According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the chakra was chosen as it was representative of dharma and law. However, Jawaharlal Nehru explained that the change was more practical in nature, as unlike the flag with the spinning wheel, this design would appear symmetrical. Gandhi was not very pleased by the change, but eventually came around to accepting it.
The flag was proposed by Nehru at the Constituent Assembly on 22 July 1947 as a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron, white and dark green in equal proportions, with the Ashoka wheel in blue in the centre of the white band. Nehru also presented two flags, one in Khadi - silk and the other in Khadi - cotton, to the assembly. The resolution was approved unanimously. It served as the national flag of the Dominion of India between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950, and has served as the flag of the Republic of India since then.
The design and manufacturing process for the national flag is regulated by three documents issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). All of the flags are made out of khadi cloth of silk or cotton. The standards were created in 1968 and were updated in 2008. Nine standard sizes of the flag are specified by law.
In 1951, after India became a republic, the Indian Standards Institute (now the BIS) brought out the first official specifications for the flag. These were revised in 1964 to conform to the metric system which was adopted in India. The specifications were further amended on 17 August 1968. The specifications cover all the essential requirements of the manufacture of the Indian flag including sizes, dye colour, chromatic values, brightness, thread count and hemp cordage. The guidelines are covered under civil and criminal laws and defects in the manufacturing process can result in punishments that include fines or jail terms.
Khadi or hand - spun cloth is the only material allowed to be used for the flag, and flying a flag made of any other material is punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, besides a fine. Raw materials for khadi are restricted to cotton, silk and wool. There are two kinds of khadi used: The first is the khadi - bunting which makes up the body of the flag, and the second is the khadi - duck, which is a beige - coloured cloth that holds the flag to the pole. The khadi - duck is an unconventional type of weave that meshes three threads into a weave, compared to the two threads used in conventional weaving. This type of weaving is extremely rare, and there are fewer than twenty weavers in India professing this skill. The guidelines also state that there should be exactly 150 threads per square centimetre, four threads per stitch, and one square foot should weigh exactly 205 grams (7.2 oz).
There are four places in the country licensed to make the cloth for the national flag, they are in Karnataka, Marathwada, Barabanki in UP, and Banetha in Rajasthan. The woven khadi is obtained from two handloom units in the Dharwad and Bagalkot districts of northern Karnataka. Currently, Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha based in Hubli is the only licensed flag production and supply unit in India. Permission for setting up flag manufacturing units in India is allotted by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, though the BIS has the power to cancel the licences of units that flout guidelines. The hand - woven khadi for the National Flag was initially manufactured at Garag, a small village in the Dharwad district. A Centre was established at Garag in 1954 by a few freedom fighters under the banner of Dharwad Taluk Kshetriya Seva Sangh and obtained the Centre 's licence to make flags.
Once woven, the material is sent to the BIS laboratories for testing. After quality testing, the material, if approved, is returned to the factory. It is then separated into three lots which are dyed saffron, white and green. The Ashoka Chakra is screen printed, stencilled or suitably embroidered onto each side of the white cloth. Care also has to be taken that the chakra is completely visible and synchronised on both sides. Three pieces of the required dimension, one of each colour, are then stitched together according to specifications and the final product is ironed and packed. The BIS then checks the colours and only then can the flag be sold.
Display and usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code of India, 2002 (successor to the Flag Code -- India, the original flag code); the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950; and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971. Insults to the national flag, including gross affronts or indignities to it, as well as using it in a manner so as to violate the provisions of the Flag Code, are punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, or a fine, or both.
Official regulation states that the flag must never touch the ground or water, or be used as a drapery in any form. The flag may not be intentionally placed upside down, dipped in anything, or hold any objects other than flower petals before unfurling. No sort of lettering may be inscribed on the flag. When out in the open, the flag should always be flown between sunrise and sunset, irrespective of the weather conditions. Prior to 2009, the flag could be flown on a public building at night under special circumstances; currently, Indian citizens can fly the flag even at night, subject to the restriction that the flag should be hoisted on a tall flagpole and be well - illuminated.
The flag should never be depicted, displayed or flown upside down. Tradition also states that when draped vertically, the flag should not merely be rotated 90degrees, but also reversed. One "reads '' a flag like the pages of a book, from top to bottom and from left to right, and after rotation the results should be the same. It is considered insulting to display the flag in a frayed or dirty state, and the same rule applies to the flagpoles and halyards used to hoist the flag, which should always be in a proper state of maintenance.
The original flag code of India did not allow private citizens to fly the national flag except on national days such as Independence Day or Republic Day. In 2001, Naveen Jindal, an industrialist used to the more egalitarian use of the flag in the United States where he studied, flew the Indian flag on his office building. The flag was confiscated and he was warned of prosecution. Jindal filed a public interest litigation petition in the High Court of Delhi; he sought to strike down the restriction on the use of the flag by private citizens, arguing that hoisting the national flag with due decorum and honour was his right as a citizen, and a way of expressing his love for the country.
At the end of the appeals process, the case was heard by the Supreme Court of India; the court ruled in Jindal 's favour, asking the Government of India to consider the matter. The Union Cabinet of India then amended the Indian Flag Code with effect from 26 January 2002, allowing private citizens to hoist the flag on any day of the year, subject to their safeguarding the dignity, honour and respect of the flag. It is also held that the code was not a statute and restrictions under the code ought to be followed; also, the right to fly the flag is a qualified right, unlike the absolute rights guaranteed to citizens, and should be interpreted in the context of Article 19 of the Constitution of India.
The original flag code also forbade use of the flag on uniforms, costumes and other clothing. In July 2005, the Government of India amended the code to allow some forms of usage. The amended code forbids usage in clothing below the waist and on undergarments, and forbids embroidering onto pillowcases, handkerchiefs or other dress material.
Disposal of damaged flags is also covered by the flag code. Damaged or soiled flags may not be cast aside or disrespectfully destroyed; they have to be destroyed as a whole in private, preferably by burning or by any other method consistent with the dignity of the flag.
The rules regarding the correct methods to display the flag state that when two flags are fully spread out horizontally on a wall behind a podium, their hoists should be towards each other with the saffron stripes uppermost. If the flag is displayed on a short flagpole, this should be mounted at an angle to the wall with the flag draped tastefully from it. If two national flags are displayed on crossed staffs, the hoists must be towards each other and the flags must be fully spread out. The flag should never be used as a cloth to cover tables, lecterns, podiums or buildings, or be draped from railings.
Whenever the flag is displayed indoors in halls at public meetings or gatherings of any kind, it should always be on the right (observers ' left), as this is the position of authority. So when the flag is displayed next to a speaker in the hall or other meeting place, it must be placed on the speaker 's right hand. When it is displayed elsewhere in the hall, it should be to the right of the audience. The flag should be displayed completely spread out with the saffron stripe on top. If hung vertically on the wall behind the podium, the saffron stripe should be to the left of the onlookers facing the flag with the hoist cord at the top.
The flag, when carried in a procession or parade or with another flag or flags, should be on the marching right or alone in the centre at the front. The flag may form a distinctive feature of the unveiling of a statue, monument, or plaque, but should never be used as the covering for the object. As a mark of respect to the flag, it should never be dipped to a person or thing, as opposed to regimental colours, organisational or institutional flags, which may be dipped as a mark of honour. During the ceremony of hoisting or lowering the flag, or when the flag is passing in a parade or in a review, all persons present should face the flag and stand at attention. Those present in uniform should render the appropriate salute. When the flag is in a moving column, persons present will stand at attention or salute as the flag passes them. A dignitary may take the salute without a head dress. The flag salutation should be followed by the playing of the national anthem.
The privilege of flying the national flag on vehicles is restricted to the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister, Governors and Lieutenant Governors of states, Chief Ministers, Union Ministers, members of the Parliament of India and state legislatures of the Indian states (Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad), judges of the Supreme Court of India and High Courts, and flag officers of the Army, Navy and Air Force. The flag has to be flown from a staff affixed firmly either on the middle front or to the front right side of the car. When a foreign dignitary travels in a car provided by government, the flag should be flown on the right side of the car while the flag of the foreign country should be flown on the left side.
The flag should be flown on the aircraft carrying the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister on a visit to a foreign country. Alongside the National Flag, the flag of the country visited should also be flown; however, when the aircraft lands in countries en route, the national flags of the respective countries would be flown instead. When carrying the president within India, aircraft display the flag on the side the president embarks or disembarks; the flag is similarly flown on trains, but only when the train is stationary or approaching a railway station.
When the Indian flag is flown on Indian territory along with other national flags, the general rule is that the Indian flag should be the starting point of all flags. When flags are placed in a straight line, the rightmost flag (leftmost to the observer facing the flag) is the Indian flag, followed by other national flags in alphabetical order. When placed in a circle, the Indian flag is the first point and is followed by other flags alphabetically. In such placement, all other flags should be of approximately the same size with no other flag being larger than the Indian flag. Each national flag should also be flown from its own pole and no flag should be placed higher than another. In addition to being the first flag, the Indian flag may also be placed within the row or circle alphabetically. When placed on crossed poles, the Indian flag should be in front of the other flag, and to the right (observer 's left) of the other flag. The only exception to the preceding rule is when it is flown along with the flag of the United Nations, which may be placed to the right of the Indian flag.
When the Indian flag is displayed with non-national flags, including corporate flags and advertising banners, the rules state that if the flags are on separate staffs, the flag of India should be in the middle, or the furthest left from the viewpoint of the onlookers, or at least one flag 's breadth higher than the other flags in the group. Its flagpole must be in front of the other poles in the group, but if they are on the same staff, it must be the uppermost flag. If the flag is carried in procession with other flags, it must be at the head of the marching procession, or if carried with a row of flags in line abreast, it must be carried to the marching right of the procession.
The flag should be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. The decision to do so lies with the President of India, who also decides the period of such mourning. When the flag is to be flown at half mast, it must first be raised to the top of the mast and then slowly lowered. Only the Indian flag is flown half mast; all other flags remain at normal height.
The flag is flown half - mast nationwide on the death of the president, Vice-president or prime minister. It is flown half - mast in New Delhi and the state of origin for the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Union Ministers. On deaths of Governors, Lt. Governors and Chief Ministers, the flag is flown at half - mast in the respective states and union territories.
The Indian flag can not be flown at half - mast on Republic Day (26 January), Independence day (15 August), Gandhi Jayanti (2 October), National Week (6 -- 13 April) or state formation anniversaries, except over buildings housing the body of the deceased dignitary. However, even in such cases, the flag must be raised to full - mast when the body is moved from the building.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag at half - mast.
On occasions of state, military, central para-military forces funerals, the flag shall be draped over the bier or coffin with the saffron towards the head of the bier or coffin. The flag should not be lowered into the grave or burnt in the pyre.
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red hot chili peppers t in the park setlist | The Getaway World tour - wikipedia
The Getaway World Tour was a concert tour by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers that was in support of their eleventh studio album, The Getaway which was released on June 17, 2016. It marked the first time since June 2014 that the band has toured. The tour began with benefit shows and North American festival dates in February 2016 followed by a summer festival tour with dates in Europe, Asia and North America starting in May 2016 and ending in August 2016. The headlining tour to support the album began in Europe in September 2016 and lasted until the end of the year with the North American tour beginning in January 2017 and concluded in July 2017. Another European leg and dates in South America followed along with rescheduled shows and festival dates in North America in October 2017 to wrap up the tour. The band has festival dates in March 2018 for South America but they are not considered part of this tour.
The tour placed 32nd on Pollstar 's year - end top 100 worldwide tours list for 2016, grossing a total of $46.2 million, and it finished as the 18th highest grossing worldwide tour in 2017 grossing $73.5 million.
Prior the summer festival dates in June 2016 and start of their headlining tour in September 2016, the band performed at a few benefit and North American festivals. On February 5, 2016, the band performed in Los Angeles at the FEEL THE BERN political fund - raiser in support of 2016 presidential candidate Bernie Sanders. "Nobody Weird Like Me '' made its return to the set list for the first time since the 2006 -- 07 Stadium Arcadium World Tour. The following night, they performed at a private, invitation - only Super Bowl 50 party in San Francisco called "DirecTV Super Saturday Night Co-Hosted by Mark Cuban 's AXS TV '' where they played "Aeroplane '' for the first time since July 1997. The band also performed covers of "Cracked Actor '' and "Starman '' in tribute to their friend David Bowie, who died the previous month. On April 13, Flea played the national anthem before Kobe Bryant 's final NBA game. That night, the Chili Peppers played four song set at a unannounced private show in Los Angeles in support of Sean Parker and The Parker Foundation Launch for The Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy The band performed a sixteen - song set at the Jazz & Heritage Festival on April 24 where they were joined by The Meters for a jam. On April 29, 2016, Chad Smith and Will Ferrell will host the Red Hot Benefit Comedy + Music Show & Quinceanera. The benefit will featured a performance by the Chili Peppers along with comedy acts selected by Ferrell and Funny or Die. A portion of the proceeds will go to Ferrell 's Cancer for College and Smith 's Silverlake Conservatory of Music. It was announced in March 2016 that the band headline the 25th anniversary Lollapalooza festival in July. The band 's May 14, 2016 performance at the KROQ Weenie Roast was suddenly cancelled prior to them going on stage due to Kiedis suffering stomach pains. The following show, an album preview show for The Getaway on May 17, 2016, was postponed until May 26, 2016. "Dark Necessities '', the lead single from The Getaway, made its live debut on May 22, 2016. New songs "Go Robot '' (the band was joined by Thundercat on bass), "Sick Love '', "The Ticonderoga '' all made their live debuts on May 26, 2016 at the album preview show for iHeartRadio which aired on DirectTV on June 17, 2016. "The Getaway '', the title track to the new album, was released by the band on May 26, 2016 however unknown at the time to fans, the band had teased the song live during their performance of "Give It Away '' at Super Bowl 50 party in San Francisco back in February. The song made its full live debut on May 29, 2016.
On May 14, the band were forced to cancel their headlining slot at the annual KROQ Weenie Roast as Kiedis was rushed to the hospital prior to the band appearing on stage due to severe stomach pain. Flea alongside, Smith and Klinghoffer made an announcement on the stage as they were due to appear. It is unknown whether upcoming shows would be affected as a result Kiedis ' mother Peggy posted the following morning on Facebook that "Anthony will be OK. No surgery is needed. I will keep you updated, I promise '' It was confirmed that Kiedis was suffering from intestinal flu and was expected to make a full recovery soon however the band was forced to postpone their iHeartRadio album preview show on May 17, 2016 and has rescheduled it for May 26, 2016. The band returned to the stage on May 22, 2016 in Columbus, Ohio. According to Chad Smith, Kiedis had suffered from the stomach flu a few weeks earlier as well. In a May 20, 2016 interview with Entertainment Tonight Canada, his first since being released from the hospital, Kiedis said that his illness was brought on by an "inflammation in my guts '' which he said was complicated by a recent stomach virus and existing scar tissue from previous hernia operations which required his stomach being pumped at the hospital due to his food not being able to properly digest. "That becomes an incredibly painful situation where you get a fever and pass out... Lo an behold, I 'm on the mend '' He went on to say "so it turned out to be a good thing, albeit painful and very sad to have to cancel a show. We do n't really do that. I 'd rather play deathly ill than not play at all, but in this particular instance, I was starting to go down, as in to the ground, so I got rushed to the hospital, got some help, and now I get to figure things out. ''
Singer Anthony Kiedis in a May 5, 2016 interview discussed touring and said they were very excited to have a lot of new songs to play. Kiedis said "this being our second record with Josh, it feels a lot more fulfilling. And, it 's always great to have a job as a musician. It 's great to be in this band. We love seeing the world. But to have all these new songs at our disposal for live shows makes it feel like ' Let 's go. Let 's go. We have a mission now. You do this incredible thing in the studio and then you go practice and rehearse and make sure you can play this stuff live and then you go see the world. You know everywhere; from Asia to South America to Europe and Eastern Europe and hopefully the Middle East and Africa and you know, you give this music life to people far far away that it means something to and you have this communal experience together. And when you just ca n't take it for another day and you 're beat and you 're haggard and you 're tired and you want to collapse and you come home and you gather some new life experience and start writing a little bit and Flea sits down at the piano and says, ' Hey, I have these chords. What do you think about these chords? And I say, hmmm, I hear melody in there and you start it all over again. '' Drummer Chad Smith said on May 17, 2016 that the band would be playing in Europe for pretty much the remainder of the year once the tour starts with the North American tour not happening until 2017.
All purchases of tickets through the band 's website include a free download or physical copy of The Getaway. The production for the arena tour featured over 800 tube lights that stretched out across the audience. Throughout the show they would move up and down and change colour to create different patterns and effects.
The Getaway World Tour got underway on June 4, 2016 with festival dates in Europe, Asia and North America which will last until August 2016.
A day after its release, "We Turn Red '' made its live debut on June 10, 2016 at the Pinkpop festival while "Wet Sand '' was performed for the first time in over two years. Flea, Anthony and Chad also teased George Clinton 's "Bullet Proof '', a song they have n't performed in 23 years. During the opening encore jam, Kiedis took over Flea 's bass while Flea played keyboards and Klinghoffer played piano. The jam included a tease of The Beatles ' "Hey Bulldog ''. After over three years not being performed, "Tell Me Baby '' returned to the setlist on June 12, 2016 at Novarock. The rarely performed "She 's Only 18 '' also made its return after a two - year absence. On June 13, 2016, in a pre-taped segment on The Late Late Show with James Corden, the band appeared in the show 's popular Carpool Karaoke segment. During the filming of the segment, Kiedis saved the life of a baby. "a woman came out of her house, holding a child saying ' My baby, my baby, my baby ca n't breathe! ' We all ran across the street, the woman thrust the baby into my arms, the baby was not breathing and I thought ' I 'm gon na try and do a little baby CPR real quick, see if I can get some air in this kid. ' Tried to open the mouth, (it was) like locked shut. So I started rubbing the belly, bubbles came out of the mouth, the eyes rolled back into place, the ambulance showed up and I handed the baby over, who was now breathing and fine, and we went back to Carpool Karaoke. The little baby looked at me the entire time until the ambulance came, little baby Nina. '' Kiedis said On June 14, 2016, the band performed eight songs at Studios SFP in France. "Dark Necessities '' and "Give it Away '' appeared on the television show Le Grand Journal while the remaining six songs, which included the live debut of "The Longest Wave '', were recorded for radio station RTL2 's "Très Très Privé '' concert series. The Live in Paris EP was released on July 1, 2016 and features five songs from the Canal+ performance in Paris. The EP was released exclusively through the music streaming website Deezer. "Detroit '' made its live debut on June 29, 2016 at the Roskilde Festival while "Goodbye Angels '' made its live debut on July 10, 2016. "Dreams of a Samurai '' made its live debut on July 24, 2016 at the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan.
In an August 2016 interview, Flea discussed touring and playing the same songs saying "Has there ever been a night where I 've been like ' If I play fucking ' Give It Away ' again my cock 's gon na fall off '? Yes. There are moments of having a hard time finding the essence and spirit of a song, but in general it 's all about the people in the end. It 's all about connecting with the people. I try to keep myself in a place of being completely selfless about it and doing my best to use every song, whether it 's one I 've heard a million times or a new one, as a vehicle for connecting with people and making them feel less alone in the world. ''
The band 's European headlining tour began on September 1, 2016 and lasted until mid-December 2016. Deap Vally and Babymetal served as the opening acts. "Feasting on the Flowers '' made its live debut on September 8, 2016 in Oslo, followed by "The Longest Wave '' second time ever played on September 14 in Helsinki. "Search and Destroy '' was performed for the first time since 2003 on September 10, 2016 in Sweden and for the first time with Klinghoffer. At the band 's show of October 11, 2016 in Italy, Anthony 's 9 - year - old son Everly Bear joined his father in singing "Dreams of a Samurai ''. "Do n't Forget Me '' was briefly teased in tribute to a fan from Peru who died the previous year. The band 's show of October 13, 2016 in Montpellier was cancelled due to weather conditions. The band is trying to reschedule the show. "The Zephyr Song '' (which was in the band 's setlist on November 1, 2016 but dropped in favor of "Soul to Squeeze '') was performed for the first time since 2004 and first time with Josh on November 3, 2016. At the band 's show of November 9, 2016 in Amsterdam they performed "Mommy Where 's Daddy? ''. This was only the third time since 1999 the song has been performed. They had previously performed the song acoustically in September 2016 and once in September 2015. "Emit Remmus '' was performed for the first time since 2012 while "Catholic School Girls Rule '' and "Freaky Styley '' were for teased at during the band 's show of November 16, 2016 in Denmark. On November 17, 2016 in Germany the band performed "Yertle the Turtle '' for the first time since 2001. The song was dedicated to one of the band 's longtime fans who had been following them on the tour. Due to Kiedis suffering from flu like symptoms, the band was forced to postpone their December 20 and 21 shows in Ireland until September 20 and 21, 2017.
The band performed two songs before the opening home game of the Los Angeles Rams at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum on September 18, 2016. The Rams made their return to Los Angeles after 22 years in St. Louis. "Since I was a little boy, I 've taken joy in the beauty of the Rams. When I moved to Los Angeles in 1972, I was getting uprooted from my home and I thought, ' Well, where I 'm going they 've got the Rams. It 's going to be all right ' '' Flea said. On September 23, 2016, the band performed a short acoustic set at a benefit for the Silverlake Conservatory of Music. "Mommy, Where 's Daddy? '' from the band 's debut album was performed for only the second time in the past 17 years (it was last performed in late 2015) and for the first time ever acoustically.
The band 's 51 date North American leg began on January 5, 2017 will conclude on July 1, 2017. Due to overwhelming demand for tickets after selling out quickly and in response to scalpers, second shows in Boston and Philadelphia were added while second and third shows in New York City and Los Angeles were also added. Jack Irons, the band 's original drummer and founding member of the band, will serve as opening act on all North American dates while Trombone Shorty and Orleans Avenue, Babymetal, IRONTOM and Deerhoof will serve as opening acts at various dates on the leg. At the opening show on the North American leg in San Antonio on January 5, 2017, the band performed "Breaking the Girl '' for the first time since October 2012. "The Zephyr Song '' was performed for the first time in the United States since July 2004 during the band 's show of January 8, 2017 in Dallas, Texas. At that same show, Josh teased a cover of David Bowie 's "The Bewlay Brothers '' as a tribute to Bowie who died a year earlier on January 9, 2016. Members of The Meters, The Rebirth Brass Band and Trombone Shorty joined the band on "Give it Away '' during their show of January 10, 2017 in New Orleans. The band was forced to postpone their Wichita show on January 15, 2017 to the following night due to inclement weather. On February 13, at their Philadelphia gig band teased 50 seconds version of "Out in L.A '', in honor of their 34th anniversary. It was first time that song was performed since 1992 (according to some sources 2004) and first time with Josh. On March 2, 2017, the band announced that they were going to postpone their March 2, 4, 5 shows in Glendale, Denver and San Diego due to Anthony suffering from bronchitis. The San Diego date was rescheduled for later in the month while the other two dates were pushed back to October 2017. On March 17, 2017 at their show in Seattle, the band performed "Charlie '' for the first time since 2012. On April 24, 2017 at their show in Jacksonville, "Encore '' made its live debut, after some teases throughout the previous tours. At the band 's show in Pittsburgh on May 11, 2017 they performed a cover of the Looking Glass song "Brandy (You 're a Fine Girl) ''. The song was last performed in 2005 and played at most shows during their Roll on the Red tour. It also appeared on their Live in Hyde Park album. Following the band 's performance of May 14, 2017 in Columbus, Ohio, Chad Smith sang the University of Michigan fight song "The Victors ''. Smith 's singing of the fight song made national news as the University of Michigan and Ohio State University are longtime sports rivals and Smith was born in Detroit. Smith 's drumset also like at past shows in Ohio featured the Michigan Wolverines logo. At the band 's show of May 16, 2017 in Louisville, Kentucky, "Mommy, Where 's Daddy? '' was performed. The song, which is very rarely played, was last performed in November 2016 has been performed just four times since 1992 and only three times in the United States since then. "This Ticonderoga '' was also performed for just the third time and first time since September 2016. At the band 's show of May 18, 2017 in Indianapolis, Josh performed a cover of "Seasons '' by Chris Cornell. Cornell, the front man for Soundgarden and Audioslave, was found dead earlier that day. At the band 's show on May 28, 2017 in Edmonton they performed "Dosed '' for the first time ever. It was teased in the past but the song had never been performed in its entirety since it was released in 2002. Zach Irons, son of founding Chili Peppers member Jack Irons and guitarist for opening act IRONTOM, provided a second guitar on the song. At this same show, Flea also briefly teased "Deep Kick '', a song that has n't been performed since 1996. On June 20, at the band 's gig in Montreal, band 's cover of Jimi Hendrix 's song, a rarely performed "Fire '' was played for the first time since November 2016 and for the second time in United States since By the Way Tour in 2003 (first time in September 2015, not counting Silverlake charity event in following month where it was performed acoustically). During the band 's show on June 25, 2017 in Grand Rapids, Anthony Kiedis dedicated "Soul to Squeeze '' to his father, Blackie Dammett, who was the long time manager of the band 's fanclub and ran their website. Kiedis said "If you could be so kind. My father is fixin ' to die and that 's OK. He 's had a wild, great journey and a helluva colourful badass life but he 's sick and he 's gon na to die now... He 's pretty lost; he 's just a spirit but I would like for everyone just to take ten seconds to send him some love, to send his spirit some love because pretty soon he will be sailing on and I would appreciate it if his home town could send him love for a whole ten seconds of love. Let 's give it up. Ten! Thank you. Let 's do this tune. Appreciate it. '' Flea also during the show asked for a moment of silence for Hillel Slovak, the band 's founding guitarist who died 29 years earlier. Following the moment of silence, Jack Irons joined his former band on stage to perform Jimi Hendrix 's "Fire '' as a tribute to Slovak.
Dave Rat, who has been with the band since February 1991 as the band 's sound engineer, announced on January 12, 2017 that he would no longer be working with the band following their show of January 22, 2017 in Minnesota.
At the band 's show in Atlanta on April 14, 2017 they shot the music video for their song "Goodbye Angels ''. Chad Smith told the fans on Twitter to "wear something colorful. '' The video was released on May 9, 2017.
The band returned to Europe for a second leg starting on July 13, 2017. The leg will consist of mostly festivals along with some headlining dates with the leg expected to conclude on July 31, 2017. The second date on the leg saw the band perform for the first time ever in Benicàssim. The show featured a rare performance of "Fire '' which was performed for only the fifth time on this tour. Mauro Refosco, who was a touring member of the band for their previous tour and also a studio musician on their two most recent albums, joined the band on percussion for "The Adventures of Rain Dance Maggie '' at their July 20, 2017 show in Rome. Kiedis ' young son Everly Bear also joined the band onstage to provide some vocals for "Goodbye Angels '' which he also would do at the band 's very first show in Latvia seven days later.
Due to Anthony Kiedis suffering from the flu, the band 's shows on December 20 and 21, 2016 in Dublin at 3Arena were forced to be postponed and were rescheduled for September 20 and 21, 2017 at the same venue. During the band 's show on September 21 in Dublin they performed "Get on Top '' for the first time with Josh and for the first time since August 2007.
On September 24, 2016, the first date of the leg was confirmed for September 24, 2017 at Rock in Rio. On February 20, 2017 it was announced that the band will perform in Mexico City on October 10, 2017.
Due to Anthony Kiedis suffering from bronchitis, the band was forced to postpone three shows in March 2017 with two of the shows in Denver and Glendale being rescheduled for October 16 and 18, 2017. The band performed at the Austin City Limits Music Festival that on October 7 and 14, 2017 where Josh Klinghoffer performed "A Face in the Crowd '' as a tribute to Tom Petty, who had recently died. Their performance of "What is Soul? '' on October 7, 2017 was also dedicated to Petty. The tour officially ended on October 18, 2017 in Arizona.
The band 's concert in Toronto received criticism from Canadian radio broadcaster Alan Cross. In his review of the concert, titled "An Exceptionally Honest Review of the Red Hot Chili Peppers in Toronto '', Cross wrote that the concert "lacked Red Hotness ''. He stated that the band was "tardy '' in getting to the stage and said that the band telling the audience "how long they had been coming to Toronto and how special we were to them '', was something they "must say to all the girls... I mean cities. '' Cross wrote that he expected more interaction with the audience and thought that the performance "felt a little cold ''. Cross further wrote, "I thought we had something special, as most virgins do, but sadly we were just another notch on a tour belt. Where was our love? The love that was going to help justify paying over a hundred bucks to sit in the middle of nowhere? The love that would probably get us to pay it again and again? '' Cross claimed that the band gave a "K thanks bye '' exit off the stage and wrote on the reaction of fellow concert attendees. "Shocked. Stunned. Pissed. We began making our way to the exits. "What the hell was THAT!? '' was the general consensus as we all poured out of the stadium. My eyes continuously locked with other concert - goers, who were also wearing the disappointment on their face. '' Cross criticized the band for not playing longer than an hour and a half, stating, "Why ca n't you be more like your younger brother Dave Grohl? Who can tear the roof off the Molson Amphitheater for three plus hours, pay the fine for going over his set time, all whilst sitting in a chair with a broken leg. ''
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when does the us flag fly at half staff | Half - mast - wikipedia
Half - mast or half - staff refers to a flag flying below the summit on a pole. In many countries this is seen as a symbol of respect, mourning, distress, or in some cases, a salute. Strictly speaking, flags are said to be half - mast if flown from ships, and half - staff if on land, although not all regional variations of English use "half - staff ''.
The tradition of flying the flag at half - mast began in the 17th century. According to some sources, the flag is lowered to make room for an "invisible flag of death '' flying above. However, there is disagreement about where on a flagpole a flag should be when it is at half - staff. It is often recommended that a flag at half - staff should be lowered only as much as the hoist, or width, of the flag. British flag protocol is that a flag should be flown no less than two - thirds of the way up the flagpole, with at least the height of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole. It is common for the phrase to be taken literally and for a flag to be flown only halfway up a flagpole, although some authorities deprecate that practice.
When hoisting a flag that is to be displayed at half - mast, it should be raised to the finial of the pole for an instant, then lowered to half - mast. Likewise, when the flag is lowered at the end of the day, it should be hoisted to the finial for an instant, and then lowered.
The flag of Australia is flown half - mast in Australia:
The flag of Cambodia flew at half mast upon the death of King - Father Norodom Sihanouk for 7 days, from 15 -- 22 October 2012.
The term half - mast is the official term used in Canada, according to the Rules For Half - Masting the National Flag of Canada. The decision to fly the flag at half - mast on federal buildings rests with the Department of Canadian Heritage. Federally, the national flag of Canada is flown at half - mast to mark the following occasions:
Certain events are also marked by flying the national flag at half - mast on the Peace Tower at Parliament Hill. These include:
On occasion discretion can dictate the flying of the national flag at half - mast, not only on the Peace Tower, but on all federal facilities. Some examples include September 11, 2001, September 11, 2002, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Mayerthorpe tragedy, the death of Pope John Paul II, the 2005 London bombings, the death of Smokey Smith, the state funerals of former U.S. presidents Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford, and the death of Jack Layton
There are, however, exceptions to the rules of half - masting in Canada: if Victoria Day or Canada Day fall during a period of half - masting, the flags are to be returned to full - mast for the duration of the day. The national flag on the Peace Tower is also hoisted to full mast if a foreign head of state or head of government is visiting the parliament. These exemptions, though, do not apply to the period of mourning for the death of a Canadian monarch. The Royal Standard of Canada also never flies at half - mast, as it is considered representative of the sovereign, who ascends to the throne automatically upon the death of his or her predecessor. Each province can make its own determination of when to fly the flag at half - mast when provincial leaders or honoured citizens pass away.
To raise a flag in this position, the flag must be flown to the top of the pole first, then brought down halfway before the flag is secured for flying. When such mourning occurs, all flags should be flown at that position or not be flown at all, with the exception of flags permanently attached to poles.
A controversy surfaced in April, 2006, when the newly elected Conservative government discontinued the practice, initiated by the previous Liberal government following the Tarnak Farm incident, of flying the flag at half - mast on all government buildings whenever a Canadian soldier was killed in action in Afghanistan. The issue divided veterans ' groups and military families, some of whom supported the return to the original tradition of using Remembrance Day to honour all soldiers killed in action, while others felt it was an appropriate way to honour the fallen and to remind the population of the costs of war. In spite of the federal government 's policy, local authorities have often decided to fly the flag at half - mast to honour fallen soldiers who were from their jurisdiction, including Toronto and Saskatchewan.
On April 2, 2008, the House of Commons voted in favour of a motion calling on the government to reinstate the former policy regarding the half - masting of the flag on federal buildings. The motion, however, was not binding and the Cabinet refused to recommend any revision in policy to the Governor General. At the same time, a federal advisory committee tabled its report on the protocol of flying the national flag at half - mast, recommending that the Peace Tower flag remain at full height on days such as the Police Officers National Memorial Day and the National Day or Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women, stating that the flag should only be half - masted on Remembrance Day. At last report, the committee 's findings had been forwarded to the House of Commons all - party heritage committee for further study.
The National Flag Law provides for a number of situations on which the flag should be flown at half - mast, and authorizes the State Council to make such executive orders:
In Finland, the official term for flying a flag at half - mast is known as suruliputus (mourning by flag (ging)). It is performed by raising the flag briefly to the top of the mast and lowering it approximately one - third of the length of the flagpole, placing the lower hoist corner at half - mast. On wall - mounted and roof - top flagpoles the middle of the flag should fly at the middle of the flagpole. When removing the flag from half - mast, it is briefly hoisted to the finial before lowering.
Traditionally, private residences and apartment houses fly the national flag at half - mast on the day of the death of a resident, when the flag is displayed at half - mast until sunset or 21: 00, whichever comes first. Flags are also flown at half - mast on the day of the burial, with the exception that the flag is to be hoisted to the finial after the inhumation takes place.
Flags are also to be flown at half - mast on the days of national mourning. Such days are the deaths of former or current Finnish presidents, as well as significant catastophical events such as the aftermath of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, 2011 Norway attacks and significant national events such as the 2004 Konginkangas bus disaster and school shootings of Jokela and Kauhajoki.
Historically, flags were flown at half - mast on the Commemoration Day of Fallen Soldiers which takes place on the third Sunday of May. Originally, flag was raised to the finial in the morning, displayed at half - mast from 10: 00 to 14: 00, and again raised to the finial for the rest of the day. In 1995, the 50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War, the tradition of flying the flag at half - mast was discontinued and flag is displayed at the finial in a usual manner.
The French flag is flown half mast on any Day of Mourning by order of the government (for example after the Charlie Hebdo attack on 7 January 2015, the Paris attacks on 13 November 2015 and the Nice attack on 14 July 2016). Other countries have also flown the French flag at half mast because of this too. (Australia 's Sydney Harbour Bridge flew the French flag at half mast because of the Paris attacks on November 13 of 2015).
Some occurrences of the French flag being flown half mast have been controversial, especially after the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005 but also in a lesser measure at the time following the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953.
The flag of Germany and the flags of its federal states are flown at half - mast:
According to Law 851 / 1978, the only day specified on which the Greek flag is flown at half - mast is Good Friday. Also, on other national and public mourning days.
Similar rules as in China apply for Hong Kong. See Flag of Hong Kong for details. Prior to the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, the rules for flying the flag at half - mast were the same as the British ones.
The flag of India is flown at half - mast for the death of a President, Vice-President, or Prime Minister, all over India. For the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Chief Justice of The Supreme Court of India, it is flown in Delhi and for a Union Cabinet Minister it is flown in Delhi and the state capitals, from where he or she came. For a Minister of State, it is flown only in Delhi. For a Governor, Lt. Governor, or Chief Minister of a state or union territory, it is flown in the concerned state.
If the intimation of the death of any dignitary is received in the afternoon, the flag shall be flown at halfmast on the following day also at the place or places indicated above, provided the funeral has not taken place before sunrise on that day. On the day of the funeral of a dignitary mentioned above, the flag shall be flown at half - mast at the place of the funeral.
In the event of a halfmast day coinciding with the Republic Day, Independence Day, Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday, National Week (6 to 13 April), any other particular day of national rejoicing as may be specified by the Government of India, or, in the case of a state, on the anniversary of formation of that state, flags are not permitted to be flown at half - mast except over the building where the body of the deceased is lying until it has been removed and that flag shall be raised to the full - mast position after the body has been removed.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Home Ministry) in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag on the above - mentioned days. India observed a five - day period of National Mourning on the death of Nelson Mandela in 2013. India also declared 29 March 2015 as a day of National Mourning as a mark of respect to the former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew.
The flag of Iran is flown at half - mast on the death of a national figure or mourning days.
The flag of Ireland is flown at half - mast on the death of a national or international figure, that is, former and current Presidents or Taoiseach, on all prominent government buildings equipped with a flag pole. The death of a prominent local figure can also be marked locally by the flag being flown at half - mast. When the national flag is flown at half - mast, no other flag should be half - masted. When a balcony in Berkeley, California, collapsed, killing six Irish people, flags were flown at half mast above all state buildings.
The flag of Israel is flown at half - mast in Israel:
The flag of Italy was flown at half - mast after the 2013 Sardinia floods on November 22, 2013.
The flag of Indonesia is or has been flown half - mast during several occasions:
The flag of Japan is flown at half - mast upon the death of the Emperor of Japan, other members of the Imperial Family, or a current or former Prime Minister, and also following national disasters such as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In addition to the tradition of half - mast, the national flag topped by black cloth may be flown to designate mourning. See the flag of Japan for more.
The flag of Malaysia (Jalur Gemilang) is flown at half - mast all over the country:
As a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and their family members, some states had their states flag flown at half - mast. Similarly, as a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 and their family members, the national flag was flown at half - mast for three days and also on the national day of mourning, 22 August 2014. The 2015 Sabah earthquake had a mourning day and the flag half - mast on 8 June 2015.
The flag of Malta is flown at half - mast on government buildings by instruction of the government through the Office of the Prime Minister, for example after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of the Netherlands is nationally flown at half - mast:
The royal standard and other flags of the Dutch royal family are never flown at half - mast. Instead, a black pennon may be affixed to the flag in times of mourning.
For both government and public buildings, the flag of New Zealand is flown at half - mast for the following people:
In addition, it can also be flown at half - mast at the request of the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage. Examples of this are for the deaths of prominent New Zealanders (e.g. Sir Edmund Hillary and Te Arikinui Dame Te Atairangikaahu, the Maori Queen), and for national tragedies (e.g. the Pike River Mine disaster)
According to the Ministry of Culture and Heritage, the position is always referred to as half - mast. The flag should be at least its own height from the top of the flagpole, though the actual position will depend on the size of the flag and the length of the flagpole.
The flag of Pakistan is routinely flown at half - mast on following days:
Any other day notified by the Government. For example, on the death of Saudi king King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz, the flag was flown at half - mast for seven days (the flag of Saudi Arabia was n't at half - mast because the flag contains the Shahada). Upon the Assassination of Benazir Bhutto, the flag was ordered to be flown at half - mast for three days. On the death of Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, spiritual leader of Dawoodi Bohra community, the flag has been ordered by Sindh Chief Minister Qaim Ali Shah, to be flown at half - mast for two days (January 17 and 18) to express solidarity with the bereaved community. In 2014, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif announced a three - day mourning period from 16 December, including flying the flag at half - mast nationwide and at all Embassies and High Commissions of Pakistan, for the attack on Army Public School in Peshawar.
The flag of the Philippines may be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. Upon the official announcement of the death of the President or a former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Vice President, the Chief Justice, the President of the Senate or the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
The flag may also be required to fly at half - mast upon the death of other persons to be determined by the National Historical Institute, for a period less than seven days. The flag shall be flown at half - mast on all the buildings and places where the decedent was holding office, on the day of death until the day of interment of an incumbent member of the Supreme Court, the Cabinet, the Senate or the House of Representatives, and such other persons as may be determined by the National Historical Institute. Such other people determined by the National Historical Institute have included Pope John Paul II, and former U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
As per Republic Act No. 229, flags nationwide are flown at half - mast every Rizal Day on December 30 to commemorate the death of national hero José Rizal.
When flown at half - mast, the flag should be first hoisted to the peak for a moment then lowered to the half - mast position. It should be raised to the peak again before it is lowered for the day.
The flag may also be used to cover the caskets of the dead of the military, veterans of previous wars, national artists, and outstanding civilians as determined by the local government. In such cases, the flag must be placed such that the white triangle is at the head and the blue portion covers the right side of the casket. The flag should not be lowered to the grave or allowed to touch the ground, but should be solemnly folded and handed to the heirs of the deceased.
Flags must also be raised to half - mast immediately in any area recovering from natural disasters such as a typhoon or an earthquake.
The flag of Russia is flown at half - mast and (or) topped by black ribbon:
All the regional flags and the departmental ensigns are flown at half - mast on national or regional mourning days as well as the national flag. Firms and non-governmental organizations, embassies and representatives of international organizations often join the mourning. National or regional mourning usually lasts for one day.
The flag of Saudi Arabia is one of the four flags in the world that are never flown at half - mast because it shows the Shahada. The flag of Somaliland, a self - declared state internationally recognized as part of Somalia, also displays the Shahada. The flag of Iraq bears the Takbir once. The flag of Afghanistan displays the Takbir beneath the Shahada on the top. Since all four bear the concept of oneness of God, the flag is never lowered to half - mast even as a sign of mourning.
The flag of Singapore is flown at half - mast in Singapore following the deaths of an "important personage '' (such as state leaders) and during periods of national mourning. Examples include:
The flag of South Africa is flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning when ordered by the President of South Africa. Upon the official announcement of the death of the current or former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Deputy President, the Chairperson of NCOP, the Speaker of the National Assembly or the Chief Justice. For example, the flag was flown at half - mast from 6 -- 15 December 2013 during the national mourning period for Nelson Mandela.
The flag was flown at half - mast during the week of national mourning following the Marikana massacre in August 2012.
The flag of South Korea (Taegeukgi) is flown at half - mast on Hyeonchungil (Korean Memorial Day).
The flag of Sri Lanka is nationally flown at half - mast on a National day of mourning.
The flag of the Republic of China is flown at half - mast on February 28 to mark the anniversary of the February 28 Incident. On 5 August 2014, Taiwan flew their flag in half - mast for three days to commemorate the victims of the Kaohsiung gas explosions and TransAsia Airways Flight 222 crash.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast for 15 days to mourn for the victims of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast from January 2 to January 15, 2008 on the death of Princess Galyani Vadhana, the Princess of Naradhiwas.
Also from October 14 to November 13, 2016 the flag of Thailand was flown half - mast for 30 days; following the death of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX).
The flag of Turkey is flown at half - mast throughout Turkey every 10 November, between 09: 05 and the sunset, in memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who died on November 10, 1938 at five past nine in the morning. At other times, the government may issue an order for the national flag to be flown at half - mast upon the death of principal figures of the Turkish political life as a mark of respect to their memory (such as Turgut Özal). When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools and military bases are to fly their flags at half - mast. To show the sympathy of Turkish people to a foreign leader, flags are also flown at half - mast by governmental order (such as after the deaths of Yasser Arafat or Pope John Paul II). The flag at the Grand National Assembly in Ankara is never lowered to half - mast, regardless of the occasion. The flag at Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of Turkey, is only lowered to half - mast on November 10. At those times when the flag is to be flown at half - mast, it must first be raised to full height, then lowered to half - mast.
The flag of the United Arab Emirates is flown at half mast on 30 November (Martyrs ' Day) of every year from 08: 00 to 11: 30. The flag is also flown at half mast by decree of the President of the United Arab Emirates usually for three days. Each of the seven Emirs has the right to order flags to be flown at half mast in his Emirate.
The Royal Standard, the flag of the British monarch, is never flown at half - mast, because there is always a living monarch: the throne passes immediately to the successor.
There was some controversy in the United Kingdom in 1997 following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales that no flag was flying at half - mast at Buckingham Palace. Until 1997, the only flag to fly from Buckingham Palace was the Royal Standard, the official flag of the reigning British sovereign, which would only fly when the sovereign was in residence at the Palace (or, exceptionally, after the death of the sovereign, the flag of the next senior member of the Royal Family would be raised, if the new sovereign were not present); otherwise, no flag would fly.
In response to public outcry that the palace was not flying a flag at half mast, Queen Elizabeth II ordered a break with protocol, replacing the Royal Standard with the Union Flag at half - mast as soon as the Queen left the Palace to attend the Princess 's funeral at Westminster Abbey. The Royal Standard was again flown (at full hoist) on her return to the Palace. Since then, the Union Flag flies from the Palace when the Queen is not in residence, and has flown at half mast upon the deaths of members of the Royal Family, such as Princess Margaret and the Queen Mother in 2002 and other times of national mourning such as following the terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005.
In the UK, the correct way to fly the flag at half - mast is two - thirds between the bottom and top of the flagstaff, with at least the width of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole according to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, which decides the flying, on command of the Sovereign. The flag may be flown on a government building at half - mast on the following days:
According to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, the correct term is Half Mast.
If a flag flying day coincides with a half - mast flag flying day (including the death of a member of the royal family), the flag is flown at full - mast unless a specific command is received from the Sovereign.
If more than one flag is flown on a half - mast day, they must all be flown at half - mast, or not at all. The flag of a foreign nation must never be flown at half - mast on UK soil unless that country has declared mourning.
At the United Nations offices in New York and Geneva, the flag of the United Nations flies at half - mast on the day after the death of a Head of State or a Head of Government of a member state, but generally not during the funeral. Other occasions are at the Secretary - General 's discretion. Other offices may follow local practice. To honor the memory of Dag Hammarskjöld the UN issued postage stamps showing its flag at half - mast.
In the United States, the usual government term for non-nautical use is "half - staff. '' While the term "half - mast '' is commonly used in place of half - staff, U.S. law and post-WW - I military tradition indicate that "half - mast '' is reserved to usage aboard a ship, where flags are typically flown from masts, and at naval ships ashore. Elsewhere ashore, flags are flown at "half - staff. '' In addition, flags are lowered to half - staff, not raised.
In the United States, the President can issue an executive order for the flag of the United States to be flown at half - staff upon the death of principal figures of the United States government and others, as a mark of respect to their memory. When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools, and military bases are to fly their flags at half - staff. Under federal law (4 U.S.C. § 7 (f)), the flags of states, cities, localities, and pennants of societies, shall never be placed above the flag of the United States; thus, all other flags also fly at half - staff when the U.S. flag has been ordered to fly at half - staff. There is no penalty for failure to comply with the above law as to enforce such a penalty would violate the First Amendment.
Governors of U.S. states and territories are authorized by federal law to order all U.S. and state flags in their jurisdiction flown at half - staff as a mark of respect for a former or current state official who has died, or for a member of the armed forces who has died in active duty. The governor 's authority to issue the order is more restricted than the president 's, and does not include discretion to issue the order for state residents who do not meet the criteria stated. Since a governor 's executive order affects only his or her state, not the entire country, these orders are distinguished from presidential proclamations.
Under 4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) and established traditions by Presidential proclamations, the flag of the United States is to be flown at half - staff on rare occasions, in the following circumstances:
Federal law includes a Congressional request that the flag be flown at half - staff on Peace Officers Memorial Day (May 15), unless that day is also Armed Forces Day. Presidential proclamations also call for the flag to be flown at half - staff on Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (December 7), and Patriot Day (September 11).
On October 16, 2001, President George W. Bush approved legislation requiring the United States flag to be lowered to half - staff on all Federal buildings to memorialize fallen firefighters. Pub. L. 107 -- 51 requires this action to occur annually in conjunction with observance of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service. The date of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service is traditionally the first Sunday in October. It is held at the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial in Emmitsburg, Maryland.
4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) was modified with new legislation signed into effect on June 29, 2007, by President Bush, requiring any federal facility within a region, which proclaims half - staff to honor a member of the U.S. Armed Forces who died on active duty, to follow the half - staff proclamation.
Apart from the lowered position of the flag of Vietnam, state mourning also warrants a black ribbon 1 / 10 the width of the flag 's width and equal to the length of the flag to be tied at the summit. Variants have the black ribbon wrapped around the flag itself, preventing it from being unfurled.
The flag of Zimbabwe is flown at half - mast at the conferment of National Hero Status to the deceased. As a first - generation republic, adjudication over such a status is currently done by the politburo of the ZANU -- PF.
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who plays wicked witch on once upon a time | Rebecca Mader - wikipedia
Rebecca Leigh Mader (born 24 April 1977) is an English actress, best known for her roles as Charlotte Lewis in the ABC series Lost, and as Zelena, the Wicked Witch of the West, on ABC 's Once Upon a Time.
Mader was born in 1977 in Cambridge, England. She worked as a model in New York City for a year, appearing in adverts for L'Oréal, Colgate and Wella Hair. She began her television career on the ABC daytime soap operas All My Children as Morgan Gordon, and One Life to Live as Margaret Cochran. She also appeared on the soap opera Guiding Light in 2003.
Mader has made number of guest appearances on television shows. In 2006, she had a series regular role of the short - lived Fox legal drama, Justice. In 2008, Mader began starring as anthropologist Charlotte Lewis on ABC series Lost. She appeared in the show from 2008 to 2009 and in two episodes in 2010. In 2011 she had a recurring role on No Ordinary Family, and in 2012 she made a guest starring appearance on the FOX science - fiction series Fringe, as Jessica Holt. Also in 2012, Mader starred in the short - lived ABC comedy series Work It.
In June 2013, Mader made her stage debut in the role of Barrie in the one - act comedy The Third Date at the Hollywood Fringe Festival.
In December 2013, Mader was cast as Wicked Witch of the West, a new antagonist for the second half of the third season of Once Upon a Time (where her fellow Lost star Emilie De Ravin also stars in the series). She also made guest appearances during the second half of season four and was later promoted to a series regular for seasons five and six. In May 2017, Mader announced that she would not be returning for the seventh season of the show, due to a creative decision by the showrunners. However, in September 2017, it was announced that Mader would be reprising her role as Zelena in a recurring capacity for the second half of the seventh season.
She announced her engagement to Marcus Kayne on 29 December 2014 via her Twitter account. The two were married on 23 November 2016.
Series Regular (Seasons 5 - 6)
53 Episodes
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where do the euphrates and tigris rivers meet | Tigris -- Euphrates river system - wikipedia
The Tigris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, form a major river system in Western Asia. From sources originating in the Armenian Highlands of eastern Turkey they flow by / through Syria through Iraq into the Persian Gulf. The system is part of the Palearctic Tigris -- Euphrates ecoregion, which includes Iraq and parts of Turkey, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Jordan.
From their sources and upper courses in the mountains of eastern Anatolia, the rivers descend through valleys and gorges to the uplands of Syria and northern Iraq and then to the alluvial plain of central Iraq. The rivers flow in a south - easterly direction through the central plain and combine at Al - Qurnah to form the Shatt al - Arab and discharge into the Persian Gulf.
The region has historical importance as part of the Fertile Crescent region, in which civilization is believed to have first emerged.
The ecoregion is characterized by two large rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. The rivers have several small tributaries which feed into the system from shallow freshwater lakes, swamps, and marshes, all surrounded by desert. The hydrology of these vast marshes is extremely important to the ecology of the entire upper Persian Gulf. Historically, the area is known as Mesopotamia. As part of the larger Fertile Crescent, it saw the earliest emergence of literate urban civilization in the Uruk period, for which reason it is often described as a "Cradle of Civilization ''.
In the 1980s, this ecoregion was put in grave danger as the Iran -- Iraq War raged within its boundaries. The wetlands of Iraq, which were inhabited by the Marsh Arabs, were almost completely dried out, and have only recently shown signs of recovery.
The Tigris -- Euphrates Basin is shared by Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Kuwait. Many Tigris tributaries originate in Iran and a Tigris -- Euphrates confluence forms part of the Kuwait -- Iraq border. Since the 1960s and in the 1970s, when Turkey began the GAP project in earnest, water disputes have regularly occurred in addition to the associated dam 's effects on the environment. In addition, Syrian and Iranian dam construction has also contributed to political tension within the basin, particularly during drought.
The general climate of the region is subtropical, hot and arid. At the northern end of the Persian Gulf is the vast floodplain of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Karun Rivers, featuring huge permanent lakes, marshes, and forest. The aquatic vegetation includes reeds, rushes, and papyrus, which support numerous species. Areas around the Tigris and the Euphrates are very fertile. Marshy land is home to water birds, some stopping here while migrating, and some spending the winter in these marshes living off the lizards, snakes, frogs, and fish. Other animals found in these marshes are water buffalo, two endemic rodent species, antelopes and gazelles and small animals such as the jerboa and several other mammals.
Iraq suffers from desertification and soil salination due in large part to thousands of years of agricultural activity. Water and plant life are sparse. Saddam Hussein 's government water - control projects drained the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting streams and rivers. Shi'a Muslims were displaced under the Ba'athist regime. The destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area 's wildlife populations. There are also inadequate supplies of potable water.
The marshlands were an extensive natural wetlands ecosystem which developed over thousands of years in the Tigris -- Euphrates basin and once covered 15 -- 20,000 square kilometers. According to the United Nations Environmental Program and the AMAR Charitable Foundation, between 84 % and 90 % of the marshes have been destroyed since the 1970s. In 1994, 60 percent of the wetlands were destroyed by Hussein 's regime -- drained to permit military access and greater political control of the native Marsh Arabs. Canals, dykes and dams were built routing the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers around the marshes, instead of allowing water to move slowly through the marshland. After part of the Euphrates was dried up due to re-routing its water to the sea, a dam was built so water could not back up from the Tigris and sustain the former marshland. Some marshlands were burned and pipes buried underground helped to carry away water for quicker drying.
The drying of the marshes led to the disappearance of the salt - tolerant vegetation; the plankton rich waters that fertilized surrounding soils; 52 native fish species; the wild boar, red fox, buffalo and water birds of the marsh habitat.
The issue of water rights became a point of contention for Iraq, Turkey and Syria beginning in the 1960s when Turkey implemented a public - works project (the GAP project) aimed at harvesting the water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through the construction of 22 dams, for irrigation and hydroelectric energy purposes. Although the water dispute between Turkey and Syria was more problematic, the GAP project was also perceived as a threat by Iraq. The tension between Turkey and Iraq about the issue was increased by the effect of Syria and Turkey 's participation in the UN embargo against Iraq following the Gulf War. However, the issue had never become as significant as the water dispute between Turkey and Syria.
The 2008 drought in Iraq sparked new negotiations between Iraq and Turkey over trans - boundary river flows. Although the drought affected Turkey, Syria and Iran as well, Iraq complained regularly about reduced water flows. Iraq particularly complained about the Euphrates River because of the large amount of dams on the river. Turkey agreed to increase the flow several times, beyond its means in order to supply Iraq with extra water. Iraq has seen significant declines in water storage and crop yields because of the drought. To make matters worse, Iraq 's water infrastructure has suffered from years of conflict and neglect.
In 2008, Turkey, Iraq and Syria agreed to restart the Joint Trilateral Committee on water for the three nations for better water resources management. Turkey, Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding on September 3, 2009, in order to strengthen communication within the Tigris -- Euphrates Basin and to develop joint water - flow - monitoring stations. On September 19, 2009, Turkey formally agreed to increase the flow of the Euphrates River to 450 to 500 m3 / s, but only until October 20, 2009. In exchange, Iraq agreed to trade petroleum with Turkey and help curb Kurdish militant activity in their border region. One of Turkey 's last large GAP dams on the Tigris -- the Ilisu Dam -- is strongly opposed by Iraq and is the source of political strife.
The Mesopotamian Marshes in southern Iraq were historically the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia. Their drainage began in the 1950s, to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. Saddam Hussein extended this work in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as part of ecological warfare against the Marsh Arabs, a rebellious group of people in Baathist Iraq. However, with the breaching of the dikes by local communities after the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the ending of a four - year drought that same year, the process has been reversed and the marshes have experienced a substantial rate of recovery. The permanent wetlands now cover more than 50 % of pre-1970s levels, with a remarkable regrowth of the Hammar and Hawizeh Marshes and some recovery of the Central Marshes.
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which of the following published collections of music were composed by bach | Johann Sebastian Bach - wikipedia
Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March (O.S. 21 March) 1685 -- 28 July 1750) was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. He is known for instrumental compositions such as the Brandenburg Concertos and the Goldberg Variations as well as for vocal music such as the St Matthew Passion and the Mass in B minor. Since the 19th - century Bach Revival he has been generally regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time.
The Bach family already counted several composers when Johann Sebastian was born as the last child of a city musician in Eisenach. After becoming an orphan at age 10, he lived for five years with his eldest brother, after which he continued his musical development in Lüneburg. From 1703 he was back in Thuringia, working as a musician for Protestant churches in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen and, for longer stretches of time, at courts in Weimar -- where he expanded his repertoire for the organ -- and Köthen -- where he was mostly engaged with chamber music. From 1723 he was employed as Thomaskantor (cantor at St. Thomas) in Leipzig. He composed music for the principal Lutheran churches of the city, and for its university 's student ensemble Collegium Musicum. From 1726 he published some of his keyboard and organ music. In Leipzig, as had happened in some of his earlier positions, he had a difficult relation with his employer, a situation that was little remedied when he was granted the title of court composer by the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland in 1736. In the last decades of his life he reworked and extended many of his earlier compositions. He died of complications after eye surgery in 1750.
Bach enriched established German styles through his mastery of counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and his adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. Bach 's compositions include hundreds of cantatas, both sacred and secular. He composed Latin church music, Passions, oratorios, and motets. He often adopted Lutheran hymns, not only in his larger vocal works, but for instance also in his four - part chorales and his sacred songs. He wrote extensively for organ and for other keyboard instruments. He composed concertos, for instance for violin and for harpsichord, and suites, as chamber music as well as for orchestra. Many of his works employ the genres of canon and fugue.
Throughout the 18th century Bach was mostly renowned as an organist, while his keyboard music, such as The Well - Tempered Clavier, was appreciated for its didactic qualities. The 19th century saw the publication of some major Bach biographies, and by the end of that century all of his known music had been printed. Dissemination of scholarship on the composer continued through periodicals and websites exclusively devoted to him, and other publications such as the Bach - Werke - Verzeichnis (BWV, a numbered catalogue of his works) and new critical editions of his compositions. His music was further popularised through a multitude of arrangements, including for instance the Air on the G String, and of recordings, for instance three different box sets with complete performances of the composer 's works marking the 250th anniversary of his death.
Bach was born in 1685 in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe - Eisenach, into a great musical family. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, and his brother Johann Christoph Bach taught him the clavichord and exposed him to much contemporary music. Apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michael 's School in Lüneburg for two years. After graduating he held several musical posts across Germany: he served as Kapellmeister (director of music) to Leopold, Prince of Anhalt - Köthen, and as Thomaskantor in Leipzig, a position of music director at the main Lutheran churches and educator at the Thomasschule. He received the title of "Royal Court Composer '' from Augustus III in 1736. Bach 's health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750.
Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe - Eisenach, in present - day Germany, on 21 March 1685 O.S. (31 March 1685 N.S.). He was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who likely taught him violin and basic music theory. His uncles were all professional musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians, and composers. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach (1645 -- 1693), introduced him to the organ, and an older second cousin, Johann Ludwig Bach (1677 -- 1731), was a well - known composer and violinist.
Bach 's mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10 - year - old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach (1671 -- 1721), the organist at St. Michael 's Church in Ohrdruf, Saxe - Gotha - Altenburg. There he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brother 's, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private, and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord. J.C. Bach exposed him to the works of great composers of the day, including South German composers such as Johann Pachelbel (under whom Johann Christoph had studied) and Johann Jakob Froberger; North German composers; Frenchmen, such as Jean - Baptiste Lully, Louis Marchand, and Marin Marais; and the Italian clavierist Girolamo Frescobaldi. Also during this time, he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French, and Italian at the local gymnasium.
By 3 April 1700, Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann -- who was two years Bach 's elder -- were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michael 's School in Lüneburg, some two weeks ' travel north of Ohrdruf. Their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a wider range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the School 's three - manual organ and harpsichords. He came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines.
While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. John 's Church and possibly used the church 's famous organ from 1553, since it was played by his organ teacher Georg Böhm. Because of his musical talent, Bach had significant contact with Böhm while a student in Lüneburg, and also took trips to nearby Hamburg where he observed "the great North German organist Johann Adam Reincken ''. Stauffer reports the discovery in 2005 of the organ tablatures that Bach wrote out when still in his teens of works by Reincken and Dieterich Buxtehude, showing "a disciplined, methodical, well - trained teenager deeply committed to learning his craft ''.
In January 1703, shortly after graduating from St. Michael 's and being turned down for the post of organist at Sangerhausen, Bach was appointed court musician in the chapel of Duke Johann Ernst III in Weimar. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties. During his seven - month tenure at Weimar, his reputation as a keyboardist spread so much that he was invited to inspect the new organ and give the inaugural recital, at the New Church (now Bach Church) in Arnstadt, located about 30 kilometres (19 mi) southwest of Weimar. In August 1703, he became the organist at the New Church, with light duties, a relatively generous salary, and a fine new organ tuned in a temperament that allowed music written in a wider range of keys to be played.
Despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir. He called one of them a "Zippel Fagottist '' (weenie bassoon player). Late one evening this student, named Geyersbach, went after Bach with a stick. Bach filed a complaint against Geyersbach with the authorities. These acquitted Geyersbach with a minor reprimand and ordered Bach to be more moderate regarding the musical qualities he expected from his students. Some months later Bach upset his employer by a prolonged absence from Arnstadt: having obtained a leave permission for four weeks he had been absent for around four months in 1705 -- 1706 to visit the organist and composer Dieterich Buxtehude in the northern city of Lübeck. The visit to Buxtehude involved a 450 - kilometre (280 mi) journey each way, reportedly on foot.
In 1706, Bach applied for a post as organist at the Blasius Church in Mühlhausen. As part of his application, he had a cantata performed on Easter, 24 April 1707, likely an early version of his Christ lag in Todes Banden. A month later Bach 's application was accepted and he took up the post in July. The position included a significantly higher remuneration, improved conditions, and a better choir. Four months after arriving at Mühlhausen, Bach married Maria Barbara Bach, his second cousin. Bach was able to convince the church and town government at Mühlhausen to fund an expensive renovation of the organ at the Blasius Church. In 1708 Bach wrote Gott ist mein König, a festive cantata for the inauguration of the new Council, which was published at the Council 's expense.
Bach left Mühlhausen in 1708, returning to Weimar this time as organist and from 1714 Konzertmeister (director of music) at the ducal court, where he had an opportunity to work with a large, well - funded contingent of professional musicians. Bach and his wife moved into a house close to the ducal palace. Later the same year, their first child, Catharina Dorothea, was born, and Maria Barbara 's elder, unmarried sister joined them. She remained to help run the household until her death in 1729. Three sons were also born in Weimar: Wilhelm Friedemann, Carl Philipp Emanuel, and Johann Gottfried Bernhard. Johann Sebastian and Maria Barbara had three more children who however did not live to their first birthday, including twins born in 1713.
Bach 's time in Weimar was the start of a sustained period of composing keyboard and orchestral works. He attained the proficiency and confidence to extend the prevailing structures and to include influences from abroad. He learned to write dramatic openings and employ the dynamic motor rhythms and harmonic schemes found in the music of Italians such as Vivaldi, Corelli, and Torelli. Bach absorbed these stylistic aspects in part by transcribing Vivaldi 's string and wind concertos for harpsichord and organ; many of these transcribed works are still regularly performed. Bach was particularly attracted to the Italian style in which one or more solo instruments alternate section - by - section with the full orchestra throughout a movement.
In Weimar, Bach continued to play and compose for the organ, and to perform concert music with the duke 's ensemble. He also began to write the preludes and fugues which were later assembled into his monumental work The Well - Tempered Clavier ("Clavier '' meaning clavichord or harpsichord), consisting of two books, each containing 24 preludes and fugues in every major and minor key. Bach also started work on the Little Organ Book in Weimar, containing traditional Lutheran chorale tunes set in complex textures. In 1713, Bach was offered a post in Halle when he advised the authorities during a renovation by Christoph Cuntzius of the main organ in the west gallery of the Market Church of Our Dear Lady.
In the spring of 1714, Bach was promoted to Konzertmeister, an honour that entailed performing a church cantata monthly in the castle church. The first three cantatas in the new series Bach composed in Weimar were Himmelskönig, sei willkommen, BWV 182, for Palm Sunday, which coincided with the Annunciation that year, Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12, for Jubilate Sunday, and Erschallet, ihr Lieder, erklinget, ihr Saiten! BWV 172 for Pentecost. Bach 's first Christmas cantata Christen, ätzet diesen Tag, BWV 63 was premiered in 1714 or 1715.
In 1717, Bach eventually fell out of favour in Weimar and was, according to a translation of the court secretary 's report, jailed for almost a month before being unfavourably dismissed: "On November 6, (1717), the quondam concertmaster and organist Bach was confined to the County Judge 's place of detention for too stubbornly forcing the issue of his dismissal and finally on December 2 was freed from arrest with notice of his unfavourable discharge. ''
Leopold, Prince of Anhalt - Köthen, hired Bach to serve as his Kapellmeister (director of music) in 1717. Prince Leopold, himself a musician, appreciated Bach 's talents, paid him well and gave him considerable latitude in composing and performing. The prince was Calvinist and did not use elaborate music in his worship; accordingly, most of Bach 's work from this period was secular, including the orchestral suites, the cello suites, the sonatas and partitas for solo violin, and the Brandenburg Concertos. Bach also composed secular cantatas for the court such as Die Zeit, die Tag und Jahre macht, BWV 134a. A significant influence upon Bach 's musical development during his years with the Prince is recorded by Stauffer as Bach 's "complete embrace of dance music, perhaps the most important influence on his mature style other than his adoption of Vivaldi 's music in Weimar. ''
Despite being born in the same year and only about 130 kilometres (81 mi) apart, Bach and Handel never met. In 1719, Bach made the 35 - kilometre (22 mi) journey from Köthen to Halle with the intention of meeting Handel; however, Handel had left the town. In 1730, Bach 's oldest son Wilhelm Friedemann travelled to Halle to invite Handel to visit the Bach family in Leipzig, but the visit did not come to pass.
On 7 July 1720, while Bach was away in Carlsbad with Prince Leopold, Bach 's wife suddenly died. The following year, he met Anna Magdalena Wilcke, a young, highly gifted soprano sixteen years his junior, who performed at the court in Köthen; they married on 3 December 1721. Together they had thirteen more children, six of whom survived into adulthood: Gottfried Heinrich; Elisabeth Juliane Friederica (1726 -- 1781); Johann Christoph Friedrich and Johann Christian, who both, especially Johann Christian, became significant musicians; Johanna Carolina (1737 -- 1781); and Regina Susanna (1742 -- 1809).
In 1723, Bach was appointed Thomaskantor, Cantor of the Thomasschule at the Thomaskirche (St. Thomas Church) in Leipzig, which provided music for four churches in the city, the Thomaskirche, the Nikolaikirche (St. Nicholas Church), and to a lesser extent the Neue Kirche (New Church) and the Peterskirche (St. Peter 's Church). This was "the leading cantorate in Protestant Germany '', located in the mercantile city in the Electorate of Saxony, which he held for twenty - seven years until his death. During that time he gained further prestige through honorary appointments at the courts of Köthen and Weissenfels, as well as that of the Elector Frederick Augustus (who was also King of Poland) in Dresden. Bach frequently disagreed with his employer, Leipzig 's city council, who he thought were "penny - pinching ''.
Johann Kuhnau had been Thomaskantor in Leipzig from 1701 until his death on 5 June 1722. Bach had visited Leipzig during Kuhnau 's tenure: in 1714 he attended the service at the St. Thomas church on the first Sunday of Advent, and in 1717 he had tested the organ of the Paulinerkirche. In 1716 Bach and Kuhnau had met on the occasion of the testing and inauguration of an organ in Halle.
After having been offered the position, Bach was invited to Leipzig only after Georg Philipp Telemann indicated that he would not be interested in relocating to Leipzig. Telemann went to Hamburg where he "had his own struggles with the city 's senate ''.
Bach was required to instruct the students of the Thomasschule in singing and to provide church music for the main churches in Leipzig. Bach was required to teach Latin, but he was allowed to employ four "prefects '' (deputies) to do this instead. The prefects also aided with musical instruction. A cantata was required for the church services on Sundays and additional church holidays during the liturgical year.
Bach usually led performances of his cantatas, most of which were composed within three years of his relocation to Leipzig. The first was Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75, performed in the Nikolaikirche on 30 May 1723, the first Sunday after Trinity. Bach collected his cantatas in annual cycles. Five are mentioned in obituaries, three are extant. Of the more than three hundred cantatas which Bach composed in Leipzig, over one hundred have been lost to posterity. Most of these concerted works expound on the Gospel readings prescribed for every Sunday and feast day in the Lutheran year. Bach started a second annual cycle the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724 and composed only chorale cantatas, each based on a single church hymn. These include O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 20, Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, and Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern, BWV 1.
Bach drew the soprano and alto choristers from the School, and the tenors and basses from the School and elsewhere in Leipzig. Performing at weddings and funerals provided extra income for these groups; it was probably for this purpose, and for in - school training, that he wrote at least six motets. As part of his regular church work, he performed other composers ' motets, which served as formal models for his own.
Bach 's predecessor as Cantor, Johann Kuhnau, had also been music director for the Paulinerkirche, the church of Leipzig University. But when Bach was installed as Cantor in 1723, he was put in charge only of music for "festal '' (church holiday) services at the Paulinerkirche; his petition to provide music also for regular Sunday services there (for a corresponding salary increase) went all the way up to the Elector but was denied. After this, in 1725, Bach "lost interest '' in working even for festal services at the Paulinerkirche and appeared there only on "special occasions ''. The Paulinerkirche had a much better and newer (1716) organ than did the Thomaskirche or the Nikolaikirche. Bach was not required to play any organ in his official duties, but it is believed he liked to play on the Paulinerkirche organ "for his own pleasure ''.
Bach broadened his composing and performing beyond the liturgy by taking over, in March 1729, the directorship of the Collegium Musicum, a secular performance ensemble started by Telemann. This was one of the dozens of private societies in the major German - speaking cities that was established by musically active university students; these societies had become increasingly important in public musical life and were typically led by the most prominent professionals in a city. In the words of Christoph Wolff, assuming the directorship was a shrewd move that "consolidated Bach 's firm grip on Leipzig 's principal musical institutions ''. Year round, Leipzig 's Collegium Musicum performed regularly in venues such as the Café Zimmermann, a coffeehouse on Catherine Street off the main market square. Many of Bach 's works during the 1730s and 1740s were written for and performed by the Collegium Musicum; among these were parts of his Clavier - Übung (Keyboard Practice) and many of his violin and keyboard concertos.
In 1733, Bach composed a mass for the Dresden court (Kyrie and Gloria) which he later incorporated in his Mass in B Minor. He presented the manuscript to the Elector in an eventually successful bid to persuade the prince to give him the title of Court Composer. He later extended this work into a full mass, by adding a Credo, Sanctus ', and Agnus Dei, the music for which was partly based on his own cantatas, partly newly composed. Bach 's appointment as Court Composer was part of his long - term struggle to achieve greater bargaining power with the Leipzig council. Between 1737 and 1739, Bach 's former pupil Carl Gotthelf Gerlach held the directorship of the Collegium Musicum.
In 1735 Bach started to prepare his first publication of organ music, which was printed as the third Clavier - Übung in 1739. From around that year he started to compile and compose the set of preludes and fugues for harpsichord that would become his second book of The Well - Tempered Clavier.
From 1740 to 1748 Bach copied, transcribed, expanded and / or programmed music in an older polyphonic style (stile antico), by, among others, Palestrina (BNB I / P / 2), Kerll (BWV 241), Torri (BWV Anh. 30), Bassani (BWV 1081), Gasparini (Missa Canonica) and Caldara (BWV 1082). Bach 's own style shifted in the last decade of his life, showing an increased integration of polyphonic structures and canons, and other elements of the stile antico. His fourth and last Clavier - Übung volume, the Goldberg Variations, for two - manual harpsichord, contained nine canons and was published in 1741. Throughout this period, Bach also continued to adopt music of contemporaries such as Handel (BNB I / K / 2) and Stölzel (BWV 200), and gave many of his own earlier compositions, such as the St Matthew and St John Passions and the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes, their final revisions. He also programmed and adapted music by composers of a younger generation, including Pergolesi (BWV 1083) and his own students such as Goldberg (BNB I / G / 2).
In 1746 Bach was preparing to enter Lorenz Christoph Mizler 's Society of Musical Sciences (de). In order to be admitted Bach had to submit a composition, for which he chose his Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm ' ich her '', and a portrait, which was painted by Elias Gottlob Haussmann and featured Bach 's Canon triplex á 6 Voc. In May 1747, Bach visited the court of King Frederick II of Prussia at Potsdam. The king played a theme for Bach and challenged him to improvise a fugue based on his theme. Bach obliged, playing a three - part fugue on one of Frederick 's fortepianos, which was a new type of instrument at the time. Upon his return to Leipzig he composed a set of fugues and canons, and a trio sonata, based on the Thema Regium (theme of the king). Within a few weeks this music was published as The Musical Offering, dedicated to Frederick. The Schübler Chorales, a set of six chorale preludes transcribed from cantata movements Bach had composed some two decades earlier, was published within a year after that. Around the same time, the set of five Canonic Variations which Bach had submitted when entering Mizler 's Society in 1747, was also printed.
Two large - scale compositions occupied a central place in Bach 's last years. From around 1742 he wrote and reworked the various canons and fugues of The Art of Fugue, which he continued to prepare for publication until shortly before his death. After having extracted a cantata, BWV 191, from his 1733 Kyrie - Gloria Mass for the Dresden court in the mid 1740s, Bach expanded that Mass setting into his Mass in B minor in the last years of his life. Stauffer describes it as "Bach 's most universal church work. Consisting mainly of recycled movements from cantatas written over a thirty - five - year period, it allowed Bach to survey his vocal pieces one last time and pick select movements for further revision and refinement. '' Although the complete mass was never performed during the composer 's lifetime, it is considered to be among the greatest choral works of all time.
In January 1749 Bach 's daughter Elisabeth Juliane Friederica married his pupil Johann Christoph Altnickol. Bach 's health was however declining. On 2 June, Heinrich von Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig burgomasters to request that his music director, Johann Gottlob Harrer, fill the Thomaskantor and Director musices posts "upon the eventual... decease of Mr. Bach ''. Becoming blind, Bach underwent eye surgery, in March 1750, and again in April, from the British eye surgeon John Taylor. Bach died on 28 July 1750, from complications connected to the unsuccessful treatment. An inventory drawn up a few months after Bach 's death, shows that his estate included five harpsichords, two lute - harpsichords, three violins, three violas, two cellos, a viola da gamba, a lute and a spinet, along with 52 "sacred books '', including works by Martin Luther and Josephus. The composer 's son Carl Philipp Emanuel saw to it that The Art of Fugue, although still unfinished, was published in 1751. Together with one of the composer 's former students, Johann Friedrich Agricola, this son of Bach also wrote the obituary ("Nekrolog '') which was published in Mizler 's Musikalische Bibliothek (de), the organ of the Society of Musical Sciences, in 1754.
To a large extent, Bach 's musical style fits in the conventions of his day, which is the final stage of the baroque style. When his contemporaries such as Handel, Telemann and Vivaldi wrote concertos he did so too. When they wrote suites, he did so too. Similar with recitatives followed by da capo arias, four - part choral music, use of basso continuo etc. The specifics of his style lie with characteristics such as his skill in contrapuntal invention and motivic control and his talent for writing tightly woven music of powerful sonority. From an early age, he imbued himself with the compositions of his contemporaries and of prior generations, all of what was available from European composers, such as the French, the Italian, and those from all parts of Germany, and there is little of it that did n't appear in his own music.
Religious music was at the centre of Bach 's output for much of his life. The hundreds of sacred works he created are usually seen as manifesting not just his craft but a truly devout relationship with God. He had taught Luther 's Small Catechism as the Thomaskantor in Leipzig, and some of his pieces represent it. The Lutheran chorale was the basis of much of his work. In elaborating these hymns into his chorale preludes, he wrote more cogent and tightly integrated works than most, even when they were massive and lengthy. The large - scale structure of every major Bach sacred vocal work is evidence of subtle, elaborate planning to create a religiously and musically powerful expression. For example, the St Matthew Passion, like other works of its kind, illustrated the Passion with Bible text reflected in recitatives, arias, choruses, and chorales, but in crafting this work, Bach created an overall experience that has been found over the centuries since to be both musically thrilling and spiritually profound.
Bach published or carefully compiled in manuscript many collections of pieces that explored the range of artistic and technical possibilities inherent in almost every genre of his time except opera. For example, The Well - Tempered Clavier comprises two books, each of which presents a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key, displaying a dizzying variety of structural, contrapuntal and fugal techniques.
Four - part harmonies predate Bach, but he lived during a time when modal music in Western tradition was largely supplanted in favour of the tonal system. In this system a piece of music progresses from one chord to the next according to certain rules, each chord being characterised by four notes. The principles of four - part harmony can not only be found in Bach 's four - part choral music, but he also prescribes it for instance for the figured bass accompaniment. The new system was at the core of Bach 's style, and his compositions are to a large extent considered as laying down the rules for the evolving scheme that would dominate musical expression in the next centuries. Some examples of this characteristic of Bach 's style and its influence:
Bach putting his foot down on the tonal system, and contributing to its shaping, did not imply he was less at ease with the older modal system, and the genres associated with it: more than his contemporaries (who had "moved on '' to the tonal system without much exception), Bach often returned to the then - antiquated modi and genres. His Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, re-emulating the chromatic fantasia genre, as used by earlier composers such as Dowland and Sweelinck, in D dorian mode (comparable to D minor in the tonal system), is an example of this.
Modulations, changing key in the course of a piece, is another style characteristic where Bach goes beyond what was usual in his time. Baroque instruments vastly limited modulation possibilities: keyboard instruments, prior to a workable system of temperament, limited the keys that could be modulated to, and wind instruments, especially brass instruments such as trumpets and horns, about a century before they were fitted with valves, were tied to the key of their tuning. Bach pushed the limits: he added "strange tones '' in his organ playing, confusing the singing, according to an indictment he had to face in Arnstadt, and Louis Marchand, another early experimenter with modulation, seems to have avoided confrontation with Bach because the latter went further than anyone had done before. In the "Suscepit Israel '' of his 1723 Magnificat, he had the trumpets in E-flat play a melody in the enharmonic scale of C minor.
The major development taking place in Bach 's time, and to which he contributed in no small way, was the development of a temperament for keyboard instruments that allowed to use these in all available keys (12 major and 12 minor), and which allowed modulating without retuning. Already his Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother, a very early work, showed a gusto for modulation incomparable to any contemporary work this composition has been compared to, but the full expansion came with the Well - Tempered Clavier, using all keys, which Bach seems to have been developing from around 1720, with the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach as one of its earliest witnesses.
The second page of the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach is an ornament notation and performance guide that Bach wrote for his eldest son, who was nine years old at the time. Bach was generally quite specific on ornamentation in his compositions (where in his time much of the ornamentation was not written out by composers, rather being considered a liberty of the performer), and his ornamentation was often quite elaborate. For instance, the "Aria '' of the Goldberg Variations has rich ornamentation in nearly every measure. Bach 's dealing with ornamentation can also be seen in a keyboard arrangement he made of Marcello 's Oboe Concerto: he added written out ornamentation, which, some centuries later, is played by oboists when performing the concerto.
Although Bach did not write any opera, he was not averse to the genre, nor to its ornamented vocal style. In church music, Italian composers had imitated the operatic vocal style in genres such as the Neapolitan mass. In Protestant surroundings, there was more reticence to adopt such style for liturgical music. For instance, Kuhnau, Bach 's predecessor in Leipzig, had notoriously written against opera and Italianate virtuoso vocal music. Bach was less imbued; one of the comments after a performance of his St Matthew Passion was that it all sounded much like opera.
In concerted playing in Bach 's time the basso continuo, consisting of instruments such as organ, and / or viola da gamba and harpsichord, usually had the role of accompaniment: providing the harmonic and rhythmic foundation of a piece. From the late 1720s, Bach had the organ play concertante (i.e. as soloist) with the orchestra in instrumental cantata movements, a decade before Handel published his first organ concertos. Apart from the 5th Brandenburg Concerto and the Triple Concerto, which already had harpsichord soloists in the 1720s, Bach wrote and arranged his harpsichord concertos in the 1730s, and in his sonatas for viola da gamba and harpsichord neither instrument plays a continuo part: they are treated as equal soloists, way beyond the figured bass role. In this sense, Bach played a key role in the development of genres such as the keyboard concerto.
Bach wrote virtuoso music for specific instruments, as well as music independent of instrumentation. For instance, the sonatas and partitas for solo violin are considered the pinnacle of what has been written for this instrument, only within reach of accomplished players: the music fits the instrument, pushing it to the full scale of its possibilities, requiring virtuosity of the player, but without bravura. Notwithstanding that the music and the instrument seem inseparable, Bach made transcriptions for other instruments of some pieces of this collection. Similarly, for the cello suites, the virtuoso music seems tailored for the instrument, the best of what is on offer for it, yet Bach made an arrangement for lute of one of these suites. Likewise for much of his most virtuoso keyboard music. Bach exploited the capabilities of an instrument to the fullest while keeping the core of such music independent of the instrument on which it is performed.
In this sense, it is no surprise that Bach 's music is easily and often performed on instruments it was not necessarily written for, that it is transcribed so often, and that his melodies turn up in unexpected places such as jazz music. Apart from that, Bach left a number of compositions without specified instrumentation: the Canons BWV 1072 -- 1078 fall in that category, as well as the bulk of the Musical Offering and the Art of Fugue.
Another characteristic of Bach 's style is his extensive use of counterpoint, as opposed to the homophony used, for instance, in his four - part Chorale settings. Bach 's Canons, and especially his Fugues, are most characteristic of this style, which Bach did not invent, but his contribution to it was so fundamental that he defined it to a large extent. Fugues are as characteristic to Bach 's style, as, for instance, the Sonata form is characteristic to the composers of the Classical period.
Not only these strictly contrapuntal compositions, but most of Bach 's music is characterised by distinct melodic lines for each of the voices, where the chords formed by the notes sounding at a given point follow the rules of four - part harmony. Forkel, Bach 's first biographer, gives this description of this feature of Bach 's music, that sets it apart from most other music:
If the language of music is merely the utterance of a melodic line, a simple sequence of musical notes, it can justly be accused of poverty. The addition of a Bass puts it upon a harmonic foundation and clarifies it, but defines rather than gives it added richness. A melody so accompanied -- even though all the notes are not those of the true Bass -- or treated with simple embellishments in the upper parts, or with simple chords, used to be called "homophony. '' But it is a very different thing when two melodies are so interwoven that they converse together like two persons upon a footing of pleasant equality. In the first case the accompaniment is subordinate, and serves merely to support the first or principal part. In the second case the two parts are not similarly related. New melodic combinations spring from their interweaving, out of which new forms of musical expression emerge. If more parts are interwoven in the same free and independent manner, the apparatus of language is correspondingly enlarged, and becomes practically inexhaustible if, in addition, varieties of form and rhythm are introduced. Hence harmony becomes no longer a mere accompaniment of melody, but rather a potent agency for augmenting the richness and expressiveness of musical conversation. To serve that end a simple accompaniment will not suffice. True harmony is the interweaving of several melodies, which emerge now in the upper, now in the middle, and now in the lower parts.
From about the year 1720, when he was thirty - five, until his death in 1750, Bach 's harmony consists in this melodic interweaving of independent melodies, so perfect in their union that each part seems to constitute the true melody. Herein Bach excels all the composers in the world. At least, I have found no one to equal him in music known to me. Even in his four - part writing we can, not infrequently, leave out the upper and lower parts and still find the middle parts melodious and agreeable.
Bach devoted more attention than his contemporaries to the structure of compositions. This can be seen in minor adjustments he made when adopting someone else 's composition, for example, his earliest version of the "Keiser '' St Mark Passion, where he enhances scene transitions, and in the architecture of his own compositions such as his Magnificat and his Leipzig Passions. In the last years of his life, Bach would revise several of his prior compositions, often the recasting of such previously composed music in an enhanced structure being the most visible change, as in the Mass in B minor. Bach 's known preoccupation with structure led, peaking around the 1970s, to various numerological analyses of his compositions, although many such over-interpretations were later rejected, especially when wandering off in symbolism - ridden hermeneutics.
The librettos, that is the lyrics, for his vocal compositions played an important role for Bach: he sought collaboration with various text authors for his cantatas and major vocal compositions, eventually writing or adapting such texts himself to make them fit in the structure of the composition he was designing, when he could not lean on the talents of other text authors. His collaboration with Picander for the St Matthew Passion libretto is best known, but there was a similar process to come to a multi-layered structure for his St John Passion libretto a few years earlier.
In 1950, Wolfgang Schmieder published a thematic catalogue of Bach 's compositions, called Bach - Werke - Verzeichnis (Bach Works Catalogue). Schmieder largely followed the Bach - Gesellschaft - Ausgabe, a comprehensive edition of the composer 's works that was produced between 1850 and 1900. The first edition of the catalogue listed 1,080 surviving compositions without doubt composed by Bach.
BWV 1081 -- 1126 were added to the catalogue in the second half of the 20th century, and BWV 1127 and higher were still later additions.
Bach composed Passions for Good Friday services and oratorios such as the Christmas Oratorio, which is a set of six cantatas for use in the liturgical season of Christmas. Shorter oratorios are the Easter Oratorio and the Ascension Oratorio.
With its double choir and orchestra, the St Matthew Passion is one of Bach 's most extended works.
The St John Passion was the first Passion Bach composed during his tenure as Thomaskantor in Leipzig.
According to his obituary, Bach would have composed five - year cycles of sacred cantatas, and additional church cantatas for instance for weddings and funerals. Approximately 200 of these sacred works are extant, an estimated two thirds of the total number of church cantatas he composed. The Bach Digital website lists 50 known secular cantatas by the composer, about half of which are extant or largely reconstructable.
Bach 's cantatas vary greatly in form and instrumentation, including those for solo singers, single choruses, small instrumental groups, and grand orchestras. Many consist of a large opening chorus followed by one or more recitative - aria pairs for soloists (or duets) and a concluding chorale. The melody of the concluding chorale often appears as a cantus firmus in the opening movement.
Bach 's earliest cantatas date from his years in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen. The earliest one with a known date is Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, for Easter 1707, which is one of his chorale cantatas. Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit, BWV 106, a.k.a. Actus Tragicus, is a funeral cantata from the Mühlhausen period. Around 20 church cantatas are extant from his later years in Weimar, for instance, Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21.
After taking up his office as Thomaskantor late May 1723, Bach performed a cantata each Sunday and feast day that corresponded to the lectionary readings of the week. His first cantata cycle ran from the first Sunday after Trinity of 1723 to Trinity Sunday the next year. For instance, the Visitation cantata Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben, BWV 147, containing the chorale that is known in English as "Jesu, Joy of Man 's Desiring '', belongs to this first cycle. The cantata cycle of his second year in Leipzig is called the chorale cantata cycle as it is mainly consisting of works in the chorale cantata format. His third cantata cycle was developed over a period of several years, followed by the Picander cycle of 1728 -- 29.
Later church cantatas include the chorale cantatas Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80 (final version) and Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140. Only the first three Leipzig cycles are more or less completely extant. Apart from his own work, Bach also performed cantatas by Telemann and by his distant relative Johann Ludwig Bach.
Bach also wrote secular cantatas, for instance for members of the Royal - Polish and Prince - electoral Saxonian family (e.g. Trauer - Ode), or other public or private occasions (e.g. Hunting Cantata). The text of these cantatas was occasionally in dialect (e.g. Peasant Cantata) or in Italian (e.g. Amore traditore). Many of the secular cantatas went lost, but for some of these the text and the occasion are known, for instance when Picander later published their libretto (e.g. BWV Anh. 11 -- 12). Some of the secular cantatas had a plot carried by mythological figures of Greek antiquity (e.g. Der Streit zwischen Phoebus und Pan), others were almost miniature buffo operas (e.g. Coffee Cantata).
Bach 's a cappella music includes motets and chorale harmonisations.
Bach 's motets (BWV 225 -- 231) are pieces on sacred themes for choir and continuo, with instruments playing colla parte. Several of them were composed for funerals. The six motets certainly composed by Bach are Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf, Jesu, meine Freude, Fürchte dich nicht, Komm, Jesu, komm, and Lobet den Herrn, alle Heiden. The motet Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren (BWV 231) is part of the composite motet Jauchzet dem Herrn, alle Welt (BWV Anh. 160), other parts of which may be based on work by Telemann.
Bach wrote hundreds of four - part harmonisations of Lutheran chorales.
Bach church music in Latin includes his Magnificat, four Kyrie -- Gloria Masses, and his Mass in B minor.
The first version of Bach 's Magnificat dates from 1723, but the work is best known in its D major version of 1733.
In 1733 Bach composed a Kyrie -- Gloria Mass for the Dresden court. Near the end of his life, around 1748 -- 1749 he expanded this composition into the large - scale Mass in B minor. The work was never performed in full during Bach 's lifetime.
Bach wrote for the organ and other keyboard instruments of his day, mainly the harpsichord, but also the clavichord and his personal favourite: the lute - harpsichord (the compositions listed as works for the lute, BWV 995 - 1000 and 1006a were probably written for this instrument).
Bach was best known during his lifetime as an organist, organ consultant, and composer of organ works in both the traditional German free genres -- such as preludes, fantasias, and toccatas -- and stricter forms, such as chorale preludes and fugues. At a young age, he established a reputation for his great creativity and ability to integrate foreign styles into his organ works. A decidedly North German influence was exerted by Georg Böhm, with whom Bach came into contact in Lüneburg, and Dieterich Buxtehude, whom the young organist visited in Lübeck in 1704 on an extended leave of absence from his job in Arnstadt. Around this time, Bach copied the works of numerous French and Italian composers to gain insights into their compositional languages, and later arranged violin concertos by Vivaldi and others for organ and harpsichord. During his most productive period (1708 -- 1714) he composed about a dozen pairs of preludes and fugues, five toccatas and fugues, and the Little Organ Book, an unfinished collection of forty - six short chorale preludes that demonstrates compositional techniques in the setting of chorale tunes. After leaving Weimar, Bach wrote less for organ, although some of his best - known works (the six trio sonatas, the German Organ Mass in Clavier - Übung III from 1739, and the Great Eighteen chorales, revised late in his life) were composed after his leaving Weimar. Bach was extensively engaged later in his life in consulting on organ projects, testing newly built organs, and dedicating organs in afternoon recitals. The Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm ' ich her '' and the Schübler Chorales are organ works Bach published in the last years of his life.
Bach wrote many works for harpsichord, some of which may have been played on the clavichord. The larger works are usually intended for a harpsichord with two manuals, while performing them on a keyboard instrument with a single manual (like a piano) may provide technical difficulties for the crossing of hands. Many of his keyboard works are anthologies that encompass whole theoretical systems in an encyclopaedic fashion.
Among Bach 's lesser known keyboard works are seven toccatas (BWV 910 -- 916), four duets (BWV 802 -- 805), sonatas for keyboard (BWV 963 -- 967), the Six Little Preludes (BWV 933 -- 938), and the Aria variata alla maniera italiana (BWV 989).
Bach wrote for single instruments, duets, and small ensembles. Many of his solo works, such as his six sonatas and partitas for violin (BWV 1001 -- 1006) and his six cello suites (BWV 1007 -- 1012), are widely considered among the most profound in the repertoire. He wrote sonatas for a solo instrument such as the viola de gamba accompanied by harpsichord or continuo, as well as trio sonatas (two instruments and continuo).
The Musical Offering and The Art of Fugue are late contrapuntal works containing pieces for unspecified (combinations of) instruments.
Surviving works in the concerto form include two violin concertos (BWV 1041 in A minor and BWV 1042 in E major) and a concerto for two violins in D minor, BWV 1043, often referred to as Bach 's "double '' concerto.
Bach 's best - known orchestral works are the Brandenburg Concertos, so named because he submitted them in the hope of gaining employment from Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg - Schwedt in 1721; his application was unsuccessful. These works are examples of the concerto grosso genre.
Bach composed and transcribed concertos for one to four harpsichords. Many of the harpsichord concertos were not original works, but arrangements of his concertos for other instruments now lost. A number of violin, oboe, and flute concertos have been reconstructed from these.
In addition to concertos, Bach wrote four orchestral suites, each suite being a series of stylised dances for orchestra, preceded by a French overture.
In his early youth, Bach copied pieces by other composers to learn from them. Later, he copied and arranged music for performance and / or as study material for his pupils. Some of these pieces, like "Bist du bei mir '' (not even copied by Bach but by Anna Magdalena), became famous before being dissociated with Bach. Bach copied and arranged Italian masters such as Vivaldi (e.g. BWV 1065), Pergolesi (BWV 1083) and Palestrina (Missa Sine nomine), French masters such as François Couperin (BWV Anh. 183), and closer to home various German masters, including Telemann (e.g. BWV 824 = TWV 32: 14) and Handel (arias from Brockes Passion), and music from members of his own family. Then he also often copied and arranged his own music (e.g. movements from cantatas for his short masses BWV 233 -- 236), as likewise his music was copied and arranged by others. Some of these arrangements, like the late 19th - century "Air on the G String '', helped in popularising Bach 's music.
Sometimes who copied whom is not clear. For instance, Forkel mentions a Mass for double chorus among the works composed by Bach. The work was published and performed in the early 19th century, and although a score partially in Bach 's handwriting exists, the work was later considered spurious. In 1950, the setup of the Bach - Werke - Verzeichnis was to keep such works out of the main catalogue: if there was a strong association with Bach they could be listed in its appendix (in German: Anhang, abbreviated as Anh.), so, for instance, the aforementioned Mass for double chorus became BWV Anh. 167. This was however far from the end of attribution issues -- for instance, Schlage doch, gewünschte Stunde, BWV 53 was later re-attributed to Melchior Hoffmann. For other works, Bach 's authorship was put in doubt without a generally accepted answer to the question whether or not he composed it: the best known organ composition in the BWV catalogue, the Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565, was indicated as one of these uncertain works in the late 20th century.
Throughout the 18th century, the appreciation of Bach 's music was mostly limited to distinguished connoisseurs. The 19th century started with the first biography of the composer being published and ended with the completion of the publication of all of Bach 's known works by the Bach Gesellschaft. A Bach Revival had started from Mendelssohn 's performance of the St Matthew Passion in 1829. Soon after that performance, Bach started to become regarded as one of the greatest composers of all times, if not the greatest, a reputation he has retained ever since. A new extensive Bach biography was published in the second half of the 19th century.
In the 20th century, Bach 's music was widely performed and recorded, while the Neue Bachgesellschaft, among others, published research on the composer. Modern adaptations of Bach 's music contributed greatly to his popularisation in the second half of the 20th century. Among these were the Swingle Singers ' versions of Bach pieces (for instance, the Air from Orchestral Suite No. 3, or the Wachet auf... chorale prelude) and Wendy Carlos ' 1968 Switched - On Bach, which used the Moog electronic synthesiser.
By the end of the 20th century, more classical performers were gradually moving away from the performance style and instrumentation that were established in the romantic era: they started to perform Bach 's music on period instruments of the baroque era, studied and practised playing techniques and tempi as established in his time, and reduced the size of instrumental ensembles and choirs to what he would have employed. The BACH motif, used by the composer in his own compositions, was used in dozens of tributes to the composer from the 19th century to the 21st. In the 21st century, the complete extant output of the composer became available on - line, with several websites exclusively dedicated to him.
In his own time, Bach 's reputation equalled those of Telemann, Graun and Handel. During his life, Bach received public recognition, such as the title of court composer by Augustus III of Poland, and the appreciation he was shown by Frederick the Great and Hermann Karl von Keyserling. Such highly placed appreciation contrasted with the humiliations he had to cope with, for instance in his hometown of Leipzig. Also in the contemporary press, Bach had his detractors, such as Johann Adolf Scheibe, suggesting he write less complex music, and his supporters such as Johann Mattheson and Lorenz Christoph Mizler.
After his death, Bach 's reputation as a composer at first declined: his work was regarded as old - fashioned compared to the emerging galant style. Initially, he was remembered more as a virtuoso player of the organ and as a teacher. The bulk of the music that had been printed during the composer 's lifetime, at least the part that was remembered, was for the organ and the harpsichord. Thus, his reputation as a composer was initially mostly limited to his keyboard music, and that even fairly limited to its value in music education.
Bach 's surviving family members, who inherited a large part of his manuscripts, were not all equally concerned with preserving them, leading to considerable losses. Carl Philipp Emanuel, his second eldest son, was most active in safeguarding his father 's legacy: he co-authored his father 's obituary, contributed to the publication of his four - part chorales, staged some of his works, and the bulk of previously unpublished works of his father were preserved through his hands. Wilhelm Friedemann, the eldest son, performed several of his father 's cantatas in Halle, but after becoming unemployed, sold part of the large collection of his father 's works he owned. Several students of the old master, such as his son - in - law Johann Christoph Altnickol, Johann Friedrich Agricola, Johann Kirnberger, and Johann Ludwig Krebs, contributed to the dissemination of his legacy. The early devotees were not all musicians; for example, in Berlin, Daniel Itzig, a high official of Frederick the Great 's court, venerated Bach. His eldest daughters took lessons from Kirnberger; their sister Sara from Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, who was in Berlin from 1774 to 1784. Sara Itzig Levy became an avid collector of works by Johann Sebastian Bach and his sons and was a "patron '' of CPE Bach.
While in Leipzig, performances of Bach 's church music were limited to some of his motets and under cantor Doles, some of his Passions. A new generation of Bach aficionados emerged: they studiously collected and copied his music, including some of his large - scale works, such as the Mass in B minor, and performed it privately. One such connoisseur was Gottfried van Swieten, a high - ranking Austrian official who was instrumental in passing Bach 's legacy on to the composers of the Viennese school. Haydn owned manuscript copies of the Well - Tempered Clavier and the Mass in B minor, and was influenced by Bach 's music. Mozart owned a copy of one of Bach 's motets, transcribed some of his instrumental works (K. 404a, 405), and wrote contrapuntal music influenced by his style. Beethoven played the entire Well - Tempered Clavier by the time he was eleven, and described Bach as Urvater der Harmonie (progenitor of harmony).
In 1802, Johann Nikolaus Forkel published Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke, the first biography of the composer, which contributed to the composer becoming known to a wider public. In 1805, Abraham Mendelssohn, who had married one of Itzig 's granddaughters, bought a substantial collection of Bach manuscripts that had come down from C. P. E. Bach, and donated it to the Berlin Sing - Akademie. The Sing - Akademie occasionally performed Bach 's works in public concerts, for instance his first keyboard concerto, with Sara Itzig Levy at the piano.
The first decades of the 19th century saw an increasing number of first publications of Bach 's music: Breitkopf started publishing chorale preludes, Hoffmeister harpsichord music, and the Well - Tempered Clavier was printed concurrently by Simrock (Germany), Nägeli (Switzerland) and Hoffmeister (Germany and Austria) in 1801. Vocal music was also published: motets in 1802 and 1803, followed by the E ♭ major version of the Magnificat, the Kyrie - Gloria Mass in A major, and the cantata Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (BWV 80). In 1818, Hans Georg Nägeli called the Mass in B Minor the greatest composition ever. Bach 's influence was felt in the next generation of early Romantic composers. When Felix Mendelssohn, Abraham 's son, aged 13, produced his first Magnificat setting in 1822, it is clear that he was inspired by the then - unpublished D major version of Bach 's Magnificat.
Felix Mendelssohn significantly contributed to the renewed interest in Bach 's work with his 1829 Berlin performance of the St Matthew Passion, instrumental in setting off what has been called the Bach Revival. The St John Passion saw its 19th - century premiere in 1833, and the first performance of the Mass in B minor followed in 1844. Besides these and other public performances and an increased coverage on the composer and his compositions in printed media, the 1830s and ' 40s also saw the first publication of more vocal works by Bach: six cantatas, the St Matthew Passion, and the Mass in B minor. A series of organ compositions saw their first publication in 1833. Chopin started composing his 24 Preludes, Op. 28, inspired by the Well - Tempered Clavier, in 1835, and Schumann published his Sechs Fugen über den Namen B-A-C-H in 1845. Bach 's music was transcribed and arranged to suit contemporary tastes and performance practice by composers such as Carl Friedrich Zelter, Robert Franz, and Franz Liszt, or combined with new music such as the melody line of Charles Gounod 's Ave Maria. Brahms, Bruckner, and Wagner were among the composers who promoted Bach 's music or wrote glowingly about it.
In 1850, the Bach - Gesellschaft (Bach Society) was founded to promote Bach 's music. In the second half of the 19th century, the Society published a comprehensive edition of the composer 's works. Also in the second half of the 19th century, Philipp Spitta published Johann Sebastian Bach, the standard work on Bach 's life and music. By that time, Bach was known as the first of the three Bs in music. Throughout the 19th century, 200 books were published on Bach. By the end of the century, local Bach societies were established in several cities, and his music had been performed in all major musical centres.
In Germany all throughout the century, Bach was coupled to nationalist feelings, and the composer was inscribed in a religious revival. In England, Bach was coupled to an already existing revival of religious and baroque music. By the end of the century, Bach was firmly established as one of the greatest composers, recognised for both his instrumental and his vocal music.
During the 20th century, the process of recognising the musical as well as the pedagogic value of some of the works continued, as in the promotion of the cello suites by Pablo Casals, the first major performer to record these suites. Leading performers of classical music, such as Herbert von Karajan, Arthur Grumiaux, Helmut Walcha, Wanda Landowska, Karl Richter, I Musici, Dietrich Fischer - Dieskau, Glenn Gould, and many others recorded his music.
A significant development in the later part of the 20th century was the momentum gained by the historically informed performance practice, with forerunners such as Nikolaus Harnoncourt acquiring prominence by their performances of Bach 's music. His keyboard music was again rather performed on the instruments Bach was familiar with, instead of on modern pianos and 19th - century romantic organs. Ensembles playing and singing Bach 's music not only kept to the instruments and the performance style of his day, they were also reduced to the size of the groups Bach used for his performances. But that was far from the only way Bach 's music came to the forefront in the 20th century: his music was heard in versions ranging from Ferruccio Busoni 's late romantic piano transcriptions, jazzy interpretations such as those by the Swingle Singers, and orchestrations such as the one opening Walt Disney 's Fantasia movie, to synthesiser performances such as Wendy Carlos ' Switched - On Bach recordings.
Bach 's music has influenced other genres. For instance, jazz musicians have adopted Bach 's music, with Jacques Loussier, Ian Anderson, Uri Caine, and the Modern Jazz Quartet among those creating jazz versions of his works. Several 20th - century composers referred to Bach or his music -- for instance, Eugène Ysaÿe in his Six Sonatas for solo violin, Dmitri Shostakovich in his 24 Preludes and Fugues and Heitor Villa - Lobos in his Bachianas Brasileiras. All kinds of publications involved Bach: not only were there the Bach Jahrbuch publications of the Neue Bachgesellschaft, various other studies and biographies, by among others Albert Schweitzer, Charles Sanford Terry, John Butt, Christoph Wolff, and the 1950 first edition of the Bach - Werke - Verzeichnis, but also books such as Gödel, Escher, Bach put the composer 's art in a wider perspective. Bach 's music was extensively listened to, performed, broadcast, arranged, adapted, and commented upon in the 1990s. Around 2000, the 250th anniversary of Bach 's death, three record companies issued box sets with complete recordings of Bach 's music.
Bach 's music features three times -- more than that of any other composer -- on the Voyager Golden Record, a gramophone record containing a broad sample of the images, common sounds, languages, and music of Earth, sent into outer space with the two Voyager probes. Tributes to Bach in the 20th century include statues erected in his honour, and a variety of things, such as streets and space objects, being named after him. Also, a multitude of musical ensembles such as the Bach Aria Group, the Deutsche Bachsolisten, the Bachchor Stuttgart, and the Bach Collegium Japan adopted the composer 's name. Bach festivals were held in several continents, and competitions and prizes such as the International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition and the Royal Academy of Music Bach Prize were named after the composer. While by the end of the 19th century, Bach had been inscribed in nationalism and religious revival, the late 20th century saw Bach as the subject of a secularised art - as - religion (Kunstreligion).
In the 21st century, Bach 's compositions became available on - line, for instance at the International Music Score Library Project. High - resolution facsimiles of Bach 's autographs became available at the Bach digital website. Websites dedicated exclusively to the composer or parts of his music include jsbach.org and the Bach Cantatas Website.
21st - century biographers include Peter Williams and the conductor John Eliot Gardiner. Also in this century, overviews of what is best in classical music typically include a great deal of Bach. For example, in The Telegraph 's list of the 168 best classical music recordings, Bach 's music is featured more often than that of any other composer.
Bach was originally buried at Old St. John 's Cemetery in Leipzig. His grave went unmarked for nearly 150 years, but in 1894 his remains were located and moved to a vault in St. John 's Church. This building was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II, so in 1950 Bach 's remains were taken to their present grave in St. Thomas Church. Later research has called into question whether the remains in the grave are actually those of Bach.
The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church remembers Bach annually with a feast day on 28 July, together with George Frideric Handel and Henry Purcell; on the same day, the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church remembers Bach and Handel with Heinrich Schütz.
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how many countries does america have bases in | List of United States military bases - wikipedia
This is a list of military installations owned or used by the United States Armed Forces currently located in the United States and around the world. This list details only current or recently closed facilities; some defunct facilities are found at Category: Closed military installations of the United States.
An "installation '' is defined as "a military base, camp, post, station, yard, center, homeport facility for any ship, or other activity under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense, including leased space, that is controlled by, or primarily supports DoD 's activities. An installation may consist of one or more sites '' (geographically - separated real estate parcels).
The United States is the largest operator of military bases abroad, with 38 "named bases '' having active - duty, national guard, reserve, or civilian personnel as of September 30, 2014. Its largest, in terms of personnel, was Ramstein AB, in Germany, with almost 9,200 personnel.
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this was the ruler of great britain during the seven years war | Great Britain in the Seven Years ' war - wikipedia
Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years ' War which lasted between 1754 and 1763. Britain emerged from the war as the world 's leading colonial power, having gained a number of new territories at the Treaty of Paris in 1763 and established itself as the world 's pre-eminent naval power.
The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754 -- 55; and in the loss of Menorca in 1756. The same year Britain 's major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France; and Britain was hastily forced to conclude a new alliance with Frederick the Great 's Prussia. For the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. After a period of political instability, the rise of a government headed by the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt the elder provided Britain with firmer leadership, enabling it to consolidate and achieve its war aims.
In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis, "year of miracles '', with success over the French on the continent (Germany), in North America (capturing the capital of New France), and in India. In 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, and repulsed a Spanish invasion of Portugal. By this time the Pitt - Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted.
Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland, both of which effectively fell under British military command throughout the war. It also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company.
The last major conflict in Europe, the War of the Austrian Succession, had ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle, following a bloody war which had left large parts of Central Europe devastated. The peace terms were unpopular with many, however, as they largely retained the status quo -- which led the people of states such as France, Britain and Austria to believe they had not made sufficient gains for their efforts in the war. By the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia.
The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the sudden death of his brother Henry Pelham, and led a government made up largely of Whigs. Newcastle had thirty years ' experience as a Secretary of State and was a leading figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a comfortable majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt, leader of the Patriot Party. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the "Old System '' and the alliance with Austria prevailed and devoted much of his efforts to the continuance of this.
One of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous and powerful -- and were agitating to expand westwards into the American interior. The territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having economic potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of that territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies, pinning them against the coast. A number of colonial delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute.
The Ohio Country located between Britain 's Thirteen Colonies and France 's New France saw France and Britain clash. In 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. In 1754 the Province of Virginia sent the Virginia Regiment led by George Washington to the area to assist in the construction of a British fort at present - day Pittsburgh, but the larger French force had driven away a smaller British advance party and built Fort Duquesne. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754. In the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Jumonville was left dead leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity. Despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war.
The government in Britain, realising that the existing forces of America were insufficient, drew up a plan to dispatch two battalions of Irish regular troops under General Edward Braddock and intended to massively increase the number of Provincial American forces. A number of expeditions were planned to give the British the upper hand in North America including a plan for New England troops to defeat Fort Beauséjour and Fortress Louisbourg in Acadia, and others to act against Fort Niagara and Fort Saint - Frédéric from Albany, New York. The largest operation was a plan for Braddock to dislodge the French from the Ohio Country.
In May 1755 Braddock 's column blundered into an enemy force composed of French and Native Americans at the Battle of the Monongahela near Fort Duquesne. After several hours ' fighting the British were defeated and forced to retreat, Braddock died a few days later of his wounds. The remainder of his force returned to Philadelphia and took up quarters, intending no further action that year. The French remained in control of the Ohio Country.
In the maritime theatre, the British were successful in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour and in their campaign to remove the French military threat from Acadia. After the battle the British began the Great Expulsion called the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755) by the British, with the intent of preventing Acadian support of the French supply lines to Louisbourg. The British forcibly relocated 12,000 French - speakers. Two additional expeditions from Albany each failed to reach their objectives, although one, William Johnson 's expedition, did establish Fort William Henry and held off a French attempt on Fort Edward in the Battle of Lake George.
When news of the Braddock disaster reached Britain it caused a massive public outcry over the government 's poor military preparation. The government appointed William Shirley as the new commander - in - chief in North America, and planned an equally ambitious series of operations for the following year.
Britain and France continued to clash, each with increasingly large forces. Even though the inhabitants of the British colonies hugely outnumbered those of New France, they were unable to exert this advantage partly due to a successful campaign by the French to recruit Native American allies who raided the unprotected frontier of the Thirteen Colonies. The British raised regiments of local militia and shipped in more regular forces from Britain and Ireland.
Despite these increased forces Britain continued to fare badly in the battle for control of the Ohio Country and the nearby Great Lakes, and none of their campaigns was successful in 1756. After losing the Battle of Fort Oswego, not only that fort, but others in the Mohawk River valley were abandoned. This was followed in 1757 by the fall of Fort William Henry and the Indian atrocities that followed. News of this disaster sent a fresh wave of panic around the British colonies, and the entire militia of New England was mobilised overnight.
In the maritime theatre, a raid was organized on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia and several on the Chignecto. A British attempt to take Louisbourg in 1757 failed due to bad weather and poor planning. The following year, in part because of having expelled many Acadians, the Siege of Louisbourg (1758) succeeded, clearing the way for an advance on Quebec. Immediately after the fall of Louisbourg the expulsion of the Acadians continued with the removal of Acadians in the St. John River Campaign, the Petitcodiac River Campaign, the Ile Saint - Jean Campaign, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758).
By this point the war in North America had reached a stalemate, with France broadly holding the territorial advantage. It held possession of the disputed Ohio territory but lacked the strength to launch an attack on the more populous British coastal colonies.
One of the most significant geopolitical actions of the time was the slow movement towards Imperial unity in North America started by the Albany Congress, although a Plan of Union proposed by Benjamin Franklin was rejected by delegates.
Britain had been allied to Austria since 1731, and the co-operation between the two states had peaked during the War of the Austrian Succession when Maria Theresa had been able to retain her throne with British assistance. Since then the relationship had weakened -- as Austria was dissatisfied with the terms negotiated by Britain for them at the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle. Prussia had captured Silesia from Austria during the war and Austria wanted British help to recover it. Sensing that it would not be forthcoming, the Austrians approached their historical enemy France and made a defensive treaty with her -- thereby dissolving the twenty - five year Anglo - Austrian Alliance.
Alarmed by the sudden switch in the European balance of power the British made a similar agreement with Prussia at the Westminster Convention. By doing this Newcastle hoped to rebalance the two sides in central Europe -- and thereby make a war potentially mutually destructive to all. This he hoped would stop either Austria or Prussia making an attack on the other and would prevent an all - out war in Europe. This would allow Britain and France to continue their colonial skirmishes without formal war being declared in Europe. Frederick the Great had a number of supporters in London, including William Pitt who welcomed the rapprochement between Britain and Prussia. The Dutch Republic, a long - standing ally of Britain, declared its neutrality in the wake of the Westminster Convention and had no active participation in the coming conflict.
As war in Europe appeared increasingly inevitable, the Newcastle government sought to take the initiative -- and make sure that the strategic island of Menorca (historically called "Minorca '' by the British) was secured before it fell into French hands. A relief expedition was dispatched under Admiral John Byng to save it. However, once he arrived in the Mediterranean Byng found a sizable French fleet and a 15,000 - strong army besieging the fortress. After fighting an indecisive battle he withdrew to Gibraltar, and Menorca subsequently fell. Formal war was finally declared in May 1756, almost exactly two years after the two countries had first clashed in Ohio.
Byng was recalled to Britain and court - martialled. There was violent public outrage about the loss of Menorca, mostly directed against Newcastle. He tried to deflect the blame by emphasising the alleged cowardice of Byng. After being tried by his peers, the admiral was eventually executed by firing squad for "not doing his utmost ''. By that time Newcastle and his government had fallen. It was replaced by a weaker administration headed by the Duke of Devonshire and dominated by William Pitt.
The major war in continental Europe that the British had hoped to avoid exploded in August 1756 when Frederick the Great attacked and overran the Austrian ally Saxony. Having occupied it he then launched a similarly bold invasion of Bohemia. In both cases the Prussians caught their Austrian enemies by surprise, and had used this advantage to full effect, capturing major objectives before Austrian troops had been fully mobilised. Having besieged Prague, an Austrian counter-attack and a defeat at the Battle of Kolín forced the Prussians back.
Britain found itself bound by the Westminster Convention and entered the war on the Prussian side. Newcastle was deeply reluctant to do this, but he saw that a Prussian collapse would be disastrous to British and Hanoverian interests. The Anglo - Prussian Alliance was established, which saw large amounts of subsidy given to Prussia. Some supporters of George II were strong advocates of support for Prussia, as they saw it would be impossible to defend his realm of Hanover if they were to be defeated. Despite his initial dislike of Frederick, the King later moved towards this viewpoint.
Within a short time Prussia was being attacked on four fronts, by Austria from the south, France from the west, Russia from the east, and Sweden from the north. Frederick fought defensive actions trying to blunt the invaders, losing thousands of men and precious resources in the process. He began to send more urgent appeals to London for material help on the continent.
When the war with France had commenced, Britain had initially brought Hessian and Hanoverian troops to defend Britain from a feared invasion scare. When the threat of this receded, the German soldiers were sent to defend Hanover along with a small contingent of British troops under Duke of Cumberland, the King 's second son. The arrival of British troops on the continent was considered a rarity, as the country preferred to make war by using its naval forces. As with the Prussians, Cumberland 's army was initially overwhelmed by the sheer scale of the French attacks. Following the disastrous Battle of Hastenbeck Cumberland was forced to sign the Convention of Klosterzeven by which Hanover would withdraw from the war -- and large chunks of its territory would be occupied by the French for the duration of the conflict.
Prussia was extremely alarmed by this development and lobbied hard for it to be reversed. In London too, there was shock at such a capitulation and Pitt recalled Cumberland to London where he was publicly rebuked by his father, the King, and forced to relinquish his commission. The terms of Klosterzeven were revoked, Hanover re-entered the war -- and a new commander was selected to command the Allied Anglo - German forces. Ferdinand of Brunswick was a brother - in - law of Frederick the Great, and had developed a reputation as a competent officer. He set about trying to rally the German troops under his command, by emphasising the extent of the atrocities committed by the French troops who had occupied Hanover, and launched a counter-offensive in late 1757 driving the French back across the Rhine.
Despite several British attempts to persuade them, the Dutch Republic refused to join their former allies in the war and remained neutral. Pitt at one point even feared that the Dutch would enter the war against Britain, in response to repeated violations of Dutch neutrality by the Royal Navy. Similarly the British were wary of Denmark joining the war against them, but Copenhagen followed a policy of strict neutrality.
In London the Pitt - dominated administration had fallen after just six months because of a lack of support in parliament. A period of political stalemate followed, with no real direction to the British war effort. It became apparent that the only way a serious war administration could be put together was by an alliance of leading figures. In 1757 a partnership was formed between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt -- despite their years of enmity. Newcastle became the head of the administration as Prime Minister, with control of public finances, while Pitt became Secretary of State and de facto war minister with control of much of British military strategy. Other leading figures such as Henry Fox and the Duke of Bedford were also given positions in the administration.
The new government 's strategic thinking was sharply divided. Pitt had been a long - term advocate of Britain playing as small a role on the European continent while concentrating their resources and naval power to strike against vulnerable French colonies. Newcastle remained an old - school continentalist -- who believed that the war would be decided in Europe, and was convinced that a strong British presence there was essential. He was supported in this view by George II.
A compromise was eventually established in which Britain would keep troops on the European continent under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, while Pitt was given authority to launch several colonial expeditions. He sent forces to attack French settlements in West Africa and the West Indies, operations which were tactically successful and brought financial benefits. In Britain a popular surge of patriotism and support for the government resulted. Pitt formed a triumvirate to direct operations with George Anson in command of the navy and John Ligonier in charge of the army. A Militia Act was passed to create a sizable force to defend Britain which would free up regular troops for operations overseas.
The British had received several requests from their German allies to try to relieve the pressure on them by launching diversionary operations against the French. Pitt had long been an advocate of amphibious strikes or "descents '' against the French coastline in which a small British force would land, capture a settlement, destroy its fortifications and munitions supplies and then withdraw. This would compel the French to withdraw troops from the Northern front to guard the coast.
After an urgent request from Brunswick, Pitt was able to put his plan into action, and in September 1757 a British raid was launched against Rochefort in western France. For various reasons it was not a success, but Pitt was determined to press ahead with similar raids. Another British expedition was organised under Lord Sackville. A landing in Saint - Malo was partially successful, but was cut short by the sudden appearance of French troops -- and the force withdrew to Britain. Pitt organised a third major descent, under the command of Thomas Bligh. His raid on Cherbourg in August 1758 proved to be the most successful of the descents, as he burnt ships and munitions and destroyed the fortifications of the town. However, an attempt in September to do the same at St Malo ended with the Battle of Saint Cast and the British withdrawing with heavy casualties. This proved to be the last of the major landings attempted on the French coast -- though the British later took control of the Belle Île off the coast of Brittany which was used as a base for marshalling troops and supplies. The raids were not financially successful and were described by Henry Fox as being "like breaking windows with guineas ''. From then on the British concentrated their efforts in Europe on Germany.
Britain and France both had significant colonial possessions in India and had been battling for supremacy for a number of years. The British were represented by the British East India Company (EIC) who were permitted to raise troops. The collapse of the long - standing Mughal Empire brought the clash between the two states to a head, as each tried to gain sufficient power and territory to dominate the other. The 1754 Treaty of Pondicherry which ended the Second Carnatic War had brought a temporary truce to India, but it was soon under threat. A number of smaller Indian Princely states aligned with either Britain or France. One of the most assertive of these Princes was the pro-French Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud - Daulah, who resented the British presence in Calcutta. In 1756 he had succeeded his grandfather Alivardi Khan who had been a staunch British ally. By contrast he regarded the British East India Company as an encroaching threat.
On 20 June 1756 the Nawab 's troops stormed Fort William capturing the city. A number of the British civilians and prisoners of war were locked in the small guard room in what became known as the Black Hole of Calcutta. After the death of many of them, the atrocity became a popular rallying call for revenge. A force from Madras under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert Clive arrived and liberated the city, driving out the Nawab 's troops. The Third Carnatic War that followed saw Britain ranged against the Nawab and France. Clive consolidated his position in Calcutta, and made contact with one of the Nawab 's chief advisors Mir Jafar attempting to persuade him and other leading Bengalis to overthrow the Nawab. After the British ambushed a column of the Nawab 's troops which was approaching Calcutta on 2 February 1757, the two sides agreed the Treaty of Alinagar which brought a temporary truce to Bengal.
Despite the agreement at Alinagar, neither side was content with the status quo. The British felt that if they did not assert their position, the French would become the dominant power in Bengal. Siraj ud - Daulah was fearful of being forced to accept British suzerainty. His position was weakened by his unpopularity with his own subjects, and the threat of other military enemies to the west. He began to take steps to drive the British out of Bengal entirely.
On 23 June 1757 the Nawab led a force of 50,000 into the field. Ranged against them was a much smaller Anglo - Indian force under the command of Robert Clive. The Nawab was weakened by the betrayal of Mir Jafar who had concluded a secret pact with the British before the battle -- and refused to move his troops to support the Nawab. Faced with the superior firepower and discipline of the British troops -- the Nawab 's army was routed. After the battle Siraj ud - Daulah was overthrown and executed by his own officers, and Mir Jafar succeeded him as Nawab. He then concluded a peace treaty with the British.
Mir Jafar himself subsequently clashed with the British for much the same reasons as Siraj ud - Daulah had. He conspired with the Dutch East India Company to try to oust the British from Bengal and in 1759 invited them to send troops to aid him. The defeat of the Dutch at the Battle of Chinsurah resulted in Britain moving to have Jafar replaced with his son - in - law, who was considered more favourable to the EIC. One of the most important long - term effects of the battle was that the British received the diwan -- the right to collect taxes in Bengal which was granted in 1765.
The French presence in India was led by the French East India Company operating out of its base at Pondicherry. Its forces were under the command of Joseph François Dupleix and Lally, a Jacobite. The veteran Dupleix had been in India a long time, and had established a key rapport with France 's Indian allies. Lally was more newly arrived, and was seeking a swift victory over the British -- and was less concerned about diplomatic sensibilities.
Following the Battle of Chandalore when Clive attacked a French trading post the French were driven completely out of Bengal. In spite of this they still had a major presence in central India, and hoped to regain the power they had lost to the British in southern India during the Second Carnatic War.
Apart from a few isolated victories, the war had not gone well for Britain since 1754. In all theatres except India and North America (where Pitt 's strategy had led to important gains in 1758) they were on the retreat. British agents received information about a planned French invasion which would knock Britain out of the war completely. While France starved their colonial forces of troops and supplies to concentrate them on the goal of total strategic supremacy in Europe, the British government agreed to continue their policy of shipping their own troops to fight for total victory in the colonies -- leaving Britain to be guarded by the large militia that had existed since 1757.
Following Clive 's victory at Plassey and the subjugation of Bengal, Britain had not directed large resources to the Indian theatre. The French meanwhile had despatched a large force from Europe to seize the initiative on the subcontinent. The clear goal of this force was to capture Madras, which had previously fallen to the French in 1746.
In December 1758 a French force of 8,000 under the Comte de Lally descended on Madras, bottling up the 4,000 British defenders in Fort St George. After a hard - fought three - month siege the French were finally forced to abandon their attempt to take the city by the arrival of a British naval force carrying 600 reinforcements on 16 February 1759. Lally withdrew his troops, but it was not the end of French ambitions in southern India.
One of Pitt 's favoured strategies was a British expedition to attack the French West Indies, where their richest sugar - producing colonies were situated. A British naval force of 9,000 sailed from Portsmouth in November 1758 under the command of Peregrine Hopson. Using Barbados as a staging point, they attacked first at Martinique.
After failing to make enough headway, and losing troops rapidly to disease, they were forced to abandon the attempt and move to the secondary target of the British expedition, Guadeloupe. Facing a race against time before the hurricane season hit in July, a landing was forced and the town of Basse - Terre was shelled. They looked in severe danger when a large French fleet unexpectedly arrived under Bompart, but on 1 May the island 's defenders finally surrendered and Bompart was unable to prevent the loss of Guadeloupe.
Orders arrived from London concerning an assault on Saint Lucia but the commanders decided that such an attempt was unwise given the circumstances. Instead they moved to protect Antigua for any possible attack by Bompart, before the bulk of the force sailed for home in late July.
Since early 1758 the British had contributed an increasingly large number of troops to serve in Germany. Pitt had reversed his previous hostility to British intervention on the continent, as he realised that the theatre could be used to tie down numerous French troops and resources which might otherwise be sent to fight in the colonies. Brunswick 's army had enjoyed enormous success since winter 1757, crossing the Rhine several times, winning the Battle of Krefeld and capturing Bremen without a shot being fired. In recognition of his services Parliament voted him £ 2,000 a year for life. By April 1759 Brunswick had an army of around 72,000 facing two French armies with a combined strength of 100,000. The French had occupied Frankfurt and were using it as their base for operations, which Brunswick now attempted to assault. On 13 April Brunswick lost the Battle of Bergen to a superior French force and was forced to retreat.
The French pursued Brunswick slowly, capturing the strategic town of Minden which could potentially be used to stage an invasion of Hanover. Brunswick was pressured into action by this threat; the French command was also eager to end the campaign with a swift victory to free up troops which would allow them to take part in the proposed invasion of Britain. On the night of 31 July, both commanders simultaneously decided to attack the other outside Minden. The French forces reacted hesitantly when faced with Germans in front of them as dawn broke, allowing the Allies to seize the initiative and counter-attack. However, one column of British troops advanced too quickly and soon found itself attacked on all sides by a mixture of cavalry, artillery and infantry which vastly outnumbered them. The British managed to hold them off, sustaining casualties of a third. When they were reinforced with other troops, the Allies broke through the French lines and forced them to retreat. The British cavalry under Sackville were ordered to advance, but he refused -- apparently in indignation at his treatment by Brunswick, though this was at the time popularly attributed to cowardice on his part. In the confusion, the French were allowed to escape the battlefield and avoid total disaster.
Despite widespread praise for the conduct of the British troops, their commander Sackville received condemnation for his alleged cowardice and was forced to return home in disgrace. He was replaced by Marquess of Granby. The victory proved crucial, as Frederick had lost to the Russians at Kunersdorf. Had Brunswick been defeated at Minden, Hanover would almost certainly have been invaded and the total defeat of Prussia would have been imminent. In the wake of the victory, the Allies advanced pushing the French backwards and relieving the pressure on the Prussians.
The central plank of France 's war against Britain in 1759 was a plan to invade Britain, authored by the French chief minister Duc de Choiseul. It was subject to several changes, but the core was that more than 50,000 French troops would cross the English Channel from Le Havre in flat - bottomed boats and land at Portsmouth on the British coast. Aided by a Jacobite rebellion -- they would then advance on London and force a peace agreement on the British, extracting various concessions and knocking them out of the war. The British became aware through their agents of the scheme and drew up a plan to mobilise their forces in case of the invasion. In an effort to set back the invasion, a British raid was launched against Le Havre which destroyed numerous flat - boats and supplies. In spite of this, the plans continued to progress and by autumn the French were poised to launch their invasion.
Following naval defeats at the Battle of Quiberon Bay and Battle of Lagos, and with news of the Allied victory at Minden, the French began to have second thoughts about their plan, and in late autumn cancelled it. The French did not have the clear sea they hoped for the crossing, nor could they now spare the number of troops on the continent. A number of flaws in the plan had also become apparent, including the fact that claims of the number of Jacobite supporters were now considered wildly optimistic.
The campaign was considered a last throw of the dice for the Jacobites to have any realistic hope of reclaiming the British throne. After the campaign the French soon abandoned the Stuarts entirely, withdrawing their support, and forcing them to take up a new home in Rome. Many of the Highland communities that had strongly supported the Jacobites in 1715 and 1745 now had regiments serving in the British army, where they played a key role in Britain 's success that year.
By 1759 the Royal Navy had expanded to 71,000 personnel and 275 ships in commission, with another 82 under ordinance. During the war the British had instituted a new system of blockade, by which they penned in the main French fleets at anchor in Brest and Toulon. The British were able to keep an almost constant force poised outside French harbours. The French inability to counter this had led to a collapse in morale among French seamen and the wider population.
The French government had devised a plan that would allow them to launch their invasion. It required a junction of the two French fleets in the English Channel, where they would be able to cover a major invasion. However, in August 1759 the French Mediterranean Fleet under Admiral La Clue left harbour and was destroyed at the Battle of Lagos near Portugal. This left only the Channel Fleet at Brest under Conflans. When he tried to break free of the British blockade in November, he was run down and attacked by the British under Admiral Hawke at the Battle of Quiberon Bay. This victory left the British in almost total command of the seas, compounded by the effective use of naval forces in the West Indies, Canada and India. A small French force under Thurot did manage to land on the Irish coast, and menace Belfast before being forced to withdraw and being destroyed by a Royal Navy squadron in the Irish Sea.
The year was rounded out by the news of Wolfe 's victory at Quebec. However while 1759 was acclaimed as Britain 's ' Annus Mirabilis ', for the Prussians the year had been as disastrous as it had been successful for the British. Prussia 's armies had suffered a string of defeats and lost large numbers of casualties. At times Prussia veered close to total collapse and was now heavily dependent on continued British financial assistance.
Following the failure of the British to take Louisbourg in 1757, a second attempt was planned in 1758 and command given to General Jeffery Amherst. Although Louisbourg did not control entry to the Saint Lawrence River, it could not simply be bypassed, and the British decided it must be taken before they could proceed further. After a 44 - day siege, the city finally capitulated. One of the figures who benefited most from the campaign was a young British brigadier, James Wolfe, who so impressed Pitt that he was promoted and given command of future expeditions in Canada. Despite their victory at Louisbourg, the British decided to wait for the spring before heading further up the St Lawrence. In the meantime the river was extensively charted by a naval officer, James Cook, later to become famous as an explorer. Despatches carrying news of the victory sparked euphoria in Britain, and were celebrated by numerous bonfires.
The key to British strategy in North America involved taking Quebec City -- the capital and largest city of New France. This was to be achieved by the deployment of a massive force up the Saint Lawrence River. Simultaneously an Anglo - American force would march from New York to capture Fort Carillon and possibly Fort Niagara as well. While many, particularly Pitt and the American inhabitants, hoped that Canada could be annexed, others saw it as a bargaining chip to offset potential British losses in Europe. By the time the French realised the scale of the British intentions in Canada, it was too late to send assistance to Quebec. The French government hoped that Louis - Joseph de Montcalm, New France 's military commander, would be able to resist for the next year, after which they would send troops to his aid.
Wolfe arrived outside Quebec on 28 June. For much of the rest of the summer, he probed the defences of the city, trying to find a way through. Montcalm constantly frustrated him, shifting his own troops about in response. The cat - and - mouse game between the two generals reached a climax towards the end of the summer. If Wolfe could not capture the city he would likely be forced to withdraw in the face of the hostile Canadian winter. An attempt to land on the Montmorency was beaten back at the Battle of Beauport, and almost proved disastrous. Wolfe now searched for another place to land and make his attack. On 12 September the British learned of a convenient landing spot, and Wolfe moved his army there at night. The following day the Battle of the Plains of Abraham took place. It proved to be a decisive British victory, though one in which both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. The British then took over the city.
The British were further cheered by the news that Amherst had taken Fort Carillon (after which it was renamed Fort Ticonderoga, as it is known today) and a second expedition had captured Fort Niagara. The French and their native allies were now under increasing pressure, compounded by guerrilla activities spearheaded by Britain 's Mohawk allies and Rogers ' Rangers. Despite the celebrated victory at Quebec, the campaign was not over -- the French still had significant forces at large in North America swelled by refugees from the surrounding countryside. The following spring the French regrouped and launched an attempt to retake Quebec. The Battle of Sainte - Foy took place on 28 April 1760 and proved even bloodier than the previous battle. Though the French prevailed, the British were able to retreat into Quebec and hold it against a siege that lasted for a fortnight.
The arrival of British ships and reinforcements ended the French offensive and forced them to retreat in the direction of Montreal. The British pursued, capturing parts of the city on 1 September 1760 after encountering only light resistance. The last French army under Lévis was finally forced to surrender on 6 September 1760 when a second British army under Amherst arrived from the south following the Battle of the Thousand Islands, and an attempt at French reinforcement was stopped in the naval Battle of Restigouche.
The British had responded to the French challenge in North America by striking at the heart of New France. Though it had been a long and costly series of campaigns, it proved to be one of the most successful of Pitt 's policies. While a modest French presence remained in Illinois and Louisiana the fighting served to end any significant French military threats in North America for good.
Following the British victory at Madras, their forces took the offensive. A force under Francis Forde captured the port of Masulipatam. Although he still had significant forces in India, the French commander Lally had expected greater support from his own navy, but he was constantly frustrated by the cautious Aché. Fresh British reinforcements arrived, tilting the balance in their favour. The failure of the French navy to secure command of the Indian Ocean opened their own territory to capture.
Pondicherry 's capture proved to be a decisive moment in the long - term battle for control in India. After this point, French India was confined to a handful of trading posts stretched along the coast, while the East India Company moved into the interior, extending its conquests to create the wide - reaching territories of British India, and by subsidiary alliances setting up the even wider British Indian Empire. By the end of 1761, the French were fearful that the British forces in India were preparing to strike at the island of Mauritius, and made no effort to reverse their losses in India.
1760 marked a major milestone in British strategy, caused by the death of George II. His grandson George III was much less committed to a British role in Germany which he saw as unnecessary. He also disliked Newcastle and Pitt, describing them as "knave '' and a "snake in the grass '', and elevated his former tutor Earl of Bute into a senior role in the cabinet. The dovish Bute soon clashed with Pitt over various aspects of British policy. Bute did give his assent to Pitt 's plan for a British expedition to capture the island of Belle Île in 1761.
After his victory at Minden the Duke of Brunswick continued to lead the Anglo - German army which received increasing resources and reinforcements from Britain. Brunswick was now facing several large French armies under the overall command of Victor - François, 2nd duc de Broglie which tried to envelop the west German frontier. The French still hoped to offset their losses to the British in other parts of the globe by capturing Hanover -- - which could be used as a bargaining chip in any peace negotiations. The French continued to invest large numbers of troops -- which were badly needed elsewhere. In 1761 Brunswick won another major victory over Broglie at the Battle of Villinghausen.
The French made a final attempt to invade Hanover in 1762 which was defeated at the Battle of Wilhelmsthal. Brunswick then went on the attack, driving the French southwards and capturing Cassel before the war was halted by an armistice.
Bute began to champion the idea that Britain should disentangle itself from the German war, and suggested to Frederick the Great that he might make peace with Austria by giving them back Silesia. Frederick rejected the proposal, although Prussian fortunes were at a low ebb by 1761 following defeats on several fronts. Debates began in London about cancelling all British subsidies to Frederick entirely.
By early 1762 -- despite the success of Brunswick 's army in Western Europe -- Russian troops were poised to capture Berlin and a partition of Prussia was actively planned. Frederick was spared by the sudden death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia, who was succeeded by the pro-Prussian Peter III. He was an ardent admirer of Frederick and immediately switched Russia from an enemy of Prussia to an ally -- withdrawing the threat from Berlin and sending his troops against the Austrians. This dramatically shifted the balance of power in Europe -- suddenly handing Frederick the initiative. He recaptured southern Silesia and forced Austria to the negotiating table.
Through careful diplomacy and the influence of a pro-British Spanish prime minister Ricardo Wall, Spain had remained neutral through most of the war. However, with the accession of Charles III to the throne Spanish foreign policy began to change. Charles was alarmed by the British conquest of the French Empire in North America, and feared his own empire would be Pitt 's next target. He concluded the Bourbon Family Compact with France, offering them practical support.
With evidence of growing Franco - Spanish co-operation, Pitt suggested it was only a matter of time before Spain entered the war. The prospect of war with Spain shattered the cabinet unity which had existed up to that point. Pitt strongly advocated a pre-emptive strike which would allow them to capture the annual plate fleet, denying Spain of its vital resources of wealth which were shipped in. The rest of the cabinet refused, and Pitt resigned. In spite of this war with Spain swiftly became unavoidable, and on 4 January 1762 Britain duly declared war on Spain. Almost immediately, British ships under Admiral Charles Saunders moved to blockade Cadiz one of the most important Spanish naval bases.
The most pressing issue in the war with Spain was a threatened invasion of Portugal. Portugal, although a historic British ally, had remained neutral through most of the conflict. By early 1762 they were drawn into the war with the First Cevallos expedition and became a likely target of Spain. Portugal 's long border with Spain was considered vulnerable and easy to overrun, rather than the more complex efforts a siege of the British fortress of Gibraltar would require. Spanish forces began massing on the Portuguese border, ready to strike. Britain moved swiftly to support their Portuguese allies, shipping in supplies and officers to help co-ordinate the defence.
The original Spanish plan was to take Almeida and then to advance towards the Alentejo and Lisbon, but they switched their target to Porto as it would strike more directly at British commerce. Under the direction of the Marquis of Sarria Spanish troops crossed from Galicia into northern Portugal capturing several towns. However, the thrust against Porto stalled in difficult terrain and due to the flooding of the River Esla. British troops began arriving that summer with 6,000 coming from Belle Île under Lord Loudoun and a further 2,000 from Ireland. Spain invested and captured the border fortress of Almeida. A British - Portuguese counter-attack led by John Burgoyne captured the Spanish town Valencia de Alcántara. French forces began to arrive to support the Spaniards, but like their allies they began to suffer high levels of attrition through disease and desertion. In November with problems with their lines of supply and communication the Bourbon allies withdrew and sued for peace. Despite the large numbers of forces involved, there had been no major battles.
In June 1762 British forces from the West Indies landed on the island of Cuba and laid siege to Havana. Although they arrived at the height of the fever season, and previous expeditions against tropical Spanish fortresses failed due, in no small part, to tropical disease, the British government was optimistic of victory -- if the troops could catch the Spanish off - guard before they had time to respond. The British commander Albermale ordered a tunnel to be dug by his sappers so a mine could be planted under the walls of the city 's fortress. British troops began to fall from disease at an alarming rate, but they were boosted by the arrival of 4,000 reinforcements from America. On 30 July Albermale ordered the mine to be detonated, and his troops stormed the fortress.
With Havana now in their hands, the British lay poised to strike at other targets in the Spanish Main should the war continue for another year. However, they had suffered 1,800 deaths and more than 4,000 casualties during the siege -- almost entirely from disease -- and for the moment set about consolidating their hold on the countryside around Havana. During the year of British occupation, commerce in Havana boomed, as the port was opened up to trade with the British Empire rather than the restricted monopoly with Cadiz that had existed before.
Almost as soon as war had been declared with Spain, orders had been despatched for a British force at Madras to proceed to the Philippines and invade Manila. A combined force of 10,700 men under William Draper set off from India in late July, arriving in Manila Bay in September 1762. They had to move swiftly before the monsoon season hit. On 6 October the British stormed the city, capturing it. A large amount of plunder was taken from the city after the Battle of Manila.
Spanish forces regrouped under Simon Anda, who had escaped from Manila during the siege. Rebellions fomented by the British were sabotaged by Spanish agents and crushed by Spanish forces. The British were prevented from extending their authority beyond Manila and the nearby port of Cavite. All agreements made between the British commander and Archbishop Rojo were dismissed as illegal. Eventually the British forces started to suffer troop desertions and dissensions within the command.
Because news of the city 's capture did n't reach Europe until after the Treaty of Paris, no provision was made regarding its status. During the siege, the Spanish lieutenant governor had agreed to a four million payment in silver dollars to the British known as the Manila Ransom in exchange for sparing the city but the full amount was never paid when word of what had happened in the Philippines reached Europe. The Spanish government demanded compensation for crimes committed against the residents of Manila during the occupation and the controversy over the ransom demanded by the British and the compensation demanded by the Spanish lasted many years. The twenty month occupation of Manila ended in 1764.
One of the earliest schemes Pitt had for colonial expeditions was in West Africa where France had several lucrative but strategically unimportant bases. He was fighting against a great deal of scepticism in the British government, which saw Europe as the main venue of warfare and all other theatres as costly distractions. As an initial test of his strategy Pitt gained support for a British expedition proposed by a New York merchant Thomas Cumming to take the French trading station at Fort Louis on the Senegal River which they did with relative ease, carrying back a large amount of plunder to Britain. Subsequent expeditions also took out French posts at Gorée and on the River Gambia.
Despite taking Guadeloupe in 1759, the British attempt to occupy Martinique that year had ended in failure. In 1761 a fresh scheme to attack the French West Indies was drawn up and Martinque was successfully taken by a British force in February 1762. This was followed up by the capture of the islands of Saint Lucia, Grenada and Saint Vincent. In each case many of the local planters and merchants welcomed the invasion, as it ended Britain 's naval blockade and restored their access to international trade.
In a final attempt to try to gain some advantage against the British, the French managed to slip an expedition through the British blockade and head towards Newfoundland, considered valuable because of its large fishery. The small British garrison was swiftly overwhelmed and the French believed they could use Newfoundland as a bargaining counter to extract the return of several of their own territories. General Amherst responded by despatching a force of men from New York under his younger brother William Amherst to recapture the island. They managed to defeat a French force at the Battle of Signal Hill on 15 September 1762, forcing the total capitulation of the French expedition three days later.
By 1763 the British government had an extreme shortage of money, though not as severe as that facing the French government. The collapse of the alliance with the Prussians ended that costly involvement, and by late 1762 the war around the world was winding towards a close. In Britain the new Bute ministry had taken full control of government, following the departure of Newcastle in March 1762 after a power struggle. The government agreed to an armistice and began fresh negotiations with the French in Paris directed by the Duke of Bedford.
In Britain the negotiations that proceeded to the peace agreement proved hugely controversial. Strong opposition, led principally by Newcastle and Pitt, was raised against the terms which were perceived to be exceedingly lenient towards France and Spain. A mob went so far as to attack a carriage carrying George III in protest at the alleged betrayal. Nonetheless Bute felt the war needed to be brought to an end, and the terms on offer were reasonable.
Britain held a dominant position at the negotiations, as they had during the last seven years seized Canada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Dominica, Pondicherry, Senegal, and Belle Île from the French and Havana and Manila from the Spanish. Only one British territory, Menorca, was in enemy hands. Despite suffering a year of defeats, Spain was prepared to fight on -- something which their French allies were opposed to. Bute proposed a suggestion that France cede her remaining North American territory of Louisiana to Spain to compensate Madrid for its losses during the war. This formula was acceptable to the Spanish government, and allowed Britain and France to negotiate with more legroom.
Having severed their connection with the Prussians the previous year, the British negotiated a separate peace to the Prussians -- dealing with their two principal adversaries France and Spain. Britain received formal control of New France, while handing back Martinique and Guadeloupe. The British were handed all of mainland North America east of the Mississippi River.
In the wake of Britain 's territorial expansion Sir George Macartney observed that Britain now controlled "a vast Empire, on which the sun never sets ''.
Despite France 's losses, Choiseul was satisfied not to have been forced to hand over more territory in the Caribbean and was delighted that he had been able to maintain a French presence in Newfoundland guaranteeing continued access to the valuable fishery there. A separate peace agreement between Austria and Prussia was concluded at the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February returning Central Europe to the status quo ante bellum.
The number of casualties suffered by British forces were comparatively light, compared to the more than a million fatalities that occurred worldwide.
France and Spain both considered the treaty that ended the war as being closer to a temporary armistice rather than a genuine final settlement, and William Pitt described it as an "armed truce ''. Britain had customarily massively reduced the size of its armed forces during peace time, but during the 1760s a large military establishment was maintained -- intended as a deterrent against France and Spain. The Bourbon powers both sent agents to examine Britain 's defenses believing that a successful invasion of Britain was an essential part of any war of revenge.
The British victory in the war sowed some of the seeds of Britain 's later conflict in the American War of Independence. American colonists had been delighted by the huge swathes of North America that had now been brought under formal British control, but many were angered by the Proclamation of 1763, which was an attempt to protect Native American territory -- and prevent European settlement. Similarly the issue of quartering the British regular troops became a thorny issue, with colonists objecting to their billeting in private homes. Events such as these contributed to a drift apart between the British government and many of its subjects in the Thirteen Colonies.
The war had also brought to an end the "Old System '' of alliances in Europe, In the years after the war, under the direction of Lord Sandwich, the British did try to re-establish this system but European states such as Austria and the Dutch Republic now saw Britain as a potentially greater threat than France and did not join them, while the Prussians were angered by what they considered a British betrayal in 1762. Consequently, when the American War of Independence turned into a global war between 1778 -- 83, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.
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lifting operations and lifting equipment regulations 1998 (loler) summary | Lifting Operations and lifting equipment regulations 1998 - Wikipedia
The Lifting Operations Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER) are set of regulations created under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 which came into force in Great Britain on 5 December 1998 and replaced a number of other pieces of legislation which covered the use of lifting equipment. The purpose of the regulations was to reduce the risk of injury from lifting equipment used at work. Areas covered in the regulations include the requirement for lifting equipment to be strong and stable enough for safe use and to be marked to indicate safe working loads; ensuring that any equipment is positioned and installed so as to minimise risks; that the equipment is used safely ensuring that work is planned, organised and performed by a competent person; that equipment is subject to ongoing thorough examination and where appropriate, inspection by competent people.
The regulations define lifting equipment as "work equipment for lifting or lowering loads and includes its attachments used for anchoring, fixing or supporting it ''. The regulations involve anything which involves the lifting of goods or people at work. Equipment covered would include lifts, cranes, ropes, slings, hooks, shackles, eyebolts, rope and pulley systems and forklift trucks. The regulations apply to all workplaces and all the provisions of the ' Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 ' also apply to lifting equipment.
A safe working load (SWL) should, according to the regulations be marked onto lifting equipment with the relevant SWL being dependent on the configuration of the equipment, accessories for lifting such as eye bolts, lifting magnets and lifting beams should also be marked. The load itself would be based on the maximum load that the equipment can lift safely. Lifting equipment that is designed for lifting people must also be appropriately and clearly marked.
The regulations stated that all lifts provided for use with work activities should be thoroughly exmined by a ' competent person ' at regular intervals. Regulation 9 of the Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations requires all employers to have their equipment thoroughly examined prior to it being put into service and after there has been any major alteration that could affect its operation. Owners or people responsible for the safe operation of a lift at work are known as ' dutyholders ' and have a responsibility to ensure that the lift has been thoroughly examined and is safe to use. Lifts when in use should be thoroughly examined every six months if, at any time, the lift has been used to carry people. Lifts used to only carry loads should be examined every 12 months. Any substantial or significant changes should have been made to the equipment then this would also require an examination as would any change in operating condition which is likely to affect the integrity of the equipment.
These are a legal requirement and should be carried out by a competent person, usually your insurance company will request a 3rd party independent Inspector. These inspections should be carried out at 6month intervals for all lifting items and 12 months for those that could be covered by PUWER although a competent person may deem different time scales:
Standards state that as a minimum;
LOLER Frequency (in months):
On 17 January 2011 a Liverpool nursing home was fined £ 18,000 after Frances Shannon, an 81 - year - old woman fell to the ground whilst being lifted out of bed.
The Christopher Grange nursing home run by the Catholic Blind Institute was prosecuted by the health and safety executive for failing to carry out regular checks of the sling equipment which was used to lift Mrs Shannon, who suffered a broken shoulder and injuries to her back and elbow.
Taken to the Royal Liverpool University Hospital, Mrs Shannon died the day following the incident. Speaking of the prosecution Sarah Wadham, the HSE 's inspecting officer, said that the incident could have been prevented, saying to the press "There should have been regular checks of the sling and it should have been thoroughly examined at least once every six months. Sadly this did not happen. ''
The Catholic Blind Institute was charged under section 9 of the Lifting Operation and Lifting Equipment regulations and ordered to also pay £ 13,876 costs.
LOLER 1998 essentially puts in place four key protocols that all employers and workers must abide by: 1) All equipment must be safe and suitable for purpose The manufacturer must identify any hazards associated with the equipment in question, they must then assess these hazards to bring them down to acceptable levels. All lifting equipment is normally put through an independent type testing process to establish that it will safely perform the tasks required to one of the below standards. BS (British Standard, used mainly in the UK) ISO Standards (International Standard) EN (Euronorm, used throughout Europe) CEN / CENELEC (Euronorm Standards) The above standards are a published specification that establishes a common language and contains a technical specification or other precise criteria. They are designed to be used consistently as a rule, guideline or definition.
2) All personnel must be suitably trained. All manufacturers of lifting equipment are obliged to send out instructions for use of all products. The employer is then obliged to make sure employees are aware of these instructions and use the lifting equipment correctly. To achieve this the employees must be competent. Competence is achieved through experience, technical knowledge and training.
3) All equipment must be maintained in a safe condition. It is good practice for all personnel using lifting equipment to conduct a pre-use inspection on all items. Regulation 9 of LOLER also outlines specific requirements for the formal inspection of lifting equipment at mandatory intervals. These inspections are to be performed by a competent person and the findings of the inspections recorded. Maximum fixed periods for thorough examinations and inspection of lifting equipment as stated in regulation 9 of LOLER are: Lifting Accessories -- 6 Months Lifting Appliances -- 12 Months Man Riding Equipment -- 6 Months Or in accordance with a written scheme of examination. Any inspection record must be made in line with the requirements of schedule 1 of LOLER The only exception to this is: If the lifting equipment has not been used before and; In the case of lifting equipment issued with an EC declaration of conformity, the employer has possession of such declaration and it is not made more than 12 months before the lifting equipment is put into service.
You are legally required to ensure that reports of thorough examinations are kept available for consideration by health and safety inspectors for at least two years or until the next report, whichever is longer.
Records must be kept for all equipment. All equipment manufactured should be given a "birth certificate ''. This should prove that when first made, it complied with any requirement. In Europe today, this document would normally be an EC Declaration of conformity plus a manufacturers certificate if called for by the standard worked to.
They may be kept electronically as long as you can provide a written report if requested.
To gain an understanding of the your Health and Safety requirements in the motor vehicle repair industry in full read document HSG261.
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who plays bruce willis wife in death wish | Death Wish (2018 film) - wikipedia
Death Wish is a 2018 American vigilante action thriller film directed by Eli Roth and written by Joe Carnahan. It is the sixth installment of the Death Wish series and a remake of the 1974 film of the same name starring Charles Bronson, based on Brian Garfield 's 1972 novel. The film stars Bruce Willis as Paul Kersey, a Chicago doctor who sets out to get revenge on the men who attacked his family. Vincent D'Onofrio, Elisabeth Shue, Dean Norris, and Kimberly Elise also star.
The film was released in the United States by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and in international markets by Annapurna Pictures on March 2, 2018. It received generally negative reviews, with criticism aimed at it for not adding anything new to previous installments.
Paul Kersey, who lives with his wife Lucy and college - bound daughter Jordan, works as a trauma surgeon at a Chicago hospital. After having lunch at a restaurant, Paul gives the keys to his car to a valet, Miguel, who secretly takes a picture of their home address from the car 's navigation software after overhearing when they will all be out one night. Later, while Paul is working late at the hospital, three masked men invade the Kersey 's home. Jordan and Lucy return home and are both shot and Paul learns at the hospital that Lucy died and Jordan fell into a coma.
Police Detective Kevin Raines is tasked with the case, but Paul soon becomes frustrated with the lack of progress in the investigation. One night, Paul comes across two thugs harassing a woman and intervenes and gets beaten. Paul then visits a gun store, but when he sees he 's being videotaped, he decides to leave without purchasing anything. When an injured gang member is brought in to the hospital and his Glock 17 falls from the gurney, Paul steals the weapon and then uses online videos to learn how to maintain and use it. Eventually, Paul uses it to stop a carjacking, a video of which goes viral; Paul is dubbed Chicago 's "Grim Reaper ''. When an unconscious Miguel is hospitalized, Paul recognizes his stolen watch around his wrist. After Miguel dies, Paul takes Miguel 's phone and discovers a photograph and a text on it suggesting that a liquor store is where the thieves bring and re-sell their stolen goods.
Paul visits the liquor store, but the owner, Ponytail, realizes who he is, secretly messages an accomplice for backup and reaches for a gun. Paul stabs him with a dart and demands the goods stolen from his house. Ponytail 's accomplice, Fish, arrives and accidentally kills Ponytail. After shooting Fish, Paul learns from him that Lucy 's killer is an auto body shop worker named Joe. Fish kicks Paul and gains the upper hand, but is stunned by a falling bowling ball, allowing Paul to kill him. At the auto body shop, Paul ambushes Joe while he is working under a car. He tortures Joe for information by cutting his sciatic nerve with a scalpel and pouring brake fluid into the wound. Joe divulges that their leader, Knox, shot Lucy. Paul then removes the jack holding the car up, causing it to crush Joe 's head.
Paul receives a phone call from Knox, telling him to meet him in a bathroom at a nightclub. When he arrives, Paul calls the number back and hears it ringing in one of the stalls. He shoots through the stall door, only to find that it was a ruse. Knox opens fire from the other end of the bathroom and the two engage in a shootout, injuring both before both escape. After going home and encountering his brother, Frank, Paul is informed from the hospital that Jordan has regained consciousness. A week later, as Paul brings Jordan home from the hospital, Knox talks to both of them in the hospital elevator: Jordan does not recognize Knox, but Knox tells Paul he 'll see him around. Paul returns to the gun store to legally purchase weapons to legally defend his remaining family.
Sometime later, Knox and two other thugs prepare to invade Paul 's home at night. Paul glimpses a man running across his lawn and hides Jordan in a closet under the stairs, telling her to call the police. After killing the two thugs in the upstairs bedroom, Paul heads into the basement, where he suspects Knox is located. There, Knox emerges from the darkness, shoots Paul in the shoulder and threatens to burn Jordan alive. When Knox is distracted by Jordan yelling out her father 's name, Paul retrieves a fully automatic M4 carbine assault rifle from a hidden compartment under a coffee table and shoots Knox dead. When the police arrive, Detective Raines suspects that Paul is the "Grim Reaper '', but pretends to buy his story because he 's satisfied that justice was served and because Paul subtly informs him that his "Grim Reaper '' days are over.
Months later, Paul drops Jordan off at NYU. As Paul is leaving, he spots a man who steals a bag from a bellhop, calls out to him and points at him with a finger gun.
Development of the film began in 2006, when Sylvester Stallone announced that he would be directing and starring in a remake of Death Wish (1974). Stallone told Ai n't It Cool News, "Instead of the Charles Bronson character being an architect, my version would have him as a very good cop who had incredible success without ever using his gun. So when the attack on his family happens, he 's really thrown into a moral dilemma in proceeding to carry out his revenge. '' He later told the publication that he was no longer involved. In a 2009 interview with MTV, though, Stallone stated that he was again considering the project.
In late January 2012, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that a remake would be written and directed by Joe Carnahan. The film was originally set to star Liam Neeson and Frank Grillo. Carnahan, however, left the project in February 2013 due to creative differences, but received sole writing credit for the completed film. He was replaced as director with Gerardo Naranjo, who was interested in casting Benicio Del Toro in the lead role; this version also never came to fruition.
In March 2016, Paramount Pictures and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer announced that Aharon Keshales and Navot Papushado would direct with Bruce Willis starring. Willis was chosen from a shortlist which included Russell Crowe, Matt Damon, Will Smith, and Brad Pitt. In May, Keshales and Papushado quit the project after MGM declined to allow them to rewrite Joe Carnahan 's original script, which had been approved by Willis. In June, Eli Roth signed on to direct, with the script being rewritten by Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski. On August 25, 2016, Vincent D'Onofrio was cast alongside Bruce Willis to play Paul Kersey 's brother, Breaking Bad actor Dean Norris also joined Willis in the film. On October 7, 2016, Kimberly Elise and Camila Morrone were cast in the film to play Detective Jackson and Jordan Kersey. Later on October 17, 2016, Ronnie Gene Blevins was cast in the film.
Principal photography on the film began in late September 2016 in Chicago, Illinois. Later in October 2016, it began filming in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
In June 2017, it was announced Annapurna Pictures would distribute the film on behalf of Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and release it on November 22, 2017. However in October of 2017, it was announced it was being delayed until March 2, 2018 and that Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer would handle the film 's distribution in the United States, while Annapurna Pictures handle its international distribution. It was speculated the delay was due in - part to the mass shooting in Las Vegas several days prior. Death Wish was released theatrically in the United Kingdom on April 6 by Vertigo Releasing. It became available on DVD and BluRay on June 5, 2018.
As of July 5, 2018, Death Wish has grossed $34 million in the United States and Canada, and $14.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $48.5 million, against a production budget of $30 million.
In the United States and Canada, Death Wish was released alongside Red Sparrow, and was projected to gross $10 -- 20 million from 2,847 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $4.2 million on its first day (including $650,000 from Thursday night previews) and $13 million in its opening weekend, finishing third behind Black Panther ($66.7 million in its third week) and Red Sparrow ($17 million). 55 % of its audience was male, while 89 % was over the age of 25. It dropped 49 % to $6.6 million in its second weekend, finishing at 7th.
-- Eli Roth on the reception of Death Wish
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 18 % based on 129 reviews, and an average rating of 3.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Death Wish is little more than a rote retelling that lacks the grit and conviction of the original -- and also suffers from spectacularly bad timing. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 32 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
The Chicago Sun - Times 's Richard Roeper gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, writing, "Even with the social commentary, Death Wish is n't trying to be some intense, gritty, ripped - from - the - headlines docudrama... A number of gruesome scenes are staged like something out of one of those Final Destination movies, with a bowling ball, a dart, a wrench and other conveniently handy items used as weapons of singular destruction. It 's essentially revenge porn. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 1 out of 4 stars and said, "For a while, director Roth plays this stuff relatively straight, and Willis periodically reminds us he can act (the grieving Kersey cries a fair bit here). The script contains a reference to AR - 15 rifles; by the end, Willis goes full Willis when his adversaries return to the sanctity of the family home. ''
Many critics noted the timing of the film 's release, coming less than three weeks after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida. Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times called the film "imbecilic '', and criticized the film for its jokey tone and "morally unconflicted '' approach to its subject matter. Similarly, The Guardian 's Amy Nicholson criticized the film for "(flatlining) the politics and (saturating) the pathos '', and for insulting both sides of the gun control argument. The Hollywood Reporter 's John DeFore noted that the film does not attempt to "use genre metaphors to address real national debates '', making the original film "look philosophical by comparison '', and he also noted the improbable and contrived nature of Kersey 's mission. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Justin Chang called the film "a slick, straightforward revenge thriller as well as a sham provocation, pandering shamelessly to the viewer 's bloodlust while trying to pass as self - aware satire ''. Chang compared the film unfavorably to the 2007 Death Sentence, citing the lack of consequences that Kersey faces.
Some reviewers stood in defense of the film. Peter Howell of the Toronto Star stated that "Roth and Carnahan do an OK job updating Death Wish '', and that the film accurately depicts the "casual way that Americans acquire and use guns ''. He felt, though, that Liam Neeson would have been a better choice for the lead role. Matthew Rozsa of Salon agreed that the film 's release was indeed timed poorly, but argued that "mass shootings have been ubiquitous for so long that I doubt there ever would have been an appropriate release date for a vigilante fantasy... It exists everywhere in our culture, from movies and video games to the right - wing talking points that regularly thwart gun control legislation. '' Rosza considers Death Wish his guilty pleasure, recommending it as a "success '' as well as "a competent popcorn muncher that moves at a brisk pace, is about as engaging as your average Law and Order episode and contains an appropriately glowering (if somewhat bored looking) Bruce Willis. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick Lasalle summed up his review by calling it "way better than all the "Death Wish '' sequels '' and "easily the second best "Death Wish '' movie ever made, and not a distant second. ''
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when did the playstation 4 pro come out | PlayStation 4 - wikipedia
PlayStation 4 (PS4) is an eighth - generation home video game console developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment. Announced as the successor to the PlayStation 3 during a press conference on February 20, 2013, it was launched on November 15 in North America, November 29 in Europe, South America and Australia; and February 22, 2014, in Japan. It competes with Nintendo 's Wii U and Switch, and Microsoft 's Xbox One.
Moving away from the more complex Cell microarchitecture of its predecessor, the console features an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) built upon the x86 - 64 architecture, which can theoretically peak at 1.84 teraflops; AMD stated that it was the "most powerful '' APU it had developed to date. The PlayStation 4 places an increased emphasis on social interaction and integration with other devices and services, including the ability to play games off - console on PlayStation Vita and other supported devices ("Remote Play ''), the ability to stream gameplay online or to friends, with them controlling gameplay remotely ("Share Play ''). The console 's controller was also redesigned and improved over the PlayStation 3, with improved buttons and analog sticks, and an integrated touchpad among other changes. The console also supports HDR10 High - dynamic - range video and playback of 4K multimedia.
The PlayStation 4 was released to acclaim, with critics praising Sony for acknowledging its consumers ' needs, embrace of independent game development, and for not imposing the restrictive digital rights management schemes that Microsoft had previously announced for Xbox One prior to its release. Critics and third - party studios also praised the capabilities of the PlayStation 4 in comparison to its competitors; developers described the performance difference between the console and Xbox One as being "significant '' and "obvious ''. Heightened demand also helped Sony top global console sales. By the end of 2017, 74 million PlayStation 4 consoles had been sold worldwide.
On September 7, 2016, Sony unveiled PlayStation 4 Pro, a high - end version of the console with an upgraded GPU and higher CPU clock rate to support 4K gameplay on supported titles. The company also released a variant of the original model with a smaller form factor, and the release of a patch to add HDR support to all existing consoles.
According to lead architect Mark Cerny, development of Sony 's fourth video game console began as early as 2008. Less than two years earlier, the PlayStation 3 had launched after months of delays due to issues with production. The delay placed Sony almost a year behind Microsoft 's Xbox 360, which was already approaching unit sales of 10 million by the time the PS3 launched. PlayStation Europe CEO Jim Ryan said Sony wanted to avoid repeating the same mistake with PS3 's successor.
In designing the system, Sony worked with software developer Bungie, who offered their input on the controller and how to make it better for shooting games. In 2012, Sony began shipping development kits to game developers, consisting of a modified PC running the AMD Accelerated Processing Unit chipset. These development kits were known as "Orbis ''.
In early 2013, Sony announced that an event known as PlayStation Meeting 2013 would be held in New York City, U.S., on February 20, 2013, to cover the "future of PlayStation ''. Sony officially announced the PlayStation 4 at the event. It revealed details about the console 's hardware and discussed some of the new features it will introduce. Sony also showed off real - time footage of games in development, as well as some technical demonstrations. The design of the console was unveiled in June at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2013, and the initial recommended retail prices of $399 (NA), € 399 (Europe), and £ 349 (UK) given.
The company revealed release dates for North America, Central America, South America, Europe, and Australia, as well as final pieces of information, at a Gamescom press event in Cologne, Germany, on August 20, 2013. The console was released on November 15, 2013, in the United States and Canada, followed by further releases on November 29, 2013. By the end of 2013, the PS4 was launched in more European, Asian and South American countries The PS4 released in Japan at ¥ 39,980 on February 22, 2014.
Sony finalized a deal with the Chinese government in May 2014 to sell its products in mainland China, and the PS4 will be the first product to be released. Kazuo Hirai, chief executive officer of Sony, said in May: "The Chinese market, just given the size of it, is obviously potentially a very large market for video game products... I think that we will be able to replicate the kind of success we have had with PS4 in other parts of the world in China. ''
In September 2015, Sony reduced the price of the PS4 in Japan to ¥ 34,980, with similar price drops in other Southeast Asian markets. The first official sub £ 300 PS4 bundle was the £ 299.99 "Uncharted Nathan Drake Collection 500GB '', released in the UK on October 9, 2015; a 1TB £ 329.99 version was offered at the same time. On October 9, 2015, the first official price cut of the PS4 in North America was announced: a reduction of $50 to $349.99 (US) and by $20 to $429.99 (Canada). An official price cut in Europe followed in late October 2015, reduced to € 349.99 / £ 299.99.
On June 10, 2016, Sony confirmed that a hardware revision of the PlayStation 4, rumored to be codenamed "Neo '', was under development. The new revision is a higher - end model that is meant to support gameplay in 4K. The new model will be sold alongside the existing model, and all existing software will be compatible between the two models. Layden stated that Sony has no plans to "bifurcate the market '', only that gamers playing on the Neo will "have the same experience, but one will be delivered at a higher resolution, with an enhanced graphical experience, but everything else is going to be exactly as you 'd expect ''. The high - end console was publicly revealed on September 7, 2016 as PlayStation 4 Pro. At the same time, Sony unveiled an updated version of the original PS4 model with a smaller form factor.
In May 2018 during a presentation to investors, Sony Interactive Entertainment CEO John Kodera stated that the PlayStation 4 was heading into the end of its lifecycle, and that the company was anticipating decreasing year - over-year hardware sales. He explained that Sony would be countering the expected decline by focusing on "strengthen (ing) user engagement '' including continued investments into new first - party titles and other online services for PS4. "We will use the next three years to prepare the next step, to crouch down so that we can jump higher in the future, '' Kodera added in an interview with the press the following day.
The technology in the PlayStation 4 is similar to the hardware found in modern personal computers. This familiarity is designed to make it easier and less expensive for game studios to develop games for the PS4.
-- John Taylor, AMD
The PlayStation 4 uses an Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) developed by AMD in cooperation with Sony. It combines a central processing unit (CPU) and graphics processing unit (GPU), as well as other components such as a memory controller and video decoder. The CPU consists of two quad - core Jaguar modules totaling 8 x86 - 64 cores. The GPU consists of 18 compute units to produce a theoretical peak performance of 1.84 TFLOPS. The system 's GDDR5 memory is capable of running at a maximum clock frequency of 2.75 GHz (5500 MT / s) and has a maximum memory bandwidth of 176 GB / s. The console contains 8 GB of GDDR5 memory, 16 times the amount of RAM found in the PS3 and is expected to give the console considerable longevity. It also includes secondary custom chips that handle tasks associated with downloading, uploading, and social gameplay. These tasks can be handled seamlessly in the background during gameplay or while the system is in sleep mode. The console also contains an audio module, which can support in - game chat as well as "a very large number '' of audio streams for use in - game. All PlayStation 4 models support high dynamic range (HDR) color profiles.
Its read - only optical drive is capable of reading Blu - ray Discs at speeds of up to three times that of its predecessor. The console features a hardware on - the - fly decompression module boosting optical disc reading speed and buffer unread data when a game is not actively accessing the optical drive. The original PS4 model can output in 4K and play multimedia in the format, but does not play games in 4K. The console includes a 500 gigabyte hard drive for additional storage, which can be upgraded by the user. System Software 4.50, which was released on March 9, 2017, enabled the use of external USB hard drives up to 8 TB for additional storage.
The PlayStation 4 features Wi - Fi and Ethernet connectivity, Bluetooth, and two USB 3.0 ports. An auxiliary port is also included for connection to the PlayStation Camera, a motion detection digital camera device first introduced on the PS3. A mono headset, which can be plugged into the DualShock 4, is bundled with the system. Audio / video output options include HDMI TV and optical S / PDIF audio. The console does not have an analog audio / video output.
The PS4 features a "Rest mode '' feature. This places the console in a low - power state, while allowing users to immediately resume their game or app once the console is awoken. The console also is able to download content such as game and OS updates while it is in this state.
The DualShock 4 is PlayStation 4 's primary controller; it maintains a similar design to previous iterations of the DualShock series, but with additional features and design refinements. Among other tweaks, the caps of the analog sticks were given a concave design (similar to the Xbox 360 controller), the shape of the triggers and shoulder buttons were refined, the D - pad buttons were given a steeper downward angle to provide a resting space in the center for the user 's thumb, and the hand grips were made thicker and given microtexturing to improve their feel.
A major addition to the DualShock 4 is a touchpad; it is capable of detecting up to two simultaneous touch presses, and can also be pressed down as a button. The "Start '' and "Select '' buttons were replaced by "Options '' and "Share '' buttons; the latter is designed to allow access to the PlayStation 4 's social features (including streaming, video recording, and screenshot tools). The DualShock 4 is powered by a non-removable, rechargeable lithium - ion battery, which can be charged using its micro USB connector. The controller also features an internal speaker, and a headphone jack for headsets or headphones; the console is bundled with a pair of headset earbuds.
The controller 's motion tracking system is more sensitive than those of the PlayStation 3 's controllers. An LED "light bar '' was additionally added to the front of the controller; it is designed to allow the PlayStation Camera accessory to further track its motion, but can also be used to provide visual effects and feedback within games.
Although the PS4 and DualShock 4 continue to use Bluetooth for wireless connectivity, the console is incompatible with PlayStation 3 controllers. An exception are the PlayStation Move motion controllers originally released for PS3, which are officially supported for use with the PlayStation Camera. In October 2013, Shuhei Yoshida stated on Twitter that the DualShock 4 would support "basic functions '' when attached to a PC. In August 2016, Sony unveiled an official USB wireless adapter for the DualShock 4, enabling use of all of the controller 's functionality on PC. In December 2016, Valve 's Steam platform was updated to provide support and controller customization functionality for DualShock 4, through existing APIs for the Steam Controller.
A revision of the DualShock 4 was released alongside the "Slim '' and Pro models in 2016, and is bundled with these systems. It is largely identical to the original model, except that the touchpad now contains a "stripe '' along the top which the light bar 's LED can shine through, and the controller can communicate non-wirelessly when connected to the console over USB.
The PlayStation Camera is an optional motion sensor and camera for the PlayStation 4, similar to Kinect on Xbox. It includes two 1280 × 800 pixel lenses operating with an aperture of f / 2.0, with 30 cm focusing distance, and an 85 ° field of view. The dual camera setup allows for different modes of operation, depending on the initiated and running application. The two cameras can be used together for depth - sensing of its surrounding objects in its field of vision. Alternatively, one of the cameras can be used for generating the video image, with the other used for motion tracking.
PlayStation Camera also features a four - channel microphone array, which helps reduce unwanted background noise and can be used for voice commands. With the PlayStation Camera connected, different users can automatically log - on to the system via face detection.
PlayStation VR is a virtual reality system for PlayStation 4; it consists of a headset, which features a 1080p display panel, LED lights on the headset that are used by PlayStation Camera to track its motion, and a control box that processes 3D audio effects, as well as video output to the external display (either simulcasting the player 's VR perspective, or providing an asymmetrical secondary perspective). PlayStation VR can also be used with PlayStation Move motion controllers.
The PlayStation 4 's operating system is called "Orbis OS '', based upon a customized FreeBSD 9.
The console does not require an Internet connection for usage, although more functionality is available when connected. The PS4 is the first to include a WebKit - based web browser, which is a departure from its predecessor 's NetFront browser; it is based on the same modern WebKit core as Google Chrome and Safari, giving it high compatibility in HTML5 compliance testing.
The console introduces a new customizable menu interface titled the "PlayStation Dynamic Menu '', featuring a variety of color schemes. The interface displays the player 's profile, recent activity, notifications, and other details in addition to unlocked trophies. It allows multiple user accounts, all with their own pass - codes. Each player account has the option to share their real name with friends, or use a nickname in other situations when anonymity is important. Facebook profiles can be connected to PlayStation Network accounts, making it easier to recognize friends. The default home screen features real time content from friends. The "What 's New '' activity feed includes shared media, recently played games, and other notifications. Services from third - party vendors, such as Netflix and Amazon Video, can be accessible within the interface. Multitasking is available during gameplay, such as opening the browser or managing party chat, and switching between applications is done by double - tapping the "PS '' button.
The PlayStation Camera or a microphone enables the user to control the system using voice input. Players can command the interface to start a game, take screenshots, and save videos. Saying "PlayStation '' initiates voice control, and "All Commands '' displays a list of possible commands.
The PlayStation 4 system software supports Blu - ray and DVD playback and 3D functionality. Playing a CD is unsupported, but custom music and video files can be played from DLNA servers and USB drives using the Media Player app.
The PlayStation 4 allows users to access a variety of free and premium PlayStation Network (PSN) services, including the PlayStation Store, PlayStation Plus subscription service, PlayStation Music powered by Spotify, and the PlayStation Video subscription service, which allows owners to rent or buy TV shows and films à la carte. A United States - exclusive cloud - based television - on - demand service known as PlayStation Vue began beta testing in late November 2014. Sony intends to expand and evolve the services it offers over the console 's lifespan. Unlike PS3, a PlayStation Plus membership is required to access multiplayer in most games; this requirement does not apply to free - to - play or subscription - based titles.
Smartphones and tablets can interact with the PlayStation 4 as second screen devices, and can also wake the console from sleep mode. A Sony Xperia smartphone, tablet or the PlayStation Vita can be used for streaming gameplay from the console to handheld, allowing supported games to be played remotely from around a household or away from home. Sony has ambitions to make all PS4 games playable on PlayStation Vita. Developers can add Vita - specific controls for use via Remote Play. This feature was later expanded to enable PS4 Remote Play functionality on Microsoft Windows PCs and on Apple OS X Macs. The update, released in April 2016, allows for Remote Play functionality on computers running Windows 8.1, Windows 10, OS X Yosemite, and OS X El Capitan. Remote Play supports resolution options of 360p, 540p, and 720p (1080p is available on PS4 Pro), frame rate options of 30 - 60 FPS, and the DualShock 4 can be connected via USB.
The PlayStation App allows iOS and Android mobile devices to interact with the PlayStation 4 from their device. The user can use this application to purchase PS4 titles from the console and have them remotely downloaded, watch live streams of other gamers, and / or view in - game maps while playing games.
-- Ustream co-founder Brad Hunstable
Sony is focused on "social '' aspects as a major feature of the console. Although the PS4 has improved social functionality, the features are optional and can be disabled.
Users have the option to create or join community groups based upon personal interest. Communities include a discussion board, accomplishments and game clips shared by other members, plus the ability to join group chat and launch cooperative games. Sony stated that "communities are a good way to socialize with like - minded players '', particularly when "you want to tackle a big multiplayer raid, but do n't have enough friends available ''.
The DualShock 4 controller includes a "SHARE '' button, allowing the player to cycle through the last 60 minutes of recorded gameplay to select a screenshot or video clip appropriate for sharing. Media is uploaded seamlessly from the console to other PSN users or social networking sites such as Dailymotion, Facebook, Twitter and YouTube, or else users can copy media to a USB flash drive and upload to a social network or website of their preference. Players can also use a free video editing application named ShareFactory to cut and assemble their favorite video clips, add custom music or voice commentary with green screen effects. Subsequent updates have added options for picture - in - picture layouts, the ability to create photo collages and animated GIFs.
Gamers can either watch live gameplay of titles which their friends are playing through the PS4 interface with cross-game camera and microphone input, spectate silently, or broadcast their own gameplay live via DailyMotion, Twitch, Ustream, Niconico, or YouTube Gaming, allowing for friends and members of the public to view and comment upon them from other web browsers and devices. If a user is not screen - casting, a friend can send them a "Request to Watch '' notification.
Share Play allows users to invite an online friend to join their play session via streaming, even if they do not own a copy of the game. Users can pass control of the game entirely to the remote user, or partake in cooperative multiplayer as if they were physically present. Mark Cerny says that remote assistance is particularly useful when confronted by a potentially game - defeating obstacle. "You can even see that your friend is in trouble and reach out through the network to take over the controller and assist them through some difficult portion of the game '', he said. Share Play requires a PlayStation Plus subscription and can only be used for one hour at a time.
PlayStation 4 games are distributed at retail on Blu - ray Disc, and digitally as downloads through the PlayStation Store. Games are not region - locked, so titles purchased in one region can be played on consoles in all regions, and players can sign - on to any PS4 console to access their entire digital game library. All PlayStation 4 games must be installed to the console 's storage: users can begin to play portions of a game (such as opening levels) once the installation or download reaches a specific point, while the remainder of the game is downloaded or installed in the background. Updates to games and system software are also downloaded in the background and while in standby. PS4 users will, in the future, be able to browse titles and stream games via Gaikai to demo them almost instantaneously. Sony says it is committed to releasing an ever - increasing number of free - to - play games, including PlanetSide 2 and War Thunder. Sony also took steps to make it easier for independent game developers to release titles for the PS4 by giving them the option to self - publish their own games rather than rely upon others to distribute their titles.
PlayStation 4 is not compatible with any game for older PlayStation consoles, including PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 2.
Emulated versions of selected PS2 games are available for purchase via PlayStation Store, which are upscaled to high definition and have support for PS4 social features. Selected PS3 games are available for streaming via the paid service PlayStation Now.
In December 2013, Andrew House indicated that Sony was planning to launch a cloud gaming service for the PS4 in North America within the third quarter of 2014, with a European launch to follow in 2015.
At Consumer Electronics Show on January 7, 2014, Sony unveiled PlayStation Now, a digital distribution service which will initially allow users to access PlayStation 3 games on the PS4 via a cloud - based streaming system, purchasing games individually or via a subscription, as a solution of no backwards compatibility on the hardware of the console. The United States Open Beta went live on July 31, 2014. The official United States release of the service was on January 13, 2015. PlayStation Now is in closed beta in the United Kingdom.
-- Mark Rein, Epic Games
Pre-release reception to the console from developers and journalists was positive. Mark Rein of Epic Games praised the "enhanced '' architecture of Sony 's system, describing it as "a phenomenal piece of hardware ''. John Carmack, programmer and co-founder of id Software, also commended the design by saying "Sony made wise engineering choices '', while Randy Pitchford of Gearbox Software expressed satisfaction with the amount of high - speed memory in the console. Eurogamer also called the graphics technology in the PS4 "impressive '' and an improvement from the difficulties developers experienced on the PlayStation 3.
Numerous industry professionals have acknowledged the PlayStation 4 's performance advantage over the Xbox One. Speaking to Edge magazine, multiple game developers have described the difference as "significant '' and "obvious ''. ExtremeTech says the PS4 's graphics processing unit offers a "serious advantage '' over the competition, but due to the nature of cross-platform development, titles that share the same assets will appear "very similar ''. In other scenarios, designers may tap some of PS4 's additional power in a straightforward manner, to boost frame rate or output at a higher resolution, whereas games from Sony 's own first - party studios that take full advantage of the hardware "will probably look significantly better than anything on the Xbox One ''.
In response to concerns surrounding the possibility of DRM measures to hinder the resale of used games (and in particular, the initial DRM policies of Xbox One, which did contain such restrictions), Jack Tretton explicitly stated during Sony 's E3 press conference that there would be "no restrictions '' on the resale and trading of PS4 games on physical media, while software product development head Scott Rohde specified that Sony was planning to disallow online passes as well, going on to say that the policies were designed to be "consumer - friendly, extremely retailer - friendly, and extremely publisher - friendly ''. After Sony 's E3 2013 press conference, IGN responded positively to Sony 's attitude towards indie developers and trading games, stating they thought "most gamers would agree '' that "if you care about games like (Sony) do, you 'll buy a PlayStation 4 ''. PlayStation 4 's removable and upgradable hard drive also drew praise from IGN, with Scott Lowe commenting that the decision gave the console "another advantage '' over the Xbox One, whose hard drive can not be accessed.
GameSpot called the PlayStation 4 "the gamer 's choice for next - generation '', citing its price, lack of restrictive digital rights management, and most importantly, Sony 's efforts to "acknowledge its consumers '' and "respect its audience '' as major factors.
The PlayStation 4 has received very positive reviews by critics. Scott Lowe of IGN gave it an 8.2 rating out of 10 praising the console 's DualShock 4 design and social integration features. He criticized the console 's lack of software features and for underutilizing the DualShock 4 's touch pad. The Gadget Show gave a similar review complimenting the DualShock 4 's new triggers and control sticks, in addition to the new Remote Play feature, yet criticized the system 's lack of media support at launch. IGN compared the Xbox One and the PlayStation 4 over various categories, allowing their readers to vote for their preferred system. The PS4 won every category offered, and IGN awarded the PS4 with their People 's Choice Award.
Shortly following the launch, it became apparent that some games released on multiple platforms were available in higher resolutions on the PS4 as opposed to other video game consoles. Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku reported on the differences in early games such as Call of Duty: Ghosts and Assassin 's Creed IV: Black Flag which ran at 1080p on the PS4, but in 720p and 900p, respectively, on the Xbox One.
Demand for PlayStation 4 was strong. In August 2013, Sony announced the placement of over a million preorders for the console, while on the North American launch alone, one million PlayStation 4 consoles were sold. In the UK, the PlayStation 4 became the best - selling console at launch, with the sale of 250,000 consoles within a 48 - hour period and 530,000 in the first five weeks.
On January 7, 2014, Andrew House announced in his Consumer Electronics Show keynote speech that 4.2 million PS4 units had been sold - through by the end of 2013, with more than 9.7 million software units sold. On February 18, 2014, Sony announced that, as of February 8, it had sold over 5.3 million console units following the release of the PS4 onto the North American and Western European markets. Within the first two days of release in Japan during the weekend of February 22, 2014, 322,083 consoles were sold. PS4 software unit sales surpassed 20.5 million on April 13, 2014. During Japan 's 2013 fiscal year, heightened demand for the PS4 helped Sony top global console sales, beating Nintendo for the first time in eight years.
According to data released by Nielsen in August 2014, nine months after the PS4 was released, thirty - one percent of its sales were to existing Wii and Xbox 360 owners, none of whom had by then owned a PS3. At Gamescom 2014, it was announced that 10 million PS4 units had been sold - through to consumers worldwide, and on November 13, it was announced that the PlayStation 4 was the top - selling console in the U.S. for the tenth consecutive month.
In its first sales announcement of 2015, Sony confirmed on January 4 that it had sold - through 18.5 million PlayStation 4 units. Sony updated the sell - through figures for the system throughout 2015: over 20 million consoles as of March 3, 2015, over 30 million as of November 22, 2015, and over 35 million by the end of 2015. As of May 22, 2016, total worldwide sell - through reached 40 million. By December 2017, over 70 million consoles and more than 617.8 million PlayStation 4 games have been sold worldwide.
The PlayStation 4 holds a market share of at least 70 % within all European countries, as of June 2015.
The PlayStation 4 has been produced in various models: the original, the Slim, and the Pro. Successive models have added or removed various features, and each model has variations of Limited Edition consoles.
On September 7, 2016, Sony announced a hardware revision of PlayStation 4, model number CUH - 2000, known colloquially as the PlayStation 4 Slim. It is a revision of the original PS4 hardware with a smaller form factor; it has a rounded body with a matte finish on the top of the console rather than a two - tone finish, and is 40 % smaller in size than the original model. The two USB ports on the front have a larger gap between them, and the optical audio port was removed. It was released on September 15, 2016, with a 500 GB model at the same price as the original version of the PlayStation 4. On April 18, 2017, Sony announced that it had replaced the 500 GB base model with a new 1 TB version, with no change in pricing.
PlayStation 4 Pro (codenamed Neo) was announced on September 7, 2016, and launched worldwide on November 10, 2016. Its model number is CUH - 7000. It is an upgraded version of the PlayStation 4 with improved hardware to enable 4K rendering and improved PlayStation VR performance, including an upgraded GPU with 4.2 teraflops of processing power and hardware support for checkerboard rendering, and a higher CPU clock. The PS4 Pro also includes 1 GB of DDR3 memory that is used to swap out non-gaming applications that run in the background, allowing games to utilize an additional 512 MB of the console 's GDDR5 memory. Games marketed as PS4 Pro Enhanced may be optimized for higher graphics quality, resolution, or HDR support when running on PS4 Pro. Although capable of streaming 4K video, the PS4 Pro does not support Ultra HD Blu - ray.
Rendering games at 4K resolution is achieved through various rendering techniques and hardware features; PlayStation technical chief Mark Cerny explained that Sony could not "brute force '' 4K without compromising form factor and cost, so the console was designed to support "streamlined rendering techniques '' using custom hardware, "best - in - breed temporal and spatial anti-aliasing algorithms '', and "many new features from the AMD Polaris architecture as well as several even beyond it ''. The most prominent technique used is checkerboard rendering, wherein the console only renders portions of a scene using a checkerboard pattern, and then uses algorithms to fill in the non-rendered segments. The checkerboarded screen can then be smoothed using an anti-aliasing filter. Hermen Hulst of Guerrilla Games explained that PS4 Pro could render something "perceptively so close (to 4K) that you would n't be able to see the difference ''.
PS4 Pro supports Remote Play, Share Play, and streaming at up to 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second. 2160p screenshots, and 1080p video at 30 frames per second, can also be captured via the share button.
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what is the crow and the butterfly by shinedown about | The Crow & the Butterfly - wikipedia
"The Crow & the Butterfly '' is the fifth single by American rock band Shinedown from their 2008 album The Sound of Madness. The song was written by Shinedown lead singer Brent Smith. The song was introduced in 2007, in an acoustic session on The Buckethead Show.
"The Crow & the Butterfly - EP '' was released on iTunes on July 27, 2010, which included the original song, "The Crow & the Butterfly (Pull Mix) '', the music video for the song, and a digital booklet.
Brent Smith explained on a radio interview program, Rockline, that while the band was writing the new album, he had a dream about a mother whose daughter died a month before her son Trevor was born. He wrote the song about the mother dealing with the death of her child and trying to move on.
On a blog on the Shinedown website, Brent Smith said this about the song: "For me lyrically this was one of the most intense stories I have ever written. But I know the song means something different to everyone. ''
Smith said this about a possible "The Crow & the Butterfly '' video:
"We are in the process of reading through video treatments for the song, and I have to admit we have been so busy with the current tour we are on, and putting everything together for "The Carnival of Madness, '' we have n't even gotten a chance to ask all of you what you think about the song, and also what kind of video you would like to see from us. ''
The music video for "The Crow & the Butterfly '' was shot on June 24, 2010, which happens to be the 2nd anniversary of The Sound of Madness. A photo was published of the set, which appeared to be a large room in a mansion. On July 17, 2010, the music video premiered on Yahoo Music. The video begins with the band playing on a stage while a group of mysterious people wearing their black clothes eating dinner and putting their silverware down. Then, a woman with a black mascara teardrop on her eyes comes in and sees the people finishing their dinner. During the dance scene and the chorus, the girl decided to go through the people while searching for a boy. During the bridge, she was too late to find him and she found the man who walked closer to her while transforming as the band. He gives the girl the locket and whispered in her ears. The video ends with the boy and the band walking away into the light while the girl stares at the camera.
The music video debuted on Fuse Top 20 Countdown at # 18 on July 23, 2010, and on VH1 's Top 20 Video Countdown at # 20 on July 31, 2010.
"The Crow & the Butterfly '' peaked on the Billboard Rock Songs chart at # 1. It was Shinedown 's first single to rank at # 1 on the Billboard Rock Songs chart. It is also # 1 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, thus making The Sound of Madness the second album ever to have four singles topping the chart, after The Black Crowes ' The Southern Harmony and Musical Companion in 1992. The song has also made appearances on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, debuting at # 97, and U.S. Alternative Songs, peaking at # 6.
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where was the movie dead man's burden filmed | Dead Man 's Burden - wikipedia
Dead Man 's Burden is a 2012 Western film directed by Jared Moshe. The film premiered on June 16, 2012 at the Los Angeles Film Festival and stars Clare Bowen and Barlow Jacobs as two siblings that reunite over the death of their father and a potential sale of their land.
Martha (Clare Bowen) and her husband Heck (David Call) are two hardy settlers trying to survive in New Mexico after the end of the Civil War and the death of Martha 's father. They 're given hope for a better life when a mining company shows interest in purchasing their homestead, but things become tense when Martha 's brother Wade (Barlow Jacobs), who defected to the Union Army returns home after hearing of their father 's death - unaware that Martha herself was the one who brought about his demise.
When writing the script for Dead Man 's Burden, Moshe wrote with the intent to cast the film with lesser known actors, as he did n't want "to bring in a big - name actor who did n't look like they belong in that period. '' Moshe did not use storyboards, as the film had a tight budget and could n't afford a storyboard artist, instead watching other Western films for inspiration and working closely with cinematographer Robert Hauer. Filming took place in New Mexico over an 18 - day period, where the cast experienced freak storms that forced the cast to walk to the set but did not delay filming.
Critical reception has been mixed to positive and the film holds a rating of 76 on Metacritic (based on 12 reviews) and 76 % on Rotten Tomatoes (based on 17 reviews). Common elements praised in the film was Moshé 's choice in cast, which Variety lauded as a highlight. However, in their mostly positive review IndieWire remarked that the lack of major stars and the choice to film a Western (which they saw as a "mostly defunct genre '') could jeopardize commercial prospects. The New York Daily News 's review was more mixed, as they felt that the "verbose period film has the complicated plot and tight pacing of a cable TV drama, which is then squashed into an indie - film paradigm. ''
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when did non landowners get the right to vote | Voting rights in the United States - wikipedia
The issue of voting rights in the United States, specifically the enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been contested throughout United States history.
Eligibility to vote in the United States is established both through the federal constitution and by state law. Several constitutional amendments (the 15th, 19th, and 26th specifically) require that voting rights can not be abridged on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, or age for those above 21; the constitution as originally written did not establish any such rights during 1787 -- 1870. In the absence of a specific federal law or constitutional provision, each state is given considerable discretion to establish qualifications for suffrage and candidacy within its own respective jurisdiction; in addition, states and lower level jurisdictions establish election systems, such as at - large or single member district elections for county councils or school boards.
Beyond qualifications for suffrage, rules and regulations concerning voting (such as the poll tax) have been contested since the advent of Jim Crow laws and related provisions that indirectly disenfranchised racial minorities. Since the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, and related laws, voting rights have been legally considered an issue related to election systems. The Supreme Court ruled in 1964 that both houses of all state legislatures had to be based on election districts that were relatively equal in population size, under the "one man, one vote '' principle. In 1972, the Court ruled that state legislatures had to redistrict every ten years based on census results; at that point, many had not redistricted for decades, often leading to a rural bias.
In other cases, particularly for county or municipal elections, at - large voting has been repeatedly challenged when found to dilute the voting power of significant minorities in violation of the Voting Rights Act. In the early 20th century, numerous cities established small commission forms of government in the belief that "better government '' could result from the suppression of ward politics. Commissioners were elected by the majority of voters, excluding candidates who could not afford large campaigns or who appealed to a minority. Generally the solution to such violations has been to adopt single - member districts (SMDs) but alternative election systems, such as limited voting or cumulative voting, have also been used since the late 20th century to correct for dilution of voting power and enable minorities to elect candidates of their choice.
The District of Columbia and 5 major territories of the United States have one non-voting member each (in the U.S. House of Representatives) and no representation in the U.S. Senate. People in the U.S. territories can not vote for president of the United States. People in the District of Columbia can vote for the president because of the 23rd Amendment.
The United States Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote. Freed slaves could vote in four states. Women were largely prohibited from voting, as were men without property. Women could vote in New Jersey until 1807 (provided they could meet the property requirement) and in some local jurisdictions in other northern states. Non-white Americans could also vote in these jurisdictions, provided they could meet the property requirement. By 1856, white men were allowed to vote in all states regardless of property ownership, although requirements for paying tax remained in five states. On the other hand, several states, including Pennsylvania and New Jersey stripped the free black males of the right to vote in the same period.
Four of the fifteen post-Civil War constitutional amendments were ratified to extend voting rights to different groups of citizens. These extensions state that voting rights can not be denied or abridged based on the following:
Following the Reconstruction Era until the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow laws such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and religious tests were some of the state and local laws used in various parts of the United States to deny immigrants (including legal ones and newly naturalized citizens), non-white citizens, Native Americans, and any other locally "undesirable '' groups from exercising voting rights granted under the constitution. Because of such state and local discriminatory practices, over time, the federal role in elections has increased, through amendments to the Constitution and enacted legislation. These reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries extended the franchise to non-whites, those who do not own property, women, and those 18 -- 21 years old.
Since the "right to vote '' is not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution except in the above referenced amendments, and only in reference to the fact that the franchise can not be denied or abridged based solely on the aforementioned qualifications, the "right to vote '' is perhaps better understood, in layman 's terms, as only prohibiting certain forms of legal discrimination in establishing qualifications for suffrage. States may deny the "right to vote '' for other reasons. For example, many states require eligible citizens to register to vote a set number of days prior to the election in order to vote. More controversial restrictions include those laws that prohibit convicted felons from voting, even those who have served their sentences. Another example, seen in Bush v. Gore, are disputes as to what rules should apply in counting or recounting ballots.
A state may choose to fill an office by means other than an election. For example, upon death or resignation of a legislator, the state may allow the affiliated political party to choose a replacement to hold office until the next scheduled election. Such an appointment is often affirmed by the governor.
The Constitution, in Article VI, clause (paragraph) 3, does state that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''.
Each extension of voting rights has been a product of, and also brought about, social change. Extension of voting rights happened through movements and a need for the US to adapt to its growing population.
From 1778 to 1871, the government tried to resolve its relationship with the various native tribes by negotiating treaties. These treaties formed agreements between two sovereign nations, stating that Native American people were citizens of their tribe, living within the boundaries of the United States. The treaties were negotiated by the executive branch and ratified by the U.S. Senate. It said that native tribes would give up their rights to hunt and live on huge parcels of land that they had inhabited in exchange for trade goods, yearly cash annuity payments, and assurances that no further demands would be made on them. Most often, part of the land would be "reserved '' exclusively for the tribe 's use.
Throughout the 1800s, many native tribes gradually lost claim to the lands they had inhabited for centuries through the federal government 's Indian Removal policy to relocate tribes from the Southeast and Northwest to west of the Mississippi River. European - American settlers continued to encroach on western lands. Only in 1879, in the Standing Bear trial, were American Indians recognized as persons in the eyes of the United States government. Judge Elmer Scipio Dundy of Nebraska declared that Indians were people within the meaning of the laws, and they had the rights associated with a writ of habeas corpus. However, Judge Dundy left unsettled the question as to whether Native Americans were guaranteed US citizenship.
Although Native Americans were born within the national boundaries of the United States, those on reservations were considered citizens of their own tribes, rather than of the United States. They were denied the right to vote because they were not considered citizens by law and were thus ineligible. Many Native Americans were told that they would become citizens if they gave up their tribal affiliations in 1887 under the Dawes Act, which allocated communal lands to individual households and was intended to aid in the assimilation of Native Americans into majority culture. This still did not guarantee their right to vote. In 1924 the remaining Native Americans, estimated at about one - third, became United States citizens. But, many western states continued to restrict Native American ability to vote through property requirements, economic pressures, hiding the polls, and condoning of physical violence against those who voted. Since the late 20th century, they have been protected under provisions of the Voting Rights Act as a racial minority, and in some areas, language minority, gaining election materials in their native languages.
In several British North American colonies, before and after the 1776 Declaration of Independence, Jews, Quakers and / or Catholics were excluded from the franchise and / or from running for elections.
The Delaware Constitution of 1776 stated that "Every person who shall be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any office or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his office, shall (...) also make and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B. do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration. ''. This was repealed by Article I, Section II. of the 1792 Constitution: "No religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, under this State ''. The 1778 Constitution of the State of South Carolina stated, "No person shall be eligible to sit in the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant religion '', the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that "The representatives shall be chosen out of the residents in each county (...) and they shall be of the Protestant religion ''.
With the growth in the number of Baptists in Virginia before the Revolution, who challenged the established Anglican Church, the issues of religious freedom became important to rising leaders such as James Madison. As a young lawyer, he defended Baptist preachers who were not licensed by (and were opposed by) the established state Anglican Church. He carried developing ideas about religious freedom to be incorporated into the constitutional convention of the United States.
In 1787, Article One of the United States Constitution stated that "the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature ''. More significantly, Article Six disavowed the religious test requirements of several states, saying: "(N) o religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
But, in Maryland, Jewish Americans were excluded from State office until the law requiring candidates to affirm a belief in an afterlife was repealed in 1828.
At the time of ratification of the Constitution in the late 18th century, most states had property qualifications which restricted the franchise; the exact amount varied by state, but by some estimates, more than half of white men were disenfranchised. Several states granted suffrage to free men of color after the Revolution, including North Carolina. This fact was noted by Justice Benjamin Robbins Curtis ' dissent in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), as he emphasized that blacks had been considered citizens at the time the Constitution was ratified:
Of this there can be no doubt. At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, all free native - born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens.
When the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction. In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen 's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude ''. The major effect of these amendments was to enfranchise African American men, the overwhelming majority of whom were freedmen in the South.
After the war, some southern states passed "Black Codes '', state laws to restrict the new freedoms of African Americans. They attempted to control their movement, assembly, working conditions and other civil rights. Some states also prohibited them from voting.
The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, one of three ratified after the American Civil War to grant freedmen full rights of citizenship, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen based on race. This was primarily related to protecting the franchise of freedmen, but it also applied to non-white minorities, such as Mexican Americans in Texas. The state governments under Reconstruction adopted new state constitutions or amendments designed to protect the ability of freedmen to vote. The white resistance to black suffrage after the war regularly erupted into violence as white groups tried to protect their power. Particularly in the South, in the aftermath of the Civil War whites made efforts to suppress freedmen 's voting. In the 1860s, secret vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used violence and intimidation to keep freedmen in a controlled role and reestablish white supremacy. But, black freedmen registered and voted in high numbers, and many were elected to local offices through the 1880s.
In the mid-1870s, the insurgencies continued with a rise in more powerful white paramilitary groups, such as the White League, originating in Louisiana in 1874 after a disputed gubernatorial election; and the Red Shirts, originating in Mississippi in 1875 and developing numerous chapters in North and South Carolina; as well as other "White Line '' rifle clubs. They operated openly, were more organized than the KKK, and directed their efforts at political goals: to disrupt Republican organizing, turn Republicans out of office, and intimidate or kill blacks to suppress black voting. They worked as "the military arm of the Democratic Party ''. For instance, estimates were that 150 blacks were killed in North Carolina before the 1876 elections. Economic tactics such as eviction from rental housing or termination of employment were also used to suppress the black vote. White Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South by the late 1870s, and the federal government withdrew its troops as a result of a national compromise related to the presidency, officially ending Reconstruction.
African Americans were a majority in three southern states following the Civil War, and represented over 40 % of the population in four other states. While they did not elect a majority of African Americans to office in any state legislature during Reconstruction, whites still feared and resented the political power exercised by freedmen. After ousting the Republicans, whites worked to restore white supremacy.
Although elections were often surrounded by violence, blacks continued to vote and gained many local offices in the late 19th century. In the late 19th century, a Populist - Republican coalition in several states gained governorships and some congressional seats in 1894. To prevent such a coalition from forming again and reduce election violence, the Democratic Party, dominant in all southern state legislatures, took action to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites outright.
From 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven former Confederate states completed political suppression and exclusion of these groups by ratifying new constitutions or amendments which incorporated provisions to make voter registration more difficult. These included such requirements as payment of poll taxes, complicated record keeping, complicated timing of registration and length of residency in relation to elections, with related record - keeping requirements; felony disenfranchisement focusing on crimes thought to be committed by African Americans, and a literacy test or comprehension test.
Prospective voters had to prove the ability to read and write the English language to white voter registrars, who in practice applied subjective requirements. Blacks were often denied the right to vote on this basis. Even well - educated blacks were often told they had "failed '' such a test, if in fact, it had been administered. On the other hand, illiterate whites were sometimes allowed to vote through a "grandfather clause, '' which waived literacy requirements if one 's grandfather had been a qualified voter before 1866, or had served as a soldier, or was from a foreign country. As most blacks had grandfathers who were slaves before 1866 and could not have fulfilled any of those conditions, they could not use the grandfather clause exemption. Selective enforcement of the poll tax was frequently also used to disqualify black and poor white voters. As a result of these measures, at the turn of the century voter rolls dropped markedly across the South. Most blacks and many poor whites were excluded from the political system for decades. Unable to vote, they were also excluded from juries or running for any office.
In Alabama, for example, its 1901 constitution restricted the franchise for poor whites as well as blacks. It contained requirements for payment of cumulative poll taxes, completion of literacy tests, and increased residency at state, county and precinct levels, effectively disenfranchised tens of thousands of poor whites as well as most blacks. Historian J. Morgan Kousser found, "They disfranchised these whites as willingly as they deprived blacks of the vote. '' By 1941, more whites than blacks in total had been disenfranchised.
Although African Americans quickly began legal challenges to such provisions in the 19th century, it was years before any were successful before the U.S. Supreme Court. Booker T. Washington, better known for his public stance of trying to work within societal constraints of the period at Tuskegee University, secretly helped fund and arrange representation for numerous legal challenges to disfranchisement. He called upon wealthy Northern allies and philanthropists to raise funds for the cause. The Supreme Court 's upholding of Mississippi 's new constitution, in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), encouraged other states to follow the Mississippi plan of disfranchisement. African Americans brought other legal challenges, as in Giles v. Harris (1903) and Giles v. Teasley (1904), but the Supreme Court upheld Alabama constitutional provisions. In 1915 Oklahoma was the last state to append a grandfather clause to its literacy requirement due to Supreme Court cases.
From early in the 20th century, the newly established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) took the lead in organizing or supporting legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement. Gradually they planned the strategy of which cases to take forward. In Guinn v. United States (1915), the first case in which the NAACP filed a brief, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in Oklahoma and Maryland. Other states in which it was used had to retract their legislation as well. The challenge was successful.
But, nearly as rapidly as the Supreme Court determined a specific provision was unconstitutional, state legislatures developed new statutes to continue disenfranchisement. For instance, in Smith v. Allwright (1944), the Supreme Court struck down the use of state - sanctioned all - white primaries by the Democratic Party in the South. States developed new restrictions on black voting; Alabama passed a law giving county registrars more authority as to which questions they asked applicants in comprehension or literacy tests. The NAACP continued with steady progress in legal challenges to disenfranchisement and segregation.
In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to implement the Fifteenth Amendment. It established the United States Civil Rights Commission; among its duties is to investigate voter discrimination.
As late as 1962, programs such as Operation Eagle Eye in Arizona attempted to stymie minority voting through literacy tests. The 24th Amendment was ratified in 1964 to prohibit poll taxes as a condition of voter registration and voting in federal elections. Many states continued to use them in state elections as a means of reducing the number of voters.
The American Civil Rights Movement, through such events as the Selma to Montgomery marches and Freedom Summer in Mississippi, gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight of voter registration and election practices and other enforcement of voting rights. Congress passed the legislation because it found "case by case litigation was inadequate to combat widespread and persistent discrimination in voting ''. Activism by African Americans helped secure an expanded and protected franchise that has benefited all Americans, including racial and language minorities.
The bill provided for federal oversight, if necessary, to ensure just voter registration and election procedures. The rate of African - American registration and voting in Southern states climbed dramatically and quickly, but it has taken years of federal oversight to work out the processes and overcome local resistance. In addition, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 - 3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes (for state elections) were officially declared unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
Legal challenges have continued under the Voting Rights Act, primarily in areas of redistricting and election systems, for instance, challenging at - large election systems that effectively reduce the ability of minority groups to elect candidates of their choice. Such challenges have particularly occurred at the county and municipal level, including for school boards, where exclusion of minority groups and candidates at such levels has been persistent in some areas of the country. This reduces the ability of women and minorities to participate in the political system and gain entry - level experience.
A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women 's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle - and upper - class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war.
In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women 's rights convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Of the 300 present, 68 women and 32 men signed the Declaration of Sentiments which defined the women 's rights movement. The first National Women 's Rights Convention took place in 1850 in Worcester, Massachusetts, attracting more than 1,000 participants. This national convention was held yearly through 1860.
When Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Women Suffrage Association, their goal was to help women gain voting rights through reliance on the Constitution. Also, in 1869 Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). However, AWSA focused on gaining voting rights for women through the amendment process. Although these two organization were fighting for the same cause, it was not until 1890 that they merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). After the merger of the two organizations, the (NAWSA) waged a state - by - state campaign to obtain voting rights for women.
Wyoming was the first state in which women were able to vote, although it was a condition of the transition to statehood. Utah was the second territory to allow women to vote, but the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act of 1887 repealed woman 's suffrage in Utah. Colorado was the first established state to allow women to vote on the same basis as men. Some other states also extended the franchise to women before the Constitution was amended to this purpose.
During the 1910s Alice Paul, assisted by Lucy Burns and many others, organized such events and organizations as the 1913 Women 's Suffrage Parade, the National Woman 's Party, and the Silent Sentinels. At the culmination of the suffragists ' requests and protests, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in time to participate in the Presidential election of 1920.
Another political movement that was largely driven by women in the same era was the anti-alcohol Temperance movement, which led to the Eighteenth Amendment and Prohibition.
Washington, D.C., was created from a portion of the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1801. The Virginia portion was retroceded (returned) to Virginia upon request of the residents, by an Act of Congress in 1846 to protect slavery, and restore state and federal voting rights in that portion of Virginia. When Maryland delegated a portion of its land to Congress so that it could be used as the Nation 's capital, Congress did not continue Maryland Voting Laws. It canceled all state and federal elections starting with 1802. Local elections limped on in some neighborhoods, until 1871, when local elections were also forbidden by the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Congress is the National Legislature. Under Article I, Section 8, Clause 17, Congress has the sole authority to exercise "Exclusive Legislature in all cases whatsoever '' over the nation 's capital and over federal military bases. Active disfranchisement is typically a States Rights Legislative issue, where the removal of voting rights is permitted. At the national level, the federal government typically ignored voting rights issues, or affirmed that they were extended.
Congress, when exercising "exclusive legislation '' over U.S. Military Bases in the United States, and Washington, D.C., viewed its power as strong enough to remove all voting rights. All state and federal elections were canceled by Congress in D.C. and all of Maryland 's voting Rights laws no longer applied to D.C. when Maryland gave up that land. Congress did not pass laws to establish local voting processes in the District of Columbia. This omission of law strategy to disfranchise is contained in the Congressional debates in Annals of Congress in 1800 and 1801.
In 1986, the US Congress voted to restore voting rights on U.S. Military bases for all state and federal elections.
D.C., citizens were granted the right to vote in Presidential elections in 1961, after the ratification of the twenty - third amendment. Amendment 23 is the only known limit to U.S. Congressional powers, forcing Congress to enforce Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26 for the first time in Presidential elections. The Maryland citizens and territory converted in Washington, D.C., in 1801 were represented in 1801 by U.S. Rep. John Chew Thomas from Maryland 's 2nd, and U.S. Rep. William Craik from Maryland 's 3rd Congressional Districts. These Maryland U.S. Congressional Districts were redrawn and removed from Washington, D.C.
No full Congressional elections have been held since in D.C., a gap continuing since 1801. Congress created a non-voting substitute for a U.S. Congressman, a Delegate, between 1871 -- 1875, but then abolished that post as well. Congress permitted restoration of local elections and home rule for the District on December 24, 1973. In 1971, Congress still opposed restoring the position of a full U.S. Congressman for Washington, D.C. That year it re-established the position of non-voting Delegate to the U.S. Congress.
A third voting rights movement was won in the 1960s to lower the voting age from twenty - one to eighteen. Activists noted that most of the young men who were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War were too young to have any voice in the selection of the leaders who were sending them to fight. Some states had already lowered the voting age: notably Georgia, Kentucky, and Hawaii, had already permitted voting by persons younger than twenty - one.
The Twenty - sixth Amendment, ratified in 1971, prohibits federal and state laws which set a minimum voting age higher than 18 years. As of 2008, no state has opted for an earlier age, although some state governments have discussed it. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17 - year - olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election.
Prisoner voting rights are defined by individual states, and the laws are different from state to state. Some states allow only individuals on probation to vote. Others allow individuals on parole and probation. As of 2012, only Florida, Kentucky and Virginia continue to impose a lifelong denial of the right to vote to all citizens with a felony record, absent a restoration of rights granted by the Governor or state legislature. However, in Kentucky, a felon 's rights can be restored after the completion of a restoration process to regain civil rights.
In 2007, Florida legislature restored voting rights to convicted felons who had served their sentences. In March 2011, however, Governor Rick Scott reversed the 2007 reforms. He signed legislation that permanently disenfranchises citizens with past felony convictions.
In July 2005, Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack issued an executive order restoring the right to vote for all persons who have completed supervision. On October 31, 2005, Iowa 's Supreme Court upheld mass reenfranchisement of convicted felons. Nine other states disenfranchise felons for various lengths of time following the completion of their probation or parole.
Other than Maine and Vermont, all U.S. states prohibit felons from voting while they are in prison. In Puerto Rico, felons in prison are allowed to vote in elections.
Practices in the United States are in contrast to some European nations, such as Norway. Some nations allow prisoners to vote. Prisoners have been allowed to vote in Canada since 2002.
The United States has a higher proportion of its population in prison than any other Western nation, and more than Russia or China. The dramatic rise in the rate of incarceration in the United States, a 500 % increase from the 1970s to the 1990s, has vastly increased the number of people disenfranchised because of the felon provisions.
According to the Sentencing Project, as of 2010 an estimated 5.9 million Americans are denied the right to vote because of a felony conviction, a number equivalent to 2.5 % of the U.S. voting - age population and a sharp increase from the 1.2 million people affected by felony disenfranchisement in 1976. Given the prison populations, the effects have been most disadvantageous for minority and poor communities.
The Supreme Court of the United States struck down one - year residency requirements to vote in Dunn v. Blumstein 405 U.S. 330 (1972). The Court ruled that limits on voter registration of up to 30 to 50 days prior to an election were permissible for logistical reasons, but that residency requirements in excess of that violated the equal protection clause, as granted under the Fourteenth Amendment, according to strict scrutiny.
In the 1980s homelessness was recognized as an increasing national problem. By the early 21st century, there have been numerous court cases to help protect the voting rights of persons without a fixed address. Low income and homeless citizens face some obstacles in registering to vote. These obstacles include establishing residency, providing a mailing address, and showing proof of identification. A residency requirement varies from state to state. States can not require citizens to show residency of more than 30 days before Election Day. The states of Idaho, Maine, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming allow voters to register on Election Day. North Dakota does not require voters to register.
In the 21st century, homeless persons in all states have the right to register and vote if they satisfy other conditions. In most states, when registering to vote, homeless voters may designate any place of residence, including a street corner, a park, a shelter, or any other location where an individual stays at night. A citizen may only have one residency during registration, but they may switch their registration each time they change locations. Designating residency is needed to prove that the citizen lives within the district where he or she wishes to vote. Some states also require a mailing address in order to send out the voter ID card, which the individual must show on Election Day. Some states allow individuals to use PO Boxes as mailing addresses; other states allow the address to be that of a local shelter, advocacy organization, outreach center, or anywhere else that accepts mail on behalf of a person registering to vote. States such as Arizona and Nebraska allow homeless citizens to use county court houses or county clerks ' offices as mailing address.
States that do not require a mailing address include Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Montana, New Jersey, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
All potential voters face new requirements since 2002, when President Bush signed the Help America Vote Act (HAVA). It requires voters to provide their driver 's license numbers, or the last four digits of their Social Security Number on their voter registration form. This has been enforced.
The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) assists nonprofit organizations, in getting lower income and homeless citizens registered to vote. In 1992, the NCH created a campaign called "You do n't need a home to vote ''. This campaign provided useful resources and guidelines for nonprofit organizations to follow when assisting citizens to register. Nonprofits, like homeless shelters and food banks, set up a voter registration party to help homeless citizens to register. The nonprofit workers must remain nonpartisan when assisting in the registration process.
Voting rights of the American homeless is an issue that has been addressed in the courts since the 1980s. Each state is responsible for voting regulations in their area; however, many states throughout America have adopted similar laws regarding homeless citizen voting. Disenfranchising the homeless is considered a violation of their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause. Many arguments have been made against homeless people being able to vote. Their status of true citizenship has been called into question because of their lack of residency. However, the courts have ruled on more than one occasion in favor of the homeless voting.
One of the first court cases regarding homeless voting was Pitts v. Black (1984) in the US District Court of Southern New York, which ruled that disenfranchising homeless citizens is a direct violation of the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The case involved the New York Election Board and homeless individuals assisted by the Coalition for the Homeless, among others. The Election Board denied the individuals the right to vote because they resided on the street or in shelters. The Election Board contended that residency required some claim (such as rent) or ownership of the area on which they resided. Before the court decision was made, the Election Board relented slightly and allowed those living in shelters the right to vote. The District Court defined the meaning of "residence '' as any fixed location which the individual intends to inhabit regularly. This ruling encompassed all homeless, including those residing on streets and in parks.
Two California court rulings, Collier v. Menzel, and Walters v. Weed, also addressed the residency question of homeless voters:
Several locales retained restrictions for specialized local elections, such as for school boards, special districts, or bond issues. Property restrictions, duration of residency restrictions, and, for school boards, restrictions of the franchise to voters with children, remained in force. In a series of rulings from 1969 to 1973, the Court ruled that the franchise could be restricted in some cases to those "primarily interested '' or "primarily affected '' by the outcome of a specialized election, but not in the case of school boards or bond issues, which affected taxation to be paid by all residents. In Ball v. James 451 U.S. 335 (1981), the Court further upheld a system of plural voting, by which votes for the board of directors of a water reclamation district were allocated on the basis of a person 's proportion of land owned in the district.
The Court has overseen operation of political party primaries to ensure open voting. While states were permitted to require voters to register for a political party 30 days before an election, or to require them to vote in only one party primary, the state could not prevent a voter from voting in a party primary if the voter has voted in another party 's primary in the last 23 months. The Court also ruled that a state may not mandate a "closed primary '' system and bar independents from voting in a party 's primary against the wishes of the party. (Tashijan v. Republican Party of Connecticut 479 U.S. 208 (1986))
The Office of Hawaiian Affairs of the state of Hawaii, created in 1978, limited voting eligibility and candidate eligibility to native Hawaiians on whose behalf it manages 1,800,000 acres (7,300 km) of ceded land. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down the franchise restriction under the Fifteenth Amendment in Rice v. Cayetano 528 U.S. 495 (2000), following by eliminating the candidate restriction in Arakaki v. State of Hawai'i a few months later.
Citizens of the nation 's capital, Washington, D.C., have not been apportioned a representative or US senator in Congress. This is because D.C. is a federal district and not a state and under the Constitution, only states are apportioned congresspersons.
District of Columbia citizens had voting rights removed in 1801 by Congress, when Maryland delegated that portion of its land to Congress. Congress incrementally removed effective local control or home rule by 1871. It restored some home rule in 1971, but maintained the authority to override any local laws. Washington, D.C., does not have full representation in the U.S. House or Senate. The Twenty - third Amendment, restoring U.S. Presidential Election after a 164 - year - gap, is the only known limit to Congressional "exclusive legislature '' from Article I - 8 - 17, forcing Congress to enforce for the first time Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26. Amendment 23 gave the District of Columbia three electors and hence the right to vote for President, but not full U.S. Congresspersons nor U.S. Senators. In 1978, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment that would have restored to the District a full seat for representation in the Congress as well. This amendment failed to receive ratification by sufficient number of states within the seven years required.
As of 2013, a bill is pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for a member to represent them in the House of Representatives. The District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. was passed by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 2009, by a vote of 61 - 37.
On April 1, 1993, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States received a petition from Timothy Cooper on behalf of the Statehood Solidarity Committee (the "Petitioners '') against the government of the United States (the "State '' or "United States ''). The petition indicated that it was presented on behalf of the members of the Statehood Solidarity Committee and all other U.S. citizens resident in the District of Columbia. The petition alleged that the United States was responsible for violations of Articles II (right to equality before law) and XX (right to vote and to participate in government) of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man in connection with the inability of citizens of the District of Columbia to vote for and elect a representative to the U.S. Congress. On December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights having examined the information and arguments provided by the parties on the question of admissibility. Without prejudging the merits of the matter, the Commission decided to admit the present petition in respect of Articles II and XX of the American Declaration. In addition, the Commission concluded that the United States violates the Petitioners ' rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature.
U.S. citizens residing overseas who would otherwise have the right to vote are guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections by the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) of 1986. As a practical matter, individual states implement UOCAVA.
A citizen who has never resided in the United States can vote if a parent is eligible to vote in certain states. In some of these states the citizen can vote in local, state and federal elections, in others in federal elections only.
U.S. citizens and non-citizen nationals who reside in American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, or the United States Virgin Islands are not allowed to vote in U.S. national and presidential elections, as these U.S. territories belong to the United States but do not have presidential electors. The U.S. Constitution requires a voter to be resident in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia to vote in federal elections. To say that the Constitution does not require extension of federal voting rights to U.S. territories residents does not, however, exclude the possibility that the Constitution may permit their enfranchisement under another source of law. Statehood or a constitutional amendment would allow people in the U.S. territories to vote in federal elections.
Like the District of Columbia, territories of the United States do not have U.S. senators representing them in the senate, and they each have one member of the House of Representatives who is not allowed to vote.
Puerto Rico is an insular area -- a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Insular areas, such as Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, are not allowed to choose electors in U.S. presidential elections or elect voting members to the U.S. Congress. This grows out of Article I and Article II of the United States Constitution, which specifically mandate that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States ''. In 1961, the 23rd amendment to the constitution extended the right to choose electors to the District of Columbia.
Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico (whether a Puerto Rican or not) is effectively disenfranchised at the national level. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating in U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens not residing in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections.
Various scholars (including a prominent U.S. judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit) conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic due to U.S. government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
As of 2010, under Igartúa v. United States, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is judicially considered not to be self - executing, and therefore requires further legislative action to put it into effect domestically. Judge Kermit Lipez wrote in a concurring opinion, however, that the en banc majority 's conclusion that the ICCPR is non-self - executing is ripe for reconsideration in a new en banc proceeding, and that if issues highlighted in a partial dissent by Judge Juan R. Torruella were to be decided in favor of the plaintiffs, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights.
Congress has in fact acted in partial compliance with its obligations under the ICCPR when, in 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, it amended our fundamental charter to allow the United States citizens who reside in the District of Columbia to vote for the Executive offices. See U.S. Constitutional Amendment XXIII. 51. Indeed, a bill is now pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. See District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Congress (passed by the Senate, February 26, 2009) (2009). 52 However, the United States has not taken similar "steps '' with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the other U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. This inaction is in clear violation of the United States ' obligations under the ICCPR ".
Federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA, or "Motor - Voter Act '') and the Help America Vote Act of 2001 (HAVA) help to address some of the concerns of disabled and non-English speaking voters in the United States.
Some studies have shown that polling places are inaccessible to disabled voters. The Federal Election Commission reported that, in violation of state and federal laws, more than 20,000 polling places across the nation are inaccessible, depriving people with disabilities of their fundamental right to vote.
In 1999, the Attorney General of the State of New York ran a check of polling places around the state to see if they were accessible to voters with disabilities and found many problems. A study of three upstate counties of New York found fewer than 10 percent of polling places fully compliant with state and federal laws.
Many polling booths are set in church basements or in upstairs meeting halls where there are no ramps or elevators. This means problems not just for people who use wheelchairs, but for people using canes or walkers too. And in most states people who are blind do not have access to Braille ballot to vote; they have to bring someone along to vote for them. Studies have shown that people with disabilities are more interested in government and public affairs than most and are more eager to participate in the democratic process. Many election officials urge people with disabilities to vote absentee, however some disabled individuals see this as an inferior form of participation.
Voter turnout is lower among the disabled. In the 2012 United States presidential election 56.8 % of people with disabilities reported voting, compared to the 62.5 % of eligible citizens without disabilities.
Jurisprudence concerning candidacy rights and the rights of citizens to create a political party are less clear than voting rights. Different courts have reached different conclusions regarding what sort of restrictions, often in terms of ballot access, public debate inclusion, filing fees, and residency requirements, may be imposed.
In Williams v. Rhodes (1968), the United States Supreme Court struck down Ohio ballot access laws on First and Fourteenth Amendment grounds. However, it subsequently upheld such laws in several other cases. States can require an independent or minor party candidate to collect signatures as high as five percent of the total votes cast in a particular preceding election before the court will intervene.
The Supreme Court has also upheld a state ban on cross-party endorsements (also known as electoral fusion) and primary write - in votes.
More than 40 states or territories, including colonies before the Declaration of Independence, have at some time allowed noncitizens who satisfied residential requirements to vote in some or all elections. This in part reflected the strong continuing immigration to the United States. Some cities like Chicago, towns or villages (in Maryland) today allow noncitizen residents to vote in school or local elections. In 1875, the Supreme Court in Minor v. Happersett noted that "citizenship has not in all cases been made a condition precedent to the enjoyment of the right of suffrage. Thus, in Missouri, persons of foreign birth, who have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, may under certain circumstances vote ''. Federal law prohibits noncitizens from voting in federal elections.
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where will the next world baseball classic be held | World Baseball Classic - wikipedia
The World Baseball Classic (WBC) is an international baseball tournament sanctioned from 2006 to 2013 by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) and after 2013 by the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC). It was proposed to the IBAF by Major League Baseball (MLB), the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA), and other professional baseball leagues and their players associations around the world. It is the main baseball tournament sanctioned by the WBSC, which grants to the winner the title of "World Champion ''.
It previously coexisted with Olympic Baseball (until 2008) and the Baseball World Cup (until 2011) as IBAF -- sanctioned tournaments, but baseball has not been on the Olympic program since 2008, after it was voted out by the International Olympic Committee in 2005. The final men 's Baseball World Cup was held in 2011, and was discontinued to streamline the international calendar.
The tournament is the first of its kind to have the national teams of IBAF 's member federations feature professional players from the major leagues around the world including Major League Baseball. In addition to providing a format for the best baseball players in the world to compete against one another while representing their home countries, the World Baseball Classic was created in order to further promote the game around the globe.
After a 3 - year gap between the first two installments of the tournament, plans were made for the World Baseball Classic to be repeated every four years following the 2009 event. The third installment of the Classic was held in 2013, and the fourth was held in 2017.
Modeled after the FIFA World Cup and organized in large part as a response to the International Olympic Committee 's decision to remove baseball as an Olympic sport in 2005, the WBC has grown into a major sporting event worldwide, though to a lesser extent in the United States. In fact, the final series in 2006 and 2009 rank among the highest - rated sporting events in Japanese television history.
The 16 - team field for the inaugural 2006 tournament was pre-selected, featuring the countries judged to be the "best baseball - playing nations '' in the world; no qualifying competition was held. The tournament format featured round - robin group play in the first and second rounds, followed by single - elimination semifinals and finals. The first game in WBC history saw South Korea defeat Chinese Taipei 2 - 0 before a crowd of 5,193 at the Tokyo Dome on March 3, 2006. South Korea went on to advance to the semifinals with a 6 -- 0 record but lost to Japan (a team South Korea had beaten twice in the earlier rounds) for a berth in the final game. Meanwhile, Cuba defeated the Dominican Republic in the other semifinal. Japan then defeated Cuba 10 -- 6 to be crowned the first champion of the World Baseball Classic.
The 2009 tournament featured the same 16 teams as 2006, but the controversial round - robin format from 2006 was replaced by a modified double - elimination format for the first two rounds (the semifinals and final game remained single - elimination). The eight teams advancing from the first round were the same as in 2006, except for a "Cinderella '' performance by the Netherlands, which twice defeated the Dominican Republic to reach the second round. In the semifinals, South Korea defeated Venezuela while Japan defeated the United States. Japan then emerged victorious for the second straight Classic, winning the final game over South Korea 5 -- 3 in 10 innings.
The buildup to the 2013 tournament included a qualifying round for the first time, with the four lowest finishers from 2009 having to re-qualify against 12 additional teams. This resulted in two new nations making their first appearances in the WBC, as Brazil and Spain respectively replaced Panama and South Africa. The round - robin format was revived for the tournament 's first - round, while the second - round remained double - elimination. Italy was the biggest surprise in the early stages of the tournament, making it to the second round with wins over Canada and Mexico. The tournament ended in an all - Caribbean championship game, with the Dominican Republic defeating Puerto Rico, which had upset two - time champion Japan in the semifinals. The Dominican Republic also became the first (and to date, only) team to go undefeated (8 - 0) through the tournament.
The 2017 tournament returned to the format used in 2006, where both the first and second rounds were round - robin, though with the addition of tiebreaker games if needed. Colombia and Israel qualified for the first time, with Israel, using a roster mostly of Jewish American players, able to reach the second round in its WBC debut. Defending champion Dominican Republic extended its WBC winning streak to 11 games, dating to the 2013 tournament, before also being eliminated in the second round. The United States won its first WBC championship, defeating Japan and Puerto Rico in the semifinals and finals, respectively. Puerto Rico had been undefeated in the tournament before losing in the final, its second straight runner - up finish.
The first two iterations of the Classic featured the same 16 teams, chosen by invitation. A qualifying round was added leading into the 2013 tournament and takes place in the year before the WBC proper. The top 12 finishing teams from each WBC are automatically entered in the next edition, while the four lowest finishers (the teams that finish in last place in their first - round pools) are relegated to the qualifying round. Qualifying consists of four four - team modified double - elimination tournaments, with the winners earning the last four slots in the main tournament. The addition of qualifying has so far allowed four nations (Brazil, Colombia, Israel, and Spain) from outside the original 16 to compete in the WBC.
After the conclusion of each WBC championship game, players from the losing team receive silver medals, followed by the winners receiving gold medals. The third - place team receives bronze medals at a separate date. The WBC does not hold a third - place playoff, so the ranking of the third - and fourth - placed teams is determined by the WBSC.
A total of 20 nations have competed in the WBC proper, with 14 appearing in all four editions. Japan has been the most successful, as the only nation with multiple WBC titles (2006, 2009), the nation with the most wins in WBC play (23), and as the only nation to reach the championship round in all four WBCs. The Dominican Republic owns the best overall winning percentage in WBC games at. 750 (18 - 6 record), bolstered by its 8 - 0 mark en route to the 2013 title. A surprising first - round elimination in 2009 stands out as the Dominican 's only poor showing.
Along with Japan, three other nations have advanced to at least the second round in all four WBCs: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the United States. Despite having access to more MLB talent than any other nation, Team USA posted an underwhelming 10 - 10 overall record through the first three WBCs, with only one appearance in the semifinals. The Americans broke through in 2017, going 6 - 2 on their way to their first WBC title. Cuba lived up to its history of strong international play by reaching the finals of the inaugural WBC in 2006 before losing to Japan. However, subsequent Cuban teams have failed to make a significant mark on the tournament, making three straight second - round exits and going just 2 - 7 in second - round games since 2009. Meanwhile, Caribbean rival Puerto Rico made consecutive appearances in the WBC finals in 2013 and 2017, albeit losing both, and stood second to Japan for the most all - time WBC wins (20) after the 2017 tournament.
The Netherlands, South Korea, and Venezuela have been other countries to reach the championship round. Other teams to have reached the second round at least once are Chinese Taipei, Israel, Italy, and Mexico. Conversely, of the 14 teams to appear in all four tournaments, three have never made the second round: Australia, Canada, and China.
The most significant award for individual performance during the tournament is the Most Valuable Player Award. Whichever player wins it receives a trophy after the final. The inaugural winner of the award in 2006 was Japan 's Daisuke Matsuzaka, who pitched 13 innings and finished with a 3 -- 0 record. Soon after this performance, Matsuzaka received a multi -- million dollar contract to join the Boston Red Sox of America 's Major League Baseball. Again in the 2009 World Baseball Classic, Matsuzaka received the world classic MVP, finishing with a record of 3 -- 0 and an ERA of 2.54. In 2013, Robinson Canó won MVP after hitting. 469 with two home runs and six RBI over the course of the tournament. Toronto Blue Jays pitcher Marcus Stroman took home the award in 2017 for the United States. Stroman posted a 2.35 ERA over three starts and no - hit Puerto Rico through six innings in an 8 - 0 win in the Finals.
At the end of each edition of the World Baseball Classic, an all - star team is selected based on their play in the tournament. Three pitchers, eight other position players (one each at each position, including three outfielders), and a designated hitter are named to the team. In the four editions of the Classic thus far, players representing 10 different countries have been named to an All - WBC team, with Japan and Puerto Rico leading the way with nine representatives each.
All - time WBC individual leaders in various statistical categories through the end of the 2017 tournament, excluding qualifier games.
Batting
Pitching
The winning team of each World Baseball Classic is rewarded a large silver trophy as its primary recognition. The two trophies earned by Japan during the inaugural and second classics have been on display at the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame.
In addition to the standard rules of baseball, the World Baseball Classic employs the following additional rules:
A pitcher can not pitch more than:
A pitcher can still finish a batter 's plate appearance even if the limit is reached, but must come out after completing the plate appearance.
A pitcher can not pitch until:
Games are called if one team is ahead by:
Mercy rules do not apply during the championship round.
The designated hitter rule applies for all games.
Starting with the 11th inning, teams automatically start with runners on first and second base. These are the players in the two batting order positions previous to the leadoff batter for the inning.
During the first and second rounds, video review is available only for "boundary '' calls, such as determining whether a potential home run ball was fair or foul, did or did not clear the fence, or was interfered with by a fan. Such reviews can only be initiated by the umpires and can not be requested by the teams. For the championship round, video review is available for all situations it would be during a Major League Baseball regular season game.
Unlike regular season play, where the number of runs by which a team wins a game is not relevant, the number of runs by which a WBC team wins may be relevant if a tie later develops in the standings. This caused problems during the 2013 WBC, where one game spawned a bench - clearing brawl between the Canadian and Mexican teams (Canadian hitter Chris Robinson had bunted for a base hit after Canada had already taken a large lead, causing Mexican pitcher Arnold Leon to throw three consecutive pitches at the next hitter, Rene Tosoni).
A player is eligible to participate on a World Baseball Classic team if any one of the following criteria is met:
In 2006, many high caliber players from both Major League Baseball and in leagues around the world participated in the World Baseball Classic. Amongst the players that made the All -- WBC team were Americans Derek Jeter and Ken Griffey Jr. From Japan, Daisuke Matsuzaka, Ichiro Suzuki and Tomoya Satozaki were on the team. Other internationals included players from Cuba -- Yulieski Gourriel, Yoandy Garlobo and Yadel Martí; and from the Dominican Republic -- Albert Pujols, Pedro Martínez and José Bautista. The 2009 Classic saw a similarly high - profile field, with a number of players such as Hall of Famers Pedro Martínez, Iván Rodríguez and Chipper Jones and the major international debuts of Cuba 's Yoenis Céspedes and Aroldis Chapman.
For the 2013 tournament, many high - profile players decided not to participate, including key players from the 2009 Japanese team such as Yu Darvish, Ichiro, and Hisashi Iwakuma. However, other prominent players came, such as Miguel Cabrera, David Wright, R.A. Dickey, Joey Votto, Adrian Gonzalez, Robinson Canó, and José Reyes, among many others.
In 2017, former All - Stars such as Adam Jones, Chris Archer, Buster Posey, Paul Goldschmidt, Andrew McCutchen and others played for the United States. For the Dominican Republic, former All - Stars Adrián Beltré, Robinson Canó, Manny Machado, José Reyes, Edinson Vólquez, and more participated. Adrián González played once more for Mexico, and Yadier Molina and Carlos Beltrán represented Puerto Rico alongside up - and - coming stars such as Javier Báez, Carlos Correa, and Francisco Lindor. Venezuela 's roster included José Altuve and Miguel Cabrera.
The tournament was announced in May 2005 by Commissioner of Baseball Bud Selig. Major League Baseball had been attempting to create such a tournament for at least two years; negotiations with the players ' union (MLBPA) and with the team owners had held the plan back. Owners, notably New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, had been concerned about their star players being injured in international play before the beginning of spring training, and the professional season. This was a concern for the MLBPA as well, but their primary objection was with drug testing. MLB wanted the stricter Olympic standards in place for the tournament, while the union wanted current MLB standards in place. Eventually, a deal was reached on insurance for player contracts and a fairly tough drug testing standard. MLB teams would not be able to directly block their players from participating.
Similarly, Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) and its players ' association had a disagreement over participation in the tournament. While the owners initially agreed to the invitation, the players ' union was concerned about the time of year the tournament was scheduled to take place, as well as their right to be better represented for the 2009 tournament. On September 16, 2005, after four months of negotiations, NPB officially notified the IBAF and MLB they had accepted the invitation. In September 2012, after having threatened to boycott the event despite its domestic popularity, Japanese players agreed to take part after reaching a compromise with tournament organizers on sharing sponsorship and licensing revenue.
Though the first two World Baseball Classic finals were shown on ESPN in the United States, the entire 2013 tournament was shown exclusively on MLB Network domestically. MLB Network also had the television rights for the 2017 Classic. Also at the moment, ESPN Deportes provides Spanish - language coverage and ESPN Radio has audio rights for the Classic. Sportsnet is the current broadcaster in Canada while ESPN America covers the tournament for the United Kingdom, Ireland and other parts of Europe.
The first qualifier round of the 2017 World Baseball Classic aired in the United States and Puerto Rico on the MLB Network; and in Australia, New Zealand, and selected surrounding islands on ESPN.
Excluding qualifier games.
Unlike comparable tournaments the FIFA World Cup and FIBA Basketball World Cup where one country hosts the entire event, each WBC has used multiple hosts spread around different parts of the globe. Thus far, seven different nations have hosted at least one WBC pool, with each edition of the tournament featuring games played in Asia, Latin America, and the United States. The championship round is traditionally held at Major League Baseball stadiums in the US.
Host cities are listed with the number of WBC rounds they have hosted in parentheses. Each year is then listed along with the round hosted: 1st, 2nd, or Championship.
Tokyo, Japan (5): 2006 1, 2009 1, 2013 2, 2017 1, 2017 2 San Juan, Puerto Rico (4): 2006 1, 2006 2, 2009 1, 2013 1 San Diego, California, United States (3): 2006 C, 2009 2, 2017 2 Miami, Florida, United States (3): 2009 2, 2013 2, 2017 1 Los Angeles, California, United States (2): 2009 C, 2017 C Phoenix, Arizona, and Scottsdale, Arizona, United States (2): 2006 1, 2013 1 San Francisco, California, United States (1): 2013 C Anaheim, California, United States (1): 2006 2 Lake Buena Vista, Florida, United States (1): 2006 1 Mexico City, Mexico (1): 2009 1 Toronto, Ontario, Canada (1): 2009 1 Fukuoka, Japan (1): 2013 1 Taichung, Taiwan (1): 2013 1 Seoul, South Korea (1): 2017 1 Guadalajara, Mexico (1): 2017 1
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how many volumes of wonder woman new 52 | List of the New 52 publications - wikipedia
In September 2011, DC Comics relaunched their entire line of publications, dubbing the new publishing initiative as The New 52. The initiative consisted of a new imprint of titles, all labeled with "The New 52 '' logo, as well as creating a rebooted DC Universe post - "Flashpoint '' that saw characters from the former WildStorm and Vertigo imprints being absorbed into the main DC Comics line. The intent was to publish 52 ongoing titles each month across the DC Universe. However, DC has also counted one - shots, miniseries and maxiseries in that number.
In June 2015, following the conclusion of the Convergence miniseries, "The New 52 '' branding and imprint were discontinued, although the continuity continued to exist under a new initiative, "DC You ''. In February 2016, DC announced the Rebirth initiative, bringing an end to the New 52 beginning in June 2016. Gotham Academy: Second Semester was the final title to release from the New 52, with the final issue releasing in August 2017. An additional Earth - 2 title was announced to replace Earth - 2: Society, but release info has yet to be revealed.
DC released a total of 111 ongoing titles during The New 52. To expand The New 52 universe, DC has also released 34 one - shots, 32 miniseries and four maxiseries, with one ongoing series planned. One ongoing series was planned but did not release before Rebirth took effect in June 2016. Additionally, another ongoing series was planned but cancelled, with its concepts merged into another title.
The ongoing titles under The New 52 imprint were organized under seven different "families, '' grouping similar characters or themes within the books together. These families were: "Justice League ''; "Batman ''; "Superman ''; "Green Lantern ''; "Young Justice ''; "The Edge ''; and "The Dark ''. However, by the release of the October 2013 solicitations, DC was no longer grouping the titles by these families, instead releasing one larger solicit, titled "The New 52 Group ''.
From September 2011 until June 2015, DC released 93 ongoing titles under the imprint across multiple "wave '' releases, and to expand The New 52 universe, also released 21 one - shots, 17 miniseries and three maxiseries. DC used the "wave '' format of introducing new titles, which occasionally corresponded with titles being canceled, to "constantly refresh the line ''. Additionally, in subsequent Septembers following the launch, DC featured unique publishing initiatives to commemorate the relaunch.
In February 2015, it was revealed that after the Convergence miniseries in June 2015, DC would no longer use the "New 52 '' name to brand their books; however the continuity established in September 2011 would continue. Dan DiDio stated, "In this new era of storytelling, story will trump continuity as we continue to empower creators to tell the best stories ''. Jim Lee added, "Rather than having 52 books all in the same continuity, and really focusing on keeping a universe that 's tightly connected and has super-internal consistency, and really one flavor, we 've really broken it up. We 'll have a core line of about 25 books that will have that internal consistency, that will consist of our best - selling books. But then the rest of the line, about 24 titles, will be allowed to really shake things up a little bit. '' The new titles will "reinventing key characters, '' such as Black Canary, Cyborg, Bizarro, and Starfire, with a new "contemporary tonality to ensure a diverse offering of comic books. '' In the initial "relaunch '', 24 new publications joined 25 existing publications from before Convergence, with new titles continuing to be added. In March 2015, DiDio revealed there would not be an "overarching brand on this '' stating the relaunch was just "DC Comics, pure and simple. '' However, in May 2015, DC announced the advertising campaign "DC You '' for the relaunch, highlighting the four themes of characters, talent, stories and fans. The initiative, which began in DC 's print and digital comics on May 20, before transitioning to other digital content on June 3, was featured on print inserts and ads, as well as on the DC Comics website and across social media with a special hashtag.
In February 2016, DC Comics announced its Rebirth initiative, a line - wide relaunch of its titles to begin in June 2016. Along with a number of existing New 52 titles relaunching with new # 1s and the cancellation of others, DC planned to reintroduced many of the familiar concepts for characters, such as legacy, from the pre-Flashpoint continuity that had been lost with the New 52, by creating a new DC Universe that built "on everything that 's been published since Action Comics # 1 up thru The New 52. ''
Since the "relaunch '', DC has released an additional 18 ongoing series, as well as 15 miniseries, 13 one - shots, and one maxiseries, with one ongoing series planned. One ongoing series was planned but did not release before Rebirth took effect in June 2016. Additionally, another ongoing series was planned but cancelled, with its concepts merged into another title.
These titles were published before Convergence and continued their previous numbering, as opposed to being renumbered or relaunched in June 2015.
The final issue was originally solicited to release in August 2016, along with an annual. However, in June 2016, DC cancelled the remaining unreleased issues (issues 9 through 12, and the annual), telling retailers the issues would be "resolicited at a later date. '' The final issues were resolicted for release in August and September 2016, with the annual releasing in November 2016. After the resolict, DC once again cancelled issues 11, 12 and the annual in August 2016, with the series concluding with issue 10 in November 2016.
Mystik U, written by Alisa Kwitney with art from Mauricet, would have focused on a college for magic people, featuring Rose Psychic and Cain and Abel. Kwitney original stated the title would debut in October 2015, but it was not released before Rebirth took effect in June 2016. The title was eventually solicited in August 2017 for a November 2017 release as a "prestige - format limited series '' outside DC Rebirth continuity. The series now featured art from Mike Norton, and centered on Zatanna, Sebastian Faust, Enchantress, Pia Morales and Sargon the Sorceror.
Dark Universe was announced with the other new DC You titles, as a continuation of Justice League Dark, with James Tynion IV and Ming Doyle working on the title. However, in May 2015, Tynion revealed the book was no longer being developed, with Doyle and him "folding a lot of '' their ideas for the series into their Constantine: The Hellblazer run.
In May 2015, DC released eight - page original stories for free in the monthly titles of "Convergence '' as well as on DC 's website and other digital distributors such as comiXology. The stories provided a sampling of the new titles launching in June as a way to generate excitement for the titles and for readers to "get a chance to read these books, see the different styles of art, read the different types of stories, see how (DC) plan (s) to interpret (their) characters in a new way ''.
References
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who plays taylor on bold and the beautiful | Hunter Tylo - wikipedia
Hunter Tylo (born Deborah Jo Hunter, July 3, 1962) is an American actress, author and former model. She is best known for her role as Taylor Hayes (1990 -- 2002, 2004, 2005 -- 13, 2014, 2018 --) on The Bold and the Beautiful.
Tylo was born Deborah Jo Hunter in Fort Worth, Texas, the daughter of Jo Anne and Morris Jabez Hunter. She is of Cherokee Native American descent on her mother 's side. She has an older brother Jay, who passed away August 29, 2018, and a younger brother named Cliff. Tylo has been credited as Deborah Morehart; Morehart was the last name of her first husband.
In 1984, credited as Deborah Morehart, Tylo appeared in the sorority slasher film The Initiation with future Melrose Place actress Daphne Zuniga. Tylo subsequently became well known after playing regular roles in US daytime soap operas. Her television debut was on All My Children in 1985. She was fired from the role in 1988, on the grounds of having a relationship with another cast member, Michael Tylo (whom she married in 1987).
In 1989, she was cast as Marina Toscano on Days of Our Lives. The character was a rival who caused trouble for one of the soap 's most popular couples, Steven "Patch '' Johnson and Kayla Brady. Tylo later said, "Everyone hated my character. (...) I hated her. They (producers) said they were going to do something with her, but they never did. (...) I dreaded going to work for the last few weeks I was on the show. '' The character was killed off and Tylo left the series in 1990.
Discouraged by her lack of success on soap operas, Tylo decided to quit acting, and enrolled at Fordham University in the Bronx, New York, intending to be a pre-med student. As she and her husband were preparing to move to New York City, she was offered a role of Dr. Taylor Hayes on The Bold and the Beautiful. She initially resisted the part but eventually relented. She began her tenure in 1990, while still pursuing her degree at Fordham.
In 2000, Tylo released her autobiography, Making a Miracle. Tylo left The Bold and the Beautiful in 2002. She returned to the show in 2004 for a two - episode appearance as a vision. In May 2005, she returned as a series regular and left the series again in July 2013. In 2014 she returned to the show for a several weeks story arc.
In 1996, Tylo was cast in the primetime soap opera Melrose Place and opted to leave The Bold and the Beautiful to take the role. However, she was fired by Melrose Place producer Aaron Spelling prior to filming any episodes for the series, when she announced she was pregnant. The character she was to play, Taylor McBride, was recast, Lisa Rinna taking the role. Tylo quickly returned to The Bold and the Beautiful. Tylo sued Spelling on grounds of discrimination for being pregnant and won $4.8 million from a Los Angeles jury. Spelling argued that Tylo 's pregnancy rendered her unable to play the character, who was supposed to be a sexy seductress. During the trial, Tylo published pictures of herself while pregnant which showed that she retained a slim figure. Prior to trial, during the discovery phase of the litigation, Tylo 's lawyers won a partial victory in an interlocutory appeal challenging a lower court 's order compelling her to answer a broad range of personal questions. The Court of Appeal established Tylo 's right to refuse to answer questions in her deposition about marital problems and psychological treatment, although the Court sustained the portion of the order which compelled her to answer questions about her efforts to become pregnant, her husband 's ability or inability to impregnate her, and communications with her agent with respect to her efforts and ability to become pregnant. The case is widely recognized as an important one in establishing the right of privacy in deposition and the right of actresses to continue to work while pregnant.
Tylo has been married three times and has four children. She married her first husband, Tom Morehart, in 1980. They have a son, Christopher "Chris '' Morehart, and divorced in 1984.
In 1987, she married actor Michael Tylo, with whom she had daughters Izabella Gabrielle and Katya Ariel Tylo and son Michael Edward "Mickey '' Tylo, Jr. In 1998, the couple 's daughter Katya was diagnosed with a rare cancer of the eye called retinoblastoma. Doctors removed the affected right eye and began chemotherapy. Later in the year a tumor was detected in Katya 's other eye; that tumor inexplicably disappeared. Katya recovered and wears a prosthetic right eye. The couple divorced in 2005. On October 18, 2007, their son, Michael Tylo, Jr., drowned in the family pool in Henderson, Nevada. The Clark County Coroner concluded that Michael Tylo, Jr. 's death was caused by "drowning due to seizure disorder, '' and was ruled accidental.
In May 2008, Tylo filed a restraining order against boyfriend Corey Cofield, claiming that he had acted violently towards her and her children.
Shortly after the death of her mother, Joanne Hunter, on November 29, 2009, Tylo married Gersson Archila in a secret ceremony in Las Vegas, Nevada. The marriage was annulled on August 30, 2018 due to Court findings of Gersson being of poor moral character; 3 convicted counts of spousal abuse, auto theft, drug paraphernalia, misrepresentation by false identity, and hiding a criminal past.
Tylo is a born again Christian. She attributes her daughter Katya 's recovery from cancer to constant prayer and credits her faith for helping her deal with the death of her son, Michael.
Tylo has been listed twice on People magazine 's list of "50 Most Beautiful People In The World ''.
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who plays steve's mom on that 70s show | Katey Sagal - Wikipedia
Catherine Louise Sagal (born January 19, 1954) is an American actress and singer - songwriter. She is known for playing Peggy Bundy on Married... with Children, Leela on Futurama, and Cate Hennesy on 8 Simple Rules. In the latter role, Sagal worked with John Ritter until his death, leading to Sagal 's taking over as the series lead for the remainder of the show 's run. She is also widely known for her role as Gemma Teller Morrow on the FX series Sons of Anarchy, for which she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Television Series Drama in 2011.
Sagal was also a series regular on the CBS sitcom Superior Donuts.
Sagal was born in Los Angeles to a show business family with five children. Her father, Boris Sagal, was a Ukrainian - Jewish immigrant who worked as a director, and died in 1981 in an accident on the set of the miniseries World War III. Sagal 's mother, Sara Zwilling, was a singer (stage name Sara Macon) producer, and television writer who died of heart disease in 1975; After Sara died, Sagal 's father married dancer / actress Marge Champion, in 1977. Three of Sagal 's four siblings are actors: her younger twin sisters, Jean and Liz Sagal and brother Joe Sagal; her other brother David Sagal is an attorney married to actress McNally Sagal. Sagal and her siblings grew up in Brentwood, Los Angeles. Her godfather is prominent sitcom producer and writer Norman Lear. In 2016 both Katey and Norman acknowledged that she was not only his goddaughter, but that he also introduced her parents to each other. Sagal has described herself as "culturally Jewish '' but with no "formal religious experience. ''
Sagal attended California Institute of the Arts to study singing and acting; she began her acting career in Hollywood, appearing in several made - for - TV movies between 1971 and 1975. One role was as a receptionist in the Columbo installment "Candidate for Crime, '' which was directed by her father. Sagal 's first major role was as a newspaper columnist in the series Mary (1985 -- 86) starring Mary Tyler Moore. This led to her being cast as Peggy Bundy on the sitcom Married... with Children (1987 -- 1997); she portrayed the lower - class, sex - starved, lazy and free - spending wife of shoe salesman Al Bundy. The series ran for eleven years. Sagal brought her own red bouffant wig to audition for the role, and with the producers ' approval, the look transitioned into the show.
After the end of Married... with Children, several more television films followed; Sagal also guest starred on the children 's cartoon Recess as the voice of Spinelli 's mother. In 1998, Matt Groening chose her to provide the character voice of the purple - haired mutant spaceship captain, Leela, in his science - fiction animated comedy Futurama. The show developed a cult following, but was cancelled after four seasons. However, syndication on Adult Swim and Comedy Central increased the show 's popularity and led Comedy Central to commission a season of Futurama direct - to - DVD films, which the network later retransmitted as a 16 - episode fifth season. She reprised her role as Leela in these films, and in the sixth season that began airing June 24, 2010. The series ended in 2013. Sagal guest - starred as Edna Hyde, Steven Hyde 's mother, in three episodes of That ' 70s Show. She starred in the short - lived NBC sitcom Tucker in 2000.
Sagal was cast as the wife of John Ritter in the sitcom 8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage Daughter in 2002. Ritter had completed only three episodes of the second season before his death, and the show was cancelled in 2005 after its third season.
In 2005 and 2006, Sagal made two appearances on Lost as Helen Norwood. In 2007, she had a role in the season finale of The Winner as Glen Abbot 's former teacher, with whom Glen has his first sexual experience.
From 2008 to 2014, Sagal starred as Gemma Teller Morrow on the TV show Sons of Anarchy, whose creator, Kurt Sutter, she had married in 2004, four years before the series premiered. In January 2009, Sagal reunited with David Faustino (who had played her son Bud Bundy in Married... with Children) for an episode of Faustino 's show Star - ving. In 2010, she appeared twice more on Lost. In 2009, she starred in the film House Broken with Danny DeVito. In 2010, she returned to the stage in Randy Newman 's musical Harps & Angels.
In 2013, Sagal had a cameo on Glee as Nancy Abrams, Artie Abrams ' mother. She co-starred in Pitch Perfect 2, released in 2015, as the mother of Hailee Steinfeld 's character. She next appeared in the biography drama film Bleed for This, as the mother of Vinny Pazienza.
On September 9, 2014, Sagal received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame; most of the Married... with Children cast -- including Ed O'Neill, Christina Applegate, and David Faustino -- were present to celebrate the actor 's recognition.
On September 20, 2016, Sagal appeared on The Big Bang Theory as Susan, the mother of Penny (Kaley Cuoco). She had previously played the mother of Cuoco 's character on 8 Simple Rules.
Sagal was also a series regular on the CBS sitcom Superior Donuts.
Sagal started her career in show business as a singer and songwriter. In 1973, she worked as a backing vocalist for various singers, including Bob Dylan and Tanya Tucker. In 1976, while a member of The Group With No Name, she contributed to the album Moon over Brooklyn (on which she was credited as "Katie Sagal ''). She was a member of Bette Midler 's backup group The Harlettes in 1978, and again from 1982 -- 83. She performed backing vocals on the self - titled Gene Simmons solo album, the Molly Hatchet album Take No Prisoners, and on Olivia Newton - John 's 1985 single "Soul Kiss. '' She performed the song "It 's the Time for Love '' that appears in the movie Silent Rage featuring Chuck Norris. Sagal also provided the vocals for "Loose Cannons, '' the theme song for the 1990 movie of the same name featuring Gene Hackman and Dan Aykroyd.
On April 19, 1994, Sagal released her first solo album, Well... On June 1, 2004, she released her second album, Room. She has also contributed to the Sons of Anarchy soundtrack.
In June 2016, the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Sagal and others told the stories of the people killed there.
Sagal was married to musician Freddie Beckmeier, from 1978 to 1981, and drummer Jack White, from 1993 to 2000. She married writer - producer Kurt Sutter in a private ceremony on October 2, 2004, at their home in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Los Feliz. They have a daughter, Esmé Louise, born in 2007 through a surrogate mother.
In 1991, while working on Married... with Children, Sagal learned that she was pregnant. This was unexpected, so the pregnancy was written into the storyline of the show. In October 1991, however, she had to have an emergency caesarean section in her seventh month of pregnancy, ending in the stillbirth of a daughter. The pregnancy on the show was then treated as a "dream sequence, '' which was mentioned only briefly at the end of the episode "Al Bundy, Shoe Dick. '' Sagal and White eventually had two children -- a daughter, Sarah Grace, in 1994, and a son, Jackson James, in 1996. The writers of Married... with Children deliberately did not write Sagal 's two later pregnancies into the show due to the earlier stillbirth, opting instead to write off her absences in a subplot in which Peg is traveling the world to reunite her redneck parents. In scenes where Peg was shown, Sagal had her midsection obscured, such as in a taxicab or at a craps table in Las Vegas, and was often seen or heard talking to family members over the phone.
One after effect of Sagal 's having lost her stillborn daughter was that it inspired her to write the lyrics for "(You) Ca n't Hurry the Harvest. '' She recorded this song on her second album, Well..., which was released in April 1994.
Top Soundtracks -- 23
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when's the last time the astros won a world series | Houston Astros - wikipedia
The Houston Astros are an American professional baseball team based in Houston, Texas. The Astros compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) West division, having moved to the division in 2013 after spending their first 51 seasons in the National League (NL). The Astros have played their home games at Minute Maid Park since 2000.
The Astros were established as the Houston Colt. 45s and entered the National League as an expansion team in 1962 along with the New York Mets. The current name -- reflecting Houston 's role as the control center of the U.S. space program -- was adopted three years later, when they moved into the Astrodome, the world 's first domed sports stadium.
The Astros played in the NL from 1962 to 2012. They played in the West Division from 1969 to 1993, and the Central Division from 1994 to 2012. While a member of the NL, the Astros played in one World Series, in 2005, against the Chicago White Sox, in which they were swept in four games. In 2017, they became the first franchise in MLB history to have won a pennant in both the NL and the AL, when they defeated the New York Yankees in the ALCS. They subsequently won the 2017 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, winning four games to three, earning the team, and Texas, its first World Series title.
From 1888 until 1961, Houston 's professional baseball club was the minor league Houston Buffaloes. Although expansion from the National League eventually brought an MLB team to Texas in 1962, Houston officials had been making efforts to do so for years prior. There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: George Kirksey and Craig Cullinan, who had led a futile attempt to purchase the St. Louis Cardinals in 1952; R.E. "Bob '' Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who was brought in for his financial resources; and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a former Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge who was recruited for his salesmanship and political style. They formed the Houston Sports Association as their vehicle for attaining a big league franchise for the city of Houston.
Given MLB 's refusal to consider expansion, Kirksey, Cullinan, Smith, and Hofheinz joined forces with would - be owners from other cities and announced the formation of a new league to compete with the established National and American Leagues. They called the new league the Continental League. Wanting to protect potential new markets, both existing leagues chose to expand from eight teams to ten. However, plans eventually fell through for the Houston franchise after the Houston Buffaloes owner, Marty Marion, could not come to an agreement with the HSA to sell the team. To make matters worse, the Continental League as a whole folded in August 1960.
However, on October 17, 1960, the National League granted an expansion franchise to the Houston Sports Association in which their team could begin play in the 1962 season. According to the Major League Baseball Constitution, the Houston Sports Association was required to obtain territorial rights from the Houston Buffaloes in order to play in the Houston area, and again negotiations began to purchase the team. Eventually, the Houston Sports Association succeeded in purchasing the Houston Buffaloes, at this point majority - owned by William Hopkins, on January 17, 1961. The Buffs played one last minor league season as the top farm team of the Chicago Cubs in 1961 before being succeeded by the city 's NL club.
The new Houston team was named the Colt. 45s after a "Name The Team '' contest was won by William Irving Neder. The Colt. 45 was well known as "the gun that won the west. '' The colors selected were navy blue and orange. The first team was formed mostly through an expansion draft after the 1961 season. The Colt. 45s and their expansion cousins, the New York Mets, took turns choosing players left unprotected by the other National League franchises.
Many of those associated with the Houston Buffaloes organization were allowed by the ownership to continue in the major league. Manager Harry Craft, who had joined Houston in 1961, remained in the same position for the team until the end of the 1964 season. General manager Spec Richardson also continued with the organization as business manager, but was later promoted again to the same position with the Astros from 1967 until 1975. Although most players for the major league franchise were obtained through the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Buffs players J.C. Hartman, Pidge Browne, Jim Campbell, Ron Davis, Dave Giusti, and Dave Roberts were chosen to continue as major league ball players.
Similarly, the radio broadcasting team remained with the new Houston major league franchise. Loel Passe worked alongside Gene Elston as a color commentator until he retired from broadcasting in 1976. Elston continued with the Astros until 1986.
The Colt. 45s began their existence playing at Colt Stadium, a temporary venue built just north of the construction site of the indoor stadium.
The Colt. 45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962, against the Chicago Cubs with Harry Craft as the Colt. 45s ' manager. Bob Aspromonte scored the first run for the Colt. 45s on an Al Spangler triple in the first inning. They started the season with a three - game sweep of the Cubs but eventually finished eighth among the National League 's ten teams. The team 's best pitcher, Richard "Turk '' Farrell, lost 20 games despite an ERA of 3.02. A starter for the Colt. 45s, Farrell was primarily a relief pitcher prior to playing for Houston. He was selected to both All - Star Games in 1962.
The 1963 season saw more young talent mixed with seasoned veterans. Jimmy Wynn, Rusty Staub, and Joe Morgan all made their major league debuts in the 1963 season. However, Houston 's position in the standings did not improve. In fact, the Colt. 45s finished in ninth place with a 66 -- 96 record. The team was still building, trying to find that perfect mix to compete. The 1964 campaign began on a sad note, as relief pitcher Jim Umbricht died of cancer at the age of 33 on April 8, just before Opening Day. Umbricht was the only Colt. 45s pitcher to post a winning record in Houston 's first two seasons. He was so well liked by players and fans that the team retired his jersey number, 32, in 1965.
Just on the horizon, the structure of the new domed stadium was more prevalent and it would soon change the way that baseball was watched in Houston and around the league. On December 1, 1964, the team announced the name change from Colt. 45s to "Astros. ''
With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and the new venue complete, the renamed "Astros '' moved into their new domed stadium, the Astrodome, in 1965. The name honored Houston 's position as the center of the nation 's space program; NASA 's new Manned Spacecraft Center had recently opened southeast of the city. The Astrodome, coined the "Eighth Wonder of the World '', did little to improve the home team 's results on the field. While several "indoor '' firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings. The attendance was high not because of the team accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome.
Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again -- the field. Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted to reduce the glare that was causing players on both the Astros and the visiting teams to miss routine pop flies. A new artificial turf was created called "AstroTurf '' and Houston would be involved in yet another change in the way the game was played.
With new manager Grady Hatton the Astros started the 1966 season strong. By May they were in second place in the National League and looked like a team that could contend. Joe Morgan was named as a starter on the All - Star Team. The success did not last as they lost Jimmy Wynn for the season after he crashed into an outfield fence in Philadelphia and Morgan had broken his knee cap. 1967 saw first baseman Eddie Mathews join the Astros. The slugger hit his 500th home run while in Houston. He would be traded late in the season and Doug Rader would be promoted to the big leagues. Rookie Don Wilson pitched a no - hitter on June 18. Wynn also provided some enthusiasm in 1967. The 5 ft 9 in Wynn was becoming known not only for how often he hit home runs, but also for how far he hit them. Wynn set club records with 37 home runs, and 107 RBIs. It was also in 1967 that Wynn hit his famous home run onto Interstate 75 in Cincinnati. As the season came to a close, the Astros found themselves again in ninth place and with a winning percentage below. 500. The team looked good on paper, but could not make it work on the field.
April 15, 1968 saw a pitching duel for the ages. The Astros ' Don Wilson and the Mets ' Tom Seaver faced each other in a pitching duel that lasted six hours. Seaver went ten innings, allowing no walks and just two hits. Wilson went nine innings, allowing five hits and three walks. After the starters exited, eleven relievers (seven for the Mets and four for the Astros) tried to end the game. The game finally ended in the 24th inning when Aspromonte hit a shot toward Mets shortstop Al Weis. Weis had been perfect all night at short, but he was not quick enough to make the play. The ball zipped into left field, allowing Norm Miller to score.
With baseball expansion and trades, the Astros had dramatically changed in 1969. Aspromonte was sent to the Braves and Staub was traded to the expansion Montreal Expos, in exchange for outfielder Jesús Alou and first baseman Donn Clendenon. However, Clendenon refused to report to Houston, electing to retire and take job with a pen manufacturing company. The Astros asked Commissioner Bowie Kuhn to void the trade, but he refused. Instead, he awarded Jack Billingham and a left - handed relief pitcher to the Astros to complete the trade. Cuellar was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for Curt Blefary. Other new players included catcher Johnny Edwards, infielder Denis Menke, and pitcher Denny Lemaster. Wilson continued to pitch brilliantly and on May 1 threw the second no - hitter of his career. In that game, he struck out 18 batters, tying what was then the all - time single - game mark. He was just 24 years of age and was second to only Sandy Koufax for career no - hit wins. Wilson 's no - hitter lit the Astros ' fire after a miserable month of April, and six days later the team tied a major league record by turning seven double plays in a game. By May 's end the Astros had put together a ten - game winning streak. The Houston infield tandem of Menke and Joe Morgan continued to improve, providing power at the plate and great defense. Morgan had 15 homers and stole 49 bases while Menke led the Astros with 90 RBIs. The Menke / Morgan punch was beginning to come alive, and the team was responding to Walker 's management style. The Astros dominated the season series against their expansion twins, the New York Mets, that season. In one game at New York, Denis Menke and Jimmy Wynn hit grand slams in the same inning, against a Mets team that would go on to win the World Series that same year. The Astros finished the 1969 season with a record of 81 wins, 81 losses, marking their first season of. 500 ball.
In 1970, the Astros were expected to be a serious threat in the National League West. In June, 19 - year - old César Cedeño was called up and immediately showed signs of being a superstar. The Dominican outfielder batted. 310 after being called up. Not to be outdone, Denis Menke batted. 304 and Jesús Alou batted. 306. The Astros ' batting average was up by 19 points compared to the season before. The team looked good, but the Astros ' ERA was up. Larry Dierker and Don Wilson had winning records, but the pitching staff as a whole had an off season. Houston finished in fourth place in 1970.
The fashion trends of the 1970s had started taking root in baseball. Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on team uniforms, including the Astros '. In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors. What was navy blue was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue. The players ' last names were added to the back of the jerseys. In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry -- polyester. Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands, and jerseys zipped up instead of having buttons. The uniforms became popular with fans, but would last only until 1975, when the Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world.
The uniforms were about the only thing that did change in 1971. The acquisition of Roger Metzger from the Chicago Cubs in the off - season moved Menke to first base and Bob Watson to the outfield. The Astros got off to a slow start and the pitching and hitting averages were down. Larry Dierker was selected to the All - Star game in 1971, but due to an arm injury he could not make it. César Cedeño led the club with 81 RBIs and the league with 40 doubles, but batted just. 264 and had 102 strikeouts in his second season with the Astros. Pitcher J.R. Richard made his debut in September of the 1971 season against the Giants.
In November 1971 the Astros and Cincinnati Reds made one of the biggest blockbuster trades in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal. Houston sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, outfielder César Gerónimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jimmy Stewart. The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why General Manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little. The Reds, on the other hand, would shore up many problems. They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1972.
The Astros ' acquisition of Lee May added more power to the lineup in 1972. May, Wynn, Rader and Cedeño all had 20 or more home runs and Watson hit 16. Cedeño also led the Astros with a. 320 batting average, 55 stolen bases and made spectacular plays on the field. Cedeño made his first All - Star game in 1972 and became the first Astros player in team history to hit for the cycle in August versus the Reds. The Astros finished the strike - shortened season at 84 - 69, their first winning season.
Astros fans had hoped for more of the same in 1973, but it was not to be. The Astros run production was down, even though the same five sluggers the year before were still punching the ball out of the park. Lee May led the Astros with 28 home runs and Cesar Cedeño batted. 320 with 25 home runs. Bob Watson hit the. 312 mark and drove in 94 runs. Doug Rader and Jimmy Wynn both had 20 or more home runs. However, injuries to their pitching staff limited the Astros to an 82 -- 80 fourth - place finish. The Astros again finished in fourth place the next year under new manager Preston Gómez.
With the $38 million deficit of the Astrodome, control of the Astrodomain was passed from Judge Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit. This included the Astros. The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team, so any money spent had to be found or saved somewhere else. Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to find a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money. However, there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future.
The year started on a sad note. Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975. Cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide. Wilson was 29 years old. Wilson 's number 40 was retired on April 13, 1975.
The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros ' new uniforms. Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception. The uniforms had multishade stripes of orange, red and yellow in front and in back behind a large dark blue star over the midsection. The same stripes ran down the pant legs. Players numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg. The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens. The uniforms were panned by critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level. The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980.
Besides the bright new uniforms there were some other changes. Lee May was traded to Baltimore for much talked about rookie second baseman Rob Andrews and utility player Enos Cabell. In Baltimore, Cabell was stuck behind third baseman Brooks Robinson, but he took advantage of his opportunity in Houston and became their everyday third baseman. Cabell would go on to become a big part of the team 's success in later years. With May gone, Bob Watson was able to move to first base and was a bright spot in the line up, batting. 324 with 85 RBI.
The two biggest moves the Astros made in the offseason were the acquisitions of Joe Niekro and José Cruz. The Astros bought Niekro from the Braves for almost nothing. Niekro had bounced around the big leagues with minimal success. His older brother Phil Niekro had started teaching Joe how to throw his knuckleball and Joe was just starting to use it when he came to the Astros. Niekro won six games, saved four games and had an ERA of 3.07. José Cruz was also a steal, in retrospect, from the Cardinals. Cruz became a fixture in the Astros ' outfield for several years and would eventually have his number 25 retired.
Despite high expectations, 1975 was among the Astros ' worst in franchise history. Their record of 64 -- 97 was far worse than even the expansion Colt. 45 's and would remain the worst record in franchise history until 2011. It was the worst record in baseball and manager Preston Gómez was fired late in the season and replaced by Bill Virdon. The Astros played. 500 ball under Virdon in the last 34 games of the season. With Virdon as the manager the Astros improved greatly in 1976 finishing in third place with an 80 -- 82 record. A healthy César Cedeño was a key reason for the Astros ' success in 1976. Bob Watson continued to show consistency and led the club with a. 313 average and 102 RBI. José Cruz became Houston 's everyday left fielder and hit. 303 with 28 stolen bases. 1976 saw the end of Larry Dierker 's playing career as an Astro, but before it was all over he would throw a no - hitter and win the 1,000 th game in the Astrodome. The Astros finished in third place again in 1977 with a record of 81 -- 81.
One of the big problems the Astros had in the late 1970s was that they were unable to compete in the free agent market. Ford Motor Credit Company was still in control of the team and was looking to sell the Astros, but they were not going to spend money on better players. Most of the talent was either farm grown or bought on the cheap.
The 1979 season would prove to be a big turnaround in Astros history. During the offseason, the Astros made an effort to fix some of their problem areas. They traded Floyd Bannister to Seattle for shortstop Craig Reynolds and acquired catcher Alan Ashby from Toronto for pitcher Mark Lemongello. Reynolds and Ashby were both solid in their positions and gave Houston some much needed consistency. The season started with a boost from pitcher Ken Forsch, who threw a no - hitter the Braves the second game of the season. In May 1979, New Jersey shipping tycoon Dr. John McMullen had agreed to buy the Astros. Now with an investor in charge, the Astros would be more likely to compete in the free agent market.
The Astros were playing great baseball throughout the season. José Cruz and Enos Cabell both stole 30 bases. Joe Niekro had a great year with 21 wins and 3.00 ERA. J.R. Richard won 18 games and set a new personal strikeout record at 313. Joe Sambito came into his own with 22 saves as the Astros closer. Things were going as they should for a team that could win the west. The Astros and Reds battled the final month of the season. The Reds pulled ahead of the Astros by a game and a half. Later that month they split a pair and the Reds kept the lead. That would be how it would end. The Astros finished with their best record to that point at 89 -- 73 and 11⁄2 games behind the NL winner Reds.
With Dr. McMullen as sole owner of the Astros, the team would now benefit in ways a corporation could not give them. The rumors of the Astros moving out of Houston started to crumble and the Astros were now able to compete in the free - agent market. McMullen showed the city of Houston that he too wanted a winning team, signing nearby Alvin, Texas native Nolan Ryan to the first million - dollar - a-year deal. Ryan had four career no - hitters already and had struck out 383 in one season.
Joe Morgan returned in 1980. Now back in Houston with two MVP awards and two World Series rings, Morgan wanted to help make the Astros a pennant winner.
The 1980 pitching staff was one of the best Houston ever had, with the fastball of Ryan, the knuckleball of Joe Niekro and the terrifying 6 ft 8 in frame of J.R. Richard. Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch, who was a double - digit winner in the previous two seasons. Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All - Star game. After a medical examination three days later, Richard was told to rest his arm and he collapsed during a July 30 workout. He had suffered a stroke after a blood clot in the arm apparently moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain. Surgery was done to save his life, but the Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10 -- 4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA. Richard attempted a comeback, but would never again pitch a big league game.
After the loss of Richard and some offensive struggles, the Astros slipped to third place in the division behind the Dodgers and the Reds. They bounced back to first with a ten - game winning streak, but the Dodgers had regained a two - game lead when they arrived in Houston on September 9. The Astros won the first two games of that series and the two teams were tied for the division lead. The Astros held a three - game lead over the Dodgers with three games left in the season against the Dodgers. The Dodgers swept the series games, forcing a one - game playoff the next day. The Astros would however win the one - game playoff 7 - 1, and advance to their first post-season.
The team would face the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1980 National League Championship Series. The Phillies sent out Steve Carlton in game one of the NLCS after a six - hour flight the night before. The Phillies would win the opener after the Astros got out to a 1 - 0 third - inning lead. Ken Forsch pitched particularly strong fourth and fifth innings, but Greg Luzinski hit a sixth - inning two - run bomb to the 300 level seats of Veterans Stadium. The Phillies added an insurance run on the way to a 3 -- 1 win. Houston bounced back to win games two and three. Game four went into extra innings, with the Phillies taking the lead and the win in the tenth inning. Pete Rose started a rally with a one - out single, then Luzinski doubled off the left field wall and Rose bowled over catcher Bruce Bochy to score the go - ahead run. The Phillies got an insurance run on the way to tying the series.
Rookie Phillies pitcher Marty Bystrom was sent out by Philadelphia manager Dallas Green to face veteran Nolan Ryan in Game Five. The rookie gave up a run in the first inning, then held the Astros at bay until the sixth inning. An Astros lead was lost when Bob Boone hit a two - out single in the second, but the Astros tied the game in the sixth with an Alan Ashby single scoring Denny Walling. Houston took a 5 -- 2 lead in the seventh, however the Phillies came back with five runs in the inning. The Astros came back against Tug McGraw with four singles and two two - out runs. Now in extra innings, Garry Maddox doubled in Del Unser with one out to give the Phillies an 8 -- 7 lead. The Astros failed to score in the bottom of the tenth.
A 1981 player strike ran between June 12 and August 10. Ultimately, the strike would help the Astros get into the playoffs. Nolan Ryan and Bob Knepper picked up steam in the second half of the season. Ryan threw his fifth no - hitter on September 26 and finished the season with a 1.69 ERA. Knepper finished with an ERA of 2.18. In the wake of the strike, Major League Baseball took the winners of each "half '' season and set up a best - of - five divisional playoff. The Reds won more games than any other team in the National League, but they won neither half of the strike - divided season. The Astros finished 61 -- 49 overall, which would have been third in the division behind the Reds and the Dodgers. Advancing to the playoffs as winners of the second half, Houston beat Los Angeles in their first two playoff games at home, but the Dodgers took the next three in Los Angeles to advance to the NLCS.
By 1982, only four players and three starting pitchers remained from the 1980 squad. The Astros were out of pennant contention by August and began rebuilding for the near future. Bill Virdon was fired as manager and replaced by original Colt. 45 Bob Lillis. Don Sutton asked to be traded and was sent to the Milwaukee Brewers for cash and the team gained three new prospects, including Kevin Bass. Minor league player Bill Doran was called up in September. Bass also got a look in the outfield. The Astros finished fourth in the west, but new talent was starting to appear.
Before the 1983 season, the Astros traded Danny Heep to the Mets for pitcher Mike Scott, a 28 - year - old who had struggled with New York. Art Howe sat out the 1983 season with an injury, forcing Phil Garner to third and Ray Knight to first. Doran took over at second, becoming the everyday second baseman for the next seven seasons. The Astros finished third in the National League West. The 1984 season started off badly when shortstop Dickie Thon was hit in the head by a pitch and was lost for the season. In September, the Astros called up rookie Glenn Davis after he posted impressive numbers in AAA. The Astros finished in second place. In 1985, Mike Scott learned a new pitch, the split - finger fastball. Scott, who was coming off of a 5 -- 11 season, had found his new pitch and would become one of Houston 's most celebrated hurlers. In June, Davis made the starting lineup at first base, adding power to the team. In September, Joe Niekro was traded to the Yankees for two minor league pitchers and lefty Jim Deshaies. The Astros finished in fourth place in 1985.
After finishing fourth in 1985, the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis. The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West title. The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manager mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, had a hard - nosed approach to managing and espoused a playing style that focused on pitching, defense, and speed rather than home runs to win games. This style of baseball, known as Whiteyball, took advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome. Lanier 's style of baseball took Houston by storm. Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston 's occasional slow starts, but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot start, winning 13 of their first 19 contests.
Prior to the start of the season the Astros acquired outfielder Billy Hatcher from the Cubs for Jerry Mumphrey. Lainer also made a change in the pitching staff, going with a three - man rotation to start the season. This allowed Lanier to keep his three starters (Nolan Ryan, Bob Knepper, and Mike Scott) sharp and to slowly work in rookie hurler Jim Deshaies. Bill Doran and Glenn Davis held down the right side of the field but Lainer rotated the left side. Denny Walling and Craig Reynolds faced the right - handed pitchers while Phil Garner and Dickie Thon batted against left - handers. Lainer knew the Astros had talent and he put it to work.
The Astrodome was host to the 1986 All - Star Game in which Astros Mike Scott, Kevin Bass, Glenn Davis, and Dave Smith represented the host field. The Astros kept pace with the NL West after the All - Star break. They went on a streak of five straight come - from - behind wins. Houston swept a key 3 - game series over the San Francisco Giants in late September to clinch the division title. Mike Scott took the mound in the final game of the series and pitched a no - hitter -- the only time in MLB history that any division was clinched via a no - hitter. Scott would finish the season with an 18 -- 10 record and a Cy Young Award.
The 1986 National League Championship Series against the New York Mets was noted for great drama and is considered one of the best postseason series ever. In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium, 5 -- 4, in the bottom of the 9th when closer Dave Smith gave up a two - run home run to Lenny Dykstra, giving the Mets a dramatic 6 -- 5 win.
However, the signature game of the series was Game 6. Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3 -- 0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning. In the 9th, starting pitcher Bob Knepper would give up two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out. However, Smith would walk Gary Carter and Darryl Strawberry, giving up a sacrifice fly to Ray Knight, tying the game. Despite having the go - ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.
There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a Wally Backman single and an error by left fielder Billy Hatcher. The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th when Hatcher (in a classic goat - to - hero - conversion - moment) hit one of the most dramatic home runs in NLCS history, off the left field foul pole. In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at - bat. The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7 -- 4 lead. With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7 -- 6. Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however Jesse Orosco would strike him out, ending the game. At the time the 16 - inning game held the record for the longest in MLB postseason history. The Mets won the series, 4 - 2.
After the 1986 season, the team had difficulty finding success again. Several changes occurred. The "rainbow '' uniforms were phased out, the team electing to keep a five - stripe "rainbow '' design on the sleeves. From 1987 to 1993, the Astros wore the same uniform for both home and away games; the only team in Major League Baseball to do so during that period. Its favorites Nolan Ryan and José Cruz moved on and the team entered a rebuilding phase. Craig Biggio debuted in June 1988, joining new prospects Ken Caminiti and Gerald Young. Biggio would become the everyday catcher by 1990. A trade acquiring Jeff Bagwell in exchange for Larry Andersen would become one of the biggest deals in Astros history. Glenn Davis was traded to Baltimore for Curt Schilling, Pete Harnisch and Steve Finley in 1990.1990 -- 1999: Fine tuning
The early 1990s were marked by the Astros ' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the NFL 's Houston Oilers (who shared the Astrodome with the Astros since the 1960s), the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the 1991 off - season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area. However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston. Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the NHL 's New Jersey Devils) sold the team to Texas businessman Drayton McLane in 1993, who committed to keeping the team in Houston.
Shortly after McLane 's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success. After finishing second in their division in 1994 (in a strike year), 1995, and 1996, the Astros won consecutive division titles in 1997, 1998, and 1999. In the 1998 season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories. However, each of these titles was followed by a first - round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the San Diego Padres and in 1997 and 1999 against the Atlanta Braves. The manager of these title teams was Larry Dierker, who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros. During this period, Bagwell, Biggio, Derek Bell, and Sean Berry earned the collective nickname "The Killer Bs ''. In later seasons, the name came to include other Astros, especially Lance Berkman.
Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the 1993 season in order to go for a new, more serious image. The team 's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team 's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold. The "Astros '' font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team 's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, "flying '' star with an open left end. It marked the first time since the team 's inception that orange was not part of the team 's colors. Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired (and looked too much like a minor league team according to the new owners), the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with many Astros fans.
Off the field, in 1994, the Astros hired one of the first African American general managers, former franchise player Bob Watson. Watson would leave the Astros after the 1995 season to become general manager of the New York Yankees and helped to lead the Yankees to a World Championship in 1996. He would be replaced by Gerry Hunsicker, who until 2004 would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the Major Leagues.
However, in 1996, the Astros again nearly left Houston. By the mid-1990s, McLane (like McMullen before him) wanted his team out of the Astrodome and was asking the city to build the Astros a new stadium. When things did not progress quickly toward that end, he put the team up for sale. He had nearly finalized a deal to sell the team to businessman William Collins, who planned to move them to Northern Virginia. However, Collins was having difficulty finding a site for a stadium himself, so Major League owners stepped in and forced McLane to give Houston another chance to grant his stadium wish. Houston voters, having already lost the Houston Oilers in a similar situation, responded positively via a stadium referendum and the Astros stayed put.
The 2000 season saw a move to a new stadium. Originally to be named The Ballpark at Union Station due to being located on the site of Union Station (Houston), it was renamed Enron Field by the season opening after the naming rights were sold to energy corporation Enron. The stadium was to feature a retractable roof, a particularly useful feature with unpredictable Houston weather. The ballpark also featured more intimate surroundings than the Astrodome. In 2002, naming rights were purchased by Houston - based Minute Maid, after Enron went bankrupt. The park was built on the grounds of the old Union Station. A locomotive moves across the outfield and whistles after home runs, paying homage to a Houston history which had eleven railroad company lines running through the city by 1860. The ballpark previously contained quirks such as "Tal 's Hill '', which was a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stood, all in fair territory. Tal 's Hill was replaced in the 2016 -- 2017 offseason. The wall was moved in to 409 feet, which the team hoped would generate more home runs. A similar feature was located in Crosley Field. Over the years, many highlight reel catches have been made by center fielders running up the hill to make catches. With the change in location also came a change in attire. Gone were the blue and gold uniforms of the 1990s in favor a more "retro '' look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black. These colors were chosen because ownership originally wanted to rename the team the Houston Diesels. The "shooting star '' logo was modified but still retained its definitive look.
After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, the Astros were early favorites to win the 2004 NL pennant. They added star pitcher Andy Pettitte to a roster that already included standouts like Lance Berkman and Jeff Kent as well as veterans Bagwell and Biggio. Roger Clemens, who had retired after the 2003 season with the New York Yankees, agreed to join former teammate Pettitte on the Astros for 2004. The one - year deal included unique conditions, such as the option for Clemens to stay home in Houston on select road trips when he was n't scheduled to pitch. Despite the early predictions for success, the Astros had a mediocre 44 -- 44 record at the All - Star break. A lack of run production and a poor record in close games were major issues. After being booed at the 2004 All - Star Game held in Houston, manager Jimy Williams was fired and replaced by Phil Garner, a star on the division - winning 1986 Astros. The Astros enjoyed a 46 -- 26 record in the second half of the season under Garner and earned the NL wild card spot. The Astros defeated the Braves 3 -- 2 in the Division Series, but would lose the National League Championship Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Clemens earned a record seventh Cy Young Award in 2004. Additionally, the mid-season addition of Carlos Beltrán in a trade with the Kansas City Royals helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run. Despite midseason trade rumors, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the team 's hopes, hitting eight home runs in the postseason. Though he had asserted a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long - term contract with the New York Mets on January 9, 2005.
In 2005, the Astros started poorly and found themselves with a 15 - 30 record in late May. The Houston Chronicle had written them off with a tombstone emblazoned with "RIP 2005 Astros ''. However, from that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42 -- 17 and found themselves in the lead for an NL wild card spot. July saw the best single month record in the club 's history at 22 - 7. Offensive production had increased greatly after a slow start in the first two months. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt (20 -- 12, 2.94), Andy Pettitte (17 -- 9, 2.39), and Roger Clemens (13 -- 8 with a league - low ERA of only 1.87). The contributions of the other starters -- Brandon Backe (10 -- 8, 4.76) and rookie starters Ezequiel Astacio (3 -- 6, 5.67) and Wandy Rodríguez (10 -- 10, 5.53) -- were less remarkable, but enough to push the Astros into position for a playoff run. The Astros won a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, becoming the first team since the world champion 1914 Boston Braves to qualify for the postseason after being 15 games under. 500.
The Astros won the National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves, 3 - 1, with a game four that set postseason records for most innings (18), most players used by a single team (23), and longest game time (5 hours and 50 minutes). Trailing by a score of 6 - 1, Lance Berkman hit an eighth inning grand slam to narrow the score to 6 -- 5. In the bottom of the ninth, catcher Brad Ausmus, hit a game tying home run that allowed the game to continue in extra innings. In the bottom of the tenth inning, Luke Scott hit a blast to left field that had home run distance, but was inches foul. This game remained scoreless for the next eight innings. In the top of the fifteenth inning, Roger Clemens made only his second career relief appearance, pitching three shutout innings, notably striking out Julio Franco, at the time the oldest player in the MLB at 47 years old; Clemens was himself 43. In the bottom of the eighteenth inning, Clemens came to bat again, indicating that he would be pitching in the nineteenth inning, if it came to that. Clemens struck out, but the next batter, Chris Burke, hit a home run to left field for the Astros win, 7 -- 6. Oddly enough, a fan in the "Crawford Boxes '' in left field had previously caught Berkman 's grand slam and this same fan caught Burke 's home run. The National League Championship Series featured a rematch of the 2004 NLCS. The Astros lost the first game in St. Louis, but would win the next three games, with Roy Oswalt getting the win. Though the Astros were poised to close out the series in Game Five in Houston, Brad Lidge gave up a monstrous two - out three - run home run to Albert Pujols, forcing the series to a sixth game in St. Louis, where the Astros clinched a World Series appearance. Roy Oswalt was named NLCS MVP, having gone 2 -- 0 with a 1.29 ERA in the series. Current honorary NL President William Y. Giles presented the league champion Astros with the Warren C. Giles Trophy. Warren Giles, William 's father and President of the National League from 1951 to 1969, had awarded an MLB franchise to the city of Houston in 1960.
The Astros faced the Chicago White Sox in the World Series. Chicago had been considered the slight favorite but would win all four games, the first two at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago and the final two in Houston. Game 3 marked the first World Series game held in the state of Texas, and was the longest game in World Series history, lasting 5 hours and 41 minutes.
This World Series was marked by a controversy involving the Minute Maid Park roof. MLB & Commissioner Bud Selig insisted that the Astros must play with the roof open which mitigated the intensity and enthusiasm of the cheering Astros fans.
In the 2006 offseason, the team signed Preston Wilson and moved Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure of Jeff Bagwell. The Astros renewed the contract with Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left - handed hitter Aubrey Huff. By August, Preston Wilson complained about his playing time after the return of Luke Scott from AAA Round Rock. The Astros released Wilson and he was signed by St. Louis. A dramatic season end included wins in 10 of their last 12 games, but the Astros missed a playoff appearance when they lost the final game of the season to the Atlanta Braves.
On October 31, the Astros declined a contract option on Jeff Bagwell for 2007, ending his 15 - year Astros career and leading to his retirement. Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte filed for free agency. On December 12, the Astros traded Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh to the Colorado Rockies for Rockies pitchers Jason Jennings and Miguel Asencio. A trade with the White Sox, involving the same three Astros in exchange for Jon Garland, had been nixed a few days earlier when Buchholz reportedly failed a physical. In the end, Taveras continued to develop and Hirsh had a strong 2007 rookie campaign, while Jennings was often injured and generally ineffective.
On April 28, 2007, the Astros purchased the contract of top minor league prospect Hunter Pence. He debuted that night, getting a hit and scoring a run. By May 2007, the Astros had suffered one of their worst recent losing streaks (10 games). On June 28, second baseman Craig Biggio became the 27th MLB player to accrue 3,000 career hits. Biggio needed three hits to reach 3,000 and on that night he had five hits. That night, Carlos Lee hit a towering walk - off grand slam in the eleventh inning. Lee later quipped to the newsmedia that "he had hit a walk - off grand slam and he got second billing '', considering Biggio 's achievement. On July 24, Biggio announced that he would retire at the end of the season. He hit a grand slam in that night 's game which broke a 3 -- 3 tie and led to an Astros win. In Biggio 's last at bat, he grounded out to Chipper Jones of the Atlanta Braves.
On September 20, Ed Wade was named General Manager. In his first move, he traded Jason Lane to the Padres on September 24. On September 30, Craig Biggio retired after twenty years with the team. In November, the Astros traded RHP Brad Lidge and SS Eric Bruntlett to the Philadelphia Phillies for OF Michael Bourn, RHP Geoff Geary, and minor leaguer Mike Costanzo. Utility player Mark Loretta accepted Houston 's salary arbitration and Kazuo Matsui finalized a $16.5 million, three - year contract with the team. In December the Astros traded OF Luke Scott, RHP Matt Albers, RHP Dennis Sarfate, LHP Troy Patton, and minor - league 3B Mike Costanzo, to the Baltimore Orioles for SS Miguel Tejada. On December 14, they sent infielder Chris Burke, RHP Juan Gutiérrez, and RHP Chad Qualls to the Arizona Diamondbacks for RHP José Valverde. On December 27, the Astros came to terms on a deal with All - star, Gold Glove winner Darin Erstad.
In January and February 2008, the Astros signed Brandon Backe, Ty Wigginton, Dave Borkowski and Shawn Chacón to one - year deals. The starting rotation would feature Roy Oswalt and Brandon Backe as numbers one and two. Wandy Rodríguez, Chacón and Chris Sampson rounded out the bottom three slots in the rotation. Woody Williams had retired after a 0 -- 4 spring training and Jason Jennings was now with Texas. On the other side of the roster, the Astros would start without Kazuo Matsui, who was on a minor league rehab assignment after a spring training injury.
The Astros regressed in 2008 and 2009, finishing with records of 86 -- 75 and 74 -- 88, respectively. Manager Cecil Cooper was fired after the 2009 season.
The 2010 season was the first season as Astros manager for Brad Mills, who was previously the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox. The Astros struggled throughout a season that was marked by trade - deadline deals that sent longtime Astros to other teams. On July 29, the Astros ' ace starting pitcher, Roy Oswalt, was dealt to the Philadelphia Phillies for J.A. Happ and two minor league players. On July 31, outfielder Lance Berkman was traded to the New York Yankees for minor leaguers Jimmy Paredes and Mark Melancon. The Astros finished with a record of 76 - 86.
On July 30, 2011, the Astros traded OF Hunter Pence, the team 's 2010 leader in home runs, to the Philadelphia Phillies. On July 31, they traded OF Michael Bourn to the Atlanta Braves. On September 17, the Astros clinched their first 100 - loss season in franchise history, On September 28, the Astros ended the season with an 8 -- 0 home loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. Cardinals pitcher Chris Carpenter pitched a complete game, two - hit shutout in the game, enabling the Cardinals to win the National League Wild Card, where they went on to beat the Texas Rangers in the World Series, with Lance Berkman being a key player in their championship victory. The Astros finished with a record of 56 -- 106, the worst single - season record in franchise history (a record which would be broken the following season).
In November 2010, Drayton McLane announced that the Astros were being put up for sale. McLane stated that because the Astros were one of the few franchises in Major League Baseball with only one family as the owners, he was planning his estate. McLane was 75 years old as of November 2011. In March 2011, local Houston businessman Jim Crane emerged as the front - runner to purchase the franchise. In the 1980s, Crane founded an air freight business which later merged with CEVA Logistics, and later founded Crane Capital Group. McLane and Crane had a previous handshake agreement for the franchise in 2008, but Crane abruptly changed his mind and broke off discussions. Crane also attempted to buy the Chicago Cubs in 2008 and the Texas Rangers during their 2010 bankruptcy auction. Crane came under scrutiny because of previous allegations of discriminatory hiring practices regarding women and minorities, among other issues. This delayed MLB 's approval process. During the summer of 2011, a frustrated Crane hinted that the delays might threaten the deal. In October 2011, Crane met personally with MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, in a meeting that was described as "constructive ''.
On November 15, 2011, it was announced that Crane had agreed to move the franchise to the American League for the 2013 season. The move was part of an overall divisional realignment of MLB, with the National and American leagues each having 15 teams in three geographically balanced divisions. Crane was given a $70 million concession by MLB for agreeing to the switch; the move was a condition for the sale to the new ownership group. Two days later, the Astros were officially sold to Crane after the other owners unanimously voted in favor of the sale. It was also announced that 2012 would be the last season for the Astros in the NL. After over fifty years of the Astros being a part of the National League, this move was unpopular with many Astros fans.
In 2012, the Astros were eliminated from the playoffs before September 5. On September 27, the Astros named Bo Porter to be the manager for the 2013 season.
On October 3, the Astros ended over 50 years of NL play with a 5 -- 4 loss to the Chicago Cubs and began to look ahead to join the American League. Winning only 20 road games during the entire season, the Astros finished with a 55 -- 107 record, the worst record in all of Major League Baseball for the 2012 season, and surpassing the 2011 season for the worst record in Astros history.
On November 2, 2012, the Astros unveiled their new look in preparation for their move to the American League for the 2013 season. The uniform is navy blue and orange, going back to the original 1960s team colors, as well as debuting a new version of the classic navy blue hat with a white "H '' over an orange star.
On November 6, 2012, the Astros hired former Cleveland Indians director of baseball operations David Stearns as the team 's new assistant general manager. The Astros would also go on to hire former St. Louis Cardinals front office executive Jeff Luhnow as their general manager.
The Houston Astros played their first game as an American League team on March 31, 2013, where they were victorious over their in - state division competitor, the Texas Rangers, with a score of 8 -- 2.
On September 29, the Astros completed their first year in the American League, losing 5 -- 1 in a 14 inning game to the New York Yankees. The Astros finished the season with a 51 -- 111 record (a franchise worst) with a season ending 15 game losing streak, again surpassing their worst record from last season. The team finished 45 games back out of the division winner Oakland Athletics, further adding to their futility. This marked three consecutive years that the Astros had lost more than 100 games in a single season. They also became the first team to have the first overall pick in the draft three years in a row. They improved on their season in 2014, going 70 -- 92, finishing 28 games back over the division winner Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and placing fourth in the AL West over the Texas Rangers.
After a slow start, the Astros took over first place in the AL West on April 19 and stayed there until shortly before the All - Star Break in mid-July. The Astros retook first place on July 29, but fell from first on September 15.
In September 2015, four men died who had been closely associated with the team: Yogi Berra, Gene Elston, Milo Hamilton, and John McMullen. McMullen and Hamilton passed on the same Thursday, September 17, 2015, Elston on September 5th, and Berra on September 22. McMullen, after being a co-owner of the New York Yankees, purchased the Astros in 1979. He also brought Nolan Ryan to the Astros. In 1980, the Astros played the Philadelphia Phillies for the NL pennant with Gene Elston on the radio. In 1985, McMullen brought Yogi Berra in to be a bench coach for the new Astros manager Hal Lanier for the 1986 season, with Milo Hamilton on the radio.
Dallas Keuchel led the AL with 20 victories, going 15 -- 0 at home, an MLB record. Key additions to the team included Scott Kazmir and SS Carlos Correa who hit 22 home runs, being called up in June 2015. 2B José Altuve picked up where he left off as the star of the Astros ' offense. On July 30, the Astros picked up Mike Fiers and Carlos Gómez from the Milwaukee Brewers. Fiers threw the 11th no - hitter in Astros history on August 21 against the LA Dodgers. Houston got the final AL playoff spot and faced the Yankees in the Wild Card Game on October 6 at New York. They defeated the Yankees 3 -- 0, but lost to the Kansas City Royals in the American League Division Series.
The Astros split the first two games of the ALDS best - of - five series in Kansas City. The Astros won the first game at Minute Maid to take a 2 -- 1 lead in the ALDS. In game 4, after 7 innings, the Astros had a 6 -- 2 lead. In the top half of the eighth inning, which took about 45 minutes to end, the Royals had taken 7 -- 6 lead with a series of consecutive base hits. The Astros suffered a 9 -- 6 loss and the ALDS was tied at 2 -- 2. Then the series went back to Kansas City, where the Royals clinched the series in the fifth game, 7 - 2.
The Astros entered the 2016 season as the favorites to win the AL West after a promising 2015 season. After a bad start to their season, with Houston going just 7 -- 17 in April, the Astros bounced back and went on to have a winning record in their next four months, including an 18 -- 8 record in June. But after going 12 -- 15 in September, the Astros were eliminated from playoff contention. They finished in third place in the American League West Division with a final record of 84 -- 78.
On August 10, 2016 Gómez was designated for assignment by the Astros after a dreadful campaign with the team. He was released on August 18, 2016. Gomez finished his Astros career batting a career low average of. 210 and only hitting 5 HR through 85 games with the club. Gómez later signed with division rival Texas.
The season was marked by the Astros 4 -- 15 record against their in - state division rival (and eventual division winner) Texas Rangers. The Astros finished the 2016 season eleven games behind the Rangers.
In 2014, Sports Illustrated said that because of the way the Astros put together their team, they would win the 2017 World Series. As of June 9, the Astros were 41 -- 16, which gave them a 13.5 - game lead over the rest of their division, and they had comfortable possession of the best record in the entire league. This is the best start in the 55 years of the Astros ' existence. As the games of June 23 concluded, the Astros had an 11.5 - game lead over the rest of the division. The Astros entered the All - Star Break with an American League best 60 -- 29 record and a 16 game lead in the division, although the overall best record in MLB had just barely slipped to the Dodgers shortly before the All - Star Break by just one game.
With Hurricane Harvey causing massive flooding throughout Houston and southeast Texas, the Astros ' three - game series against the Texas Rangers for August 29 -- 31, was relocated to Tropicana Field (home of the Tampa Bay Rays), in St. Petersburg, Florida. The Astros did play the Rangers far better in 2017, going 12 -- 7 against them and winning the season series.
The Astros clinched their first division title as a member of the American League West division, and first division title overall since 2001. They also became the first team in Major League history to win three different divisions, the National League West in 1980 and 1986, the National League Central from 1997 -- 1999 and 2001, and now the American League West in 2017. On September 29, the Astros won their 100th game of the season, the second time the Astros finished a season with over 100 wins (the other time was in 1998). They finished 101 -- 61 (with a 21 - game lead in the division), and faced the Red Sox in the second round of the AL playoffs. The Astros defeated the Red Sox three games to one, and advanced to the American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees. The Astros won the ALCS four games to three, and advanced to the World Series to play against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Astros defeated the Dodgers in the deciding seventh game of the World Series, winning the first championship in franchise history.
The city of Houston celebrated the team 's accomplishment during the afternoon of November 3, 2017. There was a parade in their honor, and the festivities included a large balloon depicting a baseball, cheerleaders and the animated participation by Orbit. Houston 's Independent School District gave the students and teachers the day off to watch the parade.
Source:
Two awards are presented each year, one to a Houston Astro and one to a St. Louis Cardinal, each of whom exemplifies Kile 's virtues of being "a good teammate, a great friend, a fine father and a humble man. '' The winner is selected by each local chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America.
The number 42 is retired by Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson.
Source:
57: Has not been reissued since former Astros pitcher Darryl Kile died as an active player with the St. Louis Cardinals in 2002.
17: Has not been reissued since Lance Berkman was traded in 2010.
Nellie Fox
Jeff Bagwell Craig Biggio
Leo Durocher Randy Johnson
Eddie Mathews Joe Morgan
Robin Roberts Iván Rodríguez
Nolan Ryan Don Sutton
Gene Elston
Milo Hamilton
Harry Kalas
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
38 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated November 13, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
* In December 2016, the Astros agreed to a 30 - year deal to field a Class - A Advanced team in Fayetteville, North Carolina, beginning in 2019. The team will play the 2017 and 2018 seasons in Buies Creek while a new stadium is built in Fayetteville.
As of 2013, the Astros ' new flagship radio station is KBME, Sportstalk 790AM (a Fox Sports Radio affiliate), leaving KTRH, 740AM after a partnership with them since 1999 (both stations are owned by iHeartMedia). This change suddenly made it difficult for listeners outside of Houston itself to hear the Astros, as KTRH runs 50 kilowatts of power day and night, and KBME runs only five kilowatts. As a result, KTRH is audible across much of Central, East, and South Texas, whereas KBME can only be heard in Houston, especially after dark. Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron 's 715th career home run in 1974, retired at the end of the 2012 season, after broadcasting play - by - play for the Astros since 1985. Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan shared play - by play duty for road games, while Raymond additionally worked as Hamilton 's color analyst (while Hamilton called home games only for the past few seasons before his retirement); they were not retained and instead brought in Robert Ford and Steve Sparks to begin broadcasting for the 2013 season.
Spanish language radio play - by - play is handled by Francisco Romero, and his play - by - play partner is Alex Treviño, a former backup catcher for the club.
During the 2012 season Astros games on television were announced by Bill Brown and Jim Deshaies. In the seven seasons before then, Astros games were broadcast on television by Fox Sports Houston, with select games shown on broadcast TV by KTXH. As part of a ten - year, $1 billion deal with Comcast that includes a majority stake jointly held by the Astros and the Houston Rockets, Houston Astros games moved to the new Comcast SportsNet Houston at the beginning of the 2013 season. On September 27, 2013 CSN Houston filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and surprising the Astros who own the largest stake. After being brought out of bankruptcy by DirecTV Sports Networks and AT&T, the channel 's name was changed to Root Sports Southwest then later AT&T SportsNet Southwest.
The current television team consists of Todd Kalas and Geoff Blum.
Orbit is the name given to MLB 's Houston Astros mascot, a lime - green outer - space creature wearing an Astros jersey with antennae extending into baseballs. Orbit was the team 's official mascot from the 1990 through the 1999 seasons until the 2000 season, where Junction Jack was introduced as the team 's mascot with the move from the Astrodome to then Enron Field. Orbit returned on November 2, 2012 at the unveiling of the Astros new look for their 2013 debut in the American League. The name Orbit pays homage to Houston 's association with NASA and nickname Space City.
The Astros had been represented by a trio of rabbit mascots named Junction Jack, Jesse and Julie from 2000 through 2012.
In April 1977 the Houston Astros introduced their very first mascot, Chester Charge. Created by Ed Henderson, Chester Charge was a Texas cavalry soldier on a horse. Chester appeared on the field at the beginning of each home game, during the seventh inning stretch and then ran around the bases at the conclusion of each win. At the blast of a bugle, the scoreboard would light up and the audience would yell, "Charge! ''
General
In - line citations
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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what are the three major parts of the appendicular skeleton | Appendicular skeleton - wikipedia
The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates consisting of the bones that support the appendages. Appendages appeared as fins in early fish, and subsequently evolved into the limbs of tetrapods. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral and pelvic girdles in the case of tetrapods (these are lacking in fish). The word appendicular is the adjective of the noun appendage, which itself means a part that is joined to something larger.
Of the 206 bones in the human skeleton, the appendicular skeleton comprises 126. Functionally it is involved in locomotion (lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects in the environment (upper limbs).
The appendicular skeleton forms during development from cartilage, by the process of endochondral ossification.
The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions:
It is important to realize that through anatomical variation it is common for the skeleton to have many accessory bones (sutural bones in the skull, cervical ribs, lumbar ribs and even extra lumbar vertebrae).
The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones and the axial skeleton of 80 bones together form the complete skeleton of 206 bones in the human body. Unlike the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton is unfused. This allows for a much greater range of motion.
Appendicular skeleton (shown in red).
Illustration depicting anterior and posterior view of appendicular skeleton
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bernoullis theorem is based on the conservation of | Bernoulli 's principle - wikipedia
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli 's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid 's potential energy. The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli 's equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: so when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected.
Bernoulli 's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in various forms of Bernoulli 's equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli 's equation for different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli 's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number). More advanced forms may be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the Bernoulli equation).
Bernoulli 's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid -- implying an increase in its kinetic energy (dynamic pressure) -- occurs with a simultaneous decrease in (the sum of) its potential energy (including the static pressure) and internal energy. If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.
Bernoulli 's principle can also be derived directly from Isaac Newton 's Second Law of Motion. If a small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure, then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on the volume, accelerating it along the streamline.
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest.
In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can be considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli 's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along a streamline, is:
v 2 2 + g z + p ρ = constant (\ displaystyle (\ frac (v ^ (2)) (2)) + gz+ (\ frac (p) (\ rho)) = (\ text (constant)))
(A)
where:
The constant on the right - hand side of the equation depends only on the streamline chosen, whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on that streamline.
The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:
For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field), Bernoulli 's equation can be generalized as:
where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline. E.g. for the Earth 's gravity Ψ = gz.
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:
where
The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H:
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli 's equation ceases to be valid before zero pressure is reached. In liquids -- when the pressure becomes too low -- cavitation occurs. The above equations use a linear relationship between flow speed squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or for sound waves in liquid, the changes in mass density become significant so that the assumption of constant density is invalid.
In many applications of Bernoulli 's equation, the change in the ρgz term along the streamline is so small compared with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in the case of aircraft in flight, the change in height z along a streamline is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This allows the above equation to be presented in the following simplified form:
where p is called "total pressure '', and q is "dynamic pressure ''. Many authors refer to the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure p and dynamic pressure q. In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion but with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is used it refers to this static pressure. ''
The simplified form of Bernoulli 's equation can be summarized in the following memorable word equation:
Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the fluid speed at that point, has its own unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their sum p + q is defined to be the total pressure p. The significance of Bernoulli 's principle can now be summarized as "total pressure is constant along a streamline ''.
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on every streamline is the same and Bernoulli 's principle can be summarized as "total pressure is constant everywhere in the fluid flow ''. It is reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists in any situation where a large body of fluid is flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in flight, and ships moving in open bodies of water. However, it is important to remember that Bernoulli 's principle does not apply in the boundary layer or in fluid flow through long pipes.
If the fluid flow at some point along a streamline is brought to rest, this point is called a stagnation point, and at this point the total pressure is equal to the stagnation pressure.
Bernoulli 's equation is sometimes valid for the flow of gases: provided that there is no transfer of kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow to the compression or expansion of the gas. If both the gas pressure and volume change simultaneously, then work will be done on or by the gas. In this case, Bernoulli 's equation -- in its incompressible flow form -- can not be assumed to be valid. However, if the gas process is entirely isobaric, or isochoric, then no work is done on or by the gas, (so the simple energy balance is not upset). According to the gas law, an isobaric or isochoric process is ordinarily the only way to ensure constant density in a gas. Also the gas density will be proportional to the ratio of pressure and absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary upon compression or expansion, no matter what non-zero quantity of heat is added or removed. The only exception is if the net heat transfer is zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in an individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic) process, and even then this reversible process must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original pressure and specific volume, and thus density. Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli equation applicable. In this case the equation can be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently below the speed of sound, such that the variation in density of the gas (due to this effect) along each streamline can be ignored. Adiabatic flow at less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be slow enough.
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow is used in the theory of ocean surface waves and acoustics.
For an irrotational flow, the flow velocity can be described as the gradient ∇ φ of a velocity potential φ. In that case, and for a constant density ρ, the momentum equations of the Euler equations can be integrated to:
which is a Bernoulli equation valid also for unsteady -- or time dependent -- flows. Here ∂ φ / ∂ t denotes the partial derivative of the velocity potential φ with respect to time t, and v = ∇ φ is the flow speed. The function f (t) depends only on time and not on position in the fluid. As a result, the Bernoulli equation at some moment t does not only apply along a certain streamline, but in the whole fluid domain. This is also true for the special case of a steady irrotational flow, in which case f and ∂ φ / ∂ t are constants so equation (A) can be applied in every point of the fluid domain.
Further f (t) can be made equal to zero by incorporating it into the velocity potential using the transformation
resulting in
Note that the relation of the potential to the flow velocity is unaffected by this transformation: ∇ Φ = ∇ φ.
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow also appears to play a central role in Luke 's variational principle, a variational description of free - surface flows using the Lagrangian (not to be confused with Lagrangian coordinates).
Bernoulli developed his principle from his observations on liquids, and his equation is applicable only to incompressible fluids, and steady compressible fluids up to approximately Mach number 0.3. It is possible to use the fundamental principles of physics to develop similar equations applicable to compressible fluids. There are numerous equations, each tailored for a particular application, but all are analogous to Bernoulli 's equation and all rely on nothing more than the fundamental principles of physics such as Newton 's laws of motion or the first law of thermodynamics.
For a compressible fluid, with a barotropic equation of state, and under the action of conservative forces,
where:
In engineering situations, elevations are generally small compared to the size of the Earth, and the time scales of fluid flow are small enough to consider the equation of state as adiabatic. In this case, the above equation for an ideal gas becomes:
where, in addition to the terms listed above:
In many applications of compressible flow, changes in elevation are negligible compared to the other terms, so the term gz can be omitted. A very useful form of the equation is then:
where:
The most general form of the equation, suitable for use in thermodynamics in case of (quasi) steady flow, is:
Here w is the enthalpy per unit mass (also known as specific enthalpy), which is also often written as h (not to be confused with "head '' or "height '').
Note that w = ε + p / ρ where ε is the thermodynamic energy per unit mass, also known as the specific internal energy. So, for constant internal energy ε the equation reduces to the incompressible - flow form.
The constant on the right hand side is often called the Bernoulli constant and denoted b. For steady inviscid adiabatic flow with no additional sources or sinks of energy, b is constant along any given streamline. More generally, when b may vary along streamlines, it still proves a useful parameter, related to the "head '' of the fluid (see below).
When the change in Ψ can be ignored, a very useful form of this equation is:
where w is total enthalpy. For a calorically perfect gas such as an ideal gas, the enthalpy is directly proportional to the temperature, and this leads to the concept of the total (or stagnation) temperature.
When shock waves are present, in a reference frame in which the shock is stationary and the flow is steady, many of the parameters in the Bernoulli equation suffer abrupt changes in passing through the shock. The Bernoulli parameter itself, however, remains unaffected. An exception to this rule is radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the Bernoulli equation, namely the lack of additional sinks or sources of energy.
The simplest derivation is to first ignore gravity and consider constrictions and expansions in pipes that are otherwise straight, as seen in Venturi effect. Let the x axis be directed down the axis of the pipe.
Define a parcel of fluid moving through a pipe with cross-sectional area A, the length of the parcel is dx, and the volume of the parcel A dx. If mass density is ρ, the mass of the parcel is density multiplied by its volume m = ρA dx. The change in pressure over distance dx is dp and flow velocity v = dx / dt.
Apply Newton 's second law of motion (force = mass × acceleration) and recognizing that the effective force on the parcel of fluid is − A dp. If the pressure decreases along the length of the pipe, dp is negative but the force resulting in flow is positive along the x axis.
In steady flow the velocity field is constant with respect to time, v = v (x) = v (x (t)), so v itself is not directly a function of time t. It is only when the parcel moves through x that the cross sectional area changes: v depends on t only through the cross-sectional position x (t).
With density ρ constant, the equation of motion can be written as
by integrating with respect to x
where C is a constant, sometimes referred to as the Bernoulli constant. It is not a universal constant, but rather a constant of a particular fluid system. The deduction is: where the speed is large, pressure is low and vice versa.
In the above derivation, no external work -- energy principle is invoked. Rather, Bernoulli 's principle was derived by a simple manipulation of Newton 's second law.
Another way to derive Bernoulli 's principle for an incompressible flow is by applying conservation of energy. In the form of the work - energy theorem, stating that
Therefore,
The system consists of the volume of fluid, initially between the cross-sections A and A. In the time interval Δt fluid elements initially at the inflow cross-section A move over a distance s = v Δt, while at the outflow cross-section the fluid moves away from cross-section A over a distance s = v Δt. The displaced fluid volumes at the inflow and outflow are respectively A s and A s. The associated displaced fluid masses are -- when ρ is the fluid 's mass density -- equal to density times volume, so ρA s and ρA s. By mass conservation, these two masses displaced in the time interval Δt have to be equal, and this displaced mass is denoted by Δm:
The work done by the forces consists of two parts:
And therefore the total work done in this time interval Δt is
The increase in kinetic energy is
Putting these together, the work - kinetic energy theorem W = ΔE gives:
or
After dividing by the mass Δm = ρA v Δt = ρA v Δt the result is:
or, as stated in the first paragraph:
Further division by g produces the following equation. Note that each term can be described in the length dimension (such as meters). This is the head equation derived from Bernoulli 's principle:
The middle term, z, represents the potential energy of the fluid due to its elevation with respect to a reference plane. Now, z is called the elevation head and given the designation z.
A free falling mass from an elevation z > 0 (in a vacuum) will reach a speed
when arriving at elevation z = 0. Or when we rearrange it as a head:
The term v / 2g is called the velocity head, expressed as a length measurement. It represents the internal energy of the fluid due to its motion.
The hydrostatic pressure p is defined as
with p some reference pressure, or when we rearrange it as a head:
The term p / ρg is also called the pressure head, expressed as a length measurement. It represents the internal energy of the fluid due to the pressure exerted on the container. When we combine the head due to the flow speed and the head due to static pressure with the elevation above a reference plane, we obtain a simple relationship useful for incompressible fluids using the velocity head, elevation head, and pressure head.
If we were to multiply Eqn. 1 by the density of the fluid, we would get an equation with three pressure terms:
We note that the pressure of the system is constant in this form of the Bernoulli equation. If the static pressure of the system (the far right term) increases, and if the pressure due to elevation (the middle term) is constant, then we know that the dynamic pressure (the left term) must have decreased. In other words, if the speed of a fluid decreases and it is not due to an elevation difference, we know it must be due to an increase in the static pressure that is resisting the flow.
All three equations are merely simplified versions of an energy balance on a system.
Conservation of energy is applied in a similar manner: It is assumed that the change in energy of the volume of the streamtube bounded by A and A is due entirely to energy entering or leaving through one or the other of these two boundaries. Clearly, in a more complicated situation such as a fluid flow coupled with radiation, such conditions are not met. Nevertheless, assuming this to be the case and assuming the flow is steady so that the net change in the energy is zero,
where ΔE and ΔE are the energy entering through A and leaving through A, respectively. The energy entering through A is the sum of the kinetic energy entering, the energy entering in the form of potential gravitational energy of the fluid, the fluid thermodynamic internal energy per unit of mass (ε) entering, and the energy entering in the form of mechanical p dV work:
where Ψ = gz is a force potential due to the Earth 's gravity, g is acceleration due to gravity, and z is elevation above a reference plane. A similar expression for ΔE may easily be constructed. So now setting 0 = ΔE − ΔE:
which can be rewritten as:
Now, using the previously - obtained result from conservation of mass, this may be simplified to obtain
which is the Bernoulli equation for compressible flow.
An equivalent expression can be written in terms of fluid enthalpy (h):
In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by application of Bernoulli 's principle, even though no real fluid is entirely inviscid and a small viscosity often has a large effect on the flow.
Many explanations for the generation of lift (on airfoils, propeller blades, etc.) can be found; some of these explanations can be misleading, and some are false. There has been debate about whether lift is best introduced to students using Bernoulli 's principle or Newton 's laws of motion. Modern writings agree that both Bernoulli 's principle and Newton 's laws are relevant and either can be used to correctly describe lift.
Several of these explanations use the Bernoulli principle to connect the flow kinematics to the flow - induced pressures. In cases of incorrect (or partially correct) explanations relying on the Bernoulli principle, the errors generally occur in the assumptions on the flow kinematics and how these are produced. It is not the Bernoulli principle itself that is questioned because this principle is well established (the airflow above the wing is faster, the question is why it is faster).
There are several common classroom demonstrations that are sometimes incorrectly explained using Bernoulli 's principle. One involves holding a piece of paper horizontally so that it droops downward and then blowing over the top of it. As the demonstrator blows over the paper, the paper rises. It is then asserted that this is because "faster moving air has lower pressure ''.
One problem with this explanation can be seen by blowing along the bottom of the paper: were the deflection due simply to faster moving air one would expect the paper to deflect downward, but the paper deflects upward regardless of whether the faster moving air is on the top or the bottom. Another problem is that when the air leaves the demonstrator 's mouth it has the same pressure as the surrounding air; the air does not have lower pressure just because it is moving; in the demonstration, the static pressure of the air leaving the demonstrator 's mouth is equal to the pressure of the surrounding air. A third problem is that it is false to make a connection between the flow on the two sides of the paper using Bernoulli 's equation since the air above and below are different flow fields and Bernoulli 's principle only applies within a flow field.
As the wording of the principle can change its implications, stating the principle correctly is important. What Bernoulli 's principle actually says is that within a flow of constant energy, when fluid flows through a region of lower pressure it speeds up and vice versa. Thus, Bernoulli 's principle concerns itself with changes in speed and changes in pressure within a flow field. It can not be used to compare different flow fields.
A correct explanation of why the paper rises would observe that the plume follows the curve of the paper and that a curved streamline will develop a pressure gradient perpendicular to the direction of flow, with the lower pressure on the inside of the curve. Bernoulli 's principle predicts that the decrease in pressure is associated with an increase in speed, i.e. that as the air passes over the paper it speeds up and moves faster than it was moving when it left the demonstrator 's mouth. But this is not apparent from the demonstration.
Other common classroom demonstrations, such as blowing between two suspended spheres, inflating a large bag, or suspending a ball in an airstream are sometimes explained in a similarly misleading manner by saying "faster moving air has lower pressure ''.
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when is the baseball all-star game being played | 2018 Major League Baseball All - Star Game - wikipedia
The 2018 Major League Baseball All - Star Game was the 89th Major League Baseball All - Star Game. The game was hosted by the Washington Nationals and was played at Nationals Park on July 17, 2018. It was televised nationally by Fox. The American League beat the National League 8 -- 6, in 10 innings.
The host city was announced on April 6, 2015, by Major League Baseball Commissioner Rob Manfred; it was the fifth All - Star Game in Washington, D.C., and the first since 1969, when the second Washington Senators hosted. It was also the first time that the Nationals had hosted the All - Star Game, and the first time that the Nationals franchise had hosted it since 1982, when the franchise played as the Montreal Expos.
The two leagues came into the game with identical 43 -- 43 -- 2 records and both had scored exactly 361 runs each in All - Star Game history. The game also broke a home run record, as ten home runs were hit in the game; the previous record being six. All but one run was scored by way of a home run. This is the second consecutive game the AL has won in the 10th inning.
The national rating for the game was 5.2, down from 6.5 in 2017.
Balloting began on June 1 and ended on July 5. As in previous games, the top vote - getters at each position will be the selected starters for their respective positions, barring any suspensions, injuries or other issues. The reserve players are picked in a more convoluted way involving fan votes, players, and Commissioner 's Office. For the fourth year, voting was conducted online exclusively. The results were announced on July 8.
After the rosters were finalized, a second ballot of five players per league was created for the All - Star Final Vote to determine the 32nd and final player of each roster. The online balloting was conducted from July 8 through July 11. The winners of the All - Star Final Vote were Jean Segura of the American League 's Seattle Mariners and Jesús Aguilar of the National League 's Milwaukee Brewers.
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where do the baltimore orioles play spring training | Ed Smith stadium - wikipedia
Ed Smith Stadium is a baseball field located in Sarasota, Florida. Since 2010, it has been the spring training home of the Baltimore Orioles.
Ed Smith Stadium was built in 1989 to replace Payne Park as a Spring Training and Minor League Baseball site. It is named for the Sarasota civic leader who was instrumental in getting the new stadium built. It was formerly the spring home of the Chicago White Sox (1989 -- 1997) and the Baltimore Orioles (1991). In 1998, it replaced Plant City Stadium as the spring training home of the Cincinnati Reds. The Reds remained at the facility through 2008. After Cincinnati 's club moved its spring activities to Arizona, Ed Smith Stadium spent a year without major league Spring Training.
The Orioles became the stadium 's tenant and operator in 2010. Baltimore had trained in Sarasota before -- at Twin Lakes Park in 1989 and 1990, as well as at Ed Smith in 1991 -- before moving to St. Petersburg and then Ft. Lauderdale for spring games.
From 1989 to 2009, the stadium hosted a series of Minor League Baseball teams, the Single - A Sarasota White Sox, Sarasota Red Sox, and Sarasota Reds. From 2004 until 2009, it housed the Gulf Coast League 's Gulf Coast Reds. Ed Smith has also hosted high school and college baseball tournaments.
On November 1, 2008, Barack Obama gave a speech to a crowd of 10,000 spectators as part of his 2008 presidential campaign.
In 2008, a planned renovation fell through when a proposed bond issue from the city of Sarasota to partially fund the renovation was rejected by the voters. The Reds, whose lease with the city and the stadium expired after the season, announced that they intend to seek a new spring training home. They moved to Goodyear Ballpark, located in Arizona, in 2010.
The Baltimore Orioles reached a tentative 30 - year agreement to begin spring training at Ed Smith Stadium starting in 2010 which included renovations to the stadium and surrounding areas. The $31.2 million renovation was completed prior to the beginning of spring training in February 2011.
Seats in the renovated stadium are refurbished seats from the Orioles ' revolutionary home ballpark, Oriole Park at Camden Yards. Three air - conditioned suites added to the park are numbered Suites 66, 70, and 83, corresponding to the club 's three World Series championships. A fabric sun shade system extends from the stadium 's original roof to nearly double the number of seats in the shade.
A series of photos produced by the Orioles shows the dramatic changes resulting from the renovation.
Seating is available for 7,428 spectators, with standing room space taking the park 's total capacity to 8,500. Two concourses include food and beverage stands, a cafe, and a 2,000 - square - foot (190 m) gift shop. 100 high - definition televisions are located throughout the stadium and a high - definition LED video board in the outfield measures 17 feet (5.2 m) high by 30 feet (9.1 m) across.
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where was the most gold found in california during the gold rush | California gold Rush - wikipedia
The California Gold Rush (1848 -- 1855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter 's Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought approximately 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad. The sudden influx of gold into the money supply reinvigorated the American economy, and the sudden population increase allowed California to go rapidly to statehood, in the Compromise of 1850. The Gold Rush had severe effects on Native Californians and resulted in a precipitous population decline from disease, genocide and starvation. By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory, to having one of its first two U.S. Senators, John C. Frémont, selected to be the first presidential nominee for the new Republican Party, in 1856.
The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial. Whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold - seekers, called "forty - niners '' (referring to 1849, the peak year for Gold Rush immigration). Outside of California, the first to hear confirmed information of the gold rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), and Latin America, and were among the first to move to the state in late 1848. Of the approximately 300,000 people who came to California during the Gold Rush, about half arrived by sea and half came overland on the California Trail and the Gila River trail; forty - niners often faced substantial hardships on the trip. While most of the newly arrived were Americans, the gold rush attracted thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia, and China. Agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. San Francisco grew from a small settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852. Roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California. In 1849 a state constitution was written. The new constitution was adopted by referendum vote, and the future state 's interim first governor and legislature were chosen. In September 1850, California became a state.
At the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of "staking claims '' was developed. Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques, such as panning. Although the mining caused environmental harm, more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world. New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service. By 1869, railroads were built from California to the eastern United States. At its peak, technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required, increasing the proportion of gold companies to individual miners. Gold worth tens of billions of today 's US dollars was recovered, which led to great wealth for a few, though many who participated in the California Gold Rush earned little more than they had started with.
The Mexican -- American War ended on February 3, 1848, although California was a de facto American possession before that. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutter 's Mill, near Coloma. On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter, and the two privately tested the metal. After the tests showed that it was gold, Sutter expressed dismay: he wanted to keep the news quiet because he feared what would happen to his plans for an agricultural empire if there were a mass search for gold.
Rumors of the discovery of gold were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan. Brannan hurriedly set up a store to sell gold prospecting supplies, and walked through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River! ''
On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, US President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress. As a result, individuals seeking to benefit from the gold rush -- later called the "forty - niners '' -- began moving to the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode '' from other countries and from other parts of the United States. As Sutter had feared, his business plans were ruined after his workers left in search of gold, and squatters took over his land and stole his crops and cattle.
San Francisco had been a tiny settlement before the rush began. When residents learned about the discovery, it at first became a ghost town of abandoned ships and businesses, but then boomed as merchants and new people arrived. The population of San Francisco increased quickly from about 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 full - time residents by 1850. Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.
In what has been referred to as the "first world - class gold rush, '' there was no easy way to get to California; forty - niners faced hardship and often death on the way. At first, most Argonauts, as they were also known, traveled by sea. From the East Coast, a sailing voyage around the tip of South America would take five to eight months, and cover approximately 18,000 nautical miles (33,000 kilometres). An alternative was to sail to the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, take canoes and mules for a week through the jungle, and then on the Pacific side, wait for a ship sailing for San Francisco. There was also a route across Mexico starting at Veracruz. Many gold - seekers took the overland route across the continental United States, particularly along the California Trail. Each of these routes had its own deadly hazards, from shipwreck to typhoid fever and cholera.
Supply ships arrived in San Francisco with goods to supply the needs of the growing population. When hundreds of ships were abandoned after their crews deserted into go to the goldfields, many ships were converted to warehouses, stores, taverns, hotels, and one into a jail. As the city expanded and new places were needed on which to build, many ships were destroyed and used as landfill.
Within a few years, there was an important but lesser - known surge of prospectors into far Northern California, specifically into present - day Siskiyou, Shasta and Trinity Counties. Discovery of gold nuggets at the site of present - day Yreka in 1851 brought thousands of gold - seekers up the Siskiyou Trail and throughout California 's northern counties.
Settlements of the Gold Rush era, such as Portuguese Flat on the Sacramento River, sprang into existence and then faded. The Gold Rush town of Weaverville on the Trinity River today retains the oldest continuously used Taoist temple in California, a legacy of Chinese miners who came. While there are not many Gold Rush era ghost towns still in existence, the remains of the once - bustling town of Shasta have been preserved in a California State Historic Park in Northern California.
Gold was also discovered in Southern California but on a much smaller scale. The first discovery of gold, at Rancho San Francisco in the mountains north of present - day Los Angeles, had been in 1842, six years before Marshall 's discovery, while California was still part of Mexico. However, these first deposits, and later discoveries in Southern California mountains, attracted little notice and were of limited consequence economically.
By 1850, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Faced with gold increasingly difficult to retrieve, Americans began to drive out foreigners to get at the most accessible gold that remained. The new California State Legislature passed a foreign miners tax of twenty dollars per month ($590 per month as of 2018), and American prospectors began organized attacks on foreign miners, particularly Latin Americans and Chinese.
In addition, the huge numbers of newcomers were driving Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food - gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners. This provoked counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out - gunned, were often slaughtered. Those who escaped massacres were many times unable to survive without access to their food - gathering areas, and they starved to death. Novelist and poet Joaquin Miller vividly captured one such attack in his semi-autobiographical work, Life Amongst the Modocs.
The first gold found in California was made on March 9, 1842. Francisco Lopez, a native California, was searching for stray horses. He stopped on the bank of a small creek in what later was known as Placerita Canyon, about 3 miles (4.8 km) east of the present - day Newhall, California, and about 35 miles (56 km) northwest of Los Angeles. While the horses grazed, Lopez dug up some wild onions and found a small gold nugget in the roots among the onion bulbs. He looked further and found more gold.
Lopez took the gold to authorities who confirmed its worth. Lopez and others began to search for other streambeds with gold deposits in the area. They found several in the northeastern section of the forest, within present - day Ventura County. In 1843 he found gold in San Feliciano Canyon near his first discovery. Mexican miners from Sonora worked the placer deposits until 1846, when the Californios began to agitate for independence from Mexico, and the Bear Flag Revolt caused many Mexicans to leave California.
The first people to rush to the goldfields, beginning in the spring of 1848, were the residents of California themselves -- primarily agriculturally oriented Americans and Europeans living in Northern California, along with Native Americans and some Californios (Spanish - speaking Californians). These first miners tended to be families in which everyone helped in the effort. Women and children of all ethnicities were often found panning next to the men. Some enterprising families set up boarding houses to accommodate the influx of men; in such cases, the women often brought in steady income while their husbands searched for gold.
Word of the Gold Rush spread slowly at first. The earliest gold - seekers were people who lived near California or people who heard the news from ships on the fastest sailing routes from California. The first large group of Americans to arrive were several thousand Oregonians who came down the Siskiyou Trail. Next came people from the Sandwich Islands, and several thousand Latin Americans, including people from Mexico, from Peru and from as far away as Chile, both by ship and overland. By the end of 1848, some 6,000 Argonauts had come to California.
Only a small number (probably fewer than 500) traveled overland from the United States that year. Some of these "forty - eighters '', as the earliest gold - seekers were sometimes called, were able to collect large amounts of easily accessible gold -- in some cases, thousands of dollars worth each day. Even ordinary prospectors averaged daily gold finds worth 10 to 15 times the daily wage of a laborer on the East Coast. A person could work for six months in the goldfields and find the equivalent of six years ' wages back home. Some hoped to get rich quick and return home, and others wished to start businesses in California.
By the beginning of 1849, word of the Gold Rush had spread around the world, and an overwhelming number of gold - seekers and merchants began to arrive from virtually every continent. The largest group of forty - niners in 1849 were Americans, arriving by the tens of thousands overland across the continent and along various sailing routes (the name "forty - niner '' was derived from the year 1849). Many from the East Coast negotiated a crossing of the Appalachian Mountains, taking to riverboats in Pennsylvania, poling the keelboats to Missouri River wagon train assembly ports, and then travelling in a wagon train along the California Trail. Many others came by way of the Isthmus of Panama and the steamships of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Australians and New Zealanders picked up the news from ships carrying Hawaiian newspapers, and thousands, infected with "gold fever '', boarded ships for California.
Forty - niners came from Latin America, particularly from the Mexican mining districts near Sonora and Chile. Gold - seekers and merchants from Asia, primarily from China, began arriving in 1849, at first in modest numbers to Gum San ("Gold Mountain ''), the name given to California in Chinese. The first immigrants from Europe, reeling from the effects of the Revolutions of 1848 and with a longer distance to travel, began arriving in late 1849, mostly from France, with some Germans, Italians, and Britons.
It is estimated that approximately 90,000 people arrived in California in 1849 -- about half by land and half by sea. Of these, perhaps 50,000 to 60,000 were Americans, and the rest were from other countries. By 1855, it is estimated at least 300,000 gold - seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world. The largest group continued to be Americans, but there were tens of thousands each of Mexicans, Chinese, Britons, Australians, French, and Latin Americans, together with many smaller groups of miners, such as African Americans, Filipinos, Basques and Turks.
People from small villages in the hills near Genova, Italy were among the first to settle permanently in the Sierra Nevada foothills; they brought with them traditional agricultural skills, developed to survive cold winters. A modest number of miners of African ancestry (probably less than 4,000) had come from the Southern States, the Caribbean and Brazil.
A number of immigrants were from China. Several hundred Chinese arrived in California in 1849 and 1850, and in 1852 more than 20,000 landed in San Francisco. Their distinctive dress and appearance was highly recognizable in the goldfields. Chinese miners suffered enormously, enduring violent racism from white miners who aimed their frustrations at foreigners. To this day, there has been no justice for known victims. Further animosity toward the Chinese led to legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and Foreign Miners Tax.
There were also women in the Gold Rush. However, their numbers were small. Of the 40,000 people who arrived by ship in the San Francisco harbor in 1849, only 700 were women. They held various roles including prostitutes, single entrepreneurs, married women, poor and wealthy women. They were of various ethnicities including Anglo - American, African - American, Hispanic, Native, European, Chinese, and Jewish. The reasons they came varied: some came with their husbands, refusing to be left behind to fend for themselves, some came because their husbands sent for them, and others came (singles and widows) for the adventure and economic opportunities. On the trail many people died from accidents, cholera, fever, and myriad other causes, and many women became widows before even setting eyes on California. While in California, women became widows quite frequently due to mining accidents, disease, or mining disputes of their husbands. Life in the goldfields offered opportunities for women to break from their traditional work.
Described as the "city of bachelors '', the disproportionate number of men to women in San Francisco created an environment where homosexuality and gay culture flourished. Barbary Coast was a district where men went to gamble, "satisfy their sexual desires '', and pay for sex with women or female impersonators.
When the Gold Rush began, the California goldfields were peculiarly lawless places. When gold was discovered at Sutter 's Mill, California was still technically part of Mexico, under American military occupation as the result of the Mexican -- American War. With the signing of the treaty ending the war on February 2, 1848, California became a possession of the United States, but it was not a formal "territory '' and did not become a state until September 9, 1850. California existed in the unusual condition of a region under military control. There was no civil legislature, executive or judicial body for the entire region. Local residents operated under a confusing and changing mixture of Mexican rules, American principles, and personal dictates. Lax enforcement of federal laws, such as the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, encouraged the arrival of free blacks and escaped slaves.
While the treaty ending the Mexican -- American War obliged the United States to honor Mexican land grants, almost all the goldfields were outside those grants. Instead, the goldfields were primarily on "public land '', meaning land formally owned by the United States government. However, there were no legal rules yet in place, and no practical enforcement mechanisms.
The benefit to the forty - niners was that the gold was simply "free for the taking '' at first. In the goldfields at the beginning, there was no private property, no licensing fees, and no taxes. The miners informally adapted Mexican mining law that had existed in California. For example, the rules attempted to balance the rights of early arrivers at a site with later arrivers; a "claim '' could be "staked '' by a prospector, but that claim was valid only as long as it was being actively worked.
Miners worked at a claim only long enough to determine its potential. If a claim was deemed as low - value -- as most were -- miners would abandon the site in search for a better one. In the case where a claim was abandoned or not worked upon, other miners would "claim - jump '' the land. "Claim - jumping '' meant that a miner began work on a previously claimed site. Disputes were often handled personally and violently, and were sometimes addressed by groups of prospectors acting as arbitrators. This often led to heightened ethnic tensions. In some areas the influx of many prospectors could lead to a reduction of the existing claim size by simple pressure.
Four hundred million years ago, California lay at the bottom of a large sea; underwater volcanoes deposited lava and minerals (including gold) onto the sea floor. By tectonic forces these minerals and rocks came to the surface of the Sierra Nevada, and eroded. Water carried the exposed gold downstream and deposited it in quiet gravel beds along the sides of old rivers and streams. The forty - niners first focused their efforts on these deposits of gold.
Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, early forty - niners were able to retrieve loose gold flakes and nuggets with their hands, or simply "pan '' for gold in rivers and streams. Panning can not take place on a large scale, and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining, using "cradles '' and "rockers '' or "long - toms '' to process larger volumes of gravel. Miners would also engage in "coyoteing '', a method that involved digging a shaft 6 to 13 meters (20 to 43 ft) deep into placer deposits along a stream. Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt.
In the most complex placer mining, groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom. Modern estimates by the U.S. Geological Survey are that some 12 million ounces (370 t) of gold were removed in the first five years of the Gold Rush (worth over US $ 16 billion at December 2010 prices).
In the next stage, by 1853, hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold - bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the goldfields. In a modern style of hydraulic mining first developed in California, and later used around the world, a high - pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold - bearing gravel beds. The loosened gravel and gold would then pass over sluices, with the gold settling to the bottom where it was collected. By the mid-1880s, it is estimated that 11 million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US $15 billion at December 2010 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking ''.
A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants went into streams and rivers. As of 1999 many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.
After the Gold Rush had concluded, gold recovery operations continued. The final stage to recover loose gold was to prospect for gold that had slowly washed down into the flat river bottoms and sandbars of California 's Central Valley and other gold - bearing areas of California (such as Scott Valley in Siskiyou County). By the late 1890s, dredging technology (also invented in California) had become economical, and it is estimated that more than 20 million ounces (620 t) were recovered by dredging (worth approximately US $28 billion at December 2010 prices).
Both during the Gold Rush and in the decades that followed, gold - seekers also engaged in "hard - rock '' mining, extracting the gold directly from the rock that contained it (typically quartz), usually by digging and blasting to follow and remove veins of the gold - bearing quartz. By 1851, quartz mining had become the major industry of Coloma. Once the gold - bearing rocks were brought to surface, the rocks were crushed and the gold separated, either using separation in water, using its density difference from quartz sand, or by washing the sand over copper plates coated with mercury (with which gold forms an amalgam). Loss of mercury in the amalgamation process was a source of environmental contamination. Eventually, hard - rock mining became the single largest source of gold produced in the Gold Country. The total production of gold in California from then till now is estimated at 118 million ounces (3700 t).
Forty - niner panning for gold
Sluice for separation of gold from dirt with water
Excavating a river bed after the water has been diverted
Crushing quartz ore prior to washing out gold
Excavating a gravel bed with jets, circa 1863
Recent scholarship confirms that merchants made far more money than miners during the Gold Rush. The wealthiest man in California during the early years of the rush was Samuel Brannan, a tireless self - promoter, shopkeeper and newspaper publisher. Brannan opened the first supply stores in Sacramento, Coloma, and other spots in the goldfields. Just as the rush began he purchased all the prospecting supplies available in San Francisco and re-sold them at a substantial profit.
Some gold - seekers made a significant amount of money. On average, half the gold - seekers made a modest profit, after taking all expenses into account; economic historians have suggested that white miners were more successful than black, Indian, or Chinese miners. However, taxes such as the California foreign miners tax passed in 1851, targeted mainly Latino miners and kept them from making as much money as whites, who did not have any taxes imposed on them. In California most late arrivals made little or wound up losing money. Similarly, many unlucky merchants set up in settlements which disappeared, or which succumbed to one of the calamitous fires that swept the towns that sprang up. By contrast, a businessman who went on to great success was Levi Strauss, who first began selling denim overalls in San Francisco in 1853.
Other businessmen reaped great rewards in retail, shipping, entertainment, lodging, or transportation. Boardinghouses, food preparation, sewing, and laundry were highly profitable businesses often run by women (married, single, or widowed) who realized men would pay well for a service done by a woman. Brothels also brought in large profits, especially when combined with saloons and gaming houses.
By 1855, the economic climate had changed dramatically. Gold could be retrieved profitably from the goldfields only by medium to large groups of workers, either in partnerships or as employees. By the mid-1850s, it was the owners of these gold - mining companies who made the money. Also, the population and economy of California had become large and diverse enough that money could be made in a wide variety of conventional businesses.
Once extracted, the gold itself took many paths. First, much of the gold was used locally to purchase food, supplies and lodging for the miners. It also went towards entertainment, which consisted of anything from a traveling theater to alcohol, gambling, and prostitutes. These transactions often took place using the recently recovered gold, carefully weighed out. These merchants and vendors in turn used the gold to purchase supplies from ship captains or packers bringing goods to California.
The gold then left California aboard ships or mules to go to the makers of the goods from around the world. A second path was the Argonauts themselves who, having personally acquired a sufficient amount, sent the gold home, or returned home taking with them their hard - earned "diggings ''. For example, one estimate is that some US $ 80 million worth of California gold was sent to France by French prospectors and merchants.
As the Gold Rush progressed, local banks and gold dealers issued "banknotes '' or "drafts '' -- locally accepted paper currency -- in exchange for gold, and private mints created private gold coins. With the building of the San Francisco Mint in 1854, gold bullion was turned into official United States gold coins for circulation. The gold was also later sent by California banks to U.S. national banks in exchange for national paper currency to be used in the booming California economy.
The arrival of hundreds of thousands of new people in California within a few years, compared to a population of some 15,000 Europeans and Californios beforehand, had many dramatic effects.
A 2017 study attributes the record - long economic expansion of the United States in the recession - free period of 1841 -- 1856 primarily to "a boom in transportation - goods investment following the discovery of gold in California. ''
The Gold Rush propelled California from a sleepy, little - known backwater to a center of the global imagination and the destination of hundreds of thousands of people. The new immigrants often showed remarkable inventiveness and civic - mindedness. For example, in the midst of the Gold Rush, towns and cities were chartered, a state constitutional convention was convened, a state constitution written, elections held, and representatives sent to Washington, D.C. to negotiate the admission of California as a state.
Large - scale agriculture (California 's second "Gold Rush '') began during this time. Roads, schools, churches, and civic organizations quickly came into existence. The vast majority of the immigrants were Americans. Pressure grew for better communications and political connections to the rest of the United States, leading to statehood for California on September 9, 1850, in the Compromise of 1850 as the 31st state of the United States.
Between 1847 and 1870, the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000. The Gold Rush wealth and population increase led to significantly improved transportation between California and the East Coast. The Panama Railway, spanning the Isthmus of Panama, was finished in 1855. Steamships, including those owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, began regular service from San Francisco to Panama, where passengers, goods and mail would take the train across the Isthmus and board steamships headed to the East Coast. One ill - fated journey, that of the S.S. Central America, ended in disaster as the ship sank in a hurricane off the coast of the Carolinas in 1857, with approximately three tons of California gold aboard.
The human and environmental costs of the Gold Rush were substantial. Native Americans, dependent on traditional hunting, gathering and agriculture, became the victims of starvation and disease, as gravel, silt and toxic chemicals from prospecting operations killed fish and destroyed habitats. The surge in the mining population also resulted in the disappearance of game and food gathering locales as gold camps and other settlements were built amidst them. Later farming spread to supply the settlers ' camps, taking more land away from the Native Americans.
In some areas, systematic attacks against tribespeople in or near mining districts occurred. Various conflicts were fought between natives and settlers. Miners often saw Native Americans as impediments to their mining activities. Ed Allen, interpretive lead for Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park, reported that there were times when miners would kill up to 50 or more Natives in one day. Retribution attacks on solitary miners could result in larger scale attacks against Native populations, at times tribes or villages not involved in the original act. During the 1852 Bridge Gulch Massacre, a group of settlers attacked a band of Wintu Indians in response to the killing of a citizen named J.R. Anderson. After his killing, the sheriff led a group of men to track down the Indians, whom the men then attacked. Only three children survived the massacre that was against a different band of Wintu than the one that had killed Anderson.
Historian Benjamin Madley recorded the numbers of killings of California Indians between 1846 and 1873 and estimated that during this period at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians, mostly occurring in more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise ''). According to demographer Russell Thornton, between 1849 and 1890, the Indigenous population of California fell below 20,000 -- primarily because of the killings. According to the government of California, some 4,500 Native Americans suffered violent deaths between 1849 and 1870. Furthermore, California stood in opposition of ratifying the eighteen treaties signed between tribal leaders and federal agents in 1851.
The state government, in support of miner activities funded and supported death squads, appropriating over 1 million dollars towards the funding and operation of the paramilitary organizations. Peter Burnett, California 's first governor declared that California was a battleground between the races and that there were only two options towards California Indians, extermination or removal. "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the two races until the Indian race becomes extinct, must be expected. While we can not anticipate the result with but painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power and wisdom of man to avert. '' For Burnett, like many of his contemporaries, the genocide was part of God 's plan, and it was necessary for Burnett 's constituency to move forward in California. The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians, passed on April 22, 1850 by the California Legislature, allowed settlers to capture and use Native people as bonded workers, prohibited Native peoples ' testimony against settlers, and allowed the adoption of Native children by settlers, often for labor purposes.
After the initial boom had ended, explicitly anti-foreign and racist attacks, laws and confiscatory taxes sought to drive out foreigners -- not just Native Americans -- from the mines, especially the Chinese and Latin American immigrants mostly from Sonora, Mexico and Chile. The toll on the American immigrants was severe as well: one in twelve forty - niners perished, as the death and crime rates during the Gold Rush were extraordinarily high, and the resulting vigilantism also took its toll.
The Gold Rush stimulated economies around the world as well. Farmers in Chile, Australia, and Hawaii found a huge new market for their food; British manufactured goods were in high demand; clothing and even prefabricated houses arrived from China. The return of large amounts of California gold to pay for these goods raised prices and stimulated investment and the creation of jobs around the world. Australian prospector Edward Hargraves, noting similarities between the geography of California and his home country, returned to Australia to discover gold and spark the Australian gold rushes. Preceding the Gold Rush, the United States was on a bi-metallic standard, but the sudden increase in physical gold supply increased the relative value of physical silver and drove silver money from circulation. The increase in gold supply also created a monetary supply shock.
Within a few years after the end of the Gold Rush, in 1863, the groundbreaking ceremony for the western leg of the First Transcontinental Railroad was held in Sacramento. The line 's completion, some six years later, financed in part with Gold Rush money, united California with the central and eastern United States. Travel that had taken weeks or even months could now be accomplished in days.
California 's name became indelibly connected with the Gold Rush, and fast success in a new world became known as the "California Dream. '' California was perceived as a place of new beginnings, where great wealth could reward hard work and good luck. Historian H.W. Brands noted that in the years after the Gold Rush, the California Dream spread across the nation:
The old American Dream... was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin 's "Poor Richard ''... of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in a twinkling by audacity and good luck. (This) golden dream... became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter 's Mill.
Overnight California gained the international reputation as the "golden state ''. Generations of immigrants have been attracted by the California Dream. California farmers, oil drillers, movie makers, airplane builders, and "dot - com '' entrepreneurs have each had their boom times in the decades after the Gold Rush.
Included among the modern legacies of the California Gold Rush are the California state motto, "Eureka '' ("I have found it ''), Gold Rush images on the California State Seal, and the state nickname, "The Golden State '', as well as place names, such as Placer County, Rough and Ready, Placerville (formerly named "Dry Diggings '' and then "Hangtown '' during rush time), Whiskeytown, Drytown, Angels Camp, Happy Camp, and Sawyers Bar. The San Francisco 49ers National Football League team, and the similarly named athletic teams of California State University, Long Beach, are named for the prospectors of the California Gold Rush.
In addition, the standard route shield of state highways in California is in the shape of a miner 's spade to honor the California Gold Rush. Today, aptly named State Route 49 travels through the Sierra Nevada foothills, connecting many Gold Rush - era towns such as Placerville, Auburn, Grass Valley, Nevada City, Coloma, Jackson, and Sonora. This state highway also passes very near Columbia State Historic Park, a protected area encompassing the historic business district of the town of Columbia; the park has preserved many Gold Rush - era buildings, which are presently occupied by tourist - oriented businesses.
The literary history of the Gold Rush is reflected in the works of Mark Twain (The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County), Bret Harte (A Millionaire of Rough - and - Ready), Joaquin Miller (Life Amongst the Modocs), and many others.
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where is the permit number located on a driver's permit california | International driving Permit - wikipedia
An International Driving Permit (IDP) is an identity document that allows the holder to drive a private motor vehicle in any country that recognises IDPs. To be valid, the IDP must be accompanied by a valid driving licence.
The IDP, which is slightly larger than a passport, is a multi-language translation of the driver 's licence from the issuing nation, complete with photograph and vital statistics.
The main regulations about driving licences are in Annex 6 (domestic driving permit) and Annex 7 (International Driving Permit). The currently active version of those is in force in each Contracting Party since no later than 29 March 2011 (Article 43).
Article 41 of the Convention describes requirements for driving licences. Key of those are:
The Convention on Road Traffic has been ratified by 72 countries. Examples of countries that have not ratified the Convention include Chile, China (Republic of China), Costa Rica, Ecuador, the Holy See, Indonesia, Ireland, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Mexico, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, and Venezuela.
The Convention had amendments on 3 September 1993 and 28 March 2006. There is a European Agreement supplementing the Convention on Road Traffic (1968), which was concluded in Geneva, on 1 May 1971.
Note that before 29 March 2011 the Article demanded Contracting Parties to recognise as valid for driving in their territories:
Prior to 29 March 2011, Annex 6 and Annex 7 defined forms of driver 's licences that are different from those defined after that date. Driving licences issued before 29 March 2011 that match older edition of the Annexes are valid until their expiration dates (Article 43).
The 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic has been ratified by 96 states. The 1949 Convention 's description of a Driving Permit and International Driving Permit are located in Annexes 9 and 10. Switzerland signed but did not ratify the Convention.
There is a European Agreement supplementing the 1949 Convention on Road Traffic, in addition to the 1949 Protocol on road signs and signals, concluded in Geneva on 16 September 1950.
The 1926 Convention on Motor Traffic is the older IDP Convention. It is only required in Iraq, Somalia and Brazil. International Driving Permits according to the 1926 Convention on Motor Traffic are also valid in Liechtenstein and Mexico which also did n't ratify any of the above - mentioned later conventions. Mexico also recognizes the Inter-American Driving Permit according to the Convention on the Regulation of Inter-American Automotive Traffic 1943. This convention also contains regulations about driving licences and an international driving licence in its Articles VI and XIII and its Annex B and thus gives an alternative opportunity for a valid driving permit based on a convention between several sovereign states. Article XIII paragraph 2 says "the international driving licence issued in accordance with the international Convention of 1926 shall be deemed to meet the requirements of this Article '' (which defines the requirements of the international driving licence according to the Convention on the Regulation of Inter-American Automotive Traffic 1943). For states that have ratified the 1926 Convention on Motor Traffic but did not ratify the 1. Convention on Road Traffic (1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic) (e. g. Germany) or the 19. Convention on Road Traffic (1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic) (Argentina, Chile, Egypt, Spain, India, Ireland, Iceland, Lebanese Republic, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, Syria, Thailand and the Vatican City State (eventually via the Holy See as contract party)) the number of states in which the International Driving Permit according to the 1926 Convention on Motor Traffic is valid, is higher.
Both 1949 and 1926 Conventions are authorised for issue to people over the age of 18 holding valid UK driving licences.
According to the 1949 Convention on Road Traffic, an IDP remains valid for one year from the date of issue. However, according to the Vienna Convention, an IDP remains valid for no more than three years from the date of issue, or until the expiration date of national driving permit, whichever is earlier. An IDP is not valid for driving in the country where it was issued.
The current parties to the 1949 Geneva Convention are listed below. These countries issue International Driving Permits.
Asia, Oceania (19) Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Fiji, India, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam
Americas (15) Argentina, Barbados, Canada, Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Jamaica, Paraguay, Peru, Republic of Dominica, Trinidad and Tobago, United States of America, Venezuela
Europe (36) Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of San Marino, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, Vatican City (Holy See)
Middle East, Africa (32) Algeria, Barbados, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ghana, Israel, Jordan, Kingdom of Lesotho, Lebanon, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Republic of South Africa, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Syria, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Zimbabwe
Following is a map of countries that recognize the International Driving Permit
* Not party to 1949 convention; International Driving Permit honored * * Requires presentation to local police and payment of special registration upon arrival * * * IDP must be exchanged for a local driving licence.
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what kind of seafood would you expect to have the highest levels of mercury and why | Mercury in fish - wikipedia
Fish and shellfish concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy metals, particularly mercury and fat - soluble pollutants from water pollution. Species of fish that are long - lived and high on the food chain, such as marlin, tuna, shark, swordfish, king mackerel and tilefish (Gulf of Mexico) contain higher concentrations of mercury than others.
Mercury is known to bioaccumulate in humans, so bioaccumulation in seafood carries over into human populations, where it can result in mercury poisoning. Mercury is dangerous to both natural ecosystems and humans because it is a metal known to be highly toxic, especially due to its ability to damage the central nervous system. In human - controlled ecosystems of fish, usually done for market production of wanted seafood species, mercury clearly rises through the food chain via fish consuming small plankton, as well as through non-food sources such as underwater sediment. This mercury grows in concentration within the bodies of fish and can be measured in the tissues of selected species.
The presence of mercury in fish can be a particular health concern for women who are or may become pregnant, nursing mothers, and young children.
The consumption of fish is by far the most significant source of ingestion - related mercury exposure in humans and animals. Mercury and methyl mercury are present in only very small concentrations in seawater. However, they are absorbed, usually as methyl mercury, by algae at the start of the food chain. This algae is then eaten by fish and other organisms higher in the food chain. Fish efficiently absorb methyl mercury, but excrete it very slowly. Methyl mercury is not soluble and therefore not excreted. Instead, it accumulates, primarily in the viscera, although also in the muscle tissue. This results in the bioaccumulation of mercury, in a buildup in the adipose tissue of successive trophic levels: zooplankton, small nekton, larger fish, and so on. The older that such fish become, the more mercury they may have absorbed. Anything that eats these fish within the food chain also consumes the higher level of mercury that the fish have accumulated. This process explains why predatory fish such as swordfish and sharks or birds like osprey and eagles have higher concentrations of mercury in their tissue than could be accounted for by direct exposure alone. Species on the food chain can amass body concentrations of mercury up to ten times higher than the species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. For example, herring contains mercury levels at about 0.1 parts per million, while shark contains mercury levels greater than 1 part per million.
Since the Minamata disaster, Japan has improved on its mercury regulation. During the 1970s Japan made strides to reduce mercury demand and production. Chief among these efforts was the reduction of inorganic mercury produced by mines. It was halted by 1974, and demand fell from 2,500 tons per year in 1964, its peak, to 10 tons per year in recent years. Since these initial strides, Japan has introduced a list of regulations governing the mercury content of a variety of materials.
Regulation of these potential sources of pollution reduces the amount of mercury that ends up in fish and, through biomagnification, in humans. In addition to enacting legislation controlling the mercury levels in potential pollutants, Japan has directly influenced the environment by issuing regulations setting acceptable levels of environmental mercury pollution.
It is Japan 's goal to promote international mercury legislation in hopes of preventing any country from experiencing what it did. Despite Japan 's extensive regulation and experience with mercury - based disasters, there is still little information provided to the public. The Japanese Federal Fish Advisory 's recommendations are less strict than those in America.
The United States is a leader in mercury regulation. A key piece of mercury legislation in the United States is the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS). This policy was finalized by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on December 16, 2011. This is a federal policy which directly influences mercury in fish, and is the first of its kind in the United States. The facilities targeted by this new policy are the chief sources of mercury in the air. The airborne mercury is dissolved in the oceans, where microorganisms convert waterborne mercury into methyl mercury; mercury thus finds its way into the food chain and into fish. MATS is legislated towards the aim of preventing about 90 % of the emissions from power plants from reaching the air. In total the expected health benefits are estimated at $37 billion -- $90 billion by 2016. In comparison, the expected economic cost is $9.6 billion annually. Another integral piece of legislation controlling the emission of mercury to the air is the Clean Air Act. Under this act, mercury is classified as a hazardous air pollutant, allowing the EPA to regulate emissions by establishing performance standards.
Legislation on a global scale is believed by some to be needed for this issue because mercury pollution is estimated to be so far - reaching. Pollution from one country does not stay localized to that country. Despite the need by some, international regulation has been slow to take off. The first forms of international legislation appeared in the 1970s, beginning as agreements about shared bodies of water. The next step was the Stockholm Declaration, which urged countries to avoid polluting the oceans by dumping. The 1972 Oslo Convention and the 1974 Paris Convention were adopted by parts of Europe. Both lessened polluting the ocean with mercury, the former by banning the dumping of ships and aircraft into the ocean and the latter by obligating participants to reduce land - based pollution on coastlines. The first real global legislation regarding mercury pollution was the Basel Convention of 1989. This convention attempts to reduce the movement of mercury across borders and primarily regulates the import and export of toxic chemicals, including mercury. In 1998 the Convention on Long - Range Transboundary Air Pollution was adopted by most of the European Union, the United States, and Canada. Its primary objective is to cut emissions of heavy metals. The convention is the largest international agreement on mercury established to date. In the early 21st century, the focus of mercury regulation has been on voluntary programs. The next phase in legislation is a global effort, and this appears to be what the Minamata Convention hopes to accomplish. The Minamata Convention, named after the Japanese city that suffered horribly from mercury pollution, has taken four years of negotiation but was finally adopted by delegates from over 140 countries. The convention will come into power after 50 countries have signed it. The Minamata Convention will require all participants to eliminate, where possible, the release of mercury from small - scale gold mining. It will also require a sharp reduction in emission from coal burning.
The danger level from consuming fish depends on species and size. Size is the best predictor of increased levels of accumulated mercury. Sharks, such as the mako shark, have very high levels of mercury. A study on New Jersey coastal fish indicated that one third of the sampled fish had levels of mercury above 0.5 parts per million, a level that could pose a human health concern for consumers who regularly eat this fish. Another study of marketplace fish caught in waters surrounding Southern Italy showed that, undoubtedly, greater fish weight leads to additional mercury found in fish body tissues. Moreover, the concentration, measured in milligrams of mercury per kilogram of fish, steadily increases with the size of the fish. Anglerfish off the coast of Italy were found with concentrations as high as 2.2 milligrams of mercury per kilogram, higher than the recommended limit of 1 milligram of mercury per kilogram. Annually, Italy catches approximately a third of its fish from the Adriatic Sea, where these anglerfish were found.
Fish that consume their prey in a certain manner may contain much higher concentrations of mercury than other species. Grass carp off the coast of China hold far less internal mercury than do bighead carp. The reason for this is that bighead carp are filter feeders, while grass carp are not. Thus, bighead carp gather more mercury by eating large amounts of small plankton, as well as sucking up sediments that collect a sizable amount of methyl mercury.
US government scientists tested fish in 291 streams around the country for mercury contamination. They found mercury in every fish tested, according to the study by the U.S. Department of the Interior. They found mercury even in fish of isolated rural waterways. Twenty - five percent of the fish tested had mercury levels above the safety levels determined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for people who eat the fish regularly.
There are three types of mercury emission: anthropogenic, re-emission, and natural, including volcanoes and geothermal vents. Anthropogenic sources are responsible for 30 % of all emissions, while natural sources are responsible for 10 %, and re-emission accounts for the other 60 %. While re-emission accounts for the largest proportion of emissions, it is likely that the mercury emitted from these sources originally came from anthropogenic sources.
Anthropogenic sources include coal burning, cement production, oil refining, artisan and small - scale gold mining, wastes from consumer products, dental amalgam, the chlor - alkali industry, production of vinyl chloride, and the mining, smelting, and production of iron and other metals. The total amount of mercury released by mankind in 2010 was estimated to be 1960 metric tons. The majority of this comes from coal burning and gold mining, accounting for 24 % and 37 % of total anthropogenic output respectively.
Re-emission, the largest emitter, occurs in a variety of ways. It is possible for mercury that has been deposited in soil to be re-emitted into the mercury cycle via floods. A second example of re-emission is a forest fire; mercury that has been absorbed into plant life is re-released into the atmosphere. While it is difficult to estimate the exact extent of mercury re-emission, it is an important field of study. Knowing how easily and how often previously emitted mercury can be released helps us learn how long it will take for a reduction in anthropogenic sources to be reflected in the environment. Mercury that has been released can find its way into the oceans. A 2008 model estimated the total amount of deposition into the oceans that year to be 3,700 metric tons. It is estimated that rivers carry as much as 2,420 metric tons. Much of the mercury deposited in the oceans is re-emitted, however; as much as 300 metric tons is converted into methyl mercury. While only 13 % of this finds its way into the food chain, that is still 40 metric tons a year.
Much (an estimated 40 %) of the mercury that eventually finds its way into fish originates with coal - burning power plants and chlorine production plants. The largest source of mercury contamination in the United States is coal - fueled power plant emissions. Chlorine chemical plants use mercury to extract chlorine from salt, which in many parts of the world is discharged as mercury compounds in waste water, though this process has been largely replaced by the more economically viable membrane cell process, which does not use mercury. Coal contains mercury as a natural contaminant. When it is fired for electricity generation, the mercury is released as smoke into the atmosphere. Most of this mercury pollution can be eliminated if pollution - control devices are installed.
Mercury in the United States frequently comes from power plants, which release about 50 % of the nation 's mercury emissions. In other countries, such as Ghana, gold mining requires mercury compounds, leading to workers receiving significant quantities of mercury while performing their jobs. Such mercury from gold mines is specifically known to contribute to biomagnification in aquatic food chains.
The farming of aquatic organisms, known as aquaculture, often involves fish feed that contains mercury. A study by Jardine has found no reliable connection between mercury in fish food affecting aquaculture organisms or aquatic organisms in the wild. Even so, mercury from other sources may still affect organisms grown through aquaculture. In China, farmed fish species, such as bighead carp, mud carp, and Siniperca chuatsi, carried 90 % of total mercury content in all of the measured fish in a study by Cheng. This study also concluded that mercury bioaccumulates through food chains even in controlled aquaculture environments. Both total mercury and methyl mercury absorption was found to be derived from sediments containing mercury, not mainly from fish feed.
The Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology has noted that fish feed used in aquaculture often contains heavy metals such as mercury, lead, and arsenic, and has dispatched these concerns to organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Elemental mercury often comes from coal power plants, and oxidized mercury often comes from incinerators. Oil - fired power plants also contribute mercury to the environment. The energy industry therefore is a key player in the introduction of mercury into the environment. When addressing the issue of reducing seafood mercury bioaccumulation on a global scale, it is important to pinpoint major energy producers and consumers whose exchange of energy may be the root of the problem.
A study that was led by scientists from Harvard University and U.S. Geological Survey has determined that in the next several decades there will be a 50 percent increase in mercury levels. The study also shows that the increases are connected through industrial emissions and are not natural as previously thought. However, by decreasing emissions from industrial plants, the possibility of decreasing the high level of mercury remains plausible. Several nations are currently implementing systems that will detect and therefore later be able to control the output of mercury into the atmosphere. Air pollution control devices (APCDs) have been implemented in South Korea as the government is starting to take inventory of mercury sources. Mercury pollution can also be removed by electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). Bag - based filters are also used in factories that may contribute mercury to the environment. Flue - gas desulfurization, normally used to eliminate sulfur dioxide, can also be used in conjunction with APCDs to remove additional mercury before exhausts are released into the environment. Even so, countries such as South Korea have only begun to use inventories of mercury sources, calling into question how fast anti-mercury measures will be put into factories.
Mercury content in fish does not affect all populations equally. Certain ethnic groups, as well as young children, are more likely to suffer the effects of methyl mercury poisoning. In the United States, Wallace gathered data that indicated 16.9 % of women who self - identify as Native American, Asian, Pacific Islander, or multiracial exceed the recommended reference dose of mercury. A study done on children of the Faroe Islands near Great Britain showed neurological problems stemming from mothers consuming pilot whale meat during pregnancy. Such data demonstrate that certain ethnic groups, as well as children, are particularly vulnerable to methyl mercury ingestion.
While various studies have shown high concentrations of mercury accumulated in fish, medical cases often go unreported and pose a difficulty in correlating mercury in fish with human poisoning. Environmental issues cover a broad range of areas, but medical cases that are associated with pollutants released into the environment by factories or construction areas cause public health issues that affect not only the environment but also human well - being. Substances poisonous to the human body in a particular amount or dose may not cause any symptoms over time. While there are limits to how much of anything the body can have, mercury is a particular poison that produces immediate physical symptoms when the body has been accumulating it over a period of time.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency measures the amount of mercury concentrated in human blood that does not pose fatal health outcomes. The agency is in charge of enforcing regulations and policies that cover a range of environmental topics. Analysis of blood mercury concentrations in childbearing women has proved that exposure to methyl mercury (MeHg) occurs primarily through the consumption of fish. The U.S. FDA highly recommends against pregnant woman and young children consuming raw fish. Pregnant women and young children often lack strong immune systems and are more at risk for foodborne illnesses.
In the United States, the EPA serves as an advisory organ to set the levels of mercury that are non-fatal in humans. Symptoms of exposure to high levels of methyl mercury include disturbed vision, hearing, and speech, lack of coordination, and muscle weakness. Medical studies have examined the correlation of fish consumption and health issues. American studies have presented evidence of fish consumption and its effects on child development. Longitudinal studies agree that human activities are what release and accumulate mercury in marine life. Addressing the issues of fish consumption forces health officials to recognize the sources of mercury in the human body. Specific Native American tribes are vulnerable to a high exposure of mercury. Studies have determined that these native peoples in the United States suffer more from mercury poisoning and illness than any other cohort group in the country. This is due to the fact that fish is a main source of protein. Exposure risk was assessed through a medical study, thus raising judicial issues of whether the public health of these groups is a priority in the United States.
Most cases that arise are due to work exposure or medicinal poisoning. Environmental justice advocates can relate these mercury cases to the unregulated amount of mercury that enters the environment. Workers can be exposed to mercury through the manufacture of fluorescent tubes, chloralkali, or acetaldehyde among other products. Anthropogenic sources and places where mercury is released or used as a solid or vapor puts these has caused fatigue, dizziness, hyperhidrosis, chest congestion, and loss of motor skills. When taken to the hospital, the neurotoxicity levels had already exceeded the maximum amounts. Over-the - counter medicines have been shown to have traces of mercurous choloride. Medical research reported that the children who received doses of these medicines experienced physical symptoms such as "drooling, irregular arm movements, and impaired gait ''. Exposures to this result in severe physical impairments unregulated chemicals that are put in products. The intake of laxatives that contained about 120 mg of mercurous chloride has also been cases of mercury 's toxicity.
Even in countries, such as Sweden, that have phased out mercury in the dental industry and manufacturing, lingering quantities of mercury still exist in lakes and coastal areas. Moreover, global contributions of mercury to the environment also affect that country. A study in Sweden selected 127 women who had a high level of fish consumption. Around 20 % of the women selected, after hair and blood samples, were found to have exceeded the EPA 's recommended reference dose of 0.1 micrograms of methyl mercury per kilogram of body weight. Additionally, the study concluded that there was "no margin of safety for neuraldevelopmental effects in fetus (es) '' without removing the offending species of fish from the diets of the women. This indicates that families intending to raise children should be especially careful about exposing their unborn babies to toxic mercury via fish.
Children exposed to mercury are particularly susceptible to poisoning since the ratio of food, water, and air intake versus individual body weight is much higher than that of adults. Additionally, children undergo fast growth which causes them to be more susceptible to damaging exposure to methylmercury, as well as the long term consequences of such exposure during childhood development. Young age plays an important role in terms of damage caused by mercury, and much literature on mercury focuses on pregnant women and specific precautions designed to prevent youth mercury exposure. Prenatal methylmercury exposure does cause behavioral problems in infants and worsened cognitive test performance. Additionally, Hughner estimates that 250,000 women may be exposing their unborn babies to levels of methyl mercury above recommended federal levels.
Economically, there does not seem to be a difference in mercury exposure based on socioeconomic bracket and the ability to buy fish from the market. One study shows "no significant differences in mercury levels in tuna, bluefish, and flounder as a function of type of store or economic neighborhood ''.
Certain countries have cultural differences that lead to more fish consumption and therefore more possible exposure to seafood methylmercury. In Ghana, the local population traditionally consumes large quantities of fish, leading to potentially dangerous amounts of mercury in the bloodstream. In the Amazonian Basin, during the rainy season, herbivorous fish dominate the diet of 72.2 % of the women selected from a particular Amazonian village. Analysis also shows increase of mercury content in the hair of humans who eat fish on a daily basis in the Amazon.
The most serious case of mercury poisoning in recent history was in the Japanese city of Minamata, in the 1950s. Minamata poisoning proves that significant prenatal and postnatal exposure to high levels of methylmercury causes serious neurological problems. Minamata victims also show higher than normal signs of psychiatric diseases, along with those diseases being caused by underlying neurological issues.
A 2014 USGS survey of mercury levels in the United States water system found that methylmercury concentrations in fish were typically highest in wetland areas including the coastal plain streams in the Southeast. Fish methylmercury levels were also high in the Western US, but only in streams that had been mined for mercury or gold.
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists note that, considering all the dangers and benefits, the overall result of eating fish in the United States is likely to improve personal health rather than damage it. The college argues that the omega - 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids found in fish have a health benefit that outweighs the harm from mercury or polychlorinated biphenyls. Even so, the College also suggests limiting fish consumption for pregnant women. A risk - benefit study weighing the risks of mercury consumption against the benefits derived from fish in Alaska showed that the benefits outweigh the risks when consuming salmon for both cardiovascular health and infant neurological development, and that MeHg data for non-oily fish needs to be of high quality before relative risk can be reliably identified. The Seychelles Child Development Study traced more than seven hundred mother - child pairs for nine years, and found no neurological problems in the children resulting from both prenatal and postnatal methylmercury exposure. A study done with marketed fish in Oman concluded that, except in a few rare cases, the fish available for consumption had lower levels of mercury than limits defined by various health organizations. Clearly, these studies call into question whether or not normal everyday consumption of fish is dangerous in any way, and at very least justify the creation of place - based and culturally relevant consumption advisories. They do not take into account cases of severe mercury poisoning, such as that found in Minamata disease.
Selenium is an element that is known to counteract some of the dangers of ingesting mercury. Multiple studies have been done, such as those in New Jersey and Sweden, that take into account selenium as well as mercury levels. Fish often do contain selenium in conjunction with bioaccumulated mercury, which may offset some of the dangers associated with the mercury ingested.
The complexities associated with mercury transport and environmental fate are described by USEPA in their 1997 Mercury Study Report to Congress. Because methyl mercury and high levels of elemental mercury can be particularly toxic to a fetus or young children, organizations such as the U.S. EPA and FDA recommend that women who are pregnant or plan to become pregnant within the next one or two years, as well as young children, avoid eating more than 6 ounces (170g, one average meal) of fish per week.
In the United States, the FDA has an action level for methylmercury in commercial marine and freshwater fish that is 1.0 parts per million (ppm). In Canada, the limit for the total of mercury content is 0.5 ppm. The Got Mercury? website includes a calculator for determining mercury levels in fish.
Species with characteristically low levels of mercury include shrimp, tilapia, salmon, pollock, and catfish (FDA March 2004). The FDA characterizes shrimp, catfish, pollock, salmon, sardines, and canned light tuna as low - mercury seafood, although recent tests have indicated that up to 6 percent of canned light tuna may contain high levels. A study published in 2008 found that mercury distribution in tuna meat is inversely related to the lipid content, suggesting that the lipid concentration within edible tuna tissues has a diluting effect on mercury content. These findings suggest that choosing to consume a type of tuna that has a higher natural fat content may help reduce the amount of mercury intake, compared to consuming tuna with a low fat content. Also, many of the fish chosen for sushi contain high levels of mercury.
According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people. However, certain seafood might contain levels of mercury that may cause harm to an unborn baby (and especially its brain development and nervous system). In a young child, high levels of mercury can interfere with the development of the nervous system. The FDA provides three recommendations for young children, pregnant women, and women of child - bearing age:
Research suggests that selenium content in fish is protective against the toxic effects of methylmercury content. Fish with higher ratios of selenium to methylmercury (Se: Hg) are better to eat since the selenium binds to the methylmercury allowing it to pass through the body un-absorbed.
In 2012 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reported on chemical contaminants they found in the food of over 20 European countries. They established that fish meat and fish products were primarily responsible for methylmercury in the diet of all age classes. Particularly implicated were swordfish, tuna, cod, pike, whiting and hake. The EFSA recommend a tolerable weekly intake for methylmercury of 1.3 μg / kg body weight.
In the 1950s, inhabitants of the seaside town of Minamata, on Kyushu island in Japan, noticed strange behavior in animals. Cats would exhibit nervous tremors, and dance and scream. Within a few years this was observed in other animals; birds would drop out of the sky. Symptoms were also observed in fish, an important component of the diet, especially for the poor. When human symptoms started to be noticed around 1956 an investigation began. Fishing was officially banned in 1957. It was found that the Chisso Corporation, a petrochemical company and maker of plastics such as vinyl chloride, had been discharging heavy metal waste into the sea for decades. They used mercury compounds as catalysts in their syntheses. It is believed that about 5,000 people were killed and perhaps 50,000 have been to some extent poisoned by mercury. Mercury poisoning in Minamata, Japan, is now known as Minamata disease.
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are you the one season 2 last episode | Are You the One? - Wikipedia
Are You the One? is an American reality television series on MTV, in which young singles try to find love. A group of men and women are secretly paired into male - female couples by producers, via a matchmaking algorithm. Then, while living together, the contestants try to identify all of these "perfect matches. '' If they succeed, the entire group shares a prize of up to $1 million. Over the course of each season, the contestants have the opportunity to pair up in different combinations to compete against each other to win dates, as well as the opportunity to learn in the "truth booth '' if a given couple is a correct match. At the end of each episode, the contestants pair up in a "matching ceremony '' and learn how many perfect matches they have, but not which matches are correct. From season 3 onward, the prize was reduced any time that the house failed to identify any matches other than those already confirmed via the truth booth.
Five couples who met on the show are still together, including season 1 's Ethan Diamond and Amber Lee, who are married and welcomed a daughter soon after their time on the show.
On March 22, 2017, spin - off Are You The One: Second Chances premiered. 10 perfect matches from previous seasons returned to compete in tasks designed to test the strength of their bonds. Each week, teams could add to their potential winnings, but individual contestants had the opportunity to take their team 's winnings from their partner and remove their team from the game.
Filmed in Hawaii
Season one premiered on January 21, 2014.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
In Week 5, Ryan Awarded the house 2 Truth Booths, which gave the house their first perfect match in Dillan and Coleysia.
Chris T. and Paige were a confirmed match in episode 6, but due to his relationship with Shanley, the episode ended with a "to be continued... '' instead of a Match - up Ceremony.
Adam Kuhn & Shanley McIntee returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 3rd place.
Baby Special and Reunion aired on September 29, 2014. During this reunion, the gender of Ethan and Amber 's baby was revealed to be a girl. Both parents - to - be got emotional when they found out they were having a girl. There were also conflicts between Scali and Jacy, Shanley and Chris T, and Ryan and Adam. The end of the episode resulted in most conflicts being resolved. Jacy stated that she would be moving to New York (where Scali is currently based) and they would take their relationship from there. Brittany told the camera that she would be taking Ryan home to meet her parents.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Season two premiered on October 6, 2014.It was set in Puerto Rico. This time, one guy has two matches which means that there will be eleven girls, but only ten boys. Christina is revealed as the first girl of the threeway couple. It is a race between Christina and another girl to find her perfect match and be confirmed as such in the Truth - Booth. The first couple of the threeway - couple to do so will end up in the honeymoon - suite. The other girl will have to leave empty - handed.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match N / A This girl was not chosen in the match - up ceremony
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Nathan "Nate '' Siebenmark & Ellie Puckett returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 9th place.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in Kona, Hawaii.
Season three premiered on September 21, 2015.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 2, the whole cast lost $250,000, lowering the total money at the end to $750,000, instead of $1,000,000.
In Episode 9, Mike was removed from the competition due to an altercation that turned violent with Amanda. Kiki was left without a match that week and was automatically paired with Mike. In the end it turned out that Mike and Kiki were perfect matches.
Mike Crescenzo was a castmember of the 32nd season of the Real World, Real World: Seattle - Bad Blood
Devin Walker - Molaghan & Rashida Beach returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 1st place earning themselves $170,000.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in Maui, Hawaii. Season four premiered on June 13, 2016.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 8, the whole cast lost $250,000, lowering the total money at the end to $750,000, instead of $1,000,000.
Asaf Goren & Kaylen Zahara, Cameron Kolbo & Mikala Thomas, Giovanni Rivera & Francesca Duncan and Morgan St. Pierre & Tori Deal returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances. Rivera and Duncan finished in 8th place after Duncan stole all of the money from Rivera. Goren and Zahara finished in 6th place. Kolbo & Thomas finished in 4th place. St. Pierre and Deal finished in 2nd place earning themselves $25,000.
Filmed in Cabarete, Dominican Republic.
Season five premiered on January 11 2017.
This season featured 2 big changes. When a couple gets sent into the truth booth to see if they are a perfect match, the rest of the house can either vote to see if they are a perfect match, or earn $150,000, and not see the result of the couple. This only will pertain to certain weeks. Also, if the house blacks out at a match - up ceremony, their money will decrease by 50 % each time instead of $250,000.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match Name Confirmed Not A Match for the whole season. Correct Matching is in parentheses.
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 2, the whole cast lost $500,000, lowering the total money at the end to $500,000 instead of $1,000,000.
In Episode 9, the cast decided to take the trade offer instead of finding out if Derrick and Tyranny were a perfect match, which increased the total money at stake to $650,000
In Episode 10, the cast decided to take the trade offer instead of finding out if Joey and Casandra were a perfect match, which increased the total money at stake to $800,000
In Episode 10, the cast did not find all their perfect matches, winning no money at the end.
After the reunion, final Perfect Matches were revealed as the following:
Note: In Episode 9, the cast decided to take the $150,000 trade instead of finding out if Derrick and Tyranny were a match. The result of their match is unavailable.
Note: In Episode 10, the cast decided to take the $150,000 trade instead of finding out if Joey and Casandra were a match. The result of their match is unavailable.
Derrick Henry & Casandra Martinez, Hayden Weaver & Carolina Duarte and Mike Cerasani & Alicia Wright returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances. Henry and Martinez finished in 10th place. Weaver and Duarte finished in 7th place after Weaver stole all of the money from Duarte. Cerasani and Wright finished in 5th Place.
Filmed in New Orleans, Louisiana. The new host will be Terrence J.
Season six premiered on September 20th, 2017.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Filmed in Melbourne, Australia. Hosted by Karamo Brown. Premiered March 22, 2017.
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collin raye what if jesus comes back like that | What If Jesus Comes Back Like That - wikipedia
"What If Jesus Comes Back Like That '' is a song written by Pat Bunch and Doug Johndon, and recorded by American country music singer Collin Raye. It was released in November 1996 the fifth single from his album I Think About You.
The song is in E mixolydian (an E major scale with the seventh tone lowered by a half - step). Its main chord pattern is E-D / E-A / E. In the song, the narrator questions how people would react to Jesus returning in the modern day as a hobo or a child born of a drug - addicted parent.
Deborah Evans Price of Billboard gave it a positive review, saying that it "may be his most risky venture yet. ''
The song entered the Hot Country Singles chart dated November 25, 1995, peaking at number 57 on the December 16, 1995, chart. It spent 11 weeks on the chart on this timespan, receiving unsolicited airplay alongside Raye 's then - current single "Not That Different ''. Upon its official release as a single, it re-entered in November 1996, reaching a new peak of number 21 on the January 4, 1997, chart. Overall, it spent 22 weeks on the charts between its two runs.
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can a felon own a gun in nj | Gun laws in New Jersey - wikipedia
Gun laws in New Jersey regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of New Jersey. New Jersey 's firearms laws are among the most restrictive in the country; some of which are being challenged in state and federal courts.
The Constitution of New Jersey has no provision explicitly guaranteeing the right of citizens to keep and bear arms.
Hollow - point ammunition is available for unrestricted purchase from most retailers wherever firearms are sold, and may be transported by purchasers without special licensing. However, hollow - point bullets may not be carried outside of a place of target practice, dwelling, premises or land possessed by a person, even if one has a valid permit to carry a handgun, except when being transported directly to and from these places. LEOSA (HR 218) qualified and retired or separated LEOs carrying anywhere in the USA are exempt from state laws and may legally carry hollow points ammo or any ammo that is not prohibited under the Gun Control Act of 1968 or the National Firearm Act. Additionally the NJ Superior Court in State v Brian Aitken have ruled that there is no exception for moving between residences with hollow - point bullets.
In New Jersey, anyone seeking to purchase firearms (one does not need to obtain a Firearm Purchaser Identification card to own, possess in the home, transport firearms to and from authorized target range, to a gunsmith for purposes of repair, or to the woods or fields of the state for purposes of hunting) is required to obtain a lifetime Firearm Purchaser Identification card, commonly referred to as FID, for the purchase of rifles and shotguns. To purchase a handgun, a separate permit is needed from the Chief of Police of their municipality, or the Superintendent of State Police if the municipality does not have a local police department. A permit is required for each handgun to be purchased and expires after 90 days but may be extended for an additional 90 days at the discretion of the Chief of Police or Superintendent of State Police. These, like the initial Firearms Purchaser Identification Card (FID), are provided to applicants on a shall - issue basis. They require in - depth application questioning, multiple references and background checks via the State Bureau of Identification and New Jersey State Police; however, authorities do not have discretion and must issue permits to applicants who satisfy the criteria described in the statutes. Reasons for denial include being convicted of a crime (equivalent to a felony) or disorderly persons offense (equivalent to a misdemeanor) in the case of domestic violence. As of August 2013 anyone on the terror watchlist is also disqualified.
NJ law states that Firearms Identification approval and / or handgun purchase permit (s) must be issued within 30 days. However, this is not always adhered to with some applicants waiting months to receive their permits. Applicants are able to appeal the denial of permits. The Firearm Purchaser ID card is also required to purchase handgun ammunition at dealers in the state. "Handgun ammunition '' is interpreted as any caliber that can be used in a handgun, therefore some calibers that are typically used in rifles and shotguns require one to show a FPIC to purchase.
N.J.S.A 2C: 58 - 3 (f):
There shall be no conditions or requirements added to the form or content of the application, or required by the licensing authority for the issuance of a permit or identification card, other than those that are specifically set forth in this chapter.
Only two forms are required to obtain a FPIC or permit to purchase a handgun: the "Application for Firearms Purchaser Identification Card and / or Handgun Purchase Permit '', STS - 33, and "Consent For Mental Health Records Search '', SP - 66. Additionally, the Chief of Police for the Municipality or the Superintendent of State Police may require an applicant to be fingerprinted or complete a "Request for Criminal History Record Information '', form SBI 212A. Fingerprinting is usually done at private facilities such as Morpho (Safran) and the SBI 212A form can be submitted online or on paper. The method of submission is determined by the local police department. Many police departments and the NJSP are moving toward online submission and phasing out the paper SBI 212A.
Some municipalities have required additional forms, photographs and other requirements such as notarization. These forms are not required for approval per NJSA 2C: 58 - 3a. This has been affirmed by the Appellate Court in two cases, one against the City of Paterson by resident Jeremy Perez, and another against Jersey City by resident Michael McGovern where the court ruled against the cities in violation.
Each FPIC application fee is $5 and each permit to purchase a handgun is $2. Fingerprinting is charged a fee by the private facility contracted by the state, approximately $50 to $60. The SBI 212A "Request for Criminal History Record Information '' application fee is $18 if submitted on paper or $20 if submitted online. Each police department has its own policy with regard to which method they choose for background checks. Some may require fingerprinting for each application, but most only require it for the initial FPIC.
Capacities of semiautomatic handguns and rifles (total in magazine excluding chamber) are limited to 15 rounds. Furthermore, beginning January 1, 2010, New Jersey limits handgun purchases to one per 30 - day period. Upon completing a New Jersey State police form, an FID card holder may be granted permission to purchase more than one handgun a month by declaring good reason. Reasons may include: recreational shooting; the purposes of collectors; when it is required for certain employment; and when obtaining firearms as the beneficiary of a will. The State application required for this increase, Form SP - 015, specifically requires the make, model and serial number of each firearm to be transferred prior to the exemption, keeping the spirit of the purchasing limit safe from circumvention.
New Jersey "may issue '' a Permit to Carry a Handgun to both residents and non-residents. One must submit an application to the chief law enforcement officer of one 's municipality, or the Superintendent of State Police in areas where there is no local police department. Armored car employees are required to apply to the Superintendent of State Police. Non-residents may apply to the Superintendent of State Police. By statute, New Jersey is a "may - issue '' permit system, in which authorities are allowed discretion in the approval and denial of applications. Additionally, training and range qualification is required, non politically connected or retired LEO will not be issued a permit. After a background check and review by the law enforcement agency, permit applications are forwarded to the Superior Court where they are approved or denied.
Every applicant not applying as a law enforcement officer must demonstrate justifiable need in order to obtain a permit, by means of a letter detailing specific need attached to the application; this requirement applies to active and retired judges, prosecutors, public defenders, military personnel, and elected officials in addition to the general populace. Justifiable need has been defined as, "urgent necessity for self - protection, as evidenced by specific threats or previous attacks which demonstrate a special danger to the applicant 's life that can not be avoided by means other than by issuance of a permit to carry a handgun. '' This standard gives Superior Court judges wide discretion in approving or denying permits. Many applicants have reported difficulty in obtaining New Jersey Permits to Carry, especially non-residents. Most people do not even bother to apply since denial is almost a certainty and any denial must be disclosed on subsequent applications for permits to purchase a firearm. Registered and licensed private security officers and private investigators encounter less difficulty, however their permits are usually heavily scrutinized and restricted to carry while on duty only.
Retired law enforcement officers are eligible to obtain a permit to carry a handgun without specific justifiable need, pursuant to N.J.S.A 2C: 39 - 6 (l). These permits are administered by the Superintendent of State Police and not subject to judicial review unless the officer was denied and is appealing a denial. Additionally, qualified retired law enforcement officers may carry under LEOSA, which allows retired and current law enforcement officers who qualify and meet certain criteria to carry concealed firearms. There is no requirement for qualified retired or separated officers to apply for the state permit when carrying under LEOSA (H.R. 218) since the federal law trumps state law. As of the end of 2013, there were 1,212 active Handgun Carry Permits in New Jersey, out of a population of nearly 9 million residents.
There are a few exempted locations where one may carry and possess firearms. These locations are your home, place of business, premises or land possessed, or to a gunsmith for purposes of repair. Members of rifle or pistol clubs that submit their names to the state police annually are allowed to possess and transport their firearms to "a place of target practice. '' Those who are not members of a rifle or pistol club can carry their firearms to "an authorized target range. '' One may also carry firearms to the woods or fields or waters of the state for purposes of hunting or fishing. One must have a valid hunting or fishing license and the firearms must be appropriate for hunting or fishing to be covered under this exemption.
Interstate transportation is covered under the Safe Passage provision of the Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA), 18 USC § 926A, which states:
Notwithstanding any other provision of any law or any rule or regulation of a State or any political subdivision thereof, any person who is not otherwise prohibited by this chapter from transporting, shipping, or receiving a firearm shall be entitled to transport a firearm for any lawful purpose from any place where he may lawfully possess and carry such firearm to any other place where he may lawfully possess and carry such firearm if, during such transportation the firearm is unloaded, and neither the firearm nor any ammunition being transported is readily accessible or is directly accessible from the passenger compartment of such transporting vehicle: Provided, That in the case of a vehicle without a compartment separate from the driver 's compartment the firearm or ammunition shall be contained in a locked container other than the glove compartment or console.
However, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals in Association of New Jersey Rifle and Pistol Clubs v. Port Authority of New York and New Jersey has found that this provision only applies to transporting a firearm in a vehicle, and that carrying a firearm in a locked container in checked luggage in an airport terminal to declare it to the airline constitutes unlawful possession and is not protected under the law. This decision was a direct result of a 2005 incident where Gregg C. Revell, a Utah Resident with a valid Utah Concealed Firearm Permit was traveling through Newark Airport en route to Allentown, Pennsylvania. Because of a missed flight, he was given his luggage, which included a properly checked firearm, and was forced to spend the night in a hotel in New Jersey. When he returned to the airport the following day to check his handgun for the last portion of the trip, he was arrested for illegal possession of a firearm. Revell lost his lawsuit after The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit held in Gregg C. Revell v. Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, (222) held that "Section 926A does not apply to Revell because his firearm and ammunition were readily accessible to him during his stay in New Jersey. '' This opinion will apply to NJ airports. If you miss a flight or for any other reason your flight is interrupted and the airline tries to return you luggage that includes a checked firearm, you can not take possession of the firearm if you are taking a later flight. The Association of New Jersey Rifle and Pistol Clubs (ANJRPC) later also sued the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which resulted in a similar decision.
Firearms classed as "assault firearms '' but acquired before May 1, 1990 and registered with the state are legal to possess. Police officers may possess assault weapons for duty purposes and may possess personal assault weapons with recommendation by their agency. FFLs are also allowed to possess "assault firearms. ''
Under New Jersey law, a firearm is classified as an "assault firearm '' if it meets the following criteria:
The following manufacturers, models, and types are namingly banned:
In New Jersey, it is illegal to possess any magazine that is capable of accepting more than 15 rounds for semi-automatic rifles / pistols and 6 rounds for semi-automatic shotguns. Police officers may possess these magazines for both personal and official purposes. FFLs may also possess these magazines (N.J.S.A 2C: 39 - 1 (y)).
In his final day in office in January 2018, Governor of New Jersey Chris Christie signed legislation making the gun accessory bump stock illegal.
The New Jersey Childproof Handgun Law is a 2002 state law that requires that all handguns sold in the state be smart guns once such guns are available.
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who played julie on look whos talking now | Look who 's Talking Now - wikipedia
Look Who 's Talking Now is a 1993 American romantic comedy film and the third and final installment in the film series that began with Look Who 's Talking in 1989. It finds John Travolta and Kirstie Alley reprising their roles as James and Mollie Ubriacco, respectively, and introducing the newly extended family members to it.
David Gallagher and Tabitha Lupien portray Mikey and Julie respectively. Unlike the previous films, it does not feature the voiceover talents of Bruce Willis, Roseanne Barr, Damon Wayans, Joan Rivers, or Mel Brooks as their interior monologues; rather, Danny DeVito and Diane Keaton provide voiceover roles for their newly acquired dogs, Rocks and Daphne, respectively, and it focuses more on their life.
Lysette Anthony and Olympia Dukakis costar. George Segal and Charles Barkley have cameo roles.
A young cross-breed puppy is up for sale and we can hear him talking. He sees Mikey passing by him and begs him to take him home. Mikey, however, has to hurry past in tow of his mother, and two harsh looking individuals buy the puppy. He manages to escape them and starts his life as a stray.
James is a private air pilot working for Samantha - who we see has a crush on him and is always trying to extend the trips to spend more time with him. Mollie is looking for a job. Mikey tells Santa Claus that he wants a dog for Christmas, James feels the time has come to give him one and tells Samantha about this.
One day, though, the dog gets caught by the animal rescue force and taken to a kennel, where several others are kept - presumably also found on the streets. He is about to be put down on the same day that James brings Mikey there to select one. Overjoyed, he bumps into the dog he saw as a puppy, and takes an instant liking to him and decides to take him home. He names the dog Rocks.
When James, Mikey, and Rocks get home, they see that Samantha is there and has brought over her dog, Daphne, who is highly trained and she wants James to have her as a present from her.
Rocks and Daphne do not get along. Rocks is messy and untrained while Daphne is pedigreed and well - trained to be tidy and obedient, though she is also spoiled.
Samantha starts having James fly on long trips to lots of different cities and keeps him away from his family. Mollie has to job hunt, take care of two kids, and take care of the two dogs. James and Mollie develop tensions over Samantha. Mollie suspects that James is cheating on her and feels that Samantha is much more successful and beautiful than her. James likewise suspects that Mollie is still not over Mikey 's biological father. Despite these tensions, however, James and Mollie are clearly still in love with each other and miss each other while they 're apart.
As Mollie becomes more tired, Daphne realizes that she needs to become more independent. Rocks helps her learn how to go outside by herself and use her sense of smell to track people or things. The two dogs start becoming friends.
On Christmas Eve, Samantha sets up a plan to trick James into spending the night with her. She tricks him into coming to her fancy cabin in the woods by saying that she wants to introduce him to a prospective wealthy client. She stalls for time until it is too dangerous for James to leave because a snowstorm outside has gotten too dangerous.
James calls Mollie to tell her that he can not make it home for Christmas. Mollie learns that he is alone with Samantha and becomes devastated that he is going to cheat on her. However, Mollie 's mother convinces her to trust her instincts that James loves her and would never do that.
Mollie decides to drive through the storm with the kids and the two dogs to "bring Christmas to Daddy. '' Their car gets stuck in the woods due to the severe cold and the storm. They are attacked by wolves, and Rocks scare the wolves off while Mollie and her kids get inside the car. Daphne sets out to find help using the tracking skills that Rocks taught her.
Rocks runs out to track down James on his own. He finds Samantha 's cabin, and James realizes that Mollie has set out to find him. He confronts Samantha about her lies and intentions and quits his job, then goes with Rocks to track down his family. They are attacked by wolves, and Rocks fights them off while James escapes. Meanwhile, Daphne has found some forest rangers that take Mollie, the kids, and Daphne to safety into their cabin. They worry about James and Rocks. James finds them, and Rocks quickly runs in afterward to show that he survived the encounter with the wolves. The family and dogs are happily reunited and spend Christmas together.
Unlike the previous films, the children no longer have voiceovers for their inner thoughts since they are now old enough to talk for themselves. Danny DeVito and Diane Keaton portray the Ubriaccos ' dogs. This also marked the film debuts of Tabitha Lupien, and David Gallagher, best known for his later role as Simon Camden on 7th Heaven.
George Segal who portrayed Albert, the first film 's antagonist and Mikey 's biological father, reappears briefly.
Charles Barkley makes a cameo appearance as himself. Don Rickles does the voice of a wolf.
Twink Caplan, who portrayed Mollie 's best friend, Rona, in the previous two films, does not appear nor is she mentioned in this one. Also Elias Koteas, who portrayed Mollie 's brother, Stuart, in the second film also does not appear nor is he mentioned in this one. Both Caplan and Koteas declined to return for it.
French singer Jordy performs, along with David Gallagher and Tabitha Lupien, amongst other children, in a special music video for the film, titled It 's Christmas, C'est Noel, from the Christmas album Potion magique.
The film was panned by critics upon its release. It was also a box office bomb only earning over $10 million, making it the lowest - grossing one in the series. On the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 0 % approval rating, based on 24 reviews with an average rating of 2.5 / 10. Among its main problems were the lack of originality, the bland treatment of the children and its overblown ending. In its opening week, it also faced stiff competition for an audience from The Nightmare Before Christmas.
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what is the name of the highschool in riverdale | Riverdale (Archie Comics) - wikipedia
Riverdale is the fictional town where most of the characters appear in Archie Comics. Conflicting details on its geographic location have been given over the years.
Riverdale is usually shown as being a medium - sized town (possibly a suburb of a bigger city), with all the usual amenities of shopping malls, restaurants, and parks. The climate, appearance and geography of Riverdale varies from story to story. Riverdale has been shown to have beaches, lakes, rivers, deserts, farmland, woodland, mountains, plains, a transit system (as noted in the Josie and the Pussycats film) and four distinct seasons with changes in climate.
Archie Comics publisher John L. Goldwater and initial Archie artist Bob Montana differed on the inspiration for Riverdale, with Goldwater saying it was based on his hometown of Hiawatha, Kansas, and Montana saying the town 's high school was based on his own in Haverhill, Massachusetts, where as in the comics a replica of Auguste Rodin 's famous statue The Thinker stands.
In Jackpot Comics # 5 (Spring 1942), a story written by Montana has the gang going on a river trip. One panel says "... the good ship ' Peter Stuyvesant ' settles into the Hudson, as Riverdale High clambers aboard for a happy trip to Bear Mountain. ''
In one issue of Archie and Jughead Digest, when one of the readers asked in a letter, "Where is Riverdale located? '', the editor replied, "Riverdale is more of a state of mind than an actual physical location. It could be anywhere that kind people live and just have fun, like Archie and his friends. It could be in the Midwest, or along the Eastern Seaboard, or even a town in Canada, Mexico, or England. ''
Riverdale High School is the local educational institution of Riverdale where Archie and his friends attend the 11th grade. Its school colors are blue and gold, and its school newspaper is the Blue and Gold.
Only a few of Riverdale High 's staff appear regularly in the comics. These include school principal Mr. Weatherbee, homeroom teacher Miss Grundy, chemistry teacher Mr. Flutesnoot, history teacher Miss Haggly, physical education teachers Coach Kleats and Coach Clayton, cafeteria cook Miss Beazley, custodian Mr. Svenson, secretary Miss Phlips, and superintendent of schools Mr. Hassle.
In the five - issue miniseries Faculty Funnies (cover - dated June 1989 -- May 1990) by writer George Gladir and penciler Stan Goldberg, faculty members Mr. Weatherbee, Mr. Flutesnoot, Miss Grundy and Coach Clayton secretly become the superhero team the Awesome Foursome after a lab accident involving Archie 's science project. They lose their powers after putting out a chemical fire.
The series Archie at Riverdale High ran 113 issues (August 1972 -- February 1987). This was followed by Riverdale High, which ran six issues (August -- June 1990). After a brief hiatus, it was retitled Archie 's Riverdale High and then canceled with issue # 8 (August -- October 1991).
Places in Riverdale besides the high school include the following:
Some nearby towns include Greendale and Midvale. Greendale is the home of Sabrina, the Teenage Witch, who once lived in Riverdale but eventually moved. Characters who appear in Josie and the Pussycats come from Midvale.
Riverdale High School 's main scholastic and athletic rival is Central High School, located in another nearby community. Central High seems to consist of nothing but villainous types. The males are generally thuggish, conniving brutes, and the females are usually lecherous, scheming vamps. In most of their encounters, Central students seldom compete without using unsportsmanlike conduct, if not out - and - out cheating. The coaches and teachers often are not only aware of this skullduggery, but encourage it. In most cases, Central 's team colors are bright red and silver - white.
Pembrooke Academy is a private school attended by siblings Cheryl and Jason Blossom and their snobbish friends Bunny and Cedric. They look down on Riverdale students as "townies '' and will not (except for the Blossom twins) willingly associate with them. Other schools that have been featured as Riverdale rival schools include Hadley High and Southside High. In one comics, a letter sent to Riverdale has "U. '' where the state should be, and a ZIP code of 10543 (which in real life is Mamaroneck, New York, the home of Michael Silberkleit, an Archie Comics editor).
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when did iran change its name from persia | Name of Iran - wikipedia
In the Western world, Persia (or one of its cognates) was historically the common name for Iran. In 1935, Reza Shah Pahlavi asked foreign delegates to use the term Iran (meaning land of Aryans in Persian language), the historical name of the country, used by its native people, in formal correspondence. Since then, in the Western World, the use of the word "Iran '' has become more common. This also changed the usage of the terms for Iranian nationality, and the common adjective for citizens of Iran changed from "Persian '' to "Iranian ''. In 1959, the government of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, Reza Shah Pahlavi 's son, announced that both "Persia '' and "Iran '' could officially be used interchangeably.
The Modern Persian word Īrān (ایران) derives immediately from Middle Persian Ērān (Pahlavi spelling: ʼyrʼn), first attested in an inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of the first Sassanid king Ardashir I at Naqsh - e Rustam. In this inscription, the king 's Middle Persian appellation is ardašīr šāhān šāh ērān while in the Parthian language inscription that accompanies the Middle Persian one the king is titled ardašīr šāhān šāh aryān (Pahlavi:... ʼryʼn) both meaning king of kings of Iranians.
The gentilic ēr - and ary - in ērān and aryān derives from Old Iranian * arya - (Old Persian airya -, Avestan airiia -, etc.), meaning "Aryan '', in the sense of "of the Iranians ''. This term is attested as an ethnic designator in Achaemenid inscriptions and in Zoroastrianism 's Avesta tradition, and it seems "very likely '' that in Ardashir 's inscription ērān still retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the empire.
Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples, the use of ērān to refer to the empire (and the antonymic anērān to refer to the Roman territories) is also attested by the early Sassanid period. Both ērān and anērān appear in 3rd century calendrical text written by Mani. In an inscription of Ardashir 's son and immediate successor, Shapur I "apparently includes in Ērān regions such as Armenia and the Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians ''. In Kartir 's inscriptions (written thirty years after Shapur 's), the high priest includes the same regions (together with Georgia, Albania, Syria and the Pontus) in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān. Ērān also features in the names of the towns founded by Sassanid dynasts, for instance in Ērān - xwarrah - šābuhr "Glory of Ērān (of) Shapur ''. It also appears in the titles of government officers, such as in Ērān - āmārgar "Accountant - General (of) Ērān '' or Ērān - dibirbed "Chief Scribe (of) Ērān ''.
The Greeks (who had previously tended to use names related to "Median '') began to use adjectives such as Pérsēs (Πέρσης), Persikḗ (Περσική) or Persís (Περσίς) in the fifth century BC to refer to Cyrus the Great 's empire (a word understood to mean "country ''). Such words were taken from the Old Persian Pārsa -- the name of the people from whom Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty stemmed and over whom he first ruled (before he inherited or conquered other Iranian Kingdoms). Thus, the term Persian is an exonym and Iranians never historically referred to Iran by that exonym. The Pars tribe gave its name to the region where they lived (the modern day province is called Fars / Pars) but the province in ancient times was smaller than its current area. In Latin, the name for the whole empire was Persia, while the Iranians knew it as Iran or Iranshahr.
In the later parts of the Bible, where this kingdom is frequently mentioned (Books of Esther, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah), it is called Paras (Biblical Hebrew: פרס ), or sometimes Paras u Madai (פרס ומדי), i.e. "Persia and Media ''.
The exonym Persia was the official name of Iran in the Western world before 1935, but the Iranian people inside their country since the time of Zoroaster (probably circa 1000 BC), or even before, have called their country Arya, Iran, Iranshahr, Iranzamin (Land of Iran), Aryānām (the equivalent of Iran in the proto - Iranian language) or its equivalents. The term Arya has been used by the Iranian people, as well as by the rulers and emperors of Iran, from the time of the Avesta. Evidently from the time of the Sassanids (226 -- 651 CE) Iranians have called it Iran, meaning "the land of Aryans '' and Iranshahr. In Middle Persian sources, the name Arya and Iran is used for the pre-Sassanid Iranian empires as well as the Sassanid empire. As an example, the use of the name "Iran '' for Achaemenids in the Middle Persian book of Arda Viraf refers to the invasion of Iran by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. The Proto - Iranian term for Iran is reconstructed as * Aryānām (the genitive plural of the word * Arya); the Avestan equivalent is Airyanem (as in Airyanem Vaejah). The internal preference for "Iran '' was noted in some Western reference books (e.g. the Harmsworth Encyclopaedia, circa 1907, entry for Iran: "The name is now the official designation of Persia. '') but for international purposes, Persia was the norm.
In the mid 1930s, the ruler of the country, Reza Shah Pahlavi, moved towards formalising the name Iran instead of Persia for all purposes. In the British House of Commons the move was reported upon by the United Kingdom Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs as follows:
On the 25th December (1934) the Persian Ministry for Foreign Affairs addressed a circular memorandum to the Foreign Diplomatic Missions in Tehran requesting that the terms "Iran '' and "Iranian '' might be used in official correspondence and conversation as from the 21st March next instead, of the words "Persia '' and "Persian '' hitherto in current use. His Majesty 's Minister in Tehran has been instructed to accede to this request.
The decree of Reza Shah Pahlavi affecting nomenclature duly took effect on 21 March 1935.
To avoid confusion between the two neighboring countries Iran and Iraq, which were both involved in WWII and occupied by the Allies, Winston Churchill requested from the Iranian government during the Teheran Conference for the old and distinct name "Persia to be used by the United Nations (i.e., the Allies) for the duration of the common War ''. His request was approved immediately by the Iranian Foreign Ministry. The American side, however, continued using Iran as it had at the time little involvement in Iraq to cause any such confusion.
In the summer of 1959, following concerns that the native name had, as one politician put it, "turned a known into an unknown '', a committee was formed, led by noted scholar Ehsan Yarshater, to consider the issue again. They recommended a reversal of the 1935 decision, and Mohammad Reza Shah approved this. However, the implementation of the proposal was weak, simply allowing Persia and Iran to be used interchangeably. Nowadays both terms are common; Persia mostly in historical and cultural contexts, "Iran '' mostly in political contexts.
In recent years most exhibitions of Persian history, culture and art in the world have used the exonym Persia (e.g., "Forgotten Empire; Ancient Persia '', British Museum; "7000 Years of Persian Art '', Vienna, Berlin; and "Persia; Thirty Centuries of Culture and Art '', Amsterdam). In 2006, the largest collection of historical maps of Iran, entitled Historical Maps of Persia, was published in the Netherlands.
In the 1980s, Professor Ehsan Yarshater (editor of the Encyclopædia Iranica) started to publish articles on this matter (in both English and Persian) in Rahavard Quarterly, Pars Monthly, Iranian Studies Journal, etc. After him, a few Iranian scholars and researchers such as Prof. Kazem Abhary, and Prof. Jalal Matini followed the issue. Several times since then, Iranian magazines and Web sites have published articles from those who agree or disagree with usage of Persia and Persian in English.
It is the case in many countries that the country 's native name is different from its international name (see Exonym), but for Persians and Iranians this issue has been very controversial. Main points on this matter:
There are many Iranians in the West who prefer Persia and Persian as the English names for the country and nationality, similar to the usage of La Perse / persan in French. According to Hooman Majd, the popularity of the term Persia among the Persian diaspora stems from the fact that "' Persia ' connotes a glorious past they would like to be identified with, while ' Iran ' since 1979 revolution... says nothing to the world but Islamic fundamentalism. ''
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what body of water borders japans west coast | Geography of Japan - Wikipedia
Japan is an island nation in East Asia comprising a volcanic archipelago extending along the continent 's Pacific coast. It lies between 24 ° to 46 ° north latitude and from 123 ° to 146 ° east longitude. Japan is southeast of the Russian Far East, separated by the Sea of Okhotsk; slightly east of the Korean Peninsula, separated by the Sea of Japan; and east - northeast of China and Taiwan, separated by the East China Sea. The closest neighboring country to Japan is Russia.
The major islands, sometimes called the "Home Islands '', are (from east to west) Hokkaido, Honshu (the "mainland ''), Shikoku and Kyushu. There are 6,852 islands in total, including the Nansei Islands, the Nanpō Islands and islets, with 430 islands being inhabited and others uninhabited. In total, as of 2006, Japan 's territory is 377,923.1 km (145,916.9 sq mi), of which 374,834 km (144,724 sq mi) is land and 3,091 km (1,193 sq mi) water.
Location: Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, east of the Korean Peninsula.
Map references: Asia, Oceania
Area:
Land boundaries: the ocean
Coastline: 29,751 km (18,486 mi)
Maritime claims:
Climate: varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north
Terrain: mostly rugged and mountainous, can easily be compared to Norway, both having about 70 % of their land in the mountains.
Natural resources: small deposits of coal, oil, iron, and minerals. Major fishing industry.
Land use:
Irrigated land: 25,000 km2 (2010)
Total renewable water resources: 430 km (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic / industrial / agricultural):
About 73 % of Japan is mountainous, with a mountain range running through each of the main islands. Japan 's highest mountain is Mount Fuji, with an elevation of 3,776 m (12,388 ft). Japan 's forest cover rate is 68.55 % since the mountains are heavily forested. The only other developed nations with such a high forest cover percentage are Finland and Sweden.
Since there is little level ground, many hills and mountainsides at lower elevations around towns and cities are often cultivated. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific deeps, frequent low - intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been exploited as an economic capital by the leisure industry.
The mountainous islands of the Japanese archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia. They are separated from the mainland by the Sea of Japan, which historically served as a protective barrier. The country consists of four major islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu; with more than 6,500 adjacent smaller islands and islets ("island '' defined as land more than 100 m in circumference), including the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands in the Nanpō Islands, and the Satsunan Islands, Okinawa Islands, and Sakishima Islands of the Ryukyu Islands.
The national territory also includes the Volcano Islands (Kazan Retto) such as Iwo Jima, located some 1,200 kilometers south of mainland Tokyo. A territorial dispute with Russia, dating from the end of World War II, over the two southernmost of the Kuril Islands, Etorofu and Kunashiri, and the smaller Shikotan Island and Habomai Islands northeast of Hokkaido remains a sensitive spot in Japanese -- Russian relations (as of 2005). Excluding disputed territory, the archipelago covers about 377,000 square kilometers. No point in Japan is more than 150 kilometers from the sea.
The four major islands are separated by narrow straits and form a natural entity. The Ryukyu Islands curve 970 kilometers southward from Kyūshū.
The distance between Japan and the Korean Peninsula, the nearest point on the Asian continent, is about 200 kilometers at the Korea Strait. Japan has always been linked with the continent through trade routes, stretching in the north toward Siberia, in the west through the Tsushima Islands to the Korean Peninsula, and in the south to the ports on the south China coast.
The Japanese islands are the summits of mountain ridges uplifted near the outer edge of the continental shelf. About 73 percent of Japan 's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 27 percent. A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves, the "face '', fronting on the Pacific Ocean, and the "back '', toward the Sea of Japan. On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges.
Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains -- the Hida, Kiso, and Akaishi mountains -- that form the Japanese Alps (Nihon Arupusu), several of whose peaks are higher than 3,000 meters. The highest point in the Japanese Alps is Mount Kita at 3,193 meters. The highest point in the country is Mount Fuji (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since 1707 that rises to 3,776 meters above sea level in Shizuoka Prefecture. On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters.
None of the populated plains or mountain basins are extensive in area. The largest, the Kantō Plain, where Tokyo is situated, covers only 13,000 square kilometers. Other important plains are the Nōbi Plain surrounding Nagoya, the Kinai Plain in the Osaka -- Kyoto area, the Sendai Plain around the city of Sendai in northeastern Honshū, and the Ishikari Plain on Hokkaidō. Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by reclamation throughout recorded history.
The small amount of habitable land has prompted significant human modification of the terrain over many centuries. Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building dikes and drainage, and rice paddies were built on terraces carved into mountainsides. The process continued in the modern period with extension of shorelines and building of artificial islands for industrial and port development, such as Port Island in Kobe and the new Kansai International Airport in Osaka Bay. Hills and even mountains have been razed to provide flat areas for housing.
Rivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. Although most rivers are less than 300 kilometers in length, their rapid flow from the mountains provides a valuable, renewable resource: hydroelectric power generation. Japan 's hydroelectric power potential has been exploited almost to capacity. Seasonal variations in flow have led to extensive development of flood control measures. Most of the rivers are very short. The longest, the Shinano River, which winds through Nagano Prefecture to Niigata Prefecture and flows into the Sea of Japan, is only 367 kilometers long. The largest freshwater lake is Lake Biwa, northeast of Kyoto.
Extensive coastal shipping, especially around the Seto Inland Sea (Seto Naikai), compensates for the lack of navigable rivers. The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors. The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaidō, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors.
In November 2008, Japan filed a request to expand its claimed continental shelf. In April 2012, the U.N. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf recognized around 310,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi) of seabed around Okinotorishima, giving Japan priority over access to seabed resources in nearby areas. According to U.N. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, the approved expansion is equal to about 82 % of Japan 's total land area. The People 's Republic of China and South Korea have opposed Japan 's claim because they view Okinotorishima not as an island, but as a group of rocks.
Most regions of Japan, such as much of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, belong to the temperate zone with humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by four distinct seasons. However, its climate varies from cool humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) in the north such as northern Hokkaido, to warm tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) in the south such as Ishigaki in the Yaeyama Islands.
The two primary factors influences in Japan 's climate are a location near the Asian continent and the existence of major oceanic currents. Two major ocean currents affect Japan: the warm Kuroshio Current (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold Oyashio Current (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as north as the South Kantō region; a small branch, the Tsushima Current, flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in plankton beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The intersection of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.
Japan 's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones.
Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity. Because of its wide range of latitude, seasonal winds and different types of ocean currents, Japan has a variety of climates, with a latitude range of the inhabited islands from 24 ° to 46 ° north, which is comparable to the range between Nova Scotia and The Bahamas in the east coast of North America. Tokyo is at about 35 degrees north latitude, comparable to that of Tehran, Athens, or Las Vegas.
Regional climatic variations range from humid continental in the northern island of Hokkaido extending down through northern Japan to the Central Highland, then blending with and eventually changing to a humid subtropical climate on the Pacific Coast and ultimately reaching tropical rainforest climate on the Yaeyama Islands of the Ryukyu Islands. Climate also varies dramatically with altitude and with location on the Pacific Ocean or on the Sea of Japan.
Northern Japan has warm summers but long, cold winters with heavy snow. Central Japan in its elevated position, has hot summers and moderate to short winters with some areas having very heavy snow, and southwestern Japan has long hot summer and short mild winters. The generally temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation such as the blooming of the spring cherry blossoms, the calls of the summer cicada and fall foliage colors that are celebrated in art and literature.
The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather. Five or six typhoons pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early October, sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual precipitation averages between 1,000 and 2,500 mm (40 and 100 in) except for the areas such as Kii Peninsula and Yakushima Island which is Japan 's wettest place with the annual precipitation being one of the world 's highest at 4,000 to 10,000 mm.
Maximum precipitation, like the rest of East Asia, occurs in the summer months except on the Sea of Japan coast where strong northerly winds produce a maximum in late autumn and early winter. Except for a few sheltered inland valleys during December and January, precipitation in Japan is above 25 millimetres (1 in) of rainfall equivalent in all months of the year, and in the wettest coastal areas it is above 100 millimetres (4 in) per month throughout the year.
In winter, the Siberian High develops over the Eurasian land mass and the Aleutian Low develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow of cold air southeastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific.
Mid June to mid July is generally the rainy season in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, excluding Hokkaidō since the seasonal rain front or baiu zensen (梅雨 前線) dissipates in northern Honshu before reaching Hokkaido. In Okinawa, the rainy season starts early in May and continues until mid June. Unlike the rainy season in mainland Japan, it rains neither everyday nor all day long during the rainy season in Okinawa. Between July and October, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, can attack Japan with furious rainstorms.
The warmest winter temperatures are found in the Nanpō and Bonin Islands, which enjoy a tropical climate due to the combination of latitude, distance from the Asian mainland, and warming effect of winds from the Kuroshio, as well as the Volcano Islands (at the latitude of the southernmost of the Ryukyu Islands, 24 ° N). The coolest summer temperatures are found on the northeastern coast of Hokkaidō in Kushiro and Nemuro Subprefectures.
Sunshine, in accordance with Japan 's uniformly heavy rainfall, is generally modest in quantity, though no part of Japan receives the consistently gloomy fogs that envelope the Sichuan Basin or Taipei. Amounts range from about six hours per day in the Inland Sea coast and sheltered parts of the Pacific Coast and Kantō Plain to four hours per day on the Sea of Japan coast of Hokkaidō. In December there is a very pronounced sunshine gradient between the Sea of Japan and Pacific coasts, as the former side can receive less than 30 hours and the Pacific side as much as 180 hours. In summer, however, sunshine hours are lowest on exposed parts of the Pacific coast where fogs from the Oyashio current create persistent cloud cover similar to that found on the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin.
As an island nation, Japan has the 7th longest coastline in the world. A few prefectures are landlocked: Gunma, Tochigi, Saitama, Nagano, Yamanashi, Gifu, Shiga, and Nara. As Mt. Fuji and the coastal Japanese Alps provide a rain shadow, Nagano and Yamanashi Prefectures receive the least precipitation in Honshu, though it still exceeds 900 millimetres (35 in) annually. A similar effect is found in Hokkaido, where Okhotsk Subprefecture receives as little as 750 millimetres (30 in) per year. All other prefectures have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them. Two prefectures -- Hokkaido and Okinawa -- are composed entirely of islands.
The hottest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.0 ° C (105.8 ° F), occurred in Shimanto, Kochi on August 12, 2013.
Environment - current issues: In the 2006 environment annual report, the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are: global warming and preservation of the ozone layer, conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil, waste management and recycling, measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation.
Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic - Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes (Basel Convention), Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection (Montreal Protocol), Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73 / 78), Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands (Ramsar Convention), Whaling signed and ratified: Climate Change - Kyoto Protocol
Ten percent of the world 's active volcanoes -- forty in the early 1990s (another 148 were dormant) -- are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of 4 to 7 are common. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century was the great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died. Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis (津波).
On March 11, 2011 Japan was subject to a devastating magnitude 9.0 earthquake and a massive tsunami as a result. The March 11 quake was the largest ever recorded in Japan and is the world 's fourth largest earthquake to strike since 1900, according to the U.S. Geological Service. It struck offshore about 371 kilometres (231 mi) northeast of Tokyo and 130 kilometres (81 mi) east of the city of Sendai, and created a massive tsunami that devastated Japan 's northeastern coastal areas. At least 100 aftershocks registering a 6.0 magnitude or higher have followed the main shock. At least 15,000 people died as a result.
Japan has become a world leader in research on causes and prediction of earthquakes. The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of skyscrapers even in earthquake - prone areas. Extensive civil defence efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger.
Another common hazard are several typhoons that reach Japan from the Pacific every year and heavy snowfall during winter in the snow country regions, causing landslides, flooding, and avalanches.
Japan is informally divided into eight regions. Each contains several prefectures, except the Hokkaido region, which covers only Hokkaido Prefecture.
The region is not an official administrative unit, but has been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts: for example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions, weather reports usually give the weather by region, and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name (Kinki Nippon Railway, Chūgoku Bank, Tohoku University, etc.). While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond to the eight regions.
This is a list of the extreme points of Japan, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
The only part of Japan with antipodes over land are the Ryukyu Islands, though the islands off the western coast of Kyūshū are close.
The northernmost antipodal island in the Ryukyu Island chain, Nakanoshima, is opposite the Brazilian coast near Capão da Canoa. The other islands south to the Straits of Okinawa correspond to southern Brazil, with Gaja Island being opposite the outskirts of Santo Antônio da Patrulha, Takarajima with Jua, Amami Ōshima covering the villages of Carasinho and Fazenda Pae João, Ginoza, Okinawa with Palmas, Paraná, the Kerama Islands with Pato Branco, Tonaki Island with São Lourenço do Oeste, and Kume Island corresponding to Palma Sola. The main Daitō Islands correspond to near Guaratuba, with Oki Daitō Island near Apiaí.
The Sakishima Islands beyond the straits are antipodal to Paraguay, from the Brazilian border almost to Asunción, with Ishigaki overlapping San Isidro de Curuguaty, and the uninhabited Senkaku Islands surrounding Villarrica.
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what happened to the rainforest in haiti and why what effects did it have | Deforestation in Haiti - wikipedia
Deforestation in Haiti is commonly seen as a severe environmental problem. Haitians burn wood charcoal for 60 % of their domestic energy production. Recent in - depth studies of satellite imagery and environmental analysis regarding forest classification conclude that Haiti has approximately 30 % tree cover. In 1923 over 60 % of Haiti 's land was forested.
In 2006, the country was claimed to have less than 2 % forest cover. Although significantly deforested, this estimate has been challenged as drastically incorrect due to unsubstantiated research. Nonetheless, the unsubstantiated 2 % estimate has been widely circulated in media and in discourse concerning the country.
The rapid deforestation of Haiti began during the colonial period, and was intensified when coffee was introduced in 1730. Upland forest were cleared and fifty years later, a quarter of the colony 's land was under coffee. The system of plantation monoculture and clean - cultivation between rows of coffee, indigo, tobacco, and sugarcane exhausted soil nutrients and led to rapid erosion (Paskett and Pholoctete, 1990).
Following the Haitian revolution, the government was forced to export timber throughout the 19th century to pay off a 90 million franc indemnity to France. No longer under colonial rule, land remained unequally distributed nevertheless, and peasants were granted access only to marginal slopes between 200 and 600m above the fertile plains and below the zones of coffee production. These hillside soils were particularly susceptible to erosion when cleared for farming.
Deforestation sped up after Hurricane Hazel drowned trees throughout the island in 1954. Beginning in about 1954, concessionaires stepped up their logging operations in response to Port - au - Prince 's intensified demand for charcoal. Deforestation accelerated, which had already become a problem because of environmentally unsound agricultural practices, rapid population growth, and increased competition over land. Techniques that could make forestry more productive for fuel like coppicing and pollarding were not used.
The most direct effect of deforestation is soil erosion. An estimated 15,000 acres (61 km) of topsoil are washed away each year, with erosion also damaging other productive infrastructure such as dams, irrigation systems, roads, and coastal marine ecosystems. Soil erosion also lowers the productivity of the land, worsens droughts, and eventually leads to desertification, all of which increase the pressure on the remaining land and trees.
Because of Haiti running out of plant material to burn, Haitians have created an illegal market for coal on the Dominican side. Conservative estimates calculate the illegal movement of 115 tons of charcoal per week from the Dominican Republic to Haiti in 2014. Dominican officials estimate that at least 10 trucks per week are crossing the border loaded with charcoal.
Most of Haiti 's governments have paid only lip service to the imperative of reforestation. The main impetus to act came from abroad. USAID 's Agroforestry Outreach Program, Pwojè Pyebwa, was Haiti 's major reforestation program in the 1980s. Peasants planted more than 25 million trees under Projè Pyebwa, but as many as seven trees were cut for each new tree planted.
Later efforts to save Haiti 's trees focused on intensifying reforestation programs, reducing waste in charcoal production, introducing more wood - efficient stoves, and importing wood under USAID 's Food for Peace program. Because most Haitians depend upon wood and charcoal as their primary fuel source, energy alternatives are needed to save the forests. A 15 - year Environment Action Plan, authorized in 1999, proposed to stop deforestation by developing alternative fuel sources. Political instability and lack of funding have limited the impact of this reform effort.
Several agencies and companies that produce solar cookers as an alternative to using wood and charcoal have been working in Haiti to establish solutions to the poverty and fuel issues, though their effectiveness and the degree to which they are used are questionable.
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when did the air max 180 come out | Nike Air Max - Wikipedia
Nike Air Max is a line of shoes first released by Nike, Inc. in 1987. The shoe was originally designed by Tinker Hatfield, who started out working for Nike as an architect designing shops; he also designed many of the Air Jordan models. The Nike air technology was created and patented by employee M. Frank Rudy.
The Nike Air Max shoe uses a large air cushioning unit at the heel which is visible from the side of the midsole in most models. Types of Air Max cushioning include:
The line of sneakers is popular amongst many subcultures, for example Hip Hop, Gabber and the working class.
In the mid-1990s the line, especially the Air Max 95 model, experienced such a surge of popularity in Japan that it led to a phenomenon known as "Air Max hunting ''. The extremely inflated prices of the shoes led to a rash of muggings in the normally - peaceful country wherein Air Max wearers were attacked and their shoes were stolen. Even used shoes were in demand, and fakes also became a serious problem.
Released in 1987 as the Air Max, the Air Max 1 is the first shoe to have Nike 's air cushioning unit on full display. The sneaker 's upper was made of nylon and synthetic felt. Leather version was later released in 1988. A 1992 reissue had taken the midsole and outsole from the Air Max III (now called the Air Max 90) and featured a leather upper. Nylon was brought back in a 1995 reissue.
Released in 1989 as the Air Max II, the Air Max Light weighed less than the original, achieved by replacing the forefoot polyurethane midsole with one made of EVA foam. Re-released in 2007, Nike has continued to release additional colorways.
Known as the Air Max III until 2000, when it was reissued taking its name from the year of its launch. The original colourway of white / black / cool grey with infrared was chosen to exaggerate the thickness of the sole air cushion. The upper featured Duromesh, synthetic felt and synthetic leather. Nike specially designed a pair of Nike Air Max 90s for President George H.W. Bush. Images of the customized sneakers have been seen around the Department of Nike Archives, and feature AIR PRES branding along with what appears to be a unique colorway.
Released in 1991, the Air Max 180 featured a larger air unit visible through the outsole. The technology was later used in the Air Force 180 sneaker.
Nike air 180
Released in 1993 as the Air Max 270, the Air Max 93 introduced a 270 - degree air unit and colored air units to the range. Nike employed a new manufacturing processes to provide the larger and more exposed air unit greater protection. The upper featured a more sock - like fit derived from 1991 's Air Hurrache sneaker.
The visual design of the Air Max 95 was created by Sergio Lozano who based the design of the Air Max 95 on the human anatomy, with the spine of the shoe resembling the human spine and the materials intended to represent skin, ribs, and tendons. The Air Max 95 was the first pair in the line to utilize two air cushions in the forefoot and used air pressure technology to fit the curvature of the wearer 's forefoot.. The first colorway was black, neon yellow and white. Neon yellow was used to emphasize the multiple air units. The shoe also introduced a smaller Nike swoosh minimized in the rear side panel. Original releases featured a "25 PSI '' air pressure reading on the rear air unit. Uppers also featured 3M Scotchlite material.
According to a 2007 tabloid newspaper study of the UK Forensic Science Service 's database of footwear, the Nike Air Max 95 was "criminals ' number one choice '' in footwear.
The product was referenced in the hip hop song "Hate It or Love It '' by The Game, which was a worldwide top 10 hit in 2005. Also referenced by rappers Gucci Mane in the hit single "Bricks '' and Waka Flocka Flame on the track "Head First '' in his 2009 mixtape, "Lebron Flocka James ''. The rapper Eminem designed a limited - edition range of Air Maxes sold for charity.
1997 's Air Max 97 was inspired by high - speed Japanese bullet trains. It was introduced with a sleeker, metallic silver colorway that contained a nearly full - length visible air unit. Uppers feature three reflective lines made of 3M Scotchbrite material. The Nike Air Max 97 is a Nike running shoe designed by Christian Tresser. It was inspired by Japan 's high - speed Bullet Trains and features a mix of leather, foam, and full - length visible Air. The original "Silver Bullet '' colorway released again in the US on April 13th, 2017 for $160. Over 13 new colorways are hitting retailers starting August 1st, 2017.
Released in 1998, the Air Max Plus introduced Nike 's Tuned Air system. It is often referred to as the Air Max TN. Designed by Sean McDowell, the Air Max Plus featured tranverse waves inspired by palm trees, and a prominent arch shank inspired by a whale tail. The initial release featured a "Hyper Blue '' colorway, characterized by a fading blue airbrush effect. The Nike swoosh had a slightly irregular appearance as a border was added along the inner edge, as opposed to the outer surface.
On January 21, 2006 Nike launched the Air Max 360, a new shoe design that utilized Max Air throughout the shoes midsole.
In September 2006 Nike introduced a special ' one time only pack ' which fused the 360 model with three classics. The three shoes used were the Air Max 90, Air Max 95, and Air Max 97. For this special release, the design of the 360 sole was used in place of the normal sole of the three classics. The shoes were released in the three original colors: red for the Air Max 90, green / yellow for the Air Max 95, and grey / silver for the Air Max 97. Like other Air Max releases, deluxe editions were also produced. These deluxe editions lasted for about 500 miles (800 km) before their shock absorbing properties deteriorated. The use of ' 360 ' of air cushioning is meant to ensure the shoes longevity.
Vapormax has been released in Mar, 2017 designed by Kathy Gomez
The shoes were initially advertised in 1987 with a TV campaign that used the Beatles ' song "Revolution '', the first time a Beatles song had been used in a TV commercial. The following year, Nike used the Just Do It slogan. They were also endorsed by Bo Jackson in exchange for a $100,000 fee, with advertising agency Wieden and Kennedy coming up with the slogan "Bo knows... ''.
Models include:
The 1993 model was the first to have the fully visible heel Air unit that was visible in the back as well as on the sides, and the 1995 model was the first to feature visible forefoot Air. The 1997 model was the first to include a full length Air bag.
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differences between english as a second language and english as a foreign language | English as a second or foreign language - wikipedia
English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL), English as an additional language (EAL), or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL).
The term ESL has been seen by some to indicate that English would be of subordinate importance. For example, where English is used as a lingua franca in a multilingual country. The term ESL can be a misnomer for some students who have learned several languages before learning English. The terms English Language Learners (ELL), and more recently English Learners (EL), have been used instead, and the students ' native languages and cultures are considered important.
Methods of learning English are highly variable depending on the student 's level of English proficiency and the manner and setting in which they are taught, which can range from required classes in school to self - directed study at home. In some programs, educational materials (including spoken lectures and written assignments) are provided in a mixture of English and the student 's native language. In other programs, educational materials are always in English, but the vocabulary, grammar, and context clues may be modified to be more easily understood by students with varying levels of comprehension (Wright, 2010). Adapting comprehension, insight oriented repetitions and recasts are some of the methods used in training. However, without proper cultural immersion (social learning grounds) the associated language habits and reference points (internal mechanisms) of the host country are not completely transferred through these programs (Wright, 2010). The major engines that influence the language are the United States and the United Kingdom and they both have assimilated the language differently so they differ in expressions and usage. This is found to a great extent primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. Variants of English language also exist in both of these countries (e.g. African American Vernacular English).
The English language has great reach and influence, and English is taught all over the world. In countries where English is not usually a native language, there are two distinct models for teaching English: Educational programs for students who want to move to English - speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different terminology, received different training, and formed separate professional associations. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English - speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages.
The many acronyms and abbreviations used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing and the following technical definitions may have their currency contested upon various grounds. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English as a second language, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.
English language teaching (ELT) is a widely used teacher - centered term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. Teaching English as a second language (TESL), teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), and teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) are also used.
Other terms used in this field include English as an international language (EIL), English as a lingua franca (ELF), English for special purposes and English for specific purposes (ESP), and English for academic purposes (EAP). Those who are learning English are often referred to as English language learners (ELL).
EFL, English as a foreign language, indicates the teaching of English in a non -- English - speaking region. Study can occur either in the student 's home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone country that they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly immediately before or after graduating from university. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language; note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English - speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one 's education, or for career progression while one works for an organization or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school curriculum in countries where English has no special status (what linguistic theorist Braj Kachru calls the "expanding circle countries ''); it may also be supplemented by lessons paid for privately. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are literate in their mother tongue. The Chinese EFL Journal and Iranian EFL Journal are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language.
The other broad grouping is the use of English within the English - speaking world. In what Braj Kachru calls "the inner circle '', i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugees, immigrants, and their children. It also includes the use of English in "outer circle '' countries, often former British colonies and the Philippines, where English is an official language even if it is not spoken as a mother tongue by a majority of the population.
In the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand this use of English is called ESL (English as a second language). This term has been criticized on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word "a '' in the phrase "a second language '' means there is no presumption that English is the second acquired language (see also Second language). TESL is the teaching of English as a second language. There are also other terms that it may be referred to in the US including: ELL (English Language Learner) and CLD (Culturally and Linguistically Diverse).
In the UK and Ireland, the term ESL has been replaced by ESOL (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is normally used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK and Ireland, the term EAL (English as an additional language) is used, rather than ESOL, when talking about primary and secondary schools, in order to clarify that English is not the students ' first language, but their second or third. The term ESOL is used to describe English language learners who are above statutory school age.
Other acronyms were created to describe the person rather than the language to be learned. The term Limited English proficiency (LEP) was first used in 1975 by the Lau Remedies following a decision of the U.S. Supreme Court. ELL (English Language Learner), used by United States governments and school systems, was created by James Crawford of the Institute for Language and Education Policy in an effort to label learners positively, rather than ascribing a deficiency to them. Recently, some educators have shortened this to EL -- English Learner.
Typically, a student learns this sort of English to function in the new host country, e.g., within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), or to perform the necessities of daily life (cooking, taking a cab / public transportation, or eating in a restaurant, etc.). The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the mother tongue. It is usually paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit citizenship program. It is technically possible for ESL to be taught not in the host country, but in, for example, a refugee camp, as part of a pre-departure program sponsored by the government soon to receive new potential citizens. In practice, however, this is extremely rare. Particularly in Canada and Australia, the term ESD (English as a second dialect) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for Aboriginal peoples in Canadian or Australians. The term refers to the use of standard English by speakers of a creole or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as ESL / ESD.
All these ways of denoting the teaching of English can be bundled together into an umbrella term. Unfortunately, not all of the English teachers in the world would agree on just only a simply single term (s). The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in American English to include both TEFL and TESL. This is also the case in Canada as well as in Australia and New Zealand. British English uses ELT (English language teaching), because TESOL has a different, more specific meaning; see above.
Several models of "simplified English '' have been suggested or developed for international communication, among them:
Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis approach). A native speaker of Chinese, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German, because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language, second language or L2). See also second language acquisition (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.
Language learners often produce errors of syntax, vocabulary, and pronunciation thought to result from the influence of their L1, such as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately onto the L2, pronouncing certain sounds incorrectly or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as false friends. This is known as L1 transfer or "language interference ''. However, these transfer effects are typically stronger for beginners ' language production, and SLA research has highlighted many errors which can not be attributed to the L1, as they are attested in learners of many language backgrounds (for example, failure to apply 3rd person present singular - s to verbs, as in ' he make ' not ' he makes ').
Some students may have problems due to the incoherence in rules like were, a noun is a noun and a verb is a verb because grammarians say they are. For e.g. In "I am suffering terribly '' suffering is the verb, but in "My suffering is terrible '', it is a noun. But both sentences expresses the same idea using the same words. Other students might have problems due to the prescribing and proscribing nature of rules in the language formulated by amateur grammarians rather than ascribing to the functional and descriptive nature of languages evidenced from distribution. For example, a cleric, Robert Lowth introduced the rule to never end a sentence with a preposition, inspired from Latin grammar through his book "A Short Introduction to English Grammar ''. Due to the inconsistencies brought from Latin language standardization of English language lead to classifying and sub-classyfing an otherwise simple language structure. Like many alphabetic writing systems English also have incorporated the principle that graphemic units should correspond to the phonemic units, however, the fidelity to the principle is compromised, compared to an exemplar like Finnish language. This is evident in the Oxford English Dictionary, for many years they experimented with many spellings of SIGN to attain a fidelity with the said principle, among them are SINE, SEGN, and SYNE, and through the diachronic mutations they settled on SIGN. Cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are also significant. For example, a study among Chinese ESL students revealed that preference of not using tense marking on verb present in the morphology of their mother tongue made it difficult for them to express time related sentences in English. Another study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom ' discussion and interaction ' type of communication for learning as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher - directed lectures.
English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing them. For example:
Languages may also differ in syllable structure; English allows for a cluster of up to three consonants before the vowel and five after it (e.g. strengths, straw, desks, glimpsed, sixths). Japanese and Brazilian Portuguese, for example, broadly alternate consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan and Brazil often force vowels between the consonants (e.g. desks becomes (desukusu) or (dɛskis), and milk shake becomes (miɽukuɕeːku) or (miwki ɕejki), respectively). Similarly, in most Iberian dialects, a word can begin with (s), and (s) can be followed by a consonant, but a word can never begin with (s) immediately followed by a consonant, so learners whose mother tongue is in this language family often have a vowel in front of the word (e.g. school becomes (eskul), (iskuɫ ~ iskuw), (ɯskuɫ) or (əskuɫ) for native speakers of Spanish, Brazilian and European Portuguese, and Catalan, respectively).
Learners who have had less than eight years of formal education in their first language are sometimes called adult ESL literacy learners. Usually these learners have had their first - language education interrupted. Many of these learners require a different level of support, teaching approaches and strategies, and a different curriculum from mainstream adult ESL learners. For example, these learners may lack study skills and transferable language skills, and these learners may avoid reading or writing. Often these learners do not start classroom tasks immediately, do not ask for help, and often assume the novice role when working with peers. Generally these learners may lack self - confidence. For some, prior schooling is equated with status, cultured, civilized, high class, and they may experience shame among peers in their new ESL classes.
Learners who have not had extensive exposure to reading and writing in a second language, despite having acceptable spoken proficiency, may have difficulties with the reading and writing in their L2. Joann Crandall (1993) has pointed out that most teacher training programs for TESOL instructors do not include sufficient, in most cases "no '', training for the instruction in literacy. This is a gap that many scholars feel needs to be addressed.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) are language skills needed in social situations. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) refers to the language associated with formal content material and academic learning. These skills usually take from five to seven years to develop.
According to some English professionals, reading for pleasure is an important component in the teaching of both native and foreign languages:
"Studies that sought to improve writing by providing reading experiences in place of grammar study or additional writing practice found that these experiences were as beneficial as, or more beneficial than, grammar study or extra writing practice. ''
As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal register than spoken language.
There is also debate about "meaning - focused '' learning and "correction - focused '' learning. Supporters for the former think that using speech as the way to explain meaning is more important. However, supporters of the latter do not agree with that and instead think that grammar and correct habit is more important.
Language has a very significant role in our lives. It symbolizes the cultures in our societies where individuals interact and use it to communicate between each other. The development of transportation has influenced global relations to be more practical where people need to interact and share common interests. However, communication is the key power to facilitate interactions among individuals which would provide them with stronger relationships. In places like the United States where immigration plays a role in social, economic and cultural aspects, there is an increase in the number of new immigrants yearly. "The number of non-native English speaking children in U.S. public schools continues to rise dramatically.
Although many non-English speakers tend to practice English classes in their countries before they migrate to any anglophone country to make it easier for them to interact with the people, many of them still struggle when they experience the reality of communicating with a real anglophone. Therefore, society forces them to improve their communication skills as soon as possible. Immigrants can not afford to waste time learning to speak English especially for those who come with certain financial issues. The most common choice people make to build up their communication skills is to take some ESL classes. There are many steps that need to be followed in order to be successful in this aspect. However, the use of new technology makes the learning process more convenient, reliable and productive.
Computers have made an entry into education in the past decades and have brought significant benefits to teachers and students alike. Computers help learners by making them more responsible for their own learning. Studies have shown that one of the best ways of improving one 's learning ability is to use a computer where all the information one might need can be found. In today 's developed world, a computer is one of a number of systems which help learners to improve their language. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a system which aids learners to improve and practice language skills. It provides a stress - free environment for learners and makes them more responsible.
Computers can provide help to the ESL learners in many different ways such as teaching students to learn a new language. The computer can be used to test students about the language they already learn. It can assist them in practicing certain tasks. The computer permits students to communicate easily with other students in different places. Nowadays the increasing use of mobile technology, such as smartphones and tablet computers, has led to a growing usage applications created to facilitate language learning, such as The Phrasal Verbs Machine from Cambridge. In terms of online materials, there are many forms of online materials such as blogs, wikis, webquests. For instance, blogs can allow English learners to voice their opinions, sharpen their writing skills and build their confidence. However, some who are introverted may not feel comfortable sharing their ideas on the blog. Class wikis can be used to promote collaborative learning through sharing and co-constructing knowledge. On - line materials are still just materials and thus need to be subject to the same scrutiny of evaluation as any other language material or source.
The learning ability of language learners can be more reliable with the influence of a dictionary. Learners tend to carry or are required to have a dictionary which allows them to learn independently and become more responsible for their own work. In these modern days, education has upgraded its methods of teaching and learning with dictionaries where digital materials are being applied as tools. Electronic dictionaries are increasingly a more common choice for ESL students. Most of them contain native - language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and example sentences in English. They can speak the English word to the learner, and they are easy to carry around. However, they are expensive and easy to lose, so students are often instructed to put their names on them.
Teaching English therefore involves not only helping the student to use the form of English most suitable for their purposes, but also exposure to regional forms and cultural styles so that the student will be able to discern meaning even when the words, grammar, or pronunciation are different from the form of English they are being taught to speak. Some professionals in the field have recommended incorporating information about non-standard forms of English in ESL programs. For example, in advocating for classroom - based instruction in African - American English (also known as Ebonics), linguist Richard McDorman has argued, "Simply put, the ESL syllabus must break free of the longstanding intellectual imperiousness of the standard to embrace instruction that encompasses the many "Englishes '' that learners will encounter and thereby achieve the culturally responsive pedagogy so often advocated by leaders in the field. ''
ESL students often suffer from the effects of tracking and ability grouping. Students are often placed into low ability groups based on scores on standardized tests in English and Math. There is also low mobility among these students from low to high performing groups, which can prevent them from achieving the same academic progress as native speakers. Similar tests are also used to place ESL students in college level courses. Students have voiced frustration that only non-native students have to prove their language skills, when being a native speaker in no way guarantees college level academic literacy. Studies have shown that these tests can cause different passing rates among linguistic groups regardless of high school preparation.
Dropout rates for ESL students in multiple countries are much higher than dropout rates for native speakers. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States reported that the percentage of dropouts in the non-native born Hispanic youth population between the ages of 16 and 24 years old is 43.4 %. A study in Canada found that the high school dropout rate for all ESL students was 74 %. High dropout rates are thought to be due to difficulties ESL students have in keeping up in mainstream classes, the increasing number of ESL students who enter middle or high school with interrupted prior formal education, and accountability systems.
The accountability system in the US is due to the No Child Left Behind Act. Schools that risk losing funding, closing, or having their principals fired if test scores are not high enough begin to view students that do not perform well on standardized tests as liabilities. Because dropouts actually increase a school 's performance, critics claim that administrators let poor performing students slip through the cracks. A study of Texas schools operating under No Child Left Behind found that 80 % of ESL students did not graduate from high school in five years.
ESL students face several barriers to higher education. Most colleges and universities require four years of English in high school. In addition, most colleges and universities only accept one year of ESL English. It is difficult for ESL students that arrive in the United States relatively late to finish this requirement because they must spend a longer time in ESL English classes in high school, or they might not arrive early enough to complete four years of English in high school. This results in many ESL students not having the correct credits to apply for college, or enrolling in summer school to finish the required courses.
ESL students can also face additional financial barriers to higher education because of their language skills. Those that do n't place high enough on college placement exams often have to enroll in ESL courses at their universities. These courses can cost up to $1,000 extra, and can be offered without credit towards graduation. This adds additional financial stress on ESL students that often come from families of lower socioeconomic status. The latest statistics show that the median household income for school - age ESL students is $36,691 while that of non-ESL students is $60,280. College tuition has risen sharply in the last decade, while family income has fallen. In addition, while many ESL students receive a Pell Grant, the maximum grant for the year 2011 -- 2012 covered only about a third of the cost of college.
ESL students often have difficulty interacting with native speakers in school. Some ESL students avoid interactions with native speakers because of their frustration or embarrassment at their poor English. Immigrant students often also lack knowledge of popular culture, which limits their conversations with native speakers to academic topics. In classroom group activities with native speakers, ESL students often do not participate, again because of embarrassment about their English, but also because of cultural differences: their native cultures may value silence and individual work at school in preference to social interaction and talking in class.
These interactions have been found to extend to teacher -- student interactions as well. In most mainstream classrooms, teacher - led discussion is the most common form of lesson. In this setting, some ESL students will fail to participate, and often have difficulty understanding teachers because they talk too fast, do not use visual aids, or use native colloquialisms. ESL students also have trouble getting involved with extracurricular activities with native speakers for similar reasons. Students fail to join extra-curricular activities because of the language barrier, cultural emphasis of academics over other activities, or failure to understand traditional pastimes in their new country.
Supporters of ESL programs claim they play an important role in the formation of peer networks and adjustment to school and society in their new homes. Having class among other students learning English as a second language relieves the pressure of making mistakes when speaking in class or to peers. ESL programs also allow students to be among others who appreciate their native language and culture, the expression of which is often not supported or encouraged in mainstream settings. ESL programs also allow students to meet and form friendships with other non-native speakers from different cultures, promoting racial tolerance and multiculturalism.
Peer tutoring refers to an instructional method that pairs up low - achieving English readers, with ESL students that know minimal English and who are also approximately the same age and same grade level. The goal of this dynamic is to help both the tutor, in this case the English speaker, and the tutee, the ESL student. Monolingual tutors are given the class material in order to provide tutoring to their assigned ESL tutee. Once the tutor has had the chance to help the student, classmates get to switch roles in order to give both peers an opportunity to learn from each other. In a study, which conducted a similar research, their results indicated that low - achieving readers that were chosen as tutors, made a lot of progress by using this procedure. In addition, ESL students were also able to improve their grades due to the fact that they increased their approach in reading acquisition skills.
Since there is not enough funding to afford tutors, and teachers find it hard to educate all students who have different learning abilities, it is highly important to implement peer - tutoring programs in schools. Students placed in ESL program learn together along with other non-English speakers, however by using peer tutoring in classroom it will avoid the separation between regular English classes and ESL classes. These programs will promote community between students that will be helping each other grow academically. To further support this statement, a study researched the effectiveness of peer tutoring and explicit teaching in classrooms. It was found that students with learning disabilities and low performing students who are exposed to the explicit teaching and peer tutoring treatment in the classroom, have better academic performance than those students who do n't receive this type of assistance. It was proven that peer tutoring is the most effective and no cost form of teaching
It has been proven that peer - mediated tutoring is an effective tool to help ESL students succeed academically. Peer tutoring has been utilized across many different academic courses and the outcomes for those students that have different learning abilities are outstanding. Classmates who were actively involved with other peers in tutoring had better academic standing than those students who were not part of the tutoring program. Based on their results, researchers found that all English student learners were able to maintain a high percentage of English academic words on weekly tests taught during tutoring session. It was also found that the literature on the efficacy of peer tutoring service combined with regular classroom teaching, is the best methodology practice that is effective, that benefits students, teachers, and parents involved.
Similarly, a longitudinal study was conducted to examine the effects of paired bilingual program and an English - only reading program with Spanish speaking English learners in order to increase students ' English reading outcomes. Students whose primary language was Spanish and were part of ESL program were participants of this study. Three different approaches were the focus in which immersing students in English from the very beginning and teaching them reading only in that language; teaching students in Spanish first, followed by English; and teaching students to read in Spanish and English simultaneously. This occurs through a strategic approach such as structured English immersion or sheltered instruction.
Findings showed that the paired bilingual reading approach appeared to work as well as, or better than, the English - only reading approach in terms of reading growth and results. Researchers found differences in results, but they also varied based on several outcomes depending on the student 's learning abilities and academic performance.
Teachers in an ESL class are specifically trained in particular techniques and tools to help students learn English. In fact, research says that the quality of their teaching methods is what matters the most when it comes to educating English learners. It was also mentioned how it is highly important for teachers to have the drive to help these students succeed and "feel personal responsibility. '' It is important to highlight the idea that the school system needs to focus on school - wide interventions in order to make an impact and be able to help all English learners. There is a high need for comprehensive professional development for teachers in the ESL program.
Although peer tutoring has been proven to be an effective way of learning that engages and promotes academic achievement in students, does it have an effect on the achievement gap? It is an obvious fact that there is a large academic performance disparity between White, Black, and Latino students, and it continues to be an issue that has to be targeted. In an article it was mentioned that no one has been able to identify the true factors that cause this discrepancy. However it was mentioned that by developing effective peer tutoring programs in schools could be a factor that can potentially decrease the achievement gap in the United States.
Learners of English are often eager to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally:
Many countries also have their own exams. ESOL learners in England, Wales and Northern Ireland usually take the national Skills for Life qualifications, which are offered by several exam boards. EFL learners in China may take the College English Test, the Test for English Majors (TEM), and / or the Public English Test System (PETS). People in Taiwan often take the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT). In Greece English students may take the PALSO (PanHellenic Association of Language School Owners) exams.
Between 1998 and 2000, the Council of Europe 's language policy division developed its Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries.
The Common European Framework (CEF) divides language learners into three levels:
Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc.).
This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels:
Qualifications vary from one region or jurisdiction to the next. There are also different qualifications for those who manage or direct TESOL programs
Most people who teach English are in fact not native speakers. They are state school teachers in countries around the world, and as such they hold the relevant teaching qualification of their country, usually with a specialization in teaching English. For example, teachers in Hong Kong hold the Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers. Those who work in private language schools may, from commercial pressures, have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below). Widespread problems exist of minimal qualifications and poor quality providers of training, and as the industry becomes more professional, it is trying to self - regulate to eliminate these.
Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the United Kingdom 's sphere of influence include certificates and diplomas issued by Trinity College London ESOL and Cambridge English Language Assessment (henceforth Trinity and Cambridge).
A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for most EFL jobs and for some ESOL ones. CertTESOL (Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), issued by Trinity, and CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), issued by Cambridge, are the most widely taken and accepted qualifications for new teacher trainees. Courses are offered in the UK and in many countries around the world. It is usually taught full - time over a one - month period or part - time over a period up to a year.
Teachers with two or more years of teaching experience who want to stay in the profession and advance their career prospects (including school management and teacher training) can take a diploma course. Trinity offers the Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (DipTESOL) and Cambridge offers the Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (DELTA). These diplomas are considered to be equivalent and are both accredited at level 7 of the revised National Qualifications Framework. Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an MA in a relevant discipline such as applied linguistics or ELT. Many UK master 's degrees require considerable experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course.
The above qualifications are well - respected within the UK EFL sector, including private language schools and higher education language provision. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government 's criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (i.e. post-compulsory or further education), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 at level 5 (of the revised NQF) and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in ESOL, the CELTA module 2 and City & Guilds 9488. Teachers of any subject within the British state sector are normally expected to hold a PGCE, and may choose to specialise in ELT.
Teachers teaching adult ESL in Canada in the federally funded Language Instruction to Newcomers (LINC) program must be TESL certified. Most employers in Ontario encourage certification by TESL Ontario. Often this requires completing an eight - month graduate certificate program at an accredited university or college. See the TESL Ontario or TESL Canada websites for more information.
Most U.S. instructors at community colleges, private language schools and universities qualify to teach English to adult non-native speakers by completing a Master of Arts (MA) in TESOL. Other degrees may be a Master in Adult Education and Training or Applied Linguistics. This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts. There are also a growing number of online programs offering TESOL degrees. In fact, "the growth of Online Language Teacher Education (OLTE) programs from the mid-1990s to 2009 was from 20 to more than 120 ''.
In many areas of the United States, a growing number of K - 12 public school teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, that is, children who come to school speaking a home language other than English). The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state - issued teaching certificate for public instruction. This state licensing requires substantial practical experience as well as course work. In some states, an additional specialization in ESL / ELL is required. This may be called an "endorsement ''. Endorsement programs may be part of a graduate program or may be completed independently to add the endorsement to the initial teaching certificate
An MA in TESOL may or may not meet individual state requirements for K - 12 public school teachers. It is important to determine if a graduate program is designed to prepare teachers for adult education or K - 12 education.
The MA in TESOL typically includes second language acquisition theory, linguistics, pedagogy, and an internship. A program will also likely have specific classes on skills such as reading, writing, pronunciation, and grammar. Admission requirements vary and may or may not require a background in education and / or language. Many graduate students also participate in teaching practica or clinicals, which provide the opportunity to gain experience in classrooms.
In addition to traditional classroom teaching methods, speech pathologists, linguists, actors, and voice professionals are actively involved in teaching pronunciation of American English -- called accent improvement, accent modification, and accent reduction -- and serve as resources for other aspects of spoken English, such as word choice.
It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license for K - 12 teachers is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the Praxis test or a specific state test subject and method exams or similar, state - sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as student teachers. Often, ESL certification can be obtained through extra college coursework. ESL certifications are usually only valid when paired with an already existing teaching certificate. Certification requirements for ESL teachers vary greatly from state to state; out - of - state teaching certificates are recognized if the two states have a reciprocity agreement.
The following document states the qualifications for an ESL certificate in the state of Pennsylvania.
Native speakers will often be able to find work as an English teacher in Chile without an ESL teaching certificate. However, many private institutes give preference to teachers with a TEFL, CELTA or TESOL certificate. The Chilean Ministry of Education also sponsors the English Opens Doors program, which recruits native English speakers to come work as teaching assistants in Chilean public schools. English Opens Doors requires only a bachelor 's degree in order to be considered for acceptance.
Note that some of the terms below may be restricted to one or more countries, or may be used with different meanings in different countries, particularly the US and UK. See further discussion is Terminology and types above.
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what grade is trevor in pay it forward | Pay it forward (film) - wikipedia
Pay It Forward is a 2000 American drama - romance film based on the novel of the same name by Catherine Ryan Hyde. It is set in Las Vegas, and it chronicles 12 - year - old Trevor McKinney 's launch of a goodwill movement known as ' pay it forward '. Directed by Mimi Leder and written by Leslie Dixon, it stars Haley Joel Osment as Trevor, Helen Hunt as his alcoholic single mother Arlene McKinney, and Kevin Spacey as his physically and emotionally scarred social studies teacher Eugene Simonet.
The film was released on October 20, 2000 to mixed reviews, with most critics praising the acting, writing, music and cinematography but criticizing the story and accusing it of excessive emotional manipulation, particularly in its ending. It was a moderate box office success, earning just over $55.7 million on a $40 million budget.
Trevor (Haley Joel Osment) begins 7th grade in Las Vegas, Nevada, his social studies teacher Eugene Simonet (Kevin Spacey) gives the class an assignment to devise and put into action a plan that will change the world for the better. Trevor 's plan is a charitable program based on the networking of good deeds. He calls his plan "pay it forward '', which means the recipient of a favor does a favor for three others rather than paying the favor back. However, it needs to be a major favor that the recipient can not complete themselves.
Trevor does a favor for three people, asking each of them to "pay the favor forward '' by doing favors for three other people, and so on, along a branching tree of good deeds. His first good deed is to let a homeless man named Jerry (James Caviezel) live in his garage, and Jerry pays the favor forward by doing car repairs for Trevor 's mother. Trevor 's efforts appear to fail when Jerry relapses into drug addiction, but Jerry pays his debt forward later by talking to a suicidal woman, who is about to jump off a bridge.
Meanwhile, Trevor 's mother Arlene (Helen Hunt) confronts Eugene about Trevor 's project after discovering Jerry in their house. Trevor then selects Eugene as his next "pay it forward '' target and tricks Eugene and Arlene into a romantic dinner date. This also appears to fail until Trevor and Arlene argue about her love for Ricky, her alcoholic ex-husband, and she slaps him in a fit of anger. The two adults are brought together again when Trevor runs away from home and Arlene asks Eugene to help her find him.
After finding Trevor, Arlene begins to pursue Eugene sexually. Eugene has deep burn marks visible on his neck and face, and he initially resists Arlene 's overtures out of insecurity. When they finally sleep together, he is seen to have extensive scarring all over his torso. Arlene accepts Eugene 's physical disfigurement and forms an emotional bond with him, but quickly abandons their relationship when Ricky (Jon Bon Jovi) returns to her, claiming to have given up drinking. His return and her acceptance of it angers Eugene, whose own mother had a habit of taking his abusive, alcoholic father back. When Arlene attempts to explain to Eugene that she believes Ricky has changed for good, Eugene explains that his father intentionally burned him by knocking him unconscious, then pouring gasoline over him and igniting it. He berates Arlene for being "one of those women '' and warns her of Ricky 's potential to abuse Trevor. When Ricky drinks again and resumes his abusive behavior, Arlene realizes her mistake and forces him to leave.
Trevor 's school assignment marks the beginning of the story 's chronology, but the opening scene in the film shows one of the later favors in the "pay it forward '' tree, in which a man gives a car to Los Angeles journalist Chris Chandler (Jay Mohr). As the film proceeds, Chris traces the chain of favors back to its origin as Trevor 's school project. After her date with Eugene, Arlene paid Jerry 's favor forward by forgiving her own mother, Grace (Angie Dickinson), for her mistakes in raising Arlene, and Grace, who is homeless, helps a gang member escape from the police. The gang member then saves a girl 's life in a hospital, and the girl 's father gives Chris his new car.
Chris finally identifies Trevor as the originator of "pay it forward '' and conducts a recorded interview in which Trevor describes his hopes and concerns for the project. Eugene, hearing Trevor 's words, realizes that he and Arlene should be together. As Eugene and Arlene reconcile with an embrace, Trevor notices his friend, Adam, being bullied by gangster - like children, as he has several times before. He pays it forward to Adam by rushing into the scene and fighting the bullies while Eugene and Arlene rush to stop him. One of the bullies takes a switchblade out of his pocket and stabs Trevor in the abdomen with it. The bullies run away and Trevor is taken to the hospital, where he dies from his injuries. This news is reported on television as well as the fact that the movement is spreading across the country; Arlene and Eugene are soon visited by hundreds of people who have participated in or heard of the "Pay It Forward '' movement by gathering in a vigil to pay Trevor their respects.
Leslie Dixon adapted the screenplay from the book of the same name by Catherine Ryan Hyde, which was available as an open writing assignment. Dixon struggled with the adaptation of the book in part because of multiple narrative voices within it. Specifically in that the reporter, the central character in the film, does not show up until halfway through the novel. Stuck, Dixon considered returning the money she was paid for the assignment. She eventually hit upon the idea to start with the reporter and trace the events backwards. Dixon presented the idea to Hyde who in turn liked it so much that she decided to change the then unpublished novel 's plot structure to mirror the film 's. In the novel, the character of Eugene Simonet was originally an African - American man named Reuben St. Clair. The role was offered to Denzel Washington, but he turned it down. Kevin Spacey was contacted next and accepted the role.
On November 19, 1999, it was announced that Osment had been cast as Trevor McKinney.
The film was shot in late 1999 and early 2000. Filming took place on location in Las Vegas, Nevada and on studio in Los Angeles, California, with additional shooting (for the bridge scene) taking place in Portland, Oregon.
The film 's soundtrack was composed by Thomas Newman and was released by Varèse Sarabande on October 7, 2000 (around two weeks before the film 's release).
The soundtrack was generally praised by critics, and is considered to be fitting with the theme of the film.
The track listing of the soundtrack is:
In addition, the song "Calling All Angels '' by Jane Siberry is played in the film and is included on the soundtrack.
The film opened at # 4 in the North American box office making $9,631,359 USD in its opening weekend, behind Remember the Titans, Bedazzled, Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2 and Meet the Parents, which was on its third week at number one.
Worldwide, the film was a moderate box office success, earning just over $55.7 million on a $40 million budget.
The film received mixed reviews, although the performances of Spacey, Hunt, and Osment were universally praised.
Rotten Tomatoes rated the film with 40 % based on 127 reviews with a consensus saying, "Pay It Forward has strong performances from Spacey, Hunt, and Osment, but the movie itself is too emotionally manipulative and the ending is bad. ''
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2.5 stars out of a possible 4 stating, "With a cleaner story line, the basic idea could have been free to deliver. As it is, we get a better movie than we might have, because the performances are so good: Spacey as a vulnerable and wounded man; Hunt as a woman no less wounded in her own way, and Osment, once again proving himself the equal of adult actors in the complexity and depth of his performance. I believed in them and cared for them. I wish the movie could have gotten out of their way. ''
Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum gave it a "D '' grade, calling it "reprehensible '' for using "shameless cliches of emotional and physical damage '' and then "blackmailing audiences into joining the let 's - be-nice ' movement ' '' in order to be transparent Oscar bait.
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32 avenue of the americas new york ny 10013 united states | 32 Avenue of the Americas - wikipedia
32 Avenue of the Americas, also known as the AT&T Long Distance Building, or simply the AT&T Building, is a 27 - story landmarked Art Deco skyscraper located in the Tribeca neighborhood of New York City. The building reaches a height of 549 feet (167.3 m) up to its twin spires, and was completed in 1932. It is located by the intersections of Walker Street, Lispenard Street, Church Street and the Avenue of the Americas.
The structure is currently the 369th tallest building in New York City The tower was designed by the architectural firm of Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker, and contains 1,150,000 square feet (107,000 m) of office space. It is managed by the privately held Rudin Management Company.
Occupied by AT&T, the building was originally known as the AT&T Long Lines Headquarters and was located at 24 Walker Street. Major reconstruction on the building followed during the early 1930s, as the address changed to 32 Avenue of the Americas. The building housed the technical offices and equipment for the company 's transatlantic communications and other functions. In 1992, when AT&T sold the former AT&T Building in Midtown Manhattan to Sony, the company moved its head offices to the Tribeca location.
Between 2001 -- 02, the tower underwent an extensive renovation by the architecture firm of Fox & Fowle, which included the installation of new mechanical and communications infrastructures. The highlight of the restoration included the placement of two 120 - foot - tall (37 m) communications masts which increased the height of the overall tower from 429 feet (131 m) to 549 feet (167 m). Numerous features of the building 's original design were restored, including the lobby with its expansive Art Deco murals. A quarter of the building 's windows were replaced with louvers which emulated the pattern of the original sash windows.
The building 's entrance lobby contains a wall covered with a tiled map of the world. The ceiling is decorated with an allegorical mosaic decor designed by Hildreth Meiere. The exterior cladding of the facade is composed of brown brick -- colored applied masonry.
Within the building, there is an entrance to the Canal Street subway station on the A, C, and E trains.
The building is leased to corporate clients such as Cogent Communications, iHeartMedia, Inc., (Industrial Color Brands), (Mission Capital Advisors), Qwest, Cambridge University Press, Verizon, T - Mobile, TV Globo International, GloboNews, 360i, Bartle Bogle Hegarty (BBH), Tata Communications (TCL), Tribeca Film Institute, Tribeca Film Festival and New York University among others. The 24th floor of the building also houses a carrier - neutral, co-location and interconnection facility for communication providers known as The Hub. The facility is a convergent point for buyers and sellers of bandwidth; for over 50 terrestrial carriers, content providers, ISPs, and enterprise tenants, among them DE-CIX New York and fiber network operator ZenFi.
The ground floor on the Walker Street side houses the "iHeartRadio theater presented by P.C. Richard & Son ''. There is also a Starbucks located on the ground floor, which opened in 2014, that has doors to the street and to the inside of the building.
World Map Detail
Europe Mosaic & Elevator Hall Detail
Eagle Ceiling Mosaic Detail
Condor Ceiling Mosaic Detail
Corridor
Asia Mosaic Detail
Europe Mosaic Detail
Australia Mosaic Detail
Africa Mosaic Detail
Elevator Corridor
Coordinates: 40 ° 43 ′ 12 '' N 74 ° 00 ′ 17 '' W / 40.720129 ° N 74.004618 ° W / 40.720129; - 74.004618
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what is the babys name in family guy | List of family Guy characters - wikipedia
Family Guy is an American animated comedy series created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Characters are listed only once, normally under the first applicable subsection in the list; very minor characters are listed with a more regular character with whom they are associated.
Peter Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the patriarch of the Griffin household, an Irish - American blue - collar worker. For most of the series, Peter is shown as an obese, unintelligent, lazy, outspoken, immature, and eccentric alcoholic. He has several jobs, which have included working at the Happy Go Lucky Toy Factory, a fisherman, and currently as a shipping clerk at the Pawtucket Brewery.
Lois Patrice Griffin (née Pewterschmidt) (voiced by Alex Borstein) is the matriarch of the Griffin household, Peter 's wife, and the mother of Meg, Chris, and Stewie. She is an Anglo - American housewife who cares deeply for her kids and her husband, while also working as a piano instructor. Lois is also very flirtatious and has slept with numerous people on the show.
Megan "Meg '' Griffin (voiced by Lacey Chabert in season 1, Mila Kunis since season 2) is the Griffins ' 18 - year - old daughter and oldest child. She is a self - conscious, unattractive, sensitive, and emotionally fragile teenager who is more often than not ridiculed and ignored by the people around her. Meg just wants to be another face in the crowd by fitting in with her peers and being accepted, but she often finds herself to be a victim of circumstance. She has had several love interests over the course of the series, including Brian Griffin, Mayor Adam West, Tom Tucker, Glenn Quagmire, and Joe Swanson.
Christopher Cross "Chris '' Griffin (voiced by Seth Green) is the Griffins ' 15 - year - old son and middle child who, like Meg, is a teenager. He is friendly, outgoing, funny, and good - hearted. A recurring gag is that an evil monkey lives in his closet which he finds out is not evil in the episode "Hannah Banana ''. Physically, he is a younger version of Peter, but intellectually, he more often than not shows better potential and is more idealistic, as demonstrated from moments of coherence and articulation within his speech, especially when talking about films, TV series, actors and actresses, etc.
Stewart Gilligan "Stewie '' Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the Griffin 's 1 - year - old child, but often behaves in adult ways such as speaking in an upper - class British accent. He is a child genius who frequently aspired to murder his mother Lois and take over the world but has since mellowed out considerably. Stewie built a time machine with which he and Brian have traveled through time. He turned 1 year old in "Chitty Chitty Death Bang, '' and has not aged past one year since. As a fact in "Road to Rupert, '' he says he is a year old.
Brian Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the family 's anthropomorphic talking white Labrador Retriever and the best friend of both Stewie and Peter. He and Stewie are often at the center of the show 's most critically acclaimed episodes, most notably the "Road to... '' episodes, where he and Stewie go on road - trips together. Brian is portrayed as an intellectual -- a Brown University attendee -- who often serves as the family 's voice of reason, pointing out how ridiculous Peter 's ideas are. He is not - so - secretly in love with Lois and is an unsuccessful, unemployed writer.
Brian was not revealed to be an atheist until season 7. In earlier seasons, he was shown to be very much a believer of God especially in "If I 'm Dyin ', I 'm Lyin ' '' in season 2. How this change occurred in Brian is unknown.
In "Life of Brian '', Brian is hit by a car and dies from his injuries, with the family by his side. The family then decides to adopt a new streetwise dog with a thick New Jersey accent named Vinny. However, in "Christmas Guy '' (two episodes later), Stewie still misses Brian. He finds a way to go back in time and successfully saves him, also meaning that the family never adopted Vinny. Though Stewie and Vinny did say their goodbyes.
The following characters have worked with Peter at different jobs:
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who gets paid for the happy birthday song | Happy Birthday to You - wikipedia
"Happy Birthday to You '', also known as "Happy Birthday '', is a song traditionally sung to celebrate the anniversary of a person 's birth. According to the 1998 Guinness World Records, it is the most recognized song in the English language, followed by "For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow ''. The song 's base lyrics have been translated into at least 18 languages. The melody of "Happy Birthday to You '' comes from the song "Good Morning to All '', which has traditionally been attributed to American sisters Patty and Mildred J. Hill in 1893, although the claim that the sisters composed the tune is disputed.
Patty Hill was a kindergarten principal in Louisville, Kentucky, developing various teaching methods at what is now the Little Loomhouse; her sister Mildred was a pianist and composer. The sisters used "Good Morning to All '' as a song that young children would find easy to sing. The combination of melody and lyrics in "Happy Birthday to You '' first appeared in print in 1912, and probably existed even earlier.
None of the early appearances of the "Happy Birthday to You '' lyrics included credits or copyright notices. The Summy Company registered a copyright in 1935, crediting authors Preston Ware Orem and Mrs. R. R. Forman. In 1988, Warner / Chappell Music purchased the company owning the copyright for US $ 25 million, with the value of "Happy Birthday '' estimated at US $ 5 million. Based on the 1935 copyright registration, Warner claimed that the United States copyright will not expire until 2030, and that unauthorized public performances of the song are illegal unless royalties are paid to Warner. In one specific instance in February 2010, the royalty for a single use was said to be US $ 700. By one estimate, the song is the highest - earning single song in history, with estimated earnings since its creation of US $ 50 million. In the European Union, the copyright for the song expired on January 1, 2017.
The American copyright status of "Happy Birthday to You '' began to draw more attention with the passage of the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act in 1998. When the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Act in Eldred v. Ashcroft in 2003, Associate Justice Stephen Breyer specifically mentioned "Happy Birthday to You '' in his dissenting opinion. American law professor Robert Brauneis, who extensively researched the song, concluded in 2010 that "It is almost certainly no longer under copyright. '' In 2013, based in large part on Brauneis 's research, Good Morning to You Productions, a company producing a documentary about "Good Morning to All '', sued Warner / Chappell for falsely claiming copyright to the song. In September 2015, a federal judge declared that the Warner / Chappell copyright claim was invalid, ruling that the copyright registration applied only to a specific piano arrangement of the song, and not to its lyrics and melody. In 2016, Warner / Chappell settled for US $14 million, and the court declared that "Happy Birthday to You '' was in the public domain.
Happy birthday to you Happy birthday to you Happy birthday dear (NAME) Happy birthday to you.
The person whose birthday is being celebrated is filled in for "(NAME) ''. The earliest known publication used "John '' as the example.
It is traditional, among English - speakers, that at a birthday party, the song "Happy Birthday to You '' be sung to the birthday person by the other guests celebrating the birthday. More specifically, the birthday person is traditionally presented with a birthday cake with lit candles, with the number of candles sometimes corresponding to the age of the person. After the song is sung (usually just once), party guests sometimes add wishes like "and many more! '' expressing the hope that the birthday person will enjoy a long life. The birthday person may be asked to make a wish ("Make a wish! '') -- which he or she does silently -- and then is supposed to blow out the candles. Traditionally, blowing out the candles is believed (or is considered a lighthearted superstition) to ensure that the wish will come true. Once the candles have been blown out, people may applaud, after which the cake may be served, often with the first piece being served to the person whose birthday it is.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, immediately after "Happy Birthday '' has been sung, it is traditional for one of the guests to enthusiastically lead with "Hip hip... '' and then for all of the other guests to join in and say "... hooray! '' This is normally repeated three times. In Canada, especially at young children 's birthdays, immediately after "Happy Birthday '' has been sung, the singers segue into "How old are you now? How old are you now? How old are you now - ow, how old are you now? '' and then count up: "Are you one? Are you two? Are you... '' until they reach the right age, at which the celebrant says "yes '', and everybody else, who presumably know the right number, all cheer.
Both the music and lyrics are in public domain in both the European Union and United States. The copyright expired in the European Union on January 1, 2017. In the United States, a federal court ruled in 2016 that Warner / Chappell 's copyright claim was invalid and there was no other claim to copyright.
The origins of "Happy Birthday to You '' date back to at least the late 19th century, when two sisters, Patty and Mildred J. Hill, introduced the song "Good Morning to All '' to Patty 's kindergarten class in Kentucky. Years later, in 1893, they published the tune in their songbook Song Stories for the Kindergarten. Kembrew McLeod stated that the Hill sisters likely copied the tune and lyrical idea from other popular and similar nineteenth - century songs that predated theirs, including Horace Waters ' "Happy Greetings to All '', "Good Night to You All '' also from 1858, "A Happy New Year to All '' from 1875, and "A Happy Greeting to All '', published 1885. However, American law professor Robert Brauneis disputes this, noting that these earlier songs had quite different melodies.
It is likely that teachers and students spontaneously adapted the published version of "Good Morning to All '' to celebrate birthdays in the classroom, changing the lyrics to "Happy Birthday '' in the process. The complete text of "Happy Birthday to You '' first appeared in print as the final four lines of Edith Goodyear Alger 's poem "Roy 's Birthday '', published in her book A Primer of Work and Play, copyrighted by D.C. Heath in 1901, with no reference to the words being sung. The first book including "Happy Birthday '' lyrics set to the tune of "Good Morning to All '' that bears a date of publication is from 1911 in The Elementary Worker and His Work, but earlier references exist to a song called "Happy Birthday to You '' including an article from 1901 in the Inland Educator and Indiana School Journal. Children 's Praise and Worship, edited by Andrew Byers, Bessie L. Byrum and Anna E. Koglin, published the song in 1918. In 1924, Robert Coleman included "Good Morning to All '' in a songbook with the birthday lyrics as a second verse. Coleman also published "Happy Birthday '' in The American Hymnal in 1933.
In 1935, several specific piano arrangements and an unused second verse of "Happy Birthday to You '' were copyrighted as a work for hire crediting Preston Ware Orem for the piano arrangements and Mrs. R. R. Forman for the lyrics by the Summy Company, the publisher of "Good Morning to All ''. This served as the legal basis for claiming that Summy Company legally registered the copyright for the song, as well as the later renewal of these copyrights. A later 2015 lawsuit would find this claim baseless. That specific new lyrics that also included the full text of "Happy Birthday to You '', was a copyright on the derivative work. A 1957 acquisition of C.C. Birchard & Company saw Summy Company becoming the Summy - Birchard Company. A later corporate restructuring in the 1970s saw Summy - Birchard becoming a division of a new company: Birch Tree Group Limited.
Warner / Chappell Music acquired Birch Tree Group Limited in 1988 for US $ 25 million. The company continued to insist that one can not sing the "Happy Birthday to You '' lyrics for profit without paying royalties: in 2008, Warner collected about US $ 5,000 per day (US $ 2 million per year) in royalties for the song. Warner / Chappell claimed copyright for every use in film, television, radio, anywhere open to the public, and for any group where a substantial number of those in attendance are not family or friends of whoever is performing the song. Brauneis cited problems with the song 's authorship and the notice and renewal of the copyright, and concluded: "It is almost certainly no longer under copyright. ''
In the European Union, copyright lasts for the life of the author (s) plus 70 years; since Patty Hill (the last surviving author) died in 1946, the copyright in these countries expired on January 1, 2017.
On June 13, 2013, documentary filmmaker Jennifer Nelson filed a putative class action suit in federal court for the Southern District of New York against Warner / Chappell in the name of her production company, Good Morning to You Productions. As part of a documentary she was making about the song and its history, she had paid US $ 1,500 to secure the rights. Her complaint relied heavily on Brauneis 's research, seeking not only the return of her money but all royalties collected by the company from other filmmakers since 2009. A week later a similar case was filed in the Central District of California, Rupa Marya v. Warner Chappell Music Inc, Case No. 2: 13 - cv - 04460. Five weeks later, Nelson refiled the case there, and the cases were combined. As of April 2014, Warner 's motion to dismiss had been denied without prejudice, and discovery began under an agreed plan with respect to Claim One, declaratory judgment as to whether "Happy Birthday to You '' is in the public domain. The Motion Cut - Off as to Merits Issues on the Claim One deadline was November 7, 2014. After that, the court was expected to rule on the motion for summary judgment as to the merits issues on Claim One. A jury trial was requested.
On July 28, 2015, one day prior to a scheduled ruling, Nelson 's attorneys Betsy Manifold and Mark Rifkin presented new evidence that they argued was conclusive proof that the song was in the public domain, "thus making it unnecessary for the Court to decide the scope or validity of the disputed copyrights, much less whether Patty Hill abandoned any copyright she may have had to the lyrics ''. Several weeks prior, they had been given access to documents held back from them by Warner / Chappell, which included a copy of the 15th edition of The Everyday Song Book, published in 1927. The book contained "Good Morning and Happy Birthday '', but the copy was blurry, obscuring a line of text below the title. Manifold and Rifkin located a clearer copy of an older edition, published in 1922, that also contained the "Happy Birthday '' lyrics. The previously obscured line was revealed to be the credit "Special permission through courtesy of The Clayton F Summy Co. ''. Manifold and Rifkin argued that because the music and lyrics were published without a valid copyright notice as was required at the time, "Happy Birthday '' was in the public domain.
Warner / Chappell disputed the evidence, arguing that unless there was "necessary authorization from the copyright owner '', the "Happy Birthday '' lyrics and sheet music would still be subject to common law copyright as an unpublished work, and that it was unknown whether the "special permission '' from the Summy Company covered "Good Morning to All '', "Happy Birthday '', or both, thus alleging that the publication in The Everyday Song Book was unauthorized. The company also argued that it was not acting in bad faith in withholding the evidence of the 1927 publication.
On September 22, 2015, federal judge George H. King ruled that the Warner / Chappell copyright claim over the lyrics was invalid. The 1935 copyright held by Warner / Chappell applied only to a specific piano arrangement of the song, not the lyrics or melody. The court held that the question of whether the 1922 and 1927 publications were authorized, thus placing the song in the public domain, presented questions of fact that would need to be resolved at trial. However, Warner / Chappell had failed to prove that it actually had ever held a copyright to the lyrics, so the court was able to grant summary judgment to the plaintiffs, thus resolving the case.
Some initial news sources characterized the decision as ruling that the song was in the public domain, but the decision did not go so far, holding only that Warner / Chappell did not prove they owned the copyright. However, because there are no other claimants to the copyright, and the copyright to the melody long ago expired, the plaintiffs suggested that the song was de facto in the public domain. Also, the judge ruled that the song was not copyrighted by Summy Co., who had written in the song book, "Special permission through courtesy of the Clayton F. Summy Co. '' Since there was no evidence Summy Co. had copyright on the song, the song is still considered to be in the public domain.
Prior to the lawsuit, Warner / Chappell had been earning $2 million a year licensing the song for commercial use, with a notable example the $5,000 paid by the filmmakers of the 1994 documentary, Hoop Dreams, in order to safely distribute the film. On February 8, 2016, Warner / Chappell agreed to pay a settlement of $14 million to those who had licensed the song, and would allow a final judgment declaring the song to be in the public domain, with a final hearing scheduled in March 2016. On June 28, 2016, the final settlement was officially granted and the court declared that the song was in the public domain. The following week, Nelson 's short - form documentary, Happy Birthday: my campaign to liberate the people 's song, was published online by The Guardian.
In the wake of their success, the lawyers involved in the "Happy Birthday '' lawsuit filed similar lawsuits regarding "We Shall Overcome '' and "This Land Is Your Land ''.
One of the most famous performances of "Happy Birthday to You '' was Marilyn Monroe 's rendition to U.S. President John F. Kennedy in May 1962. Another notable use was by comedy pianist Victor Borge, who played the song in styles of various composers, or would begin playing Moonlight Sonata, smoothly transitioning into the song.
The documentary film The Corporation states that Warner / Chappell charged up to US $ 10,000 for the song to appear in a film. Because of the copyright issue, filmmakers rarely showed complete singalongs of "Happy Birthday '' in films, either substituting the public - domain "For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow '' or avoiding the song entirely. Before the song was copyrighted it was used freely, as in Bosko 's Party, a Warner Bros. cartoon of 1932, where a chorus of animals sings it twice through. The copyright status of "Happy Birthday to You '' is directly referenced in a 2009 episode of the TV series iCarly, "iMake Sam Girlier '', in which the main character as well as others begin to sing the song to Sam but are prevented from doing so by Freddie, who says the song is n't public domain; "For She 's a Jolly Good Fellow '' is then sung instead.
In a 1998 episode of the television show Sports Night, "Intellectual Property '', character Dan Rydell sings the song to his co-anchor during a telecast, forcing his network to pay royalties, and causing him to ask his colleagues to choose public - domain songs for him to sing for their birthdays. The copyright is also referenced frequently in a Disney A.N.T. Farm episode where characters repeatedly try to sing the song, only to be stopped by others reminding them of the price. The melody of the song is also featured in The Wrong Trousers but was replaced with "For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow '' for DVD releases. The use of the song is a problem even if it is sung in a made - up language, as a Klingon - language version was nixed in pre-production from the 7th - season episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation called "Parallels '', replaced with "For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow '' in Klingon. In the Futurama episode "I Second That Emotion '', they poke fun at the song and its copyright by making their own version with the lyrics "What day is today? / It 's (birthday person) 's birthday / What a day for a birthday / Let 's all have some cake. ''
In The Goldbergs episode "Han Ukkah Solo '', Erica Goldberg is challenged to write a Hanukkah song. She does, but her words are sung to the tune of "Happy Birthday To You ''. Her music teacher tells her she ca n't use it because "I 'd have to pay those old ladies hundreds of thousands of dollars, and I 've already spent our budget on construction paper. ''
In the 30 Rock episode "Goodbye, My Friend '', TGS cast members begin to sing the song following an announcement about the royalty fee for singing "Happy Birthday to You '' on a television show. The cast is interrupted after the first line by a character entering the scene. In the Community episode "Mixology Certification '', a scene starts with the last two words of the song ("... to you ''), implying it had been sung in its entirety, before Pierce confusedly asks, "How come we only sang the last two words? ''
In the 1987 documentary Eyes on the Prize about the U.S. Civil Rights Movement, there was a birthday party scene in which Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. 's discouragement began to lift. After its initial release, the film was unavailable for sale or broadcast for many years because of the cost of clearing many copyrights, of which "Happy Birthday to You '' was one. Grants in 2005 for copyright clearances allowed PBS to rebroadcast the film as recently as February 2008.
In 2010, the Western classical music conductor Zubin Mehta conducted the orchestra to play variations of Happy Birthday in the styles of various Western classical music composers including Wagner, Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, and in the Viennese, New Orleans and Hungarian composition styles.
On August 5, 2013, the first anniversary of its landing on Mars, NASA 's Curiosity rover celebrated its "birthday '' when engineers at Goddard Space Flight Center used the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument to cause the rover to "sing '' Happy Birthday on the Martian surface.
During the March 6, 2014 episode of the Comedy Central series The Colbert Report, Stephen Colbert planned to sing the song in honor of the 90th anniversary of its 1924 publication. Due to the copyright issues, Colbert instead performed his new "royalty - free '' birthday song, which is set to "The Star - Spangled Banner ''.
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who plays terry banks in i almost got away with it | I (Almost) got away with it - Wikipedia
I (Almost) Got Away With It is an American documentary television series on Investigation Discovery, it debuted on January 12, 2010. The series profiles true stories of people who have committed crimes, and have avoided arrest or capture, but ultimately end up being caught. Many of these people escaped from prisons after being sentenced while others escaped jails they were being held in while awaiting trial. Sometimes they are on the run as little as a few weeks before being caught while other times they remain on the run for years and in a few cases even decades. While on the run, some of the fugitives do anything from robbing gas stations to stealing Crystal Gayle 's tour bus. Many others found a way to build a new life without committing new crimes and successfully remain in hiding for years.
The series was created by executive producer David M. Frank of Indigo Films. Most scenes were not filmed in areas that the stories took place. Many outdoor scenes in this series are filmed at the company 's studio on Treasure Island in San Francisco, in the middle of San Francisco Bay. Other outdoor scenes were filmed in northern New Jersey. The series has repeated on Discovery Channel and American Heroes Channel (AHC).
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meaning of poem charge of the light brigade | The Charge of the Light Brigade (poem) - wikipedia
"The Charge of the Light Brigade '' is an 1854 narrative poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson about the Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava during the Crimean War. He wrote it on December 2, 1854, and it was published on December 9, 1854 in The Examiner. He was the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom at the time.
During the 1850s, when Great Britain was engaged in the Crimean War, Tennyson wrote several patriotic poems under various pseudonyms. Scholars speculate that Tennyson created his pen names because these verses used a traditional structure Tennyson employed in his earlier career but suppressed during the 1840s, worrying that poems like "The Charge of the Light Brigade '' (which he initially signed only A.T.) "might prove not to be decorous for a poet laureate ''.
The poem was written after the Light Cavalry Brigade suffered great casualties in the Battle of Balaclava. Tennyson wrote the poem based on two articles published in The Times: the first, published in November, 1854, provided the phrase "Some one has blunder 'd '' and thus the meter of the poem. The poem was written in a few minutes on December 2 of the same year, based on a recollection of that account; Tennyson wrote other similar poems, like "Riflemen, form in town and in Shrine '' in a similar manner.
Tennyson made revisions to the poem due to criticisms by the American poet Frederick Goddard Tuckerman and others; these were published in Tennyson 's volume Maud and Other Poems. These changes were criticized by several, including both Tennyson and Tuckerman.
Tennyson sent a version of the poem, after correcting the revisions in Maud, at the soldiers ' request. There, it was distributed in pamphlet form at the behest of Jane, Lady Franklin. The same version was used for the second printing of Maud.
Tennyson recited this poem onto a wax cylinder in 1890.
Rudyard Kipling wrote "The Last of the Light Brigade '' (1891) some 40 years after the appearance of "The Charge of the Light Brigade ''. His poem focuses on the terrible hardships faced in old age by veterans of the Crimean War, as exemplified by the cavalry men of the Light Brigade. Its purpose was to shame the British public into offering financial assistance.
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where is the indus river located in asia | Indus river - wikipedia
The Indus River (also called the Sindhū or Abāsīn) is one of the longest rivers in Asia. Originating in the Tibetan Plateau (China) in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, towards Gilgit - Baltistan and then flows in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan to merge into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. It is the longest river and national river of Pakistan.
The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km (450,000 sq mi). Its estimated annual flow stands at around 243 km (58 cu mi), twice that of the Nile River and three times that of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers combined, making it the twenty - first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. The Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left bank tributary is the Panjnad which itself has five major tributaries, namely, the Chenab, Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej. Its principal right bank tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal, and the Kurram. Beginning in a mountain spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas, the river supports ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside.
The northern part of the Indus Valley, with its tributaries, forms the Punjab region, while the lower course of the Indus is known as Sindh and ends in a large delta. The river has historically been important to many cultures of the region. The 3rd millennium BC saw the rise of a major urban civilization of the Bronze Age. During the 2nd millennium BC, the Punjab region was mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu and the Zoroastrian Avesta as Hapta Hindu (both terms meaning "seven rivers ''). Early historical kingdoms that arose in the Indus Valley include Gandhāra, and the Ror dynasty of Sauvīra. The Indus River came into the knowledge of the West early in the Classical Period, when King Darius of Persia sent his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river, ca. 515 BC.
This river was known to the ancient Indians in Sanskrit as Sindhu, which is literally interpreted to mean "large body of water, sea, or ocean ''. The Proto - Iranian sound change * s > h occurred between 850 -- 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpola, causing its Avestan name to become Hendu, From Iran, the name passed to the Greeks as Indós ("Ἰνδός '') and to the Romans as Indus. The Persian name for the river was Darya, which similarly has the connotations of large body of water and sea.
However, linguists state that the original meaning of Sindhu / Hindu was not a body of water, but rather a frontier or bank. The Indus river formed the frontier between the Iranian peoples and Indo - Aryan peoples.
Other variants of the name Sindhu include Assyrian Sinda (as early as the 7th century BC), Persian Ab - e-sind, Pashtun Abasind, Arab Al - Sind, Chinese Sintow, and Javanese Santri.
India is a Greek and Latin term for "the country of the River Indus ''. Elsewhere, the Pakistani province of Sindh also owes its name to the river (Sanskrit Sindhu).
Megasthenes 's book Indica derives its name from the river 's Greek name, "Indós '' (Ἰνδός), and describes Nearchus 's contemporaneous account of how Alexander the Great crossed the river. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians (people of present - day northwest India and Pakistan) as "Indói '' (Ἰνδοί), literally meaning "the people of the Indus ''.
Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named "Sindhu ''. The Rigvedic "Sindhu '' is thought to be the present - day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text -- 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, as in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn of Nadistuti sukta. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein but "Sindhu '' is the only river attributed with a masculine gender. Sindhu is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter.
In other languages of the region, the river is known as सिन्धु (Sindhu) in Hindi and Nepali, سنڌو (Sindhu) in Sindhi, سندھ (Sindh) in Shahmukhi Punjabi, ਸਿੰਧ ਨਦੀ (Sindh Nadī) in Gurmukhī Punjabi, اباسين (Abāsin lit. "Father of Rivers '') in Pashto, نهر السند (Nahar al - Sind) in Arabic, སེང ་ གེ ་ གཙང ་ པོ ། (seng ge gtsang po lit. "Lion River '' or Lion Spring) in Tibetan, 印度 (Yìndù) in Chinese, and Nilab in Turki.
The Indus River provides key water resources for Pakistan 's economy -- especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation 's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means "land of five rivers '' and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all of which finally flow into the Indus. The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan.
The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailas) mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500 -- 5,200 metres (15,000 -- 17,000 feet) deep near the Nanga Parbat massif. It flows swiftly across Hazara and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by the Panjnad at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named the Satnad River (sat = "seven '', nadī = "river ''), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the east of Thatta.
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu Kush ranges of Tibet, the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and Gilgit - Baltistan region of Pakistan. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons -- it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times -- it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch and adjoining Banni grasslands after the 1816 earthquake. Presently, Indus water flows in to the Rann of Kutch during its floods breaching flood banks.
The traditional source of the river is the Senge Khabab or "Lion 's Mouth '', a perennial spring, not far from the sacred Mount Kailash marked by a long low line of Tibetan chortens. There are several other tributaries nearby, which may possibly form a longer stream than Senge Khabab, but unlike the Senge Khabab, are all dependent on snowmelt. The Zanskar River, which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.
That night in the tent (next to Senge Khabab) I ask Sonmatering which of the Indus tributaries which we crossed this morning is the longest. All of them, he says, start at least a day 's walk away from here. The Bukhar begins near the village of Yagra. The Lamolasay 's source is in a holy place: there is a monastery there. The Dorjungla is a very difficult and long walk, three days perhaps, and there are many sharp rocks; but its water is clear and blue, hence the tributary 's other name, Zom - chu, which Karma Lama translates as "Blue Water ''. The Rakmajang rises from a dark lake called the Black Sea.
One of the longest tributaries -- and thus a candidate for the river 's technical source -- is the Kla - chu, the river we crossed yesterday by bridge. Also known as the Lungdep Chu, it flows into the Indus from the south - east, and rises a day 's walk from Darchen. But Sonamtering insists that the Dorjungla is the longest of the "three types of water '' that fall into the Seng Tsanplo ("Lion River '' or Indus).
The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, such as Harappa and Mohenjo - daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from across northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach from east of Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Pakistan, Iran border to Kutch in modern Gujarat, India. There is an Indus site on the Amu Darya at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar - Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo - daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90 -- 96 of more than 800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar - Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus.
Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo - Aryans flourished in Gandhara from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when Mohenjo - daro and Harappa had already been abandoned.
The word "India '' is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India '' initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, but by 300 BC, Greek writers including Herodotus and Megasthenes were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward.
The lower basin of the Indus forms a natural boundary between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian subcontinent; this region embraces all or parts of the Pakistani provinces Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh and the countries Afghanistan and India. It was crossed by the invading armies of Alexander, but after his Macedonians conquered the west bank -- joining it to the Hellenic Empire, they elected to retreat along the southern course of the river, ending Alexander 's Asian campaign. The Indus plains were later dominated by the Persian empire and then the Kushan empire. Over several centuries Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammed Ghori, Tamerlane and Babur crossed the river to invade the inner regions of the Punjab and points farther south and east
The Indus river feeds the Indus submarine fan, which is the second largest sediment body on the Earth. It consists of around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that prior to five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the Ganges and were captured after that time. Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time. The delta of this proto - Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan - Pakistan border.
In the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area is thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface.
In November 2011, satellite images showed that the Indus river had re-entered India, feeding Great Rann of Kutch, Little Rann of Kutch and a lake near Ahmedabad known as Nal Sarovar. Heavy rains had left the river basin along with the Lake Manchar, Lake Hemal and Kalri Lake (all in modern - day Pakistan) inundated. This happened two centuries after the Indus river shifted its course westwards following the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake.
The Induan Age at start of the Triassic Period of geological time is named for the Indus region.
Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander 's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region, which has now considerably receded. The Mughal Emperor Babur writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the Baburnama). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. The Indus river and its watershed has a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species and 147 species, 22 of which are only found in the Indus.
The blind Indus River Dolphin (Platanista indicus minor) is a sub-species of dolphin found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. According to the World Wildlife Fund it is one of the most threatened cetaceans with only about 1,000 still existing.
Palla fish Tenualosa ilisha of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the major fishing centres -- all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world 's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including pomfret and prawns.
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains -- it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 -- the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 m (4,430 ft) long -- irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat. The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi).
After Pakistan came into existence, a water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its two tributaries the Jhelum River & the Chenab River independently of upstream control by India.
The Indus Basin Project consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the Mangla Dam built on the Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams. The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma - Jhelum link canal -- linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers -- extending water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan. Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi -- standing 2,743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470 ft) high, with an 80 - kilometre (50 mi) long reservoir. The Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long and provides additional supplies for Karachi. It support the Chashma barrage near Dera Ismail Khan use for irrigation and flood control. for The Taunsa Barrage near Dera Ghazi Khan produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan 's large production of crops such as cotton, sugarcane and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.
The inhabitants of the regions are mainly Muslim as Pakistan is an Islamic country through which the Indus river passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India, live the Buddhist people of Ladakh, of Tibetan stock, and the Dards of Indo - Aryan or Dardic stock and practising Islam. Then it descends into Baltistan, northern Pakistan passing the main Balti city of Skardu. A river from Dubair Bala also drains into it at Dubair Bazar. People living in this area are mainly Kohistani and speak the Kohistani language. Major areas through which the Indus river passes in Kohistan are Dasu, Pattan and Dubair. As it continues through Pakistan, the Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and cultures -- upon the western banks the population is largely Pashtun, Baloch, and of other Iranian stock. The eastern banks are largely populated by people of Indo - Aryan stock, such as the Punjabis and the Sindhis. In northern Punjab and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, ethnic Pashtun tribes live alongside Dardic people in the hills (Khowar, Kalash, Shina, etc.), Burushos (in Hunza), and Punjabi people.
The people living along the Indus river speak Punjabi and Sindhi on the eastern side (in Punjab and Sindh provinces respectively), Pushto plus Balochi as well as Barohi (in Khyber Pakhtoonkha and Baluchistan provinces). In the province of Sindh, the upper third of the river is inhabited by people speaking Saraiki; which is a somewhat transitional dialect of the Punjabi and Sindhi languages.
The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan 's economy and society. After Pakistan and India declared Independence from the British Raj, also known as Indian Empire, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split -- with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers, the Jhelum, the Chenab and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non-irrigation projects.
There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards -- although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation.
The Tibetan Plateau contains the world 's third - largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:
"There is insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus, '' says David Grey, the World Bank 's senior water advisor in South Asia. "But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence of climate change, '' and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 percent. "Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert (where), without the river, there would be no life? I do n't know the answer to that question, '' he says. "But we need to be concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned. ''
Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River have increased levels of water pollution in the river and the atmosphere around it. High levels of pollutants in the river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus River Dolphin. The Sindh Environmental Protection Agency has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. Death of the Indus River Dolphin has also been attributed to fishermen using poison to kill fish and scooping them up. As a result, the government banned fishing from Guddu Barrage to Sukkur.
In July 2010, following abnormally heavy monsoon rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. In Sindh, the Indus burst its banks near Sukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi. In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward western Punjab, where at least 1,400,000 acres (570,000 ha) of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh. As of September 2010, over two thousand people had died and over a million homes had been destroyed since the flooding began.
The 2011 Sindh floods began during the Pakistani monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab. The floods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3 million people and 1,524,773 homes affected. Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket '' of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres (690,000 ha; 2,700 sq mi) of arable land were inundated. The flooding followed the previous year 's floods, which devastated a large part of the country. Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh.
In Pakistan currently there are three barrages on the Indus: Guddu barrage, Sukkur Barrage, and Kotri barrage (also called Ghulam Muhammad barrage). There are some bridges on river Indus, such as, Dadu Moro Bridge, Larkana Khairpur Indus River Bridge, Thatta - Sujawal bridge, Jhirk - Mula Katiar bridge and recently planned Kandhkot - Ghotki bridge.
Kala Bagh Barrage, Chasma Barrage, and Taunsa Barrage are also built in Punjab on the Indus.
Tarbela Dam in Pakistan is constructed on the Indus River, while the controversial Kalabagh dam is also being constructed on Indus river.
Video of River Indus at Kotri Barrage, Sindh, Pakistan.
Frozen Indus, Near Nyoma
Indus at Skardu
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what is the smallest positive representative of the residue class of 83 in latex mathbb z_ 15 z 15 | P - adic number - wikipedia
In mathematics, the p - adic number system for any prime number p extends the ordinary arithmetic of the rational numbers in a different way from the extension of the rational number system to the real and complex number systems. The extension is achieved by an alternative interpretation of the concept of "closeness '' or absolute value. In particular, p - adic numbers are considered to be close when their difference is divisible by a high power of p: the higher the power, the closer they are. This property enables p - adic numbers to encode congruence information in a way that turns out to have powerful applications in number theory -- including, for example, in the famous proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem by Andrew Wiles.
p - adic numbers were first described by Kurt Hensel in 1897, though, with hindsight, some of Ernst Kummer 's earlier work can be interpreted as implicitly using p - adic numbers. The p - adic numbers were motivated primarily by an attempt to bring the ideas and techniques of power series methods into number theory. Their influence now extends far beyond this. For example, the field of p - adic analysis essentially provides an alternative form of calculus.
More formally, for a given prime p, the field Q of p - adic numbers is a completion of the rational numbers. The field Q is also given a topology derived from a metric, which is itself derived from the p - adic order, an alternative valuation on the rational numbers. This metric space is complete in the sense that every Cauchy sequence converges to a point in Q. This is what allows the development of calculus on Q, and it is the interaction of this analytic and algebraic structure that gives the p - adic number systems their power and utility.
The p in "p - adic '' is a variable and may be replaced with a prime (yielding, for instance, "the 2 - adic numbers '') or another placeholder variable (for expressions such as "the l - adic numbers ''). The "adic '' of "p - adic '' comes from the ending found in words such as dyadic or triadic.
This section is an informal introduction to p - adic numbers, using examples from the ring of 10 - adic (decadic) numbers. Although for p - adic numbers p should be a prime, base 10 was chosen to highlight the analogy with decimals. The decadic numbers are generally not used in mathematics: since 10 is not prime or prime power, the decadics are not a field. More formal constructions and properties are given below.
In the standard decimal representation, almost all real numbers do not have a terminating decimal representation. For example, 1 / 3 is represented as a non-terminating decimal as follows
Informally, non-terminating decimals are easily understood, because it is clear that a real number can be approximated to any required degree of precision by a terminating decimal. If two decimal expansions differ only after the 10th decimal place, they are quite close to one another; and if they differ only after the 20th decimal place, they are even closer.
10 - adic numbers use a similar non-terminating expansion, but with a different concept of "closeness ''. Whereas two decimal expansions are close to one another if their difference is a large negative power of 10, two 10 - adic expansions are close if their difference is a large positive power of 10. Thus 4739 and 5739, which differ by 10, are close in the 10 - adic world, and 72694473 and 82694473 are even closer, differing by 10.
More precisely, a positive rational number r can be expressed as r =: p / q 10, where p and q are positive integers and q is relatively prime to p and to 10. For each r ≠ 0 there exists the maximal d such that this representation is possible. Let the 10 - adic "absolute value '' of r be
Certainly, we have to define
Now, taking p / q = 1 and d = 0, 1, 2,... we have
with the consequence that we have lim d → + ∞ 10 d 10 = 0 (\ displaystyle \ lim _ (d \ rightarrow + \ infty) 10 ^ (d) _ (10) = 0).
Closeness in any number system is defined by a metric. Using the 10 - adic metric the distance between numbers x and y is given by x − y. An interesting consequence of the 10 - adic metric (or of a p - adic metric) is that there is no longer a need for the negative sign. (In fact, there is no order relation which is compatible with the ring operations and this metric, s. b.) As an example, by examining the following sequence we can see how unsigned 10 - adics can get progressively closer and closer to the number − 1:
and taking this sequence to its limit, we can deduce the 10 - adic expansion of − 1
thus
an expansion which clearly is a ten 's complement representation.
In this notation, 10 - adic expansions can be extended indefinitely to the left, in contrast to decimal expansions, which can be extended indefinitely to the right. Note that this is not the only way to write p - adic numbers -- for alternatives see the Notation section below.
More formally, a 10 - adic number can be defined as
where each of the a is a digit taken from the set (0, 1,..., 9) and the initial index n may be positive, negative or 0, but must be finite. From this definition, it is clear that positive integers and positive rational numbers with terminating decimal expansions will have terminating 10 - adic expansions that are identical to their decimal expansions. Other numbers may have non-terminating 10 - adic expansions.
It is possible to define addition, subtraction, and multiplication on 10 - adic numbers in a consistent way, so that the 10 - adic numbers form a commutative ring.
We can create 10 - adic expansions for "negative numbers '' as follows
and fractions which have non-terminating decimal expansions also have non-terminating 10 - adic expansions. For example
Generalizing the last example, we can find a 10 - adic expansion with no digits to the right of the decimal point for any rational number p / q such that q is co-prime to 10; Euler 's theorem guarantees that if q is co-prime to 10, then there is an n such that 10 − 1 is a multiple of q. The other rational numbers can be expressed as 10 - adic numbers with some digits after the decimal point.
As noted above, 10 - adic numbers have a major drawback. It is possible to find pairs of non-zero 10 - adic numbers (which are not rational, thus having an infinite number of digits) whose product is 0. This means that 10 - adic numbers do not always have multiplicative inverses i.e. valid reciprocals, which in turn implies that though 10 - adic numbers form a ring they do not form a field, a deficiency that makes them much less useful as an analytical tool. Another way of saying this is that the ring of 10 - adic numbers is not an integral domain because they contain zero divisors. The reason for this property turns out to be that 10 is a composite number which is not a power of a prime. This problem is simply avoided by using a prime number p or a prime power p as the base of the number system instead of 10 and indeed for this reason p in p - adic is usually taken to be prime.
When dealing with natural numbers, if we take p to be a fixed prime number, then any positive integer can be written as a base p expansion in the form
where the a are integers in (0,..., p − 1). For example, the binary expansion of 35 is 1 2 + 0 2 + 0 2 + 0 2 + 1 2 + 1 2, often written in the shorthand notation 100011.
The familiar approach to extending this description to the larger domain of the rationals (and, ultimately, to the reals) is to use sums of the form:
A definite meaning is given to these sums based on Cauchy sequences, using the absolute value as metric. Thus, for example, 1 / 3 can be expressed in base 5 as the limit of the sequence 0.1313131313.... In this formulation, the integers are precisely those numbers for which a = 0 for all i < 0.
With p - adic numbers, on the other hand, we choose to extend the base p expansions in a different way. Unlike traditional integers, where the magnitude is determined by how far they are from zero, the "size '' of p - adic numbers is determined by the p - adic absolute value, where high positive powers of p are relatively small compared to high negative powers of p. Consider infinite sums of the form:
where k is some (not necessarily positive) integer, and each coefficient a i (\ displaystyle a_ (i)) can be called a p - adic digit. With this approach we obtain the p - adic expansions of the p - adic numbers. Those p - adic numbers for which a = 0 for all i < 0 are also called the p - adic integers.
As opposed to real number expansions which extend to the right as sums of ever smaller, increasingly negative powers of the base p, p - adic numbers may expand to the left forever, a property that can often be true for the p - adic integers. For example, consider the p - adic expansion of 1 / 3 in base 5. It can be shown to be... 1313132, i.e., the limit of the sequence 2, 32, 132, 3132, 13132, 313132, 1313132,...:
Multiplying this infinite sum by 3 in base 5 gives... 0000001. As there are no negative powers of 5 in this expansion of 1 / 3 (i.e. no numbers to the right of the decimal point), we see that 1 / 3 satisfies the definition of being a p - adic integer in base 5.
More formally, the p - adic expansions can be used to define the field Q of p - adic numbers while the p - adic integers form a subring of Q, denoted Z. (Not to be confused with the ring of integers modulo p which is also sometimes written Z. To avoid ambiguity, Z / pZ or Z / (p) are often used to represent the integers modulo p.)
While it is possible to use the approach above to define p - adic numbers and explore their properties, just as in the case of real numbers other approaches are generally preferred. Hence we want to define a notion of infinite sum which makes these expressions meaningful, and this is most easily accomplished by the introduction of the p - adic metric. Two different but equivalent solutions to this problem are presented in the Constructions section below.
There are several different conventions for writing p - adic expansions. So far this article has used a notation for p - adic expansions in which powers of p increase from right to left. With this right - to - left notation the 3 - adic expansion of ⁄, for example, is written as
When performing arithmetic in this notation, digits are carried to the left. It is also possible to write p - adic expansions so that the powers of p increase from left to right, and digits are carried to the right. With this left - to - right notation the 3 - adic expansion of ⁄ is
p - adic expansions may be written with other sets of digits instead of (0, 1,..., p − 1). For example, the 3 - adic expansion of / can be written using balanced ternary digits (1, 0, 1) as
In fact any set of p integers which are in distinct residue classes modulo p may be used as p - adic digits. In number theory, Teichmüller representatives are sometimes used as digits.
The real numbers can be defined as equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences of rational numbers; this allows us to, for example, write 1 as 1.000... = 0.999.... The definition of a Cauchy sequence relies on the metric chosen, though, so if we choose a different one, we can construct numbers other than the real numbers. The usual metric which yields the real numbers is called the Euclidean metric.
For a given prime p, we define the p - adic absolute value in Q as follows: for any non-zero rational number x, there is a unique integer n allowing us to write x = p (a / b), where neither of the integers a and b is divisible by p. Unless the numerator or denominator of x in lowest terms contains p as a factor, n will be 0. Now define x = p. We also define 0 = 0.
For example with x = 63 / 550 = 2 3 5 7 11
This definition of x has the effect that high powers of p become "small ''. By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, for a given non-zero rational number x there is a unique finite set of distinct primes p 1,..., p r (\ displaystyle p_ (1), \ ldots, p_ (r)) and a corresponding sequence of non-zero integers a 1,..., a r (\ displaystyle a_ (1), \ ldots, a_ (r)) such that:
It then follows that x p i = p i − a i (\ displaystyle x _ (p_ (i)) = p_ (i) ^ (- a_ (i))) for all 1 ≤ i ≤ r (\ displaystyle 1 \ leq i \ leq r), and x p = 1 (\ displaystyle x _ (p) = 1) for any other prime p ∉ (p 1,..., p r). (\ displaystyle p \ notin \ (p_ (1), \ ldots, p_ (r) \).)
The p - adic absolute value defines a metric d on Q by setting
The field Q of p - adic numbers can then be defined as the completion of the metric space (Q, d); its elements are equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences, where two sequences are called equivalent if their difference converges to zero. In this way, we obtain a complete metric space which is also a field and contains Q.
It can be shown that in Q, every element x may be written in a unique way as
where k is some integer such that a ≠ 0 and each a is in (0,..., p − 1). This series converges to x with respect to the metric d.
With this absolute value, the field Q is a local field.
Ostrowski 's theorem states that each absolute value on Q is equivalent either to the Euclidean absolute value, the trivial absolute value, or to one of the p - adic absolute values for some prime p. Each absolute value (or metric) leads to a different completion of Q. (With the trivial absolute value, Q is already complete.)
In the algebraic approach, we first define the ring of p - adic integers, and then construct the field of fractions of this ring to get the field of p - adic numbers.
We start with the inverse limit of the rings Z / p Z (see modular arithmetic): a p - adic integer is then a sequence (a) such that a is in Z / p Z, and if n ≤ m, then a ≡ a (mod p).
Every natural number m defines such a sequence (a) by a = m mod p and can therefore be regarded as a p - adic integer. For example, in this case 35 as a 2 - adic integer would be written as the sequence (1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 35, 35, 35,...).
The operators of the ring amount to pointwise addition and multiplication of such sequences. This is well defined because addition and multiplication commute with the "mod '' operator; see modular arithmetic.
Moreover, every sequence (a) where the first element is not 0 has an inverse. In that case, for every n, a and p are coprime, and so a and p are relatively prime. Therefore, each a has an inverse mod p, and the sequence of these inverses, (b), is the sought inverse of (a). For example, consider the p - adic integer corresponding to the natural number 7; as a 2 - adic number, it would be written (1, 3, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,...). This object 's inverse would be written as an ever - increasing sequence that begins (1, 3, 7, 7, 23, 55, 55, 183, 439, 439, 1463...). Naturally, this 2 - adic integer has no corresponding natural number.
Every such sequence can alternatively be written as a series. For instance, in the 3 - adics, the sequence (2, 8, 8, 35, 35,...) can be written as 2 + 2 3 + 0 3 + 1 3 + 0 3 +... The partial sums of this latter series are the elements of the given sequence.
The ring of p - adic integers has no zero divisors, so we can take the field of fractions to get the field Q of p - adic numbers. Note that in this field of fractions, every non-integer p - adic number can be uniquely written as p u with a natural number n and a unit u in the p - adic integers. This means that
Note that S A, where S = p N = (p n: n ∈ N) (\ displaystyle S = p ^ (\ mathbf (N)) = \ (p ^ (n): n \ in \ mathbf (N) \)) is a multiplicative subset (contains the unit and closed under multiplication) of a commutative ring with unit A (\ displaystyle A), is an algebraic construction called the ring of fractions or localization of A (\ displaystyle A) by S (\ displaystyle S).
Z is the inverse limit of the finite rings Z / p Z, which is uncountable -- in fact, has the cardinality of the continuum. Accordingly, the field Q is uncountable. The endomorphism ring of the Prüfer p - group of rank n, denoted Z (p), is the ring of n × n matrices over Z; this is sometimes referred to as the Tate module.
The number of p - adic numbers with terminating p - adic representations is countably infinite. And, if the standard digits (0,..., p − 1) are taken, their value and representation coincides in Z and R.
Define a topology on Z by taking as a basis of open sets all sets of the form
where a is a non-negative integer and n is an integer in (1, p). For example, in the dyadic integers, U (1) is the set of odd numbers. U (n) is the set of all p - adic integers whose difference from n has p - adic absolute value less than p. Then Z is a compactification of Z, under the derived topology (it is not a compactification of Z with its usual discrete topology). The relative topology on Z as a subset of Z is called the p - adic topology on Z.
The topology of Z is that of a Cantor set C (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (C))). For instance, we can make a continuous 1 - to - 1 mapping between the dyadic integers and the Cantor set expressed in base 3 by mapping... d 2 d 1 d 0 (\ displaystyle \ dots d_ (2) d_ (1) d_ (0)) in Z to 0. e 0 e 1 e 2... 3 (\ displaystyle 0. e_ (0) e_ (1) e_ (2) \ dots _ (3)) in C (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (C))), where e n = 2 d n. (\ displaystyle e_ (n) = 2d_ (n).) The topology of Q is that of a Cantor set minus any point. In particular, Z is compact while Q is not; it is only locally compact. As metric spaces, both Z and Q are complete.
Q contains Q and is a field of characteristic 0. This field can not be turned into an ordered field.
R has only a single proper algebraic extension: C; in other words, this quadratic extension is already algebraically closed. By contrast, the algebraic closure of Q, denoted Q p _̄, (\ displaystyle (\ overline (\ mathbf (Q) _ (p))),) has infinite degree, i.e. Q has infinitely many inequivalent algebraic extensions. Also contrasting the case of real numbers, although there is a unique extension of the p - adic valuation to Q p _̄, (\ displaystyle (\ overline (\ mathbf (Q) _ (p))),) the latter is not (metrically) complete. Its (metric) completion is called C or Ω. Here an end is reached, as C is algebraically closed. However unlike C this field is not locally compact.
C and C are isomorphic as rings, so we may regard C as C endowed with an exotic metric. It should be noted that the proof of existence of such a field isomorphism relies on the axiom of choice, and does not provide an explicit example of such an isomorphism.
If K is a finite Galois extension of Q, the Galois group Gal (K / Q p) (\ displaystyle (\ text (Gal)) \ left (\ mathbf (K) / \ mathbf (Q) _ (p) \ right)) is solvable. Thus, the Galois group Gal (Q p _̄ / Q p) (\ displaystyle (\ text (Gal)) \ left ((\ overline (\ mathbf (Q) _ (p))) / \ mathbf (Q) _ (p) \ right)) is prosolvable.
Q contains the n - th cyclotomic field (n > 2) if and only if n p − 1. For instance, the n - th cyclotomic field is a subfield of Q if and only if n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 12. In particular, there is no multiplicative p - torsion in Q, if p > 2. Also, − 1 is the only non-trivial torsion element in Q.
Given a natural number k, the index of the multiplicative group of the k - th powers of the non-zero elements of Q in Q is finite.
The number e, defined as the sum of reciprocals of factorials, is not a member of any p - adic field; but e ∈ Q (p ≠ 2). For p = 2 one must take at least the fourth power. (Thus a number with similar properties as e -- namely a p - th root of e -- is a member of Q p _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (\ mathbf (Q) _ (p)))) for all p.)
The only real functions whose derivative is zero are the constant functions. This is not true over Q. For instance, the function
has zero derivative everywhere but is not even locally constant at 0.
If we let R be denoted Q, then given any elements r, r, r, r, r,... where r ∈ Q, it is possible to find a sequence (x) in Q such that for all p (including ∞), the limit of x in Q is r.
Eric Hehner and Nigel Horspool proposed in 1979 the use of a p - adic representation for rational numbers on computers called Quote notation. The primary advantage of such a representation is that addition, subtraction, and multiplication can be done in a straightforward manner analogous to similar methods for binary integers; and division is even simpler, resembling multiplication. However, it has the disadvantage that representations can be much larger than simply storing the numerator and denominator in binary (for more details see Quote notation # Length of representation).
The reals and the p - adic numbers are the completions of the rationals; it is also possible to complete other fields, for instance general algebraic number fields, in an analogous way. This will be described now.
Suppose D is a Dedekind domain and E is its field of fractions. Pick a non-zero prime ideal P of D. If x is a non-zero element of E, then xD is a fractional ideal and can be uniquely factored as a product of positive and negative powers of non-zero prime ideals of D. We write ord (x) for the exponent of P in this factorization, and for any choice of number c greater than 1 we can set
Completing with respect to this absolute value. yields a field E, the proper generalization of the field of p - adic numbers to this setting. The choice of c does not change the completion (different choices yield the same concept of Cauchy sequence, so the same completion). It is convenient, when the residue field D / P is finite, to take for c the size of D / P.
For example, when E is a number field, Ostrowski 's theorem says that every non-trivial non-Archimedean absolute value on E arises as some.. The remaining non-trivial absolute values on E arise from the different embeddings of E into the real or complex numbers. (In fact, the non-Archimedean absolute values can be considered as simply the different embeddings of E into the fields C, thus putting the description of all the non-trivial absolute values of a number field on a common footing.)
Often, one needs to simultaneously keep track of all the above - mentioned completions when E is a number field (or more generally a global field), which are seen as encoding "local '' information. This is accomplished by adele rings and idele groups.
Helmut Hasse 's local -- global principle is said to hold for an equation if it can be solved over the rational numbers if and only if it can be solved over the real numbers and over the p - adic numbers for every prime p. This principle holds e.g. for equations given by quadratic forms, but fails for higher polynomials in several indeterminates.
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who won the battle of stoney creek 1812 | Battle of Stoney Creek - wikipedia
Coordinates: 43 ° 13 ′ 07 '' N 79 ° 45 ′ 52 '' W / 43.218493 ° N 79.764344 ° W / 43.218493; - 79.764344
The Battle of Stoney Creek was fought on 6 June 1813 during the War of 1812 near present - day Stoney Creek, Ontario. British units made a night attack on an American encampment. Due in large part to the capture of the two senior officers of the American force, and an overestimation of British strength by the Americans, the battle was a victory for the British, and a turning point in the defence of Upper Canada.
On 27 May, the Americans had won the Battle of Fort George, forcing the British defenders of Fort George into a hasty retreat, with heavy casualties. The British commander, Brigadier General John Vincent, gathered in all his outposts along the Niagara River, disbanded the militia contingents in his force and retreated to Burlington Heights (at the west end of Burlington Bay), with about 1,600 men in total. The Americans under the overall leadership of General Henry Dearborn, who was elderly and ill, were slow to pursue. A brigade under Brigadier General William H. Winder first followed up Vincent, but Winder decided that Vincent 's forces were too strong to engage, and halted at the Forty Mile Creek. Another brigade joined him, commanded by Brigadier General John Chandler, who was the senior, and took overall command. Their combined force, numbering 3,400, advanced to Stoney Creek, where they encamped on 5 June. The two generals set up their headquarters at the Gage Farm.
Vincent sent his Deputy Assistant Adjutant General, Lieutenant Colonel John Harvey, to reconnoitre the American position. Harvey recommended a night attack, reporting that "the enemy 's guards were few and negligent; his line of encampment was long and broken; his artillery was feebly supported; several of his corps were placed too far to the rear to aid in repelling a blow which might be rapidly struck in front ''. The American dispositions described by Harvey account for the statement in the post-battle report of the U.S. Assistant Adjutant - General that only 1,328 American troops were engaged against the British, out of Chandler 's total force of 3,400. A British column of five companies from the 1 / 8th (King 's) Regiment of Foot and the main body of the 49th Regiment of Foot, about 700 men in all, was formed. Although Vincent accompanied the column, he placed Harvey in command.
At this point, the story of Billy Green comes to light. Billy Green was a 19 - year - old local resident who had witnessed the advance of the Americans from the top of the Niagara Escarpment earlier in the day. Billy 's brother - in - law, Isaac Corman, had been briefly captured by the Americans, but was released after he convinced them (truthfully) that he was the cousin of American General William Henry Harrison. In order to be able to pass through the American lines, he was given the challenge response password for the day -- "WIL - HEN - HAR '' (an abbreviation of Harrison 's name). He gave his word of honour that he would not divulge this to the British army. He kept his word, but did reveal the word to Billy Green, who rode his brother - in - law 's horse part way, and ran on foot the rest of the way to Burlington Heights. Here, he revealed the password to Lieutenant James FitzGibbon. He was provided with a sword and uniform and used his knowledge of the terrain to guide the British to the American position. Billy Green was present at the battle.
However, it has been suggested that the password was actually obtained by Lieutenant Colonel Harvey. According to an account given after the war by Frederick Snider, a neighbour of the Gages, Harvey had executed a ruse on the first sentry to be accosted. Pretending to be the American officer of the day making Grand Rounds, he approached the sentry and when challenged, came close to the sentry 's ear as if to whisper the countersign. But with bayonet secreted in hand, he grabbed the surprised sentry by the throat and threw him to the ground. With the bayonet at his throat, the sentry gave up the password. This suggestion illustrates the incomplete research into several aspects of the Battle of Stoney Creek. Snider gave this account not long before his death in 1877 and his source for it was the April 1871 issue of The Canadian Literary Journal. Snider was confusing Harvey with Colonel Murray, June 1813 with December 1813 and Stoney Creek with Youngstown near Fort Niagara. Snider makes several obvious errors, such as "the British General St. Vincent was found some days after wandering about in the woods nearly dead of hunger. '' His name was Vincent and he did not wander about the woods for days. Snider 's source for the provenance of the countersign should thus be considered to be unreliable.
The British left their camp at Burlington Heights at 11: 30 p.m. on 5 June. While Vincent was the senior officer present, the troops were placed under the conduct and direction of Lieutenant Colonel Harvey, who led them silently toward Stoney Creek. They had removed the flints from their muskets to ensure that there were no accidental discharges and dared not utter even a whisper. A sentry post of American soldiers was surprised and either captured or killed by bayonet. Billy Green is said to have bayoneted one of the American sentries personally, although this is not mentioned in any official British record. The British continued advancing toward the American campfires in silence. However at the repeated urging of Second Lieutenant Ephraim Shaler, the U.S. 25th Regiment which had earlier been camped there had been moved from their previous exposed position, leaving behind only the cooks who were preparing the troops ' meal for the next day. Shaler had returned to the original position when he heard a sentry cry out as he was being tomahawked after being shot with an arrow from one of John Norton 's small band of First Nations warriors.
Around the same time, a group of Vincent 's staff officers who had come forward to watch the action let out a cheer. Their men took up the cheer, relieving their tension but depriving them of the element of surprise that was their primary advantage given the lopsided number of troops they faced. Instead of striking fear in their adversaries, the yells served to direct their attention to where the British were, helping the rousing troops to focus their attention and musket fire and making it nearly impossible for officers ' orders to be heard above the din. Any hope of catching the Americans unaware and bayoneting them in their sleep was now lost and the British fixed their flints to their muskets and attacked. Lieutenant James Fitzgibbon and three sergeants of the Light Company of the 49th were able to keep their men from taking up the shout "until a late stage of the affair, when firing on our side became general ''. Gradually, the American troops began to recover from the initial surprise, recover their poise and start firing at the attacking British, at times from as far away as 200 yards (180 m). The American artillery also entered the fray after having previously been rendered useless due to the dampness settling into the powder.
Holding the high ground, the Americans were able to pour both musket and artillery fire into the exposed British line and the line began to lose cohesion. For ammunition, the U.S. Twenty - Fifth Infantry was firing a variant of ' buck and ball ', in this instance firing 12 buckshot balls instead of the usual. 65 calibre ball and 3 buckshot. This effectively turned their muskets into shotguns. Despite repeated charges by the British, the centre of the American line was holding and with the withering fire that the British line was sustaining, it was only a matter of time before they would have to retire.
A series of events coincided to change the course of the battle. General Winder ordered the U.S. 5th Infantry to protect the left flank. In doing so, he created a gap in the American line while at the same time leaving the artillery unsupported by infantry. Simultaneously, the other American commander, John Chandler, hearing musket shots from the far right of the American line and having already sent his staff officers off with other orders, rode out to investigate personally. But his horse fell (or was shot -- Chandler used both excuses at different times) and he was knocked out in the fall.
Major Charles Plenderleath, commanding the British 49th Regiment, was able to ascertain the position of the American artillery when two field guns fired in quick succession (43 ° 13 ′ 07 '' N 79 ° 45 ′ 52 '' W / 43.218493 ° N 79.764344 ° W / 43.218493; - 79.764344). Realising the importance of possession of the guns, he gathered troops of Fitzgibbon 's and other nearby companies to charge the guns before they could reload. First to volunteer for what could be a suicidal attack were 23 - year - old Sergeant Alexander Fraser and his 21 - year - old brother Peter, a corporal in Fitzgibbon 's company, with 20 to 30 others. With bayonets fixed, Plenderleath led the charge up Gage 's Lane, volunteers following at a run, all fearing that the next discharge from the cannons might annihilate them. However, the U.S. 2nd Artillery under the command of Captain Nathaniel Towson at that moment responded to an order to cease firing, unaware of the British troops advancing on their position. The gunners were without arms of their own. The British charged the field guns, and when they were within a few yards of the gun emplacement, the men began yelling "Come on, Brant ''. They set upon the helpless gunners, bayoneting man and horse, quickly overrunning and capturing the position before continuing on to engage the U.S. 23rd Infantry which got off one round before the momentum of the 49th scattered them. The remaining British forces followed soon after.
At this point General Chandler, conscious again and aware of the commotion near his artillery but not of the reason, stumbled to the position to investigate. Thinking himself to be among the U.S. 23rd Infantry and intending to bring order back to the "new and undisciplined '' troops, he realised to his horror that the soldiers were British and Alexander Fraser immediately took him prisoner at bayonet point. Winder very shortly thereafter fell prey to the same mistake. Realising his error, he pulled his pistol, aiming it at Fraser who was poised to take him prisoner as he had Chandler. With his musket pointed at Winder 's breast, Fraser told him menacingly "If you stir, sir; you die '' and Winder was made prisoner also, proffering his sword to Fraser. Major Joseph Lee Smith of the 25th U.S. Infantry was very nearly captured himself but having made good his escape, alerted his men to make a quick withdrawal, thereby avoiding capture. Command of the American forces fell to cavalry officer Colonel James Burn. The cavalry charged forward firing, but once again in the darkness, the Americans suffered from a case of mistaken identity -- they were firing on their own U.S. 16th Infantry, who were themselves wandering around without their commander and firing at each other in confusion. Shortly afterwards, the Americans fell back, convinced that they had been defeated, when in fact they still retained a superior force.
The battle lasted less than 45 minutes, but its intensity led to heavy casualties on both sides. As dawn broke, Harvey ordered the outnumbered British to fall back into the woods in order to hide their small numbers. They succeeded in carrying away two of the captured guns, and spiked two more, leaving them on the ground owing to their inability to move them. They later watched from a distance as the Americans returned to their camp after daybreak, burned their provisions and tents and retreated toward Forty Mile Creek (present day Grimsby, Ontario). By afternoon on 6 June, the British occupied the former site of the American camp.
For much of the morning of 6 June, General Vincent was missing. He had been injured after a fall from his horse during the battle and was found wandering in a state of confusion, convinced that the entire British force had been destroyed. He was finally located about seven miles from the battle scene; his horse, hat and sword all missing.
The British casualty return gave 23 killed, 136 wounded and 55 missing. Of the men reported as "missing '', 52 were captured by the Americans.
The American casualty return for 6 June gave 17 killed, 38 wounded and 7 officers (2 brigadier - generals, 1 major, 3 captains and 1 lieutenant) and 93 enlisted men missing. The British report of prisoners taken on the morning of 6 June corresponds exactly to the American list of "missing '' as concerns the number and ranks of the captured officers but gives 94 enlisted men captured, indicating that one of the Americans who was presumed to have been killed in the casualty return was in fact captured. Of the seven officers who were captured on the morning of 6 June, three (Gen. Chandler, Captain Peter Mills and Captain George Steele) were wounded, which suggests that a substantial number of the enlisted prisoners may also have been wounded.
Killed in action at the Battle of Stoney Creek, 6 June 1813 (as listed on the Stoney Creek Battlefield Monument): Samuel Hooker, Joseph Hunt, James Daig, Thomas Fearnsides, Richard Hugill, George Longley, Laurence Mead, John Regler, John Wale, Charles Page, James Adams, Alexander Brown, Michael Burke, Henry Carroll, Nathaniel Catlin, Martin Curley, Martin Donnolly, Peter Henley, John Hostler, Edward Killoran, Edward Little, Patrick Martin, John Maxwell. The names of the American dead are not recorded.
Casualties in the fight had been roughly even, but the Americans had been shaken. It is most probable that if their generals had not been captured, the battle might have turned out quite differently. However, the British had a reasonable claim to victory in this battle. Under the de facto leadership of Colonel Harvey, and with some good fortune, they had successfully forced the Americans back toward the Niagara River. American forces would never again advance so far from the Niagara.
At Forty Mile Creek, the retreating American troops were met by reinforcements under Dearborn 's second - in - command, Major General Morgan Lewis. Dearborn had ordered Lewis to proceed to Stoney Creek to attack the British, but almost as the two groups met, the British fleet under Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo appeared in Lake Ontario. The American armed vessels under Commodore Isaac Chauncey had abruptly vanished when they heard that Yeo and troops under Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost had attacked their own base at Sackett 's Harbor, New York. (The Battle of Sackett 's Harbor was a defeat for the British, but large quantities of stores and equipment had mistakenly been set on fire by the Americans, hampering the Americans ' efforts to build large fighting vessels.)
With Yeo threatening his communications, which ran for 40 miles (64 km) along the edge of the lake, Lewis decided to retreat at once to Fort George, leaving a large quantity of tents, arms and supplies for the British to acquire. The British vigorously followed up the American withdrawal. A skirmish on 7 June brought in 12 more prisoners; a captain and 11 enlisted men. During 8 -- 10 June 80 more prisoners were taken, making a total American loss, during 6 -- 10 June, of 16 killed, 38 wounded and 192 captured: total 230 men.
The Americans retired into a small defensive perimeter around Fort George, where they remained until abandoning the fort and retreating across the Niagara River into U.S. territory in December.
Brigadier General Winder was later exchanged and subsequently commanded the Tenth Military District around Washington, where he attracted censure following the burning of Washington.
Battlefield House remains from the time of the battle, and is a museum located within Battlefield Park. They are located very near the site of the battle and, with a knoll across the street where a separate monument stands, comprises Battle of Stoney Creek National Historic Site. The park 's stone tower, was dedicated exactly 100 years after the battle. It was unveiled following a signal given by Queen Mary in England, via the transatlantic telegraph cable, and commemorates British soldiers who died in the fight. The Gage farm house is also preserved and serves as a museum. The battle is re-enacted annually on the weekend closest to 6 June.
The 2016 event was the 35th such re-enactment.
"More dearly than their lives they held those principles and traditions of British Liberty of which Canada is the inheritor. '' -- inscription on the Stoney Creek Battlefield Monument
The battle is commemorated in the song Billy Green from the 1999 album From Coffee House to Concert Hall by the late Canadian folk singer Stan Rogers.
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who play the role of krishna in mahabharat | Nitish Bharadwaj - wikipedia
Nitish Bharadwaj (Hindi: नितीश भारद्वाज; born 2 June 1963) is an Indian film actor, director, screenwriter and former member of the Indian Parliament Lok Sabha. He is best known for his portrayal of Lord Krishna in B.R. Chopra 's television series Mahabharat, as well as for his portrayal of several Avatars of Vishnu in some of Chopra 's other works, such as Vishnu Puran. His debut directorial film in Marathi titled ' Pitruroon ' has won him accolades from both the audiences and critics and he now focusses on his film career entirely through screenwriting, directing and acting. Academically Nitish is a qualified veterinary surgeon from Bombay Veterinary College, Parel, Mumbai. He has voluntarily withdrawn from electoral politics. He now focusses on his film career as an actor, screenwriter and director.
Nitish Bharadwaj has starred in many Marathi movies like Anapekshit, Pasanta ahe Mulgi, and the highly acclaimed Malayalam movie Njan Gandharvan (1991) directed by P. Padmarajan. He directed a historical TV serial titled Gita Rahasya, Apraadhi for Star TV and a few documentary films. He judged a Marathi dance reality show on ETV Marathi Jallosh Survanayugacha with Sudha Chandran and Ramesh Deo. Bharadwaj made his film direction debut in 2013 with a Marathi film starring Tanuja, Suhas Joshi and Sachin Khedekar titled Pitruroon. The film is based on a novella by Sudha Murthy. The film was acclaimed by both the critics and audiences. Pitruroon received many nominations and awards, and also gave Bharadwaj the prestigious Maharashtra State Film Award as the second Best Director of 2013. Bharadwaj played the role of Krishna at the age of 23 and became an overnight star.
Bharadwaj contested the parliamentary elections from Jamshedpur and Rajgarh (in Madhya Pradesh) as a Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) candidate and was elected to Lok Sabha as a Member of Parliament from Jamshedpur in 1996, by defeating veteran Inder Singh Namdhari. He lost to Laxman Singh (brother of then chief minister of Madhya Pradesh, Digvijaya Singh) in the 1999 Lok Sabha elections.
In 1991, Nitish Bharadwaj married Monisha Patil, daughter of Vimla Patil, then editor of Femina. They have two children and divorced in 2005. Monisha now lives in London with her children. Bharadwaj married Smita Gate, an IAS officer (1992 batch) from Madhya Pradesh cadre, in 2009.
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what time does uk men's basketball play | Kentucky Wildcats men 's basketball - wikipedia
The Kentucky Wildcats men 's basketball team is an American college basketball team that represents the University of Kentucky. Kentucky is the most successful NCAA Division I basketball program in history in terms of both all - time wins (2,256) and all - time winning percentage (. 764). The Wildcats are currently coached by John Calipari.
Kentucky leads all schools in total NCAA tournament appearances (58), NCAA tournament wins (126), NCAA Tournament games played (177), NCAA Sweet Sixteen appearances (43), NCAA Elite Eight appearances (37), and total postseason tournament appearances (65). Further, Kentucky has played in 17 NCAA Final Fours (tied for 2nd place all - time with UCLA), 12 NCAA Championship games, and has won 8 NCAA championships (second only to UCLA 's 11). In addition to these titles, Kentucky won the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in both 1946 and 1976, making it the only school to win multiple NCAA and NIT championships. Kentucky also leads all schools with sixty - two 20 - win seasons, fifteen 30 - win seasons, and six 35 - win seasons.
Throughout its history, the Kentucky basketball program has featured many notable and successful players, both on the collegiate level and the professional level. Kentucky holds the record for the most NBA Draft selections (121) as well as the most # 1 NBA Draft picks (3). The Wildcats have also been led by many successful head coaches, including Adolph Rupp, Joe B. Hall, Eddie Sutton, Rick Pitino, Tubby Smith, and John Calipari. Kentucky is the only program with 5 different NCAA Championship coaches (Rupp, Hall, Pitino, Smith, Calipari). Three Kentucky coaches have been enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame: Rupp, Pitino, and Calipari. Former Wildcat players that have gone on to become head coaches include C.M. Newton, Pat Riley, Dan Issel, Dwane Casey, John Pelphrey, and Travis Ford.
Records indicate that the first head coach of the Wildcats was W.W.H. Mustaine, who in 1903 called together some students, took up a collection totaling $3 for a ball, and told the students to start playing. The first recorded intercollegiate game at the college was a 15 -- 6 defeat to nearby Georgetown College. The team went 1 -- 2 for their first "season '', also losing to Kentucky University (later Transylvania University) but defeating the Lexington YMCA.
Through 1908, the team did not manage a winning season, and had an all - time record of 15 -- 29. In the fall of that year a full - time head coach was hired. This made him the first paid coach in Kentucky 's basketball history. That year, the team went 5 -- 4, and only three years later, boasted their first undefeated season with nine victories and no losses.
During this early era Kentucky was unstable in that the school went through multiple coaches, many stayed only one or two seasons.
In 1919, George Buchheit became the new head coach of the Wildcats. An alumnus of the University of Illinois, he brought with him a new system of basketball. The "Buchheit system '' or "Illinois system '', focused on defense and featured one player standing under each basket, while three roamed the court. Buckheit varied the system he learned in Illinois in one important way. While the Illinois system employed a zone defense, Buchheit 's system used an aggressive man - to - man scheme. On offense, he used a complicated system of passing called the "zig - zag '' or "figure eight '' offense.
Although the team had a losing season in Buchheit 's first year, they won the first - ever Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association tournament the next year, defeating the heavily favored Georgia Bulldogs. Both of these teams were composed entirely of native Kentuckians, anchored by All - American Basil Hayden. The tournament victory was considered Kentucky 's first major success, and the 1921 team became known as the "Wonder Team. ''
In 1922, the team was unable to build on the success of the "Wonder Team. '' Although every player was eligible in 1922, two key players, Hayden and Sam Ridgeway, were injured before the start of the season. Hayden returned from his knee injury during the season, but was never able to play at the level he had the previous year. Ridgeway fought a year - long battle with diphtheria, and although he recovered, never played for the Wildcats again. The remaining three members of the "Wonder Team '' went 9 -- 5 for the season, and bowed out of the SIAA tournament in the second round.
Buchheit remained as coach through the 1924 season before moving on to coach Trinity College (later Duke University). A different coach would guide the team for each of the next four years. C.O. Applegran immediately followed Buchheit, and his 1925 team posted a respectable 13 -- 8 record. Applegran in college had played for the University of Illinois, where he became an All - American. The next year, Ray Eklund led the team to a 15 -- 3 record, and produced UK 's second All - American, Burgess Carey. The record was enough for Kentucky to win their first regular season conference championship in the Southern Conference.
Seeing the cupboard largely bare for the upcoming year, Eklund resigned shortly before the start of the 1927 season. The team scrambled to find a new coach, and former player Basil Hayden left his coaching job at Kentucky Wesleyan College to answer the call. An inexperienced coach and a roster largely depleted of talent left the Wildcats with a 3 -- 13 record that year. The disappointment convinced Hayden that he was n't the "coaching type '', and he resigned after the season. Fortunately for the Wildcats, 1927 would be their last losing season for six decades.
The Wildcats ' new coach for the 1927 - 28 season was John Mauer. Although he had a talented group of players moving up from the junior varsity team, Mauer quickly discovered that his players did n't know the fundamentals of the game. He began a regimen of three - hour practices five days a week during the preseason. The practice began with half an hour of shooting drills and usually ended with a full - court scrimmage. Between the two, Mauer worked on skill drills and scenarios. Mauer 's teams were nicknamed the "Mauermen. ''
Teamwork was the hallmark of Mauer 's system. Every player worked on every aspect of the game; there were no specialists. Like Buchheit, Mauer employed a strong man - to - man defense. He utilized a slow - break offense that relied on a complicated system of short passes to get a good shot. Two elements of Mauer 's system were new to basketball in the south -- the offensive screen and the bounce pass. The latter was so new to most of UK 's opponents that it was referred to as the "submarine attack. ''
Over his three - year tenure, Mauer led the Wildcats to an overall record of 40 -- 14. One major prize eluded him, however. Despite having teams that were almost universally acknowledged as the "class of the South '', Mauer never led a team to the Southern Conference title. Despite his innate ability for coaching, Mauer lacked the ability to heighten his team 's emotions for a big game, a fault that was cited as the reason for his lack of tournament success. Mauer left the Wildcats to coach the Miami University Redskins following the 1930 season.
In 1930, the university hired Adolph Rupp, who had played as a reserve for the University of Kansas 1922 and 1923 Helms National Championship teams, under coach Forest C. "Phog '' Allen. At the time of his hiring, Rupp was a high school coach in Freeport, Illinois.
Rupp coached the University of Kentucky men 's basketball team from 1930 to 1972. There, he gained the nicknames, "Baron of the Bluegrass '', and "The Man in the Brown Suit ''. Rupp, who was an early innovator of the fast break and set offense, quickly gained a reputation as an intense competitor, a strict motivator, and a fine strategist, often driving his teams to great levels of success. Rupp 's Wildcat teams won 4 NCAA championships (1948, 1949, 1951, 1958), one NIT title in 1946, appeared in 20 NCAA tournaments, had 6 NCAA Final Four appearances, captured 27 Southeastern Conference (SEC) regular season titles, and won 13 SEC tournaments. Rupp 's Kentucky teams also finished ranked No. 1 on 6 occasions in the final Associated Press college basketball poll and 4 times in the United Press International (Coaches) poll. In addition, Rupp 's 1966 Kentucky squad (nicknamed "Rupp 's Runts '', as no starting player on the squad was taller than 6'5 ") finished runner - up in the NCAA tournament, and his 1947 Wildcats finished runner - up in the NIT. Rupp 's 1933 and 1954 Kentucky squads were also awarded the Helms National Championship, and his 1934 and 1947 teams were retroactively recognized as the national champion by the Premo - Porretta Power Poll.
One of Rupp 's early successful teams, he would give the ' 44 team the nickname "the Beardless Wonders '' and "Wildkittens '' because according to Rupp, "It was like running a Kindergarten. '' Of the young players, Kentucky 's best player was freshman Bob Brannum, who at the age of 17, would be named consensus All - American, making him the youngest player to ever earn the title. The Beardless Wonders would win nineteen of their twenty - one games, enough to be invited into the NIT. There they would be matched up with an equally young and talented Utah team nicknamed the "Blitz Kids. '' The game made for an exciting outing with both teams going into the half tied at 24, but with the help of Brannum Kentucky would pull away to win 46 -- 38. Kentucky would lose the next game to home town Saint John 's.
On the way to its first NCAA title, Kentucky would go on to a record of 36 -- 3. Of these three losses, all were either away or at neutral sites, keeping Kentucky undefeated at home throughout the entire season. Kentucky started off the beginning of the season with a 7 -- 0 record heading into their away game at Temple. However, Temple was able to give the Cats their first loss by one point, 60 -- 59. Still, this loss was not enough to keep the Wildcats down, as they rolled off an 11 - win streak before playing at Notre Dame, where they lost 55 -- 64. They would not lose a game for the rest of the regular season. Kentucky continued through the NCAA Tournament to the finals, where they faced the Baylor Bears. Kentucky won its first NCAA title in a decisive 77 -- 59 victory. The season did not end after the NCAA Tournament, as Kentucky who would play in the Olympic Trials, where they went 2 -- 1, only losing to the Phillips Oilers once. This was performance enough to help represent the United States in the 1948 Olympic Games. Despite only being a college team, the starting 5 of Kentucky would help defeat all of its competition in London, making Kentucky the only team to win both a NCAA title and an Olympic gold medal. Adolph Rupp soon gave this team the nickname "The Fabulous Five '', in honor of their accomplishments.
For the 1949 season Kentucky had high expectations with most of the Fabulous Five returning. Big Blue Nation 's expectations were met as the 1949 team won one more game than the previous year including both a SEC regular season and SEC tournament championship, while also getting back to the Final Four that March. In the finals Kentucky faced the Oklahoma A&M Cowboys, a team that had previously seen success in the tournament with back - to - back championships in 1945 and 1946. The Fab Five would succeed again winning 46 -- 36 and Kentucky 's only back - to - back NCAA championship. Kentucky was the second program in NCAA history to win back - to - back championships (there have been six other schools since).
With a returning star player like Bill Spivey, Kentucky hoped to carry their success into the new decade. All did n't look well after the Wildcats lost their first game by 11 to Saint John 's at home, but they would pull it together for the Sugar Bowl Tournament which they won beating NCAA runner up Bradley. Heading into rival Tennessee now No. 2 Kentucky was looking at the beginning of a tough six away game stretch; and tough it was. After losing to Tennessee, Kentucky would struggle to chain two wins together, losing every other game. They would defeat their next fourteen opponents, including getting revenge in SEC tournament championship over Tennessee. Heading into the post-season, No. 3 Kentucky would play a powerhouse CCNY team in the NIT, missing the NCAA tournament. The Wildcats were no match and were thrashed by the CCNY Beavers, 50 -- 83. The same CCNY would go to win the NIT, and then the NCAA championship. They are the only team in college basketball history to accomplish this feat.
Coming off a successful but titleless 1950 season, the Wildcats continued their dominance into the new decade. Over the season Kentucky would defeat four top 15 teams including four top 10 teams, and would be ranked in the top 5 the entire season. And with only one loss heading into the SEC tournament it looked like Kentucky would once again claim both SEC championships and their dominance over their conference. Vanderbilt had a different idea however, and would knock off the top ranked Wildcats in the SEC tournament finals denying them an eighth straight SEC tournament title. Kentucky was determined to not repeat the result it had in the SEC tournament in the NCAA finals, where they defeated fourth ranked Kansas State 68 -- 58.
Adolph Rupp was the head coach at Kentucky during the year of the point shaving scandal of 1951. In 1945 former Kentucky football player Nick Englisis met Kentucky basketball legend Ralph Beard while the two played football at Kentucky. Englisis entered the gambling business when he left the football team in 1946, then approached three Kentucky basketball players Ralph Beard, Alex Groza, and Dale Barnstable with his associates in late 1948 about potentially point shaving (fixing the score of games) during the upcoming season in exchange for money. The three players agreed to point shave and successfully shaved points in several games during the 1948 -- 1949 season until an effort to point shave caused the Wildcats to lose to the Loyola Ramblers in the National Invitation Tournament. Groza, Beard, and Barnstable attempted to win the game under the point spread but kept the score too close, allowing the Ramblers to win the game with an impressive performance at the end of the second half. Kentucky faced Villanova in their first game of the NCAA Tournament following the loss to Loyola and the three players attempted to win over the point spread. When Groza, Beard, and Barnstable failed to win over the point spread, it caused Englisis to lose all of his money and ended the point shaving deals between Englisis and these three players. On October 20, 1951, Alex Groza, Ralph Beard, and Dale Barnstable were arrested for taking bribes from gamblers to shave points during several games including the National Invitation Tournament game against the Loyola Ramblers in the 1948 -- 49 season.
At the conclusion of this scandal, a subsequent NCAA investigation found that Kentucky had committed several rule violations, including giving illegal spending money to players on several occasions, and also allowing some ineligible athletes to compete. As a result, the Southeastern Conference voted to ban Kentucky from competing for a year and the NCAA requested all other basketball - playing members not to schedule Kentucky, with eventually none doing so. As a result of these actions, Kentucky was forced to cancel the entire 1952 -- 53 basketball season. Years later, Walter Byers, the first executive director of the NCAA, unofficially referred to this punishment as the first de facto NCAA death penalty, despite the current rule first coming into effect in 1985, thus the NCAA having no such enforcement power previous to that. Echoing Mr. Byers ' view, the NCAA 's official stance is very much the same, and they now state in hindsight, "In effect, it was the Association 's first death penalty, though its enforcement was binding only through constitutional language that required members to compete against only those schools that were compliant with NCAA rules. Despite fears that it would resist, Kentucky accepts the penalty and, in turn, gives the NCAA credibility to enforce its rules. ''
The team returned with a vengeance the next year, posting a perfect 25 -- 0 record (Rupp 's only undefeated season), for which it was awarded the 1954 Helms National Championship. In addition, Kentucky also finished ranked No. 1 in the final Associated Press poll. On the team were three players who had graduated at the conclusion of the previous academic year. When, at the last minute, the NCAA ruled these players ineligible from post-season play, Rupp decided to skip the 1954 NCAA Tournament in protest.
Early into the season it was obvious that the "Fiddlin ' Five '' were not like Rupp 's teams earlier in the decade. They played around and made mistakes, which Rupp described as fiddling. In fact the Fiddlin ' Five still has the most losses out of any Kentucky 's championships, with six, three of those were in four games. Unlike the Fab Five or the 1951 teams, the Fiddling Five would yoyo in the rankings with their lowest a No. 13 coming after 56 -- 57 loss to unranked Loyola Chicago. Kentucky would catch fire through the tournament though and would win their fourth title over No. 18 Seattle in the confides of Louisville 's Freedom Hall.
Rupp 's last Final Four team and one of his last chances at a 5th NCAA title occurred in the 1965 -- 66 season, with Kentucky going all the way to the NCAA title game. The now historic 1966 NCAA championship game against Texas Western (now University of Texas - El Paso or UTEP) marked the first occurrence that an all - white starting five (Kentucky) played an all - black starting five (Texas Western) in the NCAA championship game. Texas Western won the game 72 -- 65, on the night of March 19, 1966. Contrary to popular belief, this game was not a huge "upset '' as while Kentucky entered the tournament with only one loss and ranked No. 1, Texas Western also had only one loss and entered the tournament ranked second. Kentucky was a 6.5 point favorite in the game The game was depicted in the film Glory Road.
This game, and the result of it, were especially significant as the game came at a time when the civil rights movement was coming into full swing around the country. In 1969, after actively recruiting black players for over six years (his first formal scholarship offer was in 1964, despite most of the other SEC teams threatening to boycott if a black player took the court), Rupp finally signed his first black player, Tom Payne, an athletic 7 ' - 1 '' center out of Louisville. This ended the aspect of all - white Kentucky teams forever, and marked a new era with many notable black Kentucky basketball legends, including Jack Givens, Sam Bowie, Kenny Walker, Jamal Mashburn, Tayshaun Prince, Rajon Rondo, John Wall, Anthony Davis, and Karl Anthony Towns.
Though he was born and raised in Indiana, Dan Issel would commit to the Wildcats in 1966 (the year of the famous Kentucky - UTEP game). Over the next four years Issel would score an average of 25.7 per game, adding up to 2,137 points in his college career. This made Issel the player with the most points to ever play at Kentucky, a feat that has to this day not been matched. This included his 53 points scored against Mississippi State in 1970, the most by a Kentucky player in a single game and breaking the previous record of 51 points held by Cliff Hagan. Issel would not capture the national championship in his college years but would go on to make a name for himself in the ABA.
Rupp was forced into retirement in March 1972, after reaching age 70. At the time, this was the mandatory retirement age for all University of Kentucky employees. He was a 5 - time National Coach - of - the - Year award winner, a 7 - time Conference Coach - of - the - Year award winner, and was elected a member of both the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and College Basketball Hall of Fame. Further, since 1972, the Adolph Rupp Trophy, considered one of the nation 's premier basketball awards, has been given by Commonwealth Athletic Club to the nation 's top men 's college basketball player. In addition, the University of Kentucky retired a jersey in his honor in the rafters of Rupp Arena, a 23,500 - seat arena named after him, dedicated in 1976.
Joe B. Hall was the head basketball coach at Kentucky from 1972 to 1985. Although he had been an assistant at Kentucky since 1965, Coach Hall was given a difficult task: to follow in the footsteps of his legendary predecessor, Adolph Rupp. In the 1978 NCAA Tournament, he coached the Wildcats to their fifth NCAA championship. He was named National Coach of the Year in 1978 and SEC Coach of the Year on four different occasions. His record at UK was 297 -- 100, and 373 -- 156 over his career. Coach Hall would win the title once in 1978 as well as making the final four in 1975 and 1984, and the elite eight in 1972, 1973, 1977, 1983.
Coach Hall is one of only three men to both play on a NCAA championship team (1949 -- Kentucky) and coach a NCAA championship team (1978 -- Kentucky), and the only one to do so for the same school. The only others to achieve this feat are:
After a year of playing in the freshman league and a disappointing sophomore season, Hall 's Super Kittens returned with hopes of finally bringing Kentucky its fifth title. They nearly did just that, guiding Kentucky to a runner - up finish to UCLA in the 1975 NCAA tournament but not before avenging their 20 - point defeat to an undefeated Indiana team. Despite losing in the championship game, it would give freshman Jack Givens a taste for success that would help propel Kentucky to the title three years later.
It had been twenty years without a championship in Lexington, and along with pressure of following a hall of fame coach, Hall would nickname the 1978 season the "Season Without Celebration. '' The pressure to win was immense on both players and coach to bring home the title, especially with a senior laden team that had gone to the finals as freshmen. Kentucky would hardly lose its composure all season or break under pressure, winning 30 of 32 games and defeating eight ranked teams along the way. By the time Kentucky reached the tournament finals they seemed bound to win the title, though Duke would give Kentucky their all. With the help of senior Jack "Goose '' Givens ' 41 points, Kentucky defeated the Blue Devils 94 -- 88, and finally won their fifth title and first in 20 years.
In 1985, Eddie Sutton succeeded Joe B. Hall. He coached the Wildcats for four years, leading them to the Elite Eight of the 1986 NCAA Tournament. Two seasons later, Sutton and the 25 -- 5 Wildcats captured their 37th SEC title and were ranked as the 6th college basketball team in the nation by the Associated Press and UPI before losing to Villanova in the Tournament.
Kentucky entered the 1988 -- 89 season with a gutted roster. Ed Davender, Robert Lock and Winston Bennett had all graduated from school, while All - SEC sophomore Rex Chapman left school early to enter the 1988 NBA draft. Additionally, sophomore standout Eric Manuel was suspected of cheating on his college entrance exam and voluntarily agreed to sit out until the investigation was finished. Potential franchise recruit Shawn Kemp transferred out of Kentucky after signing with the school early that year. Unfortunately, Manuel was forced to sit out the entire season as the investigation dragged on, essentially leaving the Wildcats in the hands of inexperienced sophomore LeRon Ellis and true freshman Chris Mills. The two underclassmen struggled to fill the talent vacuum on the court and the Wildcats finished with a losing record of 13 -- 19, the team 's first losing full - season record since 1927. To add insult to injury, the NCAA announced at the end of the season that its investigation into the basketball program had found the school guilty of violating numerous NCAA policies.
The scandal broke when Emery Worldwide employees claimed to have discovered $1,000 in cash in an envelope Kentucky assistant coach Dwane Casey sent to Mills ' father. Later Emery settled a libel lawsuit filed by Casey for a substantial amount of money. Casey was not in Lexington when the envelope was supposedly mailed and the father of Mills said they received no money. The NCAA rescinded its show cause order immediately after the settlement of the lawsuit, and Casey 's career has flourished as an NBA coach. Another player, Eric Manuel, was alleged to have received improper assistance on his college entrance exams and was banned from NCAA competition. Whether Manuel was directly involved has been questioned. Kentucky was already on probation stemming from allegations of an extensive scheme of payments to recruits, and the NCAA seriously considered hitting the Wildcats with the "death penalty '', which would have shut down the entire basketball program (as opposed to simply being banned from postseason play) for up to two years. However, school president David Roselle forced Sutton and athletic director Cliff Hagan to resign. The Wildcats were slapped with three years ' probation, a two - year ban from postseason play and a ban from live television in 1989 -- 90.
In 1989, Rick Pitino left the NBA 's New York Knicks and became the coach at a Kentucky program reeling from the aforementioned scandal. Kentucky would be banned from the 1990 and 1991 post season, with the 1990 season suffering a 14 -- 14 record. Kentucky would improve in 1991 with a beavy of home - grown upperclassmen such as Sean Woods, John Pelphrey, Richie Farmer, Deron Feldhaus, and Reggie Hanson along with the talented freshman Jamal Mashburn. Despite their record of 22 -- 6, Kentucky was still banned from the post season and would have to wait another year to see the Unforgettables succeed in the tournament.
Beginning with the 1992 season, Kentucky was free of post season bans. Though they lost one more game than last season, this team was most memorable for going to the Elite Eight (for the first time since Sutton 's 1986 team) with many returning upperclassmen from Kentucky. The team is also known for playing in what could be considered one of the greatest games in NCAA tournament history against Duke. In this game defending champion Duke were looking to return to the Final Four once again, Kentucky for the first time in almost a decade. The game was hard fought and physical on both sides all game including Laettner 's infamous stomp on Aminu Timberlake, which resulted in a technical. The teams took the lead back and forth until the final minute of the game which resulted in a first buzzer beater shot by Kentucky 's Sean Woods to take the lead 103 -- 102, and then Laettner 's shot to win the game for the Blue Devils in the final seconds 104 -- 103. This team came to be known as the "Unforgettables '' for helping put Kentucky back on the path to success in the 1990s and because the team was made up of home grown Kentucky kids.
Kentucky returned a junior Mashburn, along with Travis Ford and Tony Delk. They were expected to reach the Final Four for the first time since Joe B. Hall 's 1984 team. The expectations were right, as Kentucky would head into the post-season with only 2 losses and a No. 5 ranking. After winning the SEC Tournament once again, Kentucky stormed to the NCAA Final Four to meet up with Michigan 's "Fab Five '' a team of young and highly talented recruits that brought Michigan to the championship game the year before. As talented as Kentucky was they would fail to reach the championship game with a 78 -- 81 overtime loss to the Wolverines. But this would be the just a glimpse of a run Kentucky would have later in the decade.
Kentucky started the next season ranked # 1 but would underachieve, falling short of the Elite Eight for the only time under Pitino. The highlight of the season was the "Mardi Gras Miracle '', a game where Kentucky trailed LSU 68 -- 37 with 15: 34 left, but outscored them 62 -- 27 over the remainder of regulation to win 99 -- 95.
Starting in 1996, Kentucky would put together a string of Final Fours with help from 9 future NBA players. The "Untouchables '' as they were nicknamed, would only lose twice, to Final Four bound UMass Minutemen (coached by current Kentucky coach John Calipari) and Mississippi State. It was with their overwhelming talent and chemistry that would win Kentucky their sixth national title in the 1996 NCAA Tournament, Kentucky 's first NCAA championship in 18 years.
The following year, Pitino 's Kentucky team made it back to the national title game, losing to Arizona in overtime in the finals of the 1997 NCAA Tournament. Pitino 's fast - paced teams at Kentucky were favorites of the school 's fans. It was primarily at Kentucky where he implemented his signature style of full - court pressure defense. By the end of the Pitino era, Kentucky went from banned from the post season to going to three of the last five Final Fours and five of the last six Elite Eights. For this the 1997 team was dubbed the "Unbelievables '' for taking a team that was not expected much of to return the Wildcats back to the championship game for a second time.
Pitino left Kentucky in 1997 to coach the NBA 's Boston Celtics, he then went on to coach Kentucky 's in - state rival, the University of Louisville.
Orlando "Tubby '' Smith was introduced by UK Athletic Director C.M. Newton as the Wildcats ' 20th head coach on May 12, 1997, charged with the unenviable task of replacing popular coach Rick Pitino. The Wildcats were at the top of the basketball world at the time, having won a national title in 1996 and, according to many, missing a second straight title in 1997 by the torn ACL of shooting guard Derek Anderson. (Anderson tore his ACL in January against SEC foe Auburn; Kentucky lost the 1997 title game in overtime to the Arizona Wildcats.) The team Smith inherited sported seven players from the Arizona loss, and five from the 1996 championship team. However, since most of the players who had left after the 1996 and 1997 seasons were high NBA draft picks, his team had the lowest pre-season ranking since Kentucky came off probation in 1991.
In his first season at UK, he coached the Wildcats to their seventh NCAA championship, including a come - from - behind victory against Duke in the Elite Eight, and another comeback win against Stanford, then Utah in the Finals. His 1998 National Championship is unique in modern times, as being along with 1985 Villanova the 2nd team in over twenty years to win without a First Team All American or future NBA Lottery Pick (see 1998 NCAA Tournament). The 1998 team was also unlike Kentucky 's past two championship teams, often falling behind in games before roaring back to win rather than dominating their competition.
Smith 's teams, known primarily for a defense - oriented slower style of play coined "Tubbyball '', received mixed reviews among Kentucky fans who have historically enjoyed a faster, higher - scoring style of play under previous coaches. Smith was also under pressure from Kentucky fans to recruit better players.
After leading Kentucky to one National Championship in 1998, Kentucky would complete a perfect 16 -- 0 regular season conference record in 2003, win five SEC regular season championships (1998, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005) and five SEC Tournament titles (1998, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004). Smith led the Wildcats to six Sweet Sixteen appearances (1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005) and four Elite Eight appearances (1998, 1999, 2003, 2005) in his ten seasons. He totaled 100 wins quicker than any other Wildcat coach before him except Hall of Famer Adolph Rupp, reaching the plateau in 130 games (John Calipari subsequently broke this record in 114 games). In 2003, he was named AP College Coach of the Year.
Although Smith compiled an impressive resume during his UK career, he came under considerable pressure from many UK fans, who believed that his failure to achieve even a single Final Four appearance in his last nine seasons was inadequate by UK standards. This drought is the longest of any coach in UK history, although Smith did come just a double - overtime loss short of another Final Four appearance in 2005. On March 22, 2007, Smith resigned his position of UK Head Coach to accept the head coach position at the University of Minnesota.
On April 6, 2007, Billy Gillispie was formally announced as the new head coach of the University of Kentucky by UK athletic director Mitch Barnhart. He fielded questions from the media during the press conference held at UK 's new practice facility, the Joe Craft Center. He expressed his excitement and joy to be not only considered for the position but to have been given the honor and the opportunity to coach what former UK coach Rick Pitino referred to as the "Roman Empire '' of college basketball. "I 'm very, very grateful and honored to be here, but we have a lot of work to do. '' Gillispie became only the sixth head coach in the last 76 years at the school.
Gillispie 's second season again started out rocky in 2008 as the ' Cats fell to VMI in their season opener. The second game of the season saw the Wildcats fall to North Carolina by 19 points. UK rebounded to win 11 of their next 12 games, improving their record to 11 -- 3. On January 4, the Wildcats lost a heart breaker to archrival Louisville 74 -- 71 after a 25 ft. shot by Edgar Sosa with 2.3 seconds remaining in the game. Prior to the shot, UK was down 7 with 38.5 seconds left, and Jodie Meeks was fouled shooting a three, proceeded to make all three free throw shots, Patrick Patterson stole an inbound and passed it to Meeks who laid it in to bring the game to 71 -- 69 with 29.6 left, and then an inbound pass went long and Meeks snatched the pass, drove to the hoop and was fouled, and then made both free throws to tie the game at 71 with 22.9 left. So all in all, UK and Meeks got seven points in about 15 seconds to tie the game. Kentucky disposed of Vanderbilt to win their SEC opener on January 10, 70 -- 60. On January 13, in a road game against Tennessee, Jodie Meeks set a new Kentucky scoring record by dropping 54 points on the Volunteers. This total bested Dan Issel 's 39 - year - old scoring record by 1 point, and propelled UK to a 90 -- 72 win and 2 -- 0 start in conference play. Kentucky followed up this effort with a 68 -- 45 victory at Georgia, improving to 14 -- 4 on the season. With wins over Auburn and Alabama, Kentucky moved to 5 -- 0 in the SEC. On January 26, UK was ranked in the AP Poll (24th) for the first time since week 1 of the 2007 -- 08 season. UK promptly dropped 3 in a row (to Ole Miss, South Carolina, and Mississippi State) before rebounding at home with a thrilling 68 -- 65 win over Florida. Jodie Meeks scored 23 points in the contest, including the fade - away contested 3 point basket with less than 5 seconds remaining to seal the win for UK. On Valentine 's Day Kentucky handily defeated Arkansas at Bud Walton Arena 79 -- 63 behind another strong performance from Meeks. Meeks contributed 45 points and helped UK win despite the absence of Patrick Patterson (sprained ankle). With the win, UK remained tied with South Carolina and Tennessee for 1st in the SEC East at 7 -- 3. Following the win UK completely collapsed, losing 5 of its last 6 games to finish the regular season 19 -- 12 with an 8 -- 8 SEC record. Entering the SEC tournament many felt UK would need to win the championship game to get into the NCAA tournament, but UK was defeated in the second game vs. LSU. With an unimpressive regular season and quick elimination in the SEC tournament, UK did indeed miss the NCAA tournament for the first time in 18 years and instead received an invitation to the NIT tournament where the team was defeated in the quarterfinal round against Notre Dame.
On March 27, 2009 an 18 - minute - long meeting occurred between Billy Gillispie, President Dr. Lee Todd, Jr. and Athletic Director Mitch Barnhart, after which it was announced that Gillispie would not be returning as the head coach the next season. Barnhart stressed the firing was due to more than wins and losses, citing "philosophical differences '' and "a clear gap in how the rules and responsibilities overseeing the program are viewed ''.
On April 1, 2009, John Calipari replaced former head coach Billy Gillispie as the Wildcats head coach. To begin his tenure at the University of Kentucky, John Calipari signed one of the best all time recruiting classes. The class was headlined by four five - star recruits: John Wall, DeMarcus Cousins, Daniel Orton, and Eric Bledsoe. On December 19, 2009, the Wildcats defeated Austin Peay 90 -- 69 extending their record to 11 -- 0, and John Calipari broke Adolph Rupp 's record for the most consecutive wins to start a season for a first - year head coach at Kentucky. Kentucky defeated the Drexel Dragons 88 -- 44 on December 21, 2009 to become the first program in college basketball history to claim their 2000th victory. By January 25, 2010, Coach "Cal '' had the Kentucky Wildcats ranked No. 1 in both the ESPN / Coaches poll and AP poll with a record of 19 -- 0. By this point, these feats were not even considered his greatest accomplishment at the school, as John Calipari had raised in excess of $1.5 million to aid the country of Haiti during the aftermath of a natural disaster. President Barack Obama called the Wildcats to thank them for their relief efforts and wish them luck in their future endeavors. To finish off the 2009 -- 10 regular season, Kentucky won its 44th SEC regular season championship (with a final 14 -- 2 SEC record), and won its 26th SEC Tournament Championship, beating Mississippi State in the finals. The Wildcats then received a No. 1 seed (their 10th No. 1 seed in history) in the East Regional of the NCAA Tournament, where they eventually lost to West Virginia in the Elite Eight. This also marked Kentucky 's record 50th NCAA Tournament appearance.
In 2011 the Wildcats got off to a good start in the regular season with a record of 12 -- 2, with their only losses being North Carolina away and UConn in the Maui Invitational Finals. Conference play was a different matter, and Kentucky would struggle in the SEC losing 6 out of their 8 away games, all of one were against unranked opponents. To close out the season with a three - game defeat No. 13 Florida, No. 23 Vanderbilt and Tennessee at home for a 22 -- 8 record. The hot streak would continue and Kentucky would win their 27th SEC Tournament Title. This was enough for No. 4 seed on the East regional where they played Princeton in a very close first - round game that ended in a 59 - 57 victory for the Cats. Knight, Jones and company would exact their revenge in the second round against West Virginia, who knocked off Kentucky in the 2010 tourney. In the Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight they would upset the No. 1 seed Ohio State Buckeyes and No. 2 seed North Carolina Tar Heels on their way to the school 's 14th Final Four. They lost in the Final Four to eventual National Champion No. 3 seed UConn 56 -- 55.
In the 2011 -- 12 season, he led Kentucky to being 16 -- 0 in SEC regular season play, clinching its 45th SEC regular season championship. The last team to do so in the SEC was the 2002 -- 03 Kentucky Wildcats, and before that, the 1995 -- 96 Kentucky Wildcats. Kentucky 's regular season record was 30 -- 1, with its only loss being by one point coming from a 3 - pointer buzzer - beater by the Indiana Hoosiers ' Christian Watford at Assembly Hall on December 10, 2011. In the SEC Tournament, Kentucky fell to Vanderbilt in the championship game, making its overall record 32 -- 2 going into the NCAA Tournament. Kentucky was both selected as the No. 1 seed in the South Region and also the No. 1 seed overall of the entire NCAA Tournament. The Sweet 16 match - up on March 23, 2012 was a rematch against Indiana, in which this time the Wildcats prevailed over the Hoosiers 102 -- 90. On March 25, 2012, Kentucky won the South Regional, setting up a Final Four semifinal with the Louisville Cardinals. Calipari 's Wildcats defeated the Cardinals (coached by former Kentucky coach Rick Pitino) by a score of 69 -- 61. This sent Kentucky to the National Championship game against the Kansas Jayhawks, where they defeated Kansas 67 -- 59, winning UK 's 8th NCAA championship, along with John Calipari 's first NCAA Championship as a head coach. This Kentucky team had a record six players drafted in the 2012 NBA draft, including the first time two teammates have been chosen with the first two picks: Anthony Davis (1st overall), Michael Kidd - Gilchrist (2nd), Terrence Jones (18th), Marquis Teague (29th), Doron Lamb (42nd) and Darius Miller (46th).
The 2012 -- 13 season 's recruiting class ranked either first or second by various recruiting experts led by top center Nerlens Noel, guard Archie Goodwin, forward Alex Poythress, and four - star center Willie Cauley - Stein. Kentucky also brought in transfer guard Julius Mays, a graduate student who had previously played at Wright State University and North Carolina State. Mays was eligible to play immediately, because UK offered a master 's degree program that Wright State did not. However, the only returner that saw significant minutes from the championship squad was back - up power forward Kyle Wiltjer, who averaged 11 minutes per game (Ryan Harrow sat out the previous season after transferring from NC State before the 2011 -- 12 season). Although the team saw the rise of Jarrod Polson in the first game of the season against Maryland, they struggled to close out closer games and play with the will to win that Calipari demands. On February 12, Noel tore his ACL in a loss against Florida. UK was 17 -- 7 including that game, and went 4 -- 5 the remainder of the season, losing all 5 games away from Rupp Arena. The fourth of those losses was against Vanderbilt in the first round of the SEC tournament, and UK missed the NCAA tournament altogether, being the overall No. 1 seed of the NIT. UK was upset by Robert Morris in the first round of the NIT, ending their season with a 21 -- 12 record.
In the press conference following the loss to Robert Morris, Calipari stated that his 2013 -- 14 team would be a "tough, hard - nosed, fighting team. '' Noel and Goodwin both entered the NBA draft and were both taken in the first round at 6th and 29th, respectively. Ryan Harrow transferred to Georgia State to be closer to his father that had suffered from a stroke, and Kyle Wiltjer transferred to Gonzaga. Kentucky brought in the No. 1 recruiting class, featuring a record six McDonald 's All - Americans in Julius Randle, Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, James Young, Dakari Johnson, and Marcus Lee, as well as Kentucky natives Derek Willis and Dominique Hawkins, and walk - on E.J. Floreal (son of Edrick Floréal, head coach of UK 's track and field team). Alex Poythress and Willie Cauley - Stein did not declare for the 2013 NBA draft, and decided to return for their sophomore seasons.
In 2013 -- 14, Kentucky looked to make up for its struggles in the previous season. Despite making the NIT, there were high expectations for this team. The team, however, would be without some of its top players from the 2012 -- 13 team including Nerlens Noel and starting shooting guard Archie Goodwin, who were first - round draft choices in the 2013 NBA draft. Starting power forward Kyle Wiltjer transferred to Gonzaga and starting point guard Ryan Harrow transferred to Georgia State. Returning was former McDonald 's All - American Alex Poythress and starting center Willie Cauley - Stein. The poor success of the 2012 -- 13 team did not stop John Calipari from again producing another number one recruiting class. The entering class included a record six McDonald 's All - Americans highlighted by Julius Randle and the Harrison Twins, Aaron and Andrew. Many recruiting analysts and experts proclaimed that the 2013 signing class was the greatest recruiting class since the infamous Fab Five in the 1990s.
The team began the season ranked number 1 in both the AP and Coaches polls. The season was full of ups and downs. Early in the season the team experienced close losses to Baylor, Michigan State, and North Carolina. Despite those losses the team was able to defeat in - state rival Louisville. Nothing changed in SEC play for them either. The team ended the regular season losing three of their last four games including once to South Carolina, who finished the season 14 -- 20 overall. The team limped into the SEC Tournament unranked, and desperately looking for any answer to their disappointing season. Calipari during his weekly radio call - in show mentioned the team was given a "tweak ''. The "tweak '' sparked speculation and curiosity among the fans and the media to what it could be. The "tweak '' was never fully revealed. However, the "tweak '' caused the team to go on an historic run through both the SEC and NCAA tournaments. UK was the runner - up to number one Florida in the SEC Tournament. During the NCAA Tournament UK became the first team in history to eliminate three teams from the previous Final Four (Wichita State, Louisville, Michigan). UK was the National Runner - up after losing to Connecticut in the National Championship Game.
After the 2014 season, Kentucky only lost Randle and Young to the NBA draft. The returning players consisted of a record - tying nine McDonald 's All - Americans. Juniors Cauley - Stein and Poythress returned with sophomores Aaron and Andrew Harrison, Johnson, and Lee to join the No. 2 ranked 2015 recruiting class which was highlighted of Gatorade Player of the Year Karl - Anthony Towns for the 2015 season. The team began its season in the Bahamas on a six - game tour against international clubs and teams. While in the Bahamas the team established a "platoon system '' which featured two groups of five players that would rotate every four minutes within the game. The "platoon system '' was put on display nationally in a 72 to 40 victory over No. 5 Kansas in the Champions Classic in November. In December, the team defeated UCLA 83 to 44. Kentucky led 41 to 7 at halftime, the lowest UCLA point total for a half in its storied history. The SEC regular season began with two overtime victories over Ole Miss and Texas A&M, the closest games Kentucky would play all season. Kentucky finished the regular season with a perfect 31 and 0 record, the best start in school history. In the SEC Tournament, the team won each game by double - digits, including a 78 to 63 victory over Arkansas in the finals. Cauley - Stein was named the MVP of the Tournament. In the NCAA Tournament Kentucky played its first two games at the KFC Yum! Center in Louisville. Prior to the regional semifinal against West Virginia, Mountaineers guard Daxter Miles proclaimed that Kentucky would be 36 and 1 after the game. The comment fueled the team as they defeated West Virginia 78 to 39, tying the largest margin of victory in the Sweet 16 in NCAA Tournament history. In the regional final Kentucky narrowly defeated Notre Dame 68 to 66. The only loss of the season was in the Final Four to Wisconsin, who Kentucky defeated the previous season in the Final Four. The 2014 -- 15 team tied the NCAA record for most wins in a season (38). After the season Cauley - Stein and Towns were named consensus All - Americans among other awards received.
The Wildcats have had 22 coaches in their 112 - year history. John Calipari is the current coach. To date, 6 Wildcats coaches have won the National Coach - of - the - Year award: Adolph Rupp in 1950, 1954, 1959, 1966, and 1970, Joe B. Hall in 1978, Eddie Sutton in 1986, Rick Pitino in 1990 and 1992, Tubby Smith in 1998, 2003, and 2005, and John Calipari in 2012 and 2015. Additionally, 7 Wildcats coaches have been named Southeastern Conference Coach - of - the - Year: Adolph Rupp in 1964, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971 and 1972, Joe B. Hall in 1973, 1975, 1978 and 1983, Eddie Sutton in 1986, Rick Pitino in 1990, 1991 and 1996, Tubby Smith in 1998, 2003, and 2005, Billy Gillispie in 2008, and John Calipari in 2010, 2012, and 2015.
The following is a list of Kentucky 's 8 National Championships:
The NCAA began seeding the tournament with the 1979 edition.
The * represents overall number one seed which began with the 2004 Tournament.
Forty - two former Kentucky men 's basketball players, coaches, and contributors are honored in Rupp Arena with banners representing their numbers hung from the rafters. Due to the number of players honored, the fact that several of them have shared numbers, and NCAA rules requiring players to only wear jersey numbers containing digits 0 thru 5, their numbers are not officially retired. To have a banner hung, the person must be elected to the UK Athletics Hall of Fame.
The following Kentucky players, coaches, and contributors have been enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.
The following Kentucky players and coaches have represented their country in basketball in the Summer Olympic Games:
The Wildcats had their streak of 1,047 consecutive non-exhibition games with at least one made three - point field goal end on March 15, 2018 in a 78 -- 73 win over Davidson in the first round of the 2018 NCAA Tournament.,. Three other schools (Vanderbilt, UNLV and Princeton) have longer such streaks, having made at least one three - point field goal in every non-exhibition game since the three - point field goal first came to the college game.
The Kentucky Wildcats presently play their home games in 23,500 + - seat Rupp Arena, the largest arena in the United States built specifically for basketball. It was opened in 1976 and is named after legendary Kentucky head coach Adolph Rupp. Located off - campus, in downtown Lexington, the facility 's official capacity is 23,500 +. The Wildcats have consistently led the country in home attendance since the 1976 -- 77 season (when Rupp Arena first opened), winning the National Attendance Title a record 25 times, including 17 of the past 20 seasons, and 8 of the last 10 seasons. Kentucky also has an impressive 529 -- 64 (. 892) all - time record in Rupp Arena.
In 2007, the university unveiled the Joe Craft Center, a state - of - the - art basketball practice facility and athletics office building attached to the north side of Memorial Coliseum on the "Avenue of Champions '' at the University of Kentucky campus in Lexington, Kentucky. The 102,000 ft2 structure contains separate practice courts for the men 's and women 's basketball programs, separate men 's and women 's locker rooms, state - of - the - art video rooms for game film viewing, new coaches offices, a ticket office, and athletic administration offices. As a result, Memorial Coliseum has more ample space for volleyball and gymnastics practice and games. The facility is named after Joe Craft, a Hazard, Kentucky native, who pledged $6 million towards the completion of the $30 million project.
Coming off back - to - back national championships, the team moved to Memorial Coliseum in 1950. Nicknamed "The House That Rupp Built '', the multipurpose facility cost $4 million and seated 12,000 people. It also housed a swimming pool, physical education equipment, and offices for the athletics staff. The team occupied Memorial Coliseum for twenty - six seasons, and sold out all 345 home games they played there during that period. Kentucky also played a 2009 NIT game at Memorial Coliseum due to Rupp Arena being booked. The Wildcats are 307 -- 38 (. 890) all - time at Memorial Coliseum.
In 1924, Alumni Gymnasium was completed. It included seating for 2,800 people and cost $92,000 to construct. Kentucky played 271 games at Alumni Gymnasium from 1924 to 1950, going 247 -- 24 (. 911).
Woodland Park Auditorium, opened in 1906 and closed in 1941, was located on the corner of East High Street and Kentucky Avenue in Lexington, Kentucky. Kentucky used this facility for home games during World War I between 1914 and 1916 going 15 -- 7 there all - time.
The Wildcats played 84 home games at Buell Armory Gymnasium from 1910 to 1924. It was named for Union Civil War General Don Carlos Buell who was a member of the first board of trustees at Kentucky. The armory was also used during World War I to teach truck maintenance and repair among other skills. Kentucky was 59 -- 25 all - time at Buell Armory Gymnasium.
The first home court for the Wildcats was simply called "The Gymnasium '' or State College Gymnasium until 1910. It was located in the north wing of Barker Hall on the university campus. Constructed in 1902, it also housed the university 's physical education classes until 1909. The facility had a capacity of 650 people, and with no bleachers or seats, fans had to stand to watch the games that were played there. By the 1920s, it had become clear that "The Gymnasium '' (by then renamed "The Ladies ' Gym '') was inadequate to house the university 's basketball team. Records show Kentucky was 17 -- 14 at State College Gymnasium.
(Of the 71 major categories listed above, Kentucky is No. 1 in 50 of them, No. 2 in 16 of them, No. No. 3 in 3 of them, No. 4 in 1 of them, and No. 8 in 1 of them.)
Kentucky can also lay claim to several individual achievements for both players and coaches:
Kentucky also holds several other NCAA records and various additional accomplishments:
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who was the first living indian to be posted on stamp | Postage stamps and postal history of India - Wikipedia
This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of India.
Indian postal systems for efficient military and governmental communications had developed long before the arrival of Europeans. When the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Danish and British displaced The Marathas who had already defeated the Mughals, their postal systems existed alongside those of many somewhat independent states. The British East India Company gradually displaced other powers and brought into existence a British administrative system over most of India, with a need to establish and maintain both official and commercial mail systems.
Although the Indian Post Office was established in 1837, Asia 's first adhesive stamp, the Scinde Dawk, was introduced in 1852 by Sir Bartle Frere, the British East India Company 's administrator of the province of Sind. The Indian postal system developed into an extensive, dependable and robust network providing connectivity to almost all parts of India, Burma, the Straits Settlements and other areas controlled by the British East India Company (EIC). Based on the model postal system introduced in England by the reformer, Rowland Hill, efficient postal services were provided at a low cost and enabled the smooth commercial, military and administrative functioning of the EIC and its successor, the British Raj. The Imperial Posts co-existed with the several postal systems maintained by various Indian states, some of which produced stamps for use within their respective dominions, while British Indian postage stamps were required for sending mail beyond the boundaries of these states. Telegraphy and telephony made their appearance as part of the Posts before becoming separate departments. After the Independence of India in 1947, the Indian postal service continues to function on a countrywide basis and provides many valuable, low cost services to the public of India.
The history of India 's postal system begins long before the introduction of postage stamps. The antecedents have been traced to the systems of the Persian Empire instituted by Cyrus the Great and Darius I for communicating important military and political information. The Atharvaveda (or Arthveda) which is one of the oldest books in the world, records a messenger service in ancient India millenniums ago. Systems for collecting information and revenue data from the provinces are mentioned in Chanakya 's Arthashastra (meaning military strategy and skill) (c. 3rd century BCE).
In ancient times the kings (or Raja), emperors (or Maharaja), rulers, zamindars (or the feudal lords) protected their land through the intelligence services of specially trained police or military agencies and courier services to convey and obtain information through runners, messengers and even through pigeons in most parts of India. The chief of the secret service, known as the Daakpaal (postmaster), maintained the lines of communication... The people used to send letters to (their) distant relatives through their friends or neighbors.
For centuries it was rare for messages to be carried by any means other than a relay of runners on foot. A runner ran from one village or relay post to the next, carrying the letters on a pole with a sharp point. His was a dangerous occupation: the relay of postal runners worked throughout the day and night, vulnerable to attacks by bandits and wild animals. These mail runners were used chiefly by the rulers, for purposes of gathering information and wartime news. They were subsequently used by merchants for trade purpose. It was much later that mail runners came to be in use for the carriage of private mail.
The postal history of India primarily began with the overland routes, stretching from Persia to India. What began as mere foot - tracks that more than often included fords across the mountainous streams, gradually evolved over the centuries as highways, used by traders and military envoys on foot and horses, for carriage of missives.
The Arab influence of the Caliphate came about with the conquest of Sind by Muhammad bin Qasim in 712 A.D. (C.E.). Thereupon, the Diwan - i - Barid (or Department of Posts) established official communication across the far - flung empire. The swiftness of the horse messengers finds mention in many of the texts of that period.
The first Sultan of Delhi, after the Mughals colonised India, Qutb - ud - din Aybak was Sultan for only four years, 1206 -- 1210, but he founded the Mamluk Dynasty and created a messenger post system. This was expanded into the dak chowkis, a horse and foot runner service, by Alauddin Khalji in 1296. Sher Shah Suri (1541 -- 1545) replaced runners with horses for conveyance of messages along the northern Indian high road, today known as the Grand Trunk Road, which he constructed between Bengal and Sindh over an ancient trade route at the base of the Himalayas, the Uttarapatha. He also built 1700 ' serais ' where two horses were always kept for the despatch of the Royal Mail Akbar introduced camels in addition to the horses and runners.
In the South of India, in 1672 Raja Chuk Deo of Mysore began an efficient postal service which was further improved upon by Haider Ali.
The East India Company took constructive steps to improve the existing systems in India when, in 1688, they opened a post office in Bombay followed by similar ones in Calcutta and Madras. Lord Clive further expanded the services in 1766 and in 1774 Warren Hastings made the services available to the general public. The fee charged was two annas per 100 miles. The postmarks applied on these letters are very rare and are named ' Indian Bishop Marks ' after Colonel Henry Bishop, the Postmaster General of the United Kingdom who introduced this practice in Britain. The Post Office Department of the East India Company was first established on 31 March 1774 at Calcutta, followed in 1778 at Madras and in 1792 at Bombay. After 1793, when Cornwallis introduced the Regulation of the Permanent Settlement, the financial responsibility for maintaining the official posts rested with the zamindars. Alongside these, private dawk mail systems sprang up for the commercial conveyance of messages using hired runners. Also, the East India Company created its own infrastructure for the expansion and administration of military and commercial power. The runners were paid according to the distance they travelled and the weight of their letters.
Carrying the mail was dangerous work:
The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 provided that the Governor - General of India in Council had the exclusive right of conveying letters by post for hire within the territories of the East India Company. Section XX required all private vessels to carry letters at prescribed rates for postage. A handstamp was applied to preadhesive ship letters. The mails were available to certain officials without charge, which became a controversial privilege as the years passed. On this basis the Indian Post Office was established on 1 October 1837.
The urgent European mails were carried overland via Egypt at the isthmus of Suez. This route, pioneered by Thomas Waghorn, linked the Red Sea with the Mediterranean, and thence by steamer via Marseilles, Brindisi or Trieste to European destinations. The Suez Canal did not open until much later (17 November 1869). The time in transit for letters using the Overland Mail route was dramatically reduced. Waghorn 's route reduced the journey from 16,000 miles via the Cape of Good Hope to 6,000 miles; and reduced the time in transit from three months to between 35 and 45 days.
The use of the Scinde Dawk adhesive stamps to signify the prepayment of postage began on 1 July 1852 in the Scinde / Sindh district, as part of a comprehensive reform of the district 's postal system. A year earlier Sir Bartle Frere had replaced the postal runners with a network of horses and camels, improving communications in the Indus river valley to serve the military and commercial needs of the British East India Company.
The new stamps were embossed individually onto paper or a wax wafer. The shape was circular, with "SCINDE DISTRICT DAWK '' around the rim and the British East India Company 's Merchant 's Mark as the central emblem. The paper was either white or greyish white. The blue stamp was printed onto the paper by the die during the embossing, while the wax version was embossed on a red sealing wax wafer on paper; but all had the same value of 1 / 2 anna. They were used until October 1854, and then officially suppressed. These are quite scarce today, with valuations from US $700 to $10,000 for postally used examples. The unused red stamp was previously valued at £ 65,000.00 by Stanley Gibbons (basis 2006); however, it now appears that no unused examples have survived.
The first stamps valid for postage throughout India were placed on sale in October 1854 with four values: 1 / 2 anna, 1 anna, 2 annas, and 4 annas. Featuring a youthful profile of Queen Victoria aet. 15 years, all four values were designed and printed in Calcutta, and issued without perforations or gum. All were lithographed except for the 2 annas green, which was produced by typography from copper clichés or from electrotyped plates. The 4 annas value (illustrated) was one of the world 's first bicolored stamps, preceded only by the Basel Dove, a beautiful local issue.
These stamps were issued following a Commission of Inquiry which had carefully studied the postal systems of Europe and America. In the opinion of Geoffrey Clarke, the reformed system was to be maintained "for the benefit of the people of India and not for the purpose of swelling the revenue. '' The Commissioners voted to abolish the earlier practice of conveying official letters free of postage ("franking ''). The new system was recommended by the Governor - General, Lord Dalhousie, and adopted by the East India Company 's Court of Directors. It introduced "low and uniform '' rates for sending mail efficiently throughout the country within the jurisdiction of the East India Company. The basic rate was 1 / 2 anna on letters not more than 1 / 4 tola in weight. The stamps were needed to show the postage was prepaid, a basic principle of the new system, like the fundamental changes of the British system advocated by Rowland Hill and the Scinde reforms of Bartle Frere. These reforms transformed mail services within India.
The East India Company already had attempted a 1 / 2 anna vermilion stamp in April 1854, known as the "91⁄2 arches essay ''. This could not be produced in quantity because it required an expensive vermilion pigment not readily available from England, and the substituted Indian pigment destroyed the printing stones.
A new design for stamps, with Queen Victoria in an oval vignette inside a rectangular frame, was inscribed "EAST INDIA POSTAGE ''. These stamps were recess printed by De La Rue in England (who produced all the subsequent issues of British India until 1925). The first of these became available in 1855. They continued in use well after the British government took over the administration of India in 1858, following the 1857 Rebellion against the East India Company 's rule. From 1865 the Indian stamps were printed on paper watermarked with an elephant 's head.
The volume of mail moved by the postal system increased relentlessly, doubling between 1854 and 1866, then doubling again by 1871. The Post Office Act XIV introduced reforms by 1 May 1866 to correct some of the more apparent postal system deficiencies and abuses. Postal service efficiencies also were introduced. In 1863 new lower rates were set for "steamer '' mail to Europe at 6 annas 8 pies for a 1 / 2 ounce letter. Lower rates were introduced for inland mail, as well.
New regulations removed the special postal privileges which had been enjoyed by officials of the East India Company. Stamps for official use were prepared and carefully accounted for to combat the abuse of privileges by officials. In 1854 Spain had printed special stamps for official communications, but in 1866 India was the first country to adopt the simple expedient of overprinting ' Service ' on postage stamps and ' Service Postage ' on revenue stamps. This innovation became widely adopted by other countries in later years.
Shortages developed, so these stamps also had to be improvised. Some of the "Service Postage '' overprinted rarities of this year resulted from the sudden changes in postal regulations. New designs for the 4 annas and "6 annas 8 pies '' stamps were issued in 1866. Nevertheless, there was a shortage of stamps to meet the new rates. Provisional six annas stamps were improvised by cutting the tops and bottoms from a current Foreign Bill revenue stamp, and overprinting "POSTAGE ''.
Another four new designs appeared, one at a time, between 1874 and 1876.
A complete new set of stamps was issued in 1882 for the Empire of India that had been proclaimed five years earlier, in 1877. The designs consisted of the usual Victoria profile, in a variety of frames, inscribed "INDIA POSTAGE ''. The watermark also changed to a star shape. These stamps were heavily used and are still quite common today.
Three stamps, featuring a detail from Heinrich von Angeli 's 1885 portrait of Queen Victoria, in 2, 3 and 5 rupee denominations, were introduced in 1895. Other existing designs were reprinted in new colours in 1900.
British India had hundreds of Princely States, some 652 in all, but most of them did not issue postage stamps. The stamp - issuing States were of two kinds: the Convention States and the Feudatory States. The postage stamps and postal histories of these States provide great challenges and many rewards to the patient philatelist. Many rarities are to be found here. Although handbooks are available, much remains to be discovered.
The Convention States are those which had postal conventions (or agreements) with the Post Office of India to provide postal services within their territories. The adhesive stamps and postal stationery of British India were overprinted for use within each Convention State. The first Convention State was Patiala, in 1884, followed by others in 1885. The stamps of the Convention States all became invalid on 1 January 1951 when they were replaced with stamps of the Republic of India valid from 1 January 1950.
The Feudatory States maintained their own postal services within their territories and issued stamps with their own designs. Many of the stamps were imperforate and without gum, as issued. Many varieties of type, paper, inks and dies are not listed in the standard catalogues. The stamps of each Feudatory State were valid only within that State, so letters sent outside that State needed additional British India postage.
Both Faridkot and Jind, as feudatory states, issued their own stamps before they joined the Postal Convention. Faridkot joined on 1 January 1887. Jind joined in July 1885; its stamps from the feudatory period became invalid for postage, but they continued to be used for revenue purposes.
In 1902 a new series depicting King Edward VII generally reused the frames of the Victoria stamps, with some color changes, and included values up to 25 rupees. The higher values were often used for the payment of telegraph and parcel fees. Generally, such usage will lower a collector 's estimation of a stamp 's value; except those from remote or "used abroad '' offices.
The 1911 stamps of King George V were more florid in their design. It is reported that George V, a philatelist, personally approved these designs. In 1919 a 11⁄2 anna stamp was introduced, inscribed "ONE AND HALF ANNA '', but in 1921 this changed to "ONE AND A HALF ANNAS ''. In 1926 the watermark changed to a pattern of multiple stars.
The first pictorial stamps appeared in 1931. The set of six, showing the fortress of Purana Qila, Delhi and government edifices, was issued to mark the government 's move from Calcutta to New Delhi. Another pictorial set, also showing buildings, commemorated George V 's Silver Jubilee in 1935.
The stamps issued in 1937 depicted various forms of mail transports, with King George VI 's effigy appearing on the higher values. A new issue in 1941, constrained by the austerity of World War II, consisted of rather plain designs using minimal amounts of ink and paper. As Indian Post Offices annually required some billions of stamps for postage, as a measure of economy the large pictorial stamps were immediately withdrawn and smaller stamps were issued. Even this did not ease the paper situation and it was thought desirable to reduce the size even more.
A victory issue in 1946 was followed in November 1947 by a first Dominion issue, whose three stamps were the first to depict the Ashoka Pillar and the new flag of India (the third showed an aeroplane).
Postage stamps were generally issued separately from the revenue stamps. However, in 1906, the set of King Edward VII stamps were issued in two values, half anna and one anna with the caption "INDIA POSTAGE & REVENUE ''. The George V Series (1911 to 1933) added two more values, two annas and four annas to the Postage & Revenue stamps. These dual - purpose issues were an exception and generally the two types were issued separately.
From 1 January 1926 all printing and overprinting of India ' postage stamps was conducted at India Security Press, Nasik. The possibility of printing postage stamps and other security items in India had been enquired into before the First World War but could not be pursued at that time. In 1922, the feasibility of this issue was explored in England by Lt Col C.H. Willis, C.I.E., then master of the Bombay Mint, and Mr F.D. Ascoti, I.C.S., Controller of Printing, Stationery and Stamps. Their favourable report, followed by a successful demonstration of production techniques in Delhi in 1923, led to the decision of the Government to establish a security press at Nashik. The responsibility of setting up the Press was entrusted to none other than the London firm of Thomas De La Rue which already had a six - decade long association with Indian stamps. The construction began in 1924 at an original estimate of Rs 271⁄2 lakhs and was completed in 1925 with additional costs of Rs 67 and 1 / 400,000.
The printing of stamps at Nasik began in 1925. The first stamps produced were the definitive series of George V, printed using typography from the same plates used earlier in England by De La Rue, which were now transferred to India. The watermark was changed by the Press to multiple stars. Lithography was now re-introduced and the first stamps printed with this technique were the first Air Mail series of 1929. The Security Press continued to use typography for most stamps, reserving the lithographic process for the most important commemorative issues, the next being the 1931 series commemorating the inauguration of New Delhi as the seat of government in 1931. The one rupee stamp shows the Secretariat and Dominion Columns. This practice continued after independence. The first definitive series to be issued was the misnamed "Archaeological '' series of 16 values; the top four values were produced by lithography and the remaining values by typography.
The new technique of photogravure printing was installed in 1952. The October 1952 series of six values on the theme of Saints and Poets was the first to be so produced. However, these were not the first photogravure stamps of India, having been preceded by the first Gandhi series of 1948, which were printed by Courvoisier of Geneva using the photogravure technique. Since then, photogravure has been used to produce all Indian stamps; typography and lithography being reserved for service labels only.
The First Stamp of Independent India was issued on 21 November 1947. It depicts the Indian Flag with the patriots ' slogan, Jai Hind (Long Live India), on the top right hand corner. It was valued at three and one - half annas.
A memorial to Mahatma Gandhi was issued 15 August 1948 on the first anniversary of Independence. Exactly one year later a definitive series appeared, depicting India 's broad cultural heritage, mostly Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Sikh and Jain temples, sculptures, monuments and fortresses. A subsequent issue commemorated the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950.
Definitives included a technology and development theme in 1955, a series all showing the map of India in 1957, denominated in naye paisa (decimal currency), and a series with a broad variety of images in 1965.
The old inscription of "INDIA POSTAGE '' was replaced in 1962 with "भारत INDIA '', though three stamps issued between December 1962 / January 1963 carried the earlier inscription.
India has printed stamps and postal stationery for other countries, mostly neighbours. Countries which have had stamps printed in India include Burma (before independence), Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Portugal, and Ethiopia.
The Department of Posts, operating as India Post, is a government - operated postal system, simply referred to within India as "the post office ''. With its far - flung reach and its presence in remote areas, the Indian postal service provides many services such as small savings banking and financial services. As of 31 March 2011, the Indian Postal Service has 154,866 post offices, of which 139,040 (89.78 %) are in rural areas and 15,826 (10.22 %) are in urban areas. It has 25,464 departmental POs and 129,402 ED BPOs. At the time of independence, there were 23,344 post offices, which were primarily in urban areas. Thus, the network has registered a sevenfold growth since Independence, with the expansion primarily in rural areas. On an average, a post office serves an area of 21.23 sq; km and a population of 7,114 people. India is believed to have the most widely distributed system in the world (China has 57,000, Russia 41,000 and the United States 38,000 offices). This proliferation of offices results from India 's history of having many disparate postal systems, eventually unified in the Indian Union after Independence.
India has been divided into 22 postal circles, each circle headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each Circle is further divided into Regions comprising field units, called Divisions, headed by a Postmaster General, and further divided into units headed by SSPOs & SPOs and Sub Divisions headed by ASPs and IPS. Other functional units like Circle Stamp Depots, Postal Stores Depots and Mail Motor Service exist in various Circles and Regions. Besides the 22 circles, there is a special Base Circle to provide the postal services for the Armed Forces of India. The Base Circle is headed by an Additional Director General, Army Postal Service holding the rank of a Major General.
Gandhi, Nehru and other historic personalities continued to appear on the postal issues coming from the country since Independence, with almost half a century seeing the Gandhi definitives of denominations most frequently used in the era concerned, becoming synonymous with a postage stamp to the Indian people of that respective time period. New themes are now finding their place on Indian postage stamps, with some stamps issued jointly with postal agencies of other countries, renewable energy sources, the local flora and fauna and even the special annual issues wishing season 's greetings. On 9 March 2011 India Post launched an online e-post office. The portal provides electronic money orders, instant money orders, stamps for collectors, postal information, tracking of express and international shipments, PIN code search and registration of feedback and complaints online.
Mahatma Gandhi, Rajkot 1896.
The National Philatelic Museum of India was inaugurated on 6 July 1968 in New Delhi. It had its beginning at a meeting of the Philatelic Advisory Committee on 18 September 1962. Besides the large collection of India Postage stamps designed, printed and issued, it has a large collection of Indian states, both confederate and feudatory, early essays, proofs and colour trials, a collection of Indian stamps "used abroad '' and as well as early Indian postcards, postal stationery and thematic collections.
The museum was extensively renovated in 2009. It now includes more exhibits, a philatelic bureau and other postal objects such as beautiful Victorian post boxes.
An international philatelic exhibition was held from 12 -- 18 February 2011, on the centenary of India 's first official air mail. For the occasion of INDIPEX 2011 India Post brought out a special stamp on Gandhi Ji to commemorate the event. It is printed on "khadi '', the handspun cotton material that Gandhi Ji held out as the symbol of self - determination and self - reliance. The Presentation Pack was released by Pratibha Patil, the President of India on Saturday 12 February 2011 at INDIPEX 2011, the World Philatelic Exhibition held in New Delhi, the capital of India.
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who wins the final fight in cinderella man | Cinderella Man - wikipedia
Cinderella Man is a 2005 American biographical sports drama film by Ron Howard, titled after the nickname of world heavyweight boxing champion James J. Braddock and inspired by his life story. The film was produced by Howard, Penny Marshall, and Brian Grazer. Damon Runyon is credited for giving Braddock this nickname. Russell Crowe, Renée Zellweger and Paul Giamatti star.
James J. Braddock is an Irish - American boxer from New Jersey, formerly a light heavyweight contender, who is forced to give up boxing after breaking his hand in the ring. This is both a relief and a burden to his wife, Mae. She can not bring herself to watch the violence of his chosen profession, yet she knows they will not have enough income without his boxing.
As the United States enters the Great Depression, Braddock does manual labor as a longshoreman to support his family, even with his injured hand. Unfortunately, he can not get work every day. Thanks to a last - minute cancellation by another boxer, Braddock 's longtime manager and friend, Joe Gould, offers him a chance to fill in for just one night and earn cash. The fight is against the number - two contender in the world, Corn Griffin.
Braddock stuns the boxing experts and fans with a third - round knockout of his formidable opponent. He believes that while his right hand was broken, he became more proficient with his left hand, improving his in - ring ability. Despite Mae 's objections, Braddock takes up Gould 's offer to return to the ring. Mae resents this attempt by Gould to profit from her husband 's dangerous livelihood, until she discovers that Gould and his wife also have been devastated by hard times.
With a shot at the heavyweight championship held by Max Baer a possibility, Braddock continues to win. Out of a sense of pride, he uses a portion of his prize money to pay back money to the government given to him while unemployed. When his rags to riches story gets out, the sportswriter Damon Runyon dubs him "The Cinderella Man '', and before long Braddock comes to represent the hopes and aspirations of the American public struggling with the Depression.
A title fight against Baer comes his way. Braddock is a 10 - to - 1 underdog. Mae is terrified because Baer, the champ, is a vicious man who reportedly has killed at least two men in the ring. He is so destructive that the fight 's promoter, James Johnston, forces both Braddock and Gould to watch a film of Baer in action, just so he can maintain later that he warned them what Braddock was up against.
Braddock demonstrates no fear. The arrogant Baer attempts to intimidate him, even taunting Mae in public that her man might not survive. When he says this, she becomes so angry that she throws a drink at him. She is unable to attend the fight at the Madison Square Garden Bowl or even to listen to it on the radio.
On June 13, 1935, in one of the greatest upsets in boxing history, Braddock defeats the seemingly invincible Baer to become the heavyweight champion of the world.
An epilogue reveals that Braddock would lose his title to Joe Louis and later worked on the building of the Verrazano Bridge, owning and operating heavy machinery on the docks where he worked during the Depression, and that he and Mae used his boxing income to buy a house, where they spent the rest of their lives.
During filming in Toronto, several areas were redressed to resemble 1930s New York. The Richmond Street side of The Bay 's Queen Street store was redressed as Madison Square Garden, complete with fake store fronts and period stop lights. A stretch of Queen Street East between Broadview and Carlaw was also made up to appear to be from the 1930s and dozens of period cars were parked along the road. Maple Leaf Gardens was used for all the fight scenes, and many scenes were filmed in the Distillery District. Filming also took place in Hamilton, Ontario at the harbour for the dock workers ' scene. The main apartment was shot north of St. Clair Avenue on Lauder Avenue on the east side. An awning was put up for a dress shop, later turned into a real coffee shop.
The Toronto Transit Commission 's historic Peter Witt streetcar and two more cars from the nearby Halton County Radial Railway were used for the filming, travelling on Toronto 's existing streetcar tracks.
In a campaign to boost ticket sales after the film 's low opening, AMC Theatres advertised on June 24, 2005 that in 30 markets (about 150 theaters nationwide), it would offer a refund to any ticket - buyer dissatisfied with the film. The advertisement, published in The New York Times and other papers and on internet film sites, read, "AMC believes Cinderella Man is one of the finest motion pictures of the year! We believe so strongly that you 'll enjoy Cinderella Man we 're offering a Money Back Guarantee. '' The promotion moderately increased box office revenue for a short period, while at least 50 patrons demanded refunds. Following suit, Cinemark Theatres also offered a money - back guarantee in 25 markets that did not compete with AMC Theaters. AMC had last employed such a strategy (in limited markets) for the 1988 release of Mystic Pizza, while 20th Century Fox had unsuccessfully tried a similar ploy for its 1994 remake of Miracle on 34th Street.
Rotten Tomatoes gave it an approval rating of 80 % based on reviews from 211 critics with an average score of 7.4 / 10. Its consensus states, "With grittiness and an evocative sense of time and place, Cinderella Man is a powerful underdog story. And Ron Howard and Russell Crowe prove to be a solid combination. '' Metacritic gives the film a score of 69 % based on reviews from 40 critics. It received an A+ rating from CinemaScore.
During its North American theatrical run, the film (which cost $88 million) earned $61,649,911.
In April 2018, Crowe auctioned off as part of his "divorce auction '' a number of props he owned which were used by him in his various films, including a jockstrap, pair of shorts and robe which were worn by Crowe in Cinderella Man. The items from the film as well as the other items on auction were bought by the HBO television show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, with the jockstrap having sold for $7,000. The items purchased were then donated to the last operating Blockbuster Video store in Alaska.
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when did 8 track tapes stop being produced | 8 - track tape - wikipedia
The 8 - track tape (formally Stereo 8; commonly known as the eight - track cartridge, eight - track tape, or simply eight - track) is a magnetic tape sound - recording technology that was popular in the United States from the mid-1960s to the early 1980s, when the Compact Cassette format took over. The format is regarded as an obsolete technology, and was relatively unknown outside the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Germany and Japan.
Stereo 8 was created in 1964 by a consortium led by Bill Lear of Lear Jet Corporation, along with Ampex, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Motorola, and RCA Victor Records (RCA - Radio Corporation of America). It was a further development of the similar Stereo - Pak four - track cartridge introduced by Earl "Madman '' Muntz (marketing and television set dealer), which was adapted by Muntz from the Fidelipac cartridge developed by George Eash. A later quadraphonic (four - channel sound as opposed to earlier more widely used stereo / two channel sound) version of the format was announced by RCA in April 1970 and first known as Quad - 8, then later changed to just Q8.
The original format for magnetic tape sound reproduction was the reel - to - reel tape recorder, first available in the United States in the late 1940s, but too expensive and bulky to be practical for amateur home use until well into the 1950s. Loading a reel of tape onto the machine and threading it through the various guides and rollers proved daunting to some casual users -- certainly, it was more difficult than putting a vinyl record on a record player and flicking a switch. Because in early years each tape had to be dubbed from the master tape in real - time to maintain good sound quality, prerecorded tapes were more expensive to manufacture, and costlier to buy, than vinyl records which could be stamped much quicker than their own playing time.
To eliminate the nuisance of tape - threading, various manufacturers introduced cartridges that held the tape inside a metal or plastic housing to eliminate handling. Most were intended only for low - fidelity voice recording in dictation machines. The first tape cartridge designed for general consumer use, including music reproduction, was the Sound Tape or Magazine Loading Cartridge (RCA tape cartridge), introduced in 1958 by RCA. Prerecorded stereophonic music cartridges were available, and blank cartridges could be used to make recordings at home, but the format failed to gain popularity.
The endless loop tape cartridge was first designed in 1952 by Bernard Cousino around a single reel carrying a continuous loop of standard 1 / 4 - inch, plastic, oxide - coated recording tape running at 3.75 in (9.53 cm) per second. Program starts and stops were signaled by a one - inch - long metal foil that activates the track - change sensor. (Bill Lear had tried to create an endless - loop wire recorder in the 1940s, but gave up in 1946. He would be inspired by Earl Muntz 's four - track design in 1963.)
Inventor George Eash invented a cartridge design in 1953, called the Fidelipac cartridge. The Eash cartridge was later licensed by manufacturers, notably the Collins Radio Company, which first introduced a cartridge system for broadcasting at the National Association of Broadcasters 1959 annual show. Fidelipac cartridges (nicknamed "carts '' by DJs and radio engineers) were used by many radio stations for commercials, jingles, and other short items. Eash later formed Fidelipac Corporation to manufacture and market tapes and recorders, as did several others, including Audio - Pak (Audio Devices Corp.).
There were several attempts to sell music systems for cars, beginning with the Chrysler Highway Hi - Fi of the late 1950s (which used discs). Entrepreneur, marketer and television set dealer Earl "Madman '' Muntz of Los Angeles, California, however, saw a potential in these "broadcast carts '' for an automobile music system. In 1962, he introduced his Stereo - Pak four - track cartridge stereo system and tapes, mostly in California and Florida. The four tracks were divided into two "programs '', typically corresponding to the two sides of an LP record, with each program comprising two tracks read simultaneously for stereo (two channel) sound playback. He licensed popular music albums from the major record companies and duplicated them on these four - track cartridges, or "CARtridges '', as they were first advertised.
The Lear Jet Stereo 8 track cartridge was designed by Richard Kraus while working under Bill Lear and for his Lear Jet Corporation in 1963. The major change was to incorporate a neoprene rubber and nylon pinch roller into the cartridge itself, rather than to make the pinch roller a part of the tape player, reducing mechanical complexity. Lear also eliminated some of the internal parts of the Eash cartridge, such as the tape - tensioning mechanism and an interlock that prevented tape spillage. By doubling the number of tracks from 4 to 8, the recording length doubled to 80 minutes.
In 1964, Lear 's aircraft company constructed 100 demonstration Stereo 8 players for distribution to executives at RCA and the auto companies.
The popularity of both four - track and eight - track cartridges grew from the booming automobile industry. In September 1965, the Ford Motor Company introduced factory - installed and dealer - installed eight - track tape players as an option on three of its 1966 models (the sporty Mustang, Thunderbird, and the luxurious high - end Lincoln), and RCA Victor introduced 175 Stereo - 8 Cartridges from its RCA Victor and RCA Camden labels of recording artists catalogs. By the 1967 model year, all of Ford 's vehicles offered this tape player upgrade option. Most of the initial factory installations were separate players from the radio (such as shown in the image), but dashboard mounted 8 - track units were offered in combination with an AM radio, as well as with AM / FM receivers. Muntz, and a few other manufacturers, also offered 4 / 8 or "12 - track '' players that were capable of playing cartridges of either format, 4 - track or 8 - track. With the backing of the U.S. automakers, the eight - track format quickly won out over the four - track format, with Muntz abandoning it completely by late 1970.
Despite its problems, the format gained steady popularity because of its convenience and portability. Home players were introduced in 1966 that allowed consumers to share tapes between their homes and portable systems. By the late 1960s, the 8 - track segment was the largest in the consumer electronics market and the popularity of 8 - track systems for cars helped generate demand for home units. "Boombox '' type portable players were also popular but eight - track player / recorders failed to gain wide popularity and few manufacturers offered them except for manufacturer Tandy Corporation (for its Radio Shack electronics stores). With the availability of cartridge systems for the home, consumers started thinking of eight - tracks as a viable alternative to 33 rpm album style vinyl records, not only as a convenience for the car. Within a year, prerecorded releases on the eight - track tape format began to arrive within a month of the vinyl release. The eight - track format became by far the most popular and offered the largest music library of all the tape systems.
Eight - track players were fitted as standard equipment in most Rolls - Royce and Bentley cars of the period for sale in Great Britain and worldwide. Optional 8 - track players were available in many cars and trucks through the early 1980s.
Ampex, based in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, set up a European operation (Ampex Stereo Tapes) in London, England, in 1970 under general manager Gerry Hall, with manufacturing in Nivelles, Belgium, to promote 8 - track product (as well as musicassettes) in Britain and in Europe, but it struggled and folded in 1974.
Quadraphonic sound on eight - track cartridges (announced by RCA in April 1970) were also produced, Ford being particularly eager to promote in - car quadraphonic players as a pricey option. Neither Chrysler, General Motors, nor American Motors of the other three of the "Big Four '' American automotive companies however offered a quadraphonic tape player. The format enjoyed a moderate amount of success for a time in the early 1970s but faded by mid-decade. These cartridges are sought by collectors since they provide four channels of discrete sound, unlike matrixed formats such as SQ, which Columbia / CBS Records used for their quadraphonic sound vinyl records.
Daisuke Inoue invented the first karaoke machine in 1971 called the Juke - 8.
Milton Bradley 's (MB) OMNI Entertainment System was an electronic quiz machine game first released in 1980, similar to Jeopardy! or later You Do n't Know Jack video game series, using 8 - track tapes for playback analog audio for questions, instructions and answers as well as digital signals in magnetic tape data storage on remaining tracks to load the right answer for counting the score. In 1978, the Mego Corporation launched the 2 - XL toy robot, which was similar.
Eight - track players became less common in homes and vehicles in the late 1970s. The compact cassette arrived in 1962, and by the 1970s the eight - track cartridges had greatly diminished in popularity. In some Latin American countries as well as European, the format was abandoned in the mid-1970s in favor of the smaller tape cassette which was one - third the size.
In the U.S.A., eight - track cartridges were phased out of retail stores by late 1982. Some titles were still available as eight - track tapes through Columbia House and RCA (BMG) Music Service Record Clubs until late 1988. Many of these late - period releases are highly collectible because of the low numbers that were produced and the few customers who ever purchased them. Among the most rare is Stevie Ray Vaughan 's Texas Flood. Another is Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band 's Live / 1975 - 85, which was one of the very few boxed sets to be released on vinyl, cassette, compact disc, and eight - track tape.
There is a debate among collectors about the last commercial eight - track released by a major label, but the fan / enthusiast internet website "8 Track Heaven '' can not find a major label release past Fleetwood Mac 's Greatest Hits in November 1988. Radio Shack (Tandy Corporation) continued to sell blank eight - track cartridges for home recording use under its Realistic brand until 1990.
The professional broadcast cart format survived for more than another decade at most local radio stations. It was used to play and switch short brief jingles, advertisements, station identifications, and music content until it was replaced by various computer - based methods in the 1990s. This format survived longer because it was used for relatively short sound loops, where starting from the beginning was more important than other criteria. The endless loop tape concept continues to be used in modern movie projectors, although in that application the spool is actively rotated and not drawn by tension on the film. That too, however, is now being supplanted by digital cinema technologies.
Some independent artists still release eight - track tapes, such as the U.S. band RTB2, who released We Are a Strange Man in 2011. Also, bands sometimes release eight - tracks as special releases; for example, The Melvins released a limited - time, live eight - track album, Cheap Trick issued a limited edition version of their album The Latest on the format on June 23, 2009, and power electronics solo artist Waves Crashing Piano Chords has released multiple eight - track tapes since 2012, as well as starting an eight - track tape label, H8 - Track Stereo. In the book Journals, Kurt Cobain wrote about wanting to release Nirvana 's album In Utero as an 8 - track tape, but this never happened. Apart from a select group of highly collectible artists, the record club issues, and the quadraphonic releases, many eight - track tapes seem to have limited value to most collectors, especially if the tapes have been misused or appear to be worn. They are however still to be found at some thrift second - hand stores, flea markets and internet auctions.
In the Cousino, Eash, Muntz, and Lear cartridges, tape was pulled from the center of the reel, passed across the opening at one end of the cartridge and wound back onto the outside of the same reel. The spool itself was freewheeling and the tape was driven only by tension from the capstan and pinch roller.
With a reel turning at a constant rate, the tape around the hub has a lower linear velocity than the tape at the outside of the reel, so the tape layers must slip past each other as they approach the center. The tape was coated with a slippery backing material, usually graphite and patented by Bernard Cousino, to ease the continuous slip between the tape layers. While the design allowed simple, cheap, and mobile players, unlike a two - reel system, it did not permit rewinding of the tape. Some players offered fast - forward by speeding up the motor while cutting off the audio; but rewinding was never offered, because it was technically impossible.
Muntz 's cartridge had used two pairs of stereo tracks in the same configuration as then - current "quarter track '' reel - to - reel tapes. This format was intended to parallel his source material, which was usually a single LP (long playing) record with two sides. Program switching was achieved by physically moving the head up and down mechanically by a lever. The Stereo 8 version doubled the amount of programming on the tape by providing eight total tracks, usually comprising four programs of two tracks each. Lear touted this as a great improvement, because much more music could be held inside a standard cartridge housing, but in practice this resulted in a slight loss of sound quality and an increase in background noise from the narrower tape tracks. Unlike the Stereo - Pak, the Stereo 8 could switch between tracks automatically, with the use of a small length of conductive foil at the splice joint on the tape, which would cause the player to change tracks as it passed the head assembly.
The cartridges have an audible pause due to the presence of a length of metallic foil, which a sensor detects and signals the end of the tape and acts as a splice for the loop. The foil passes across a pair of electrical contacts which are in the tape path. Contact of the foil closes an electrical circuit that engages a solenoid which mechanically shifts the tape head to the level of the next track.
Most players produced a mechanical click when switching programs, although early Lear players switched silently. Because of the expense of producing tape heads capable of reading eight tracks, most eight - track players have heads that read just two tracks. Switching from program to program is accomplished by moving the head itself. Since the alignment of the head to the tape is crucial to any tape system, and because eight - track systems were generally designed to be cheap, this configuration further degraded the sound of the eight - track tape.
The Stereo 8 system was fairly simple, mechanically, but presented difficulties in various primary areas:
When the sliding tape pack would pull itself tight, for whatever reason, a jammed 8 - track cartridge was the result. A quick solution was to hold the cartridge in one hand, facing down, while pulling out a section of, about 4 - 6 ' in length from the outer winding side. A quick tug on the tape would cause it to immediately wind in and the result was a loosened up tape pack that would play correctly.
Failing that, another solution was to open the cartridge, cut the tape at the splice, and relieve the excess tension by manually unwinding one or two sections from the outer edge of tape (loop length) while keeping the reel stationary, then re-splicing the tape, with a fresh piece of foil. Another, simpler fix was to shake the cassette in the plane of the tape reel with a rotary motion, sometimes this would cause the windings inside to rotate and loosen. If the cartridge has shed its graphite backing, it would have to be discarded. Small businesses that specialize in transferring audio tapes to digital format can remove the tape from the surrounding plastic cartridge box and play it on a small reel - to - reel player to extract maximum sound fidelity.
A decrease in the quality of the parts used in the eight - track cartridge, that is, plastic pinch rollers, lubricant quality and quantity, etc., was another blow to the faltering format. As these problems further reduced the reliability, sound quality, and consistent tape speed, the eight - track eventually developed a reputation for being unreliable.
The Stereo 8 introduced the problem of dividing up the programming intended for a two - sided LP record into four programs. Often this resulted in songs being split into two parts (the split was often made during an instrumental break or a repeated chorus), song orders being reshuffled, shorter songs being repeated, and songs separated by long passages of silence. Some eight - tracks included extra musical content to fill in time such as a piano solo on Lou Reed 's Berlin, extra verses on The Rolling Stones ' Some Girls and a guitar solo in Pink Floyd 's Animals.
In rare instances, an eight - track was able to be arranged exactly like the record album version, without any song breaks. Examples of this are Quadrophenia by The Who, and some versions of Days of Future Passed by The Moody Blues. Other examples of this rarity are Freeways by Bachman - Turner Overdrive, Bursting Out Live by Jethro Tull, Live Bullet and Nine Tonight by Bob Seger and the Silver Bullet Band, Caught Live + 5 by The Moody Blues, The Concert in Central Park by Simon & Garfunkel, Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs by Derek and The Dominoes, Octave by The Moody Blues, the US version of Three Sides Live by Genesis, Pictures at Eleven by Robert Plant and Coda by Led Zeppelin (a record club only release).
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where did the name jimmy eat world come from | Jimmy Eat World - Wikipedia
Jimmy Eat World is an American rock band formed in Mesa, Arizona in 1993. The band is composed of lead guitarist and lead vocalist Jim Adkins, drummer Zach Lind, rhythm guitarist and vocalist Tom Linton, and bassist Rick Burch. As of October 2016, Jimmy Eat World have released nine studio albums, the last eight featuring the current lineup.
The four - piece 's commercial breakthrough came with the successful release of several singles from the album Bleed American (2001). Four singles from the album charted within the top twenty positions of the Alternative Songs chart, with "The Middle '' reaching the number one position. Jimmy Eat World 's follow - up album Futures (2004) featured another Alternative number one song, "Pain ''. The RIAA certified Bleed American platinum and Futures gold, rewarding the two albums for selling over one and a half million records between them. The band 's sixth album Chase This Light (2007) became the band 's highest charting album, peaking at number five on the Billboard 200.
The band released their ninth album, Integrity Blues, on October 21, 2016.
Jimmy Eat World formed in Mesa, Arizona in 1993. Guitarist Jim Adkins and drummer Zach Lind, who had been friends since preschool, joined with guitarist Tom Linton and bassist Mitch Porter to try their hand at music. The band originally formed with a punk rock sound and first released a demo tape in 1993, followed by their first EP in 1994, entitled One, Two, Three, Four. Their debut self - titled album (1994) was released with Linton singing most of the lead vocals on the album. Within the span of a couple of years, the band recorded and released three singles and a full - length on local label Wooden Blue Records.
During their formative period the band claimed as influences such pop - punk bands as Mr. T Experience, Radon, and Tempe 's Horace Pinker.
The band 's name came from a crayon drawing made after an incident between Linton 's younger brothers, Jim and Ed Linton, who fought frequently. Jim usually won, but Ed sought revenge by drawing a picture of Jim shoving the Earth into his mouth; the picture bore the caption "Jimmy eat world ''.
Eventually, spurred by bands such as Sunny Day Real Estate, the band began to experiment with slower tempos and more varied song structures. As they began writing songs and touring in the indie scene, the band encountered like - minded bands, such as Christie Front Drive, Sense Field, and Seven Storey Mountain, that were working on similar sounds.
The band began to attract increasing attention following the release of numerous recordings and concurrent touring. In response to this self - generated exposure, Capitol Records offered the band a deal in mid-1995, following the interest of Loren Israel, the A&R Director of the label. Just prior to signing with Capitol, bass player Mitch Porter parted ways with the band and was replaced by Linton 's friend Rick Burch.
After a brief scouting for producers, the band joined up with Drive Like Jehu drummer Mark Trombino to record its major - label debut Static Prevails that featured their first singles "Call It In The Air '' and "Rockstar ''. In the ensuing years, the band 's agreement with Capitol permitted the release of singles on independent labels, including split 7 - inch singles with Christie Front Drive (Wooden Blue Records, 1995), Jejune (Big Wheel Recreation, 1997), Blueprint (Abridged Records, 1996), Sense Field, and Mineral.
From late 1998 to early 1999, the band recorded their next album Clarity at two studios, Sound City Studios (Van Nuys, California) and Clear Lake Audio (North Hollywood, California). The tracks were mixed at One on One Studios (Los Angeles, California) and Music Grinder Studios, and were mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering (Hollywood, California). Both the band and Trombino produced the album, with the latter also responsible for the album 's mixing duties. Clarity marks the start of Adkins 's primary role as lead vocalist and, instead, Linton 's focus was guitar work. Clarity was also released on vinyl through the now - defunct American independent record label Big Wheel Recreation.
The third album contained the single "Lucky Denver Mint '' and a radio remix of the song was featured in the film Never Been Kissed; the song garnered a cult following. The album 's closing song "Goodbye Sky Harbor '' is based on the John Irving novel A Prayer for Owen Meany. Overlooked upon its release, Clarity has since amassed cult status and critical acclaim.
The band decided to record its next album without the help of a label, supporting itself with touring and by compiling its previously released singles into Singles, which was released on indie label Big Wheel Recreation. The band also took on day jobs, saving as much as they could to spend on the sessions. The band worked for a third time with Trombino, who agreed to defer payment until after the album 's release in order to keep costs down. Some of the drum tracks were recorded at Cherokee, and then the band moved to Doug Messenger 's harddrive analog and digital in North Hollywood, where five weeks of tracking completed the recording phase. Trombino then mixed the record at Extasy in Hollywood.
The finished album was titled Bleed American. Joining with Gersh 's new management company, GAS Entertainment, the band scouted for a new label. The band eventually signed with DreamWorks. The completed album was released in July 2001, which included a vinyl edition through the now - defunct Grand Royal label, founded by the band the Beastie Boys in 1993.
The title track (titled "Salt Sweat Sugar '' in the UK) was the lead single. The album 's second single, "The Middle '' became the band 's biggest single to date, reaching number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The video for the song received significant airplay on MTV, including on Total Request Live. The album was certified platinum by the RIAA.
Following the September 11 attacks, the band decided to re-issue the album as Jimmy Eat World out of concern that the title Bleed American might be misinterpreted, possibly as a threatening "bleed, American ''.
In 2008, the album was re-released as a deluxe edition and renamed to its original title, Bleed American. This edition contains a total of 32 tracks -- the original 11 as well as 21 bonus tracks, which are live recordings, demos and B - sides.
After lengthy touring in support of Bleed American, the band regrouped to work on the follow - up in early 2004. Once again, the band joined up with Trombino, but the collaboration was short - lived. As the sessions began, the band decided that they did not have enough material for a cohesive album. The band 's desire to spend more time writing songs conflicted with Trombino 's availability, as he already had other projects on his schedule.
Instead, the band brought in producer Gil Norton, well known for his work with the Pixies and the Foo Fighters. Lind explained in 2007, "After we left the studio with Trombino, we came up with ' Polaris ', ' Work ', ' Pain ', (and) ' 23 ' -- the songs that really gave Futures its heartbeat. '' Futures was released in October 2004, with "Pain '' serving as the lead single. (By this time, DreamWorks had been acquired by Interscope Records.)
Subsequent months saw the release of "Work '' and the title track as singles. Having already toured the U.S. alone and with Taking Back Sunday, the band signed on to tour in 2005 with Green Day. In September 2005, the band released the Stay on My Side Tonight EP, which contained reworked versions of demos recorded with producer Mark Trombino that were not used for the album. The album was eventually awarded Gold status in the US by the RIAA.
After its tour, Jimmy Eat World headed home to Tempe and started working on material for a sixth album. The band decided to self - produce the album, enlisting Chris Testa (Dixie Chicks) and John Fields (Switchfoot, Mandy Moore) as co-producers and Butch Vig (Nirvana, Garbage, The Smashing Pumpkins, Green Day) as executive producer. As Burch explained to the St. Petersburg Times, "(Vig 's) role was n't in the studio everyday. We would send Butch samples of what we were doing every couple of days. '' Chase This Light was released on October 16, 2007, with "Big Casino '' as the lead single. "Always Be '' was the most recent single off the album, released in December 2007.
On June 13, 2008, the band revealed that they would begin work on their seventh album later that year and would also consider, upon the expiration of their contract with Interscope, self - releasing the record. Jimmy Eat World performed a tour in early 2009 to commemorate the ten - year anniversary of Clarity, completing ten stops across the U.S., whereby they played the entire record on each occasion.
On March 22, 2010, the band stated that they were in the process of mixing the next album. The band also revealed that, for the first time since Clarity, the album would contain a song with lead vocals provided by original vocalist Linton. On June 7, 2010, Jimmy Eat World stated on Twitter: "Our new album is officially done. Now we wait for a release date. We 'll keep you posted. '' Invented, the follow - up album after Chase This Light, was released on September 28, 2010, on Interscope Records, a date that was previously announced on July 14, 2010, in a Jimmy Eat World Twitter update.
In fall (autumn) / winter of 2011, Adkins announced that the band would be writing and recording for their next album. Lind stated in a Twitter post that the band will begin recording its next album during the latter part of August 2012 and, on September 5, 2012, another Twitter post stated that recording had begun for the eighth studio album with engineer / producer Alain Johannes.
On October 5, 2012, Jimmy Eat World posted on Twitter that the band had completed recording its eighth album and that the recording was being mixed at that time; the mastering process then commenced after a November 30, 2012 Twitter update indicated that the mixing process had been completed. On January 29, 2013, Jimmy Eat World stated on both its Twitter and Facebook profiles that the eighth studio album was "officially mastered and sequenced ''. In a Twitter post on Lind 's individual profile, the drummer revealed that, as of January 29, 2013, the band was still seeking out a record label for the release of the eighth album. Lind briefly responded to a fan 's query with: "@ CallumSty no announcement coming soon. still looking for a label. ''
The official details of the eighth album, entitled Damage, emerged in early April 2013 and on April 10, 2013, a lead single titled "I Will Steal You Back '' was revealed via the band 's website. The title track Damage appears on the 7 - inch Damage EP along with a cover version of the Radiohead song "Stop Whispering ''. The EP was released on April 20, 2013, for Record Store Day, an internationally recognized celebration in support of music and independent retail outlets. Jimmy Eat World also released the album 's track - listing, consisting of ten songs, and June 11, 2013, as the official release date. Adkins explained in a Rolling Stone magazine interview that Damage is a "pretty energetic '' work that explores the issue of relationship break - ups from the perspective of an adult: "I 'm 37 and the world around me is a lot different than when I was writing break - up songs in my 20s. I tried to reflect that in what the lyrics are. ''
The release of Damage also signifies the cessation of Jimmy Eat World 's independent era, as the band signed a recording contract with the Toronto, Canada - based record label Dine Alone Records. RCA Records released the eighth album in the U.S. on April 4, 2013 and internationally April 11, 2013. The album was recorded in Johannes ' Los Angeles, U.S. home and was mixed by James Brown, who had previously worked with Sound City, Nine Inch Nails, and The Pains Of Being Pure At Heart.
The band posted a music video for the song "I Will Steal You Back '' on their VEVO YouTube page on May 31, 2013. In October 2013, the band announced a series of December 2013 US tour dates that followed a UK / European tour.
In mid-2014, the band announced the "Futures 10 Year Anniversary Tour '' in commemoration of the 10 - year anniversary of the Futures studio album. Vinyl reissues of Futures, Static Prevails and Clarity were released prior to the commencement of the tour, which began in Ventura, California, U.S. Prior to the Tempe, Arizona, stop of the tour at the end of October, Adkins confirmed that new material was being compiled by the band, but a release time frame was not available. An Oceania leg of the tour occurred in November 2014.
In April 2016, Apple debuted an ad to promote Apple Music which featured Taylor Swift lip syncing and dancing to Jimmy Eat World 's "The Middle ''. This caused significant renewed interest in the band; their song "The Middle '' rose to # 32 on the iTunes Top Songs Chart, while Pandora noted a 325 % increase in Jimmy Eat World station ads in the first day after the ad premiered.
On August 18, 2016, the band 's Facebook page linked to a 14 - second video of instrumental music to the image of a country road, with the words "Stay tuned... '', further hinting at an upcoming release of the band 's ninth album. On August 21, 2016, the band released a new song titled "Get Right '', available for free download from their official website. On August 30, 2016, the band debuted the single "Sure and Certain '' on radio and announced a new album, Integrity Blues, which was released on October 21. The band will be touring in 2018 as part of the "Integrity Blues Tour '' with supporting acts The Hotelier and Microwave.
On May 4, 2018, the band released "Love Never / half heart '', featuring two new songs.
Current members
Former members
Current touring members
Former touring members
Timeline
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world's largest ball of twine in kansas | Biggest ball of twine - wikipedia
There are multiple claims to the world 's biggest ball of twine record in the United States. As of 2014, the ball of twine with the largest circumference is located in Cawker City, Kansas.
In Cawker City, Kansas, Frank Stoeber created a ball that had 1.6 million feet (490,000 m) of twine and 11 - foot - diameter (3.4 m) when he died in 1974. Cawker City built an open - air gazebo over Stoeber 's ball where every August a "Twine - a-thon '' is held and more twine is added to the ball. By 2006, the twine ball had reached 17,886 pounds (8,111 kg, 8.9 US tons), a circumference of 40 feet (12 m), and a length of 7,801,766 feet (2,377,978 m). In 2013, its weight was estimated at 19,973 pounds. In August 2014, the ball measures 41.42 feet (12.62 m) in circumference, 8.06 feet (2.46 m) in diameter and 10.83 feet (3.30 m) in height, and it still growing.
Darwin, Minnesota, is the home of a ball of baler twine rolled by Francis A. Johnson. It is 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter and weighs 17,400 pounds (7,900 kg). Johnson began rolling the twine in March 1950, and wrapped four hours every day for 29 years. It is currently housed in an enclosed gazebo across from the town park on Main Street at (45 ° 05 ′ 47 '' N 94 ° 24 ′ 37 '' W / 45.096332 ° N 94.410276 ° W / 45.096332; - 94.410276) to prevent the public from touching it. The town celebrates "Twine Ball Day '' on the second Saturday in August every year. An adjacent volunteer - run, free to visit museum and gift shop has information on the history of the ball, as well as selling a variety of souvenirs. It was the long - standing holder of the "biggest ball of twine '' title in the Guinness Book of World Records, holding the title from its completion in 1979 until 1994, and was referenced by "Weird Al '' Yankovic in his 1989 song "The Biggest Ball of Twine in Minnesota. ''
In Lake Nebagamon, Wisconsin, James Frank Kotera claims to have made the heaviest ball of twine ever built. He started it in 1979 and is still working. Kotera estimates, by measuring the weight of each bag of twine that he winds on, that the ball weighs 8,770 kg (19,336 pounds), making it the heaviest ball of twine ever built. The ball is housed in an open - air enclosure in Kotera 's lawn. The ball has a smaller companion, "Junior '', that is made of string.
In Branson, Missouri, a ball of nylon twine built by J.C. Payne of Valley View, Texas, is on display in Ripley 's Believe It or Not museum. The ball, which measures 41.5 feet (12.6 m) in circumference, was certified as the world 's largest ball of twine by the Guinness Book of World Records in 1993. It is, however, the lightest of the four contenders, weighing 12,000 pounds.
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the south african legal system is based on roman law | Law of South Africa - Wikipedia
South Africa has a ' hybrid ' or ' mixed ' legal system, formed by the interweaving of a number of distinct legal traditions: a civil law system inherited from the Dutch, a common law system inherited from the British, and a customary law system inherited from indigenous Africans (often termed African Customary Law, of which there are many variations depending on the tribal origin). These traditions have had a complex interrelationship, with the English influence most apparent in procedural aspects of the legal system and methods of adjudication, and the Roman - Dutch influence most visible in its substantive private law. As a general rule, South Africa follows English law in both criminal and civil procedure, company law, constitutional law and the law of evidence; while Roman - Dutch common law is followed in the South African contract law, law of delict (tort), law of persons, law of things, family law, etc. With the commencement in 1994 of the interim Constitution, and in 1997 its replacement, the final Constitution, another strand has been added to this weave.
Besides South Africa itself, South African law, especially its civil law and common law elements, also forms the basis of the laws of Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, which were introduced during the process of colonisation. Basutoland (Lesotho) received the law of the Cape Colony in 1884, and Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) received it in 1891. Swaziland received the law of the Transvaal Colony in 1904, and South - West Africa (Namibia) received the law of the Cape Province in 1920, after its conquest by South Africa.
The South African court system is organized in a clear hierarchically by Chapter 8 of the Consitution of the Republic of South Africa, specifically s166, and consists of (from lowest to highest legal authority):
Firstly, a number of Magistrates ' Courts (both smaller Regional and larger District).
Secondly, a single High Court with multiple divisions across the country, both regional (having jurisdiction over the entire province) and smaller local division (having a geographically smaller jurisdiction, usually over a heavily populated regions) introduced by the Superior Courts Act, 2013. This is clearly seen in Gauteng which has both the High Court of South Africa Gauteng Division, Pretoria which sits in Pretoria, and the High Court of South Africa Gauteng Local Division, Johannesburg which sits in Johannesburg.. All High Court names have been clarified by the Chief Justice and can be read on page 14 of the South African Government Gazette No. 37390, 28 February 2014.
Thirdly, the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA), a purely appellate court (court of second instance). While previously both the SCA and Constitutional Court held joint apex jurisdiction / position; the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa, altered the hierarchy so that the Constitutional Court sitting in Johannesburg is the apex court, with the SCA below it, and the High Court below the SCA.
And finally, the Constitutional Court, which is the highest authority in constitutional matters, and since the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa, the highest court in the land for both constitutional matters and all other matters. This position is legally confirmed and constitutionally entrenched by Section 167 (3) (b) (ii) of the Constitution of South Africa which states that the Constitutional Court may decide "any other matter, if the Constitutional Court grants leave to appeal on the grounds that the matter raises an arguable point of law of general public importance which ought to be considered by that Court ''. The Constitutional Court has final authority to decide whether an issue is Constitutional or not; s167 (3) (c) of the Constitution of South Africa.
In addition, a number of specialized courts have also been created by the legislation in order to deal with specialized areas of law important to the public as well as to avoid a backlog in the main legal administration infrastructure. These courts exist alongside the court hierarchy; their decisions are thus subject to the same process of appeal and review through the normal courts, starting at a specific level depending on the specialized court in question. Within these specialized courts, there exist, to name a few, the Competition Appeal Court, the Electoral Court, the Land Claims Court, and the Labour and Labour Appeal Court.
In addition, African indigenous courts, which deal exclusively with the indigenous law, also exist. A draft Traditional Courts Bill aimed at introducing a Traditional Court below, or on the same level as the Magistrates Courts has been penned, but awaits parliamentary introduction, reading and debate.
Until 1795, the Seven United Provinces of Holland was a sovereign independent state. Together with the other territories of the Netherlands, it was organised into a fairly free commonwealth of nations known as the Republiek der Vereenigde Nederlanden (Republic of the United Netherlands). It was originally a rural territory, but the rapid speed of development during the 15th century changed it into a trading centre. The old Germanic customary law was no longer able to settle the disputes which arose in everyday trade, and the Dutch turned to the more advanced Roman law. They took it over and changed it to suit their lives, to such an extent that at the beginning of the 17th century, the great Dutch jurist Hugo de Groot (Grotius) could describe this fusion (or joining together) of Dutch and Roman principles as a "new '' legal system with its own contents. This was how Roman - Dutch Law began. It was later to form the basis of the present common law in South Africa in a form that had been expanded by what were called the placaaten which was the legislation of that period.
With the failure of the successive Dutch and British colonial governments to record the laws of pre-colonial southern Africa, there is a dearth of information about laws prior to the colonisation of South Africa. However, the current South African legal system has recognised the significance of these, and they have been incorporated into the overall legal system, functioning as district / local courts where appropriate.
From the 6 April 1652 landing of the Dutch in the Cape of Good Hope, the Roman - Dutch legal system and its legislation and laws took increasing hold, holding sway until the Union of South Africa as a dominion of the British Empire was formed on 31 May 1910. Even after this and to date, wherever British law does not stand, Roman - Dutch law forms the bedrock to which South Africa turns in its search for clarity in its law.
From the union of the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State in 1910 as a dominion within the British Empire called the Union of South Africa, and prior to the formation of the Republic of South Africa in 1961, much of English law was incorporated into or formed the basis of South African law. The jury system was abolished in 1969, and cases are decided by a judge alone, sometimes assisted by two assessors. English law and the Roman - Dutch law which held sway prior to this period form the bedrock to which South Africa even now turns in its search for clarity in its law, and where there is a vacuum in its law.
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who played mrs. garrett on the facts of life | Charlotte Rae - wikipedia
Charlotte Rae Lubotsky (known professionally as Charlotte Rae; born April 22, 1926) is an American character actress of stage, comedian, singer and dancer whose career spans six decades.
Rae is known for her portrayal of Edna Garrett in the sitcoms Diff'rent Strokes and its spin - off, The Facts of Life (in which she had the starring role from 1979 -- 1986). She received the Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Best Actress in a Comedy in 1982. She also appeared in two Facts of Life television movies: The Facts of Life Goes to Paris in 1982 and The Facts of Life Reunion in 2001. She voiced the character of "Nanny '' in 101 Dalmatians: The Series. She also appeared as Gammy Hart in Girl Meets World.
In 2015, she returned to the silver screen in the feature film Ricki and the Flash, with Meryl Streep, Kevin Kline, and Rick Springfield. In November 2015, Rae released her new autobiography, The Facts of My Life, which was co-written with her son, Larry Strauss.
She was born Charlotte Rae Lubotsky on April 22, 1926, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Russian Jewish immigrants Esther (née Ottenstein), who was a childhood friend of Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir, and Meyer Lubotsky, a retail tire business owner. One of three sisters, her siblings are Miriam and the late Beverly (1921 -- 1998). For the first ten years or so of her life, Rae 's family lived in Milwaukee, then moved to Shorewood, Wisconsin. She graduated from Shorewood High School in 1944. She did radio work and was with the Wauwatosa Children 's Theatre. In 1942, at aged 16, she was an apprentice with the Port Players, a professional theater company that came for the summer to Milwaukee, with several established actors such as Morton DaCosta, who would eventually direct The Music Man on Broadway.
Rae attended Northwestern University, although she did not complete her studies, where she met Cloris Leachman, who many years later succeeded Rae on The Facts of Life for the show 's last two seasons. At Northwestern she met several unknown stars and producers, including Agnes Nixon, Charlton Heston, Paul Lynde, Gerald Freedman, Claude Akins and songwriter Sheldon Harnick. In a 2016 interview with Milwaukee Talks, she said about her decision in appearing in only dramatic television was, "When I started out, I wanted to be a serious actor, I never thought I 'd get into comedy. '' When a radio personality told her that her last name would n't do, she dropped it, to her father 's chagrin.
She moved to New York City in 1948, where she performed in the theater and nightclubs. During her early years in New York, she worked at the Village Vanguard (alongside up - and - coming talents such as singer Richard Dyer - Bennet) and at the posh Blue Angel, home to budding talents Barbra Streisand, Mike Nichols and Elaine May. She moved to Los Angeles in 1974.
A stage actress since the 1950s, she appeared in Three Wishes for Jamie, The Threepenny Opera, Li'l Abner, and Pickwick. In 1955 she released her first (and only) solo album, Songs I Taught My Mother, which featured "silly, sinful, and satirical '' songs by Sheldon Harnick, Vernon Duke, John La Touche, Cole Porter, Rodgers & Hart, and Marc Blitzstein (who reportedly wrote the song "Modest Maid '' especially for Rae), among others.
She appeared in Ben Bagley 's revue The Littlest Revue (and on its cast album) in 1956, appearing alongside Joel Grey and Tammy Grimes, among others, and singing songs by Sheldon Harnick ("The Shape of Things ''), Vernon Duke ("Summer is a-Comin ' In ''), and Charles Strouse & Lee Adams ("Spring Doth Let Her Colours Fly ''), a parody of opera singer Helen Traubel 's Las Vegas night club act), among others.
Rae would later record Rodgers & Hart Revisited with Dorothy Loudon, Cy Young, and Arthur Siegel, singing "Everybody Loves You (When You 're Asleep) '' and in several other duets and ensembles for Bagley 's studio. Rae received two Tony Award nominations during her Broadway career. The first was in 1966 for Best Featured Actress in a Musical in Pickwick; the second came in 1969 for Best Actress in a Play for Morning, Noon and Night.
In 1954, Rae made her TV debut on an episode of Look Up and Live. This led to roles on other shows such as The United States Steel Hour, Armstrong Circle Theatre, Kraft Television Theatre, NBC Television Opera Theatre, The Philco Television Playhouse, The Colgate Comedy Hour, The DuPont Show of the Week, The Phil Silvers Show, Car 54, Where Are You?, Way Out, The Defenders, Temperatures Rising, The Love Boat, The Partridge Family, Love, American Style, McMillan & Wife, Barney Miller, 227, Murder, She Wrote, St. Elsewhere, Diagnosis: Murder, All in the Family and Good Times. In 1993, Rae voiced the character "Aunt Pristine Figg '' in Tom and Jerry: The Movie.
In 1973, Rae played the role of Southern Comfort in Terrence McNally 's spoof Whiskey at Saint Clements ' Theatre off - Broadway. She appeared in The Vagina Monologues off - Broadway. In 2000, she starred as Berthe in the Paper Mill Playhouse production of Pippin. In 2007, she appeared in a cabaret show at the Plush Room in San Francisco for several performances. In the 2008 movie You Do n't Mess with the Zohan, Rae has a role as an older woman who has a fling with Adam Sandler 's character. On February 18, 2009 she appeared in a small role as Mrs. Ford in the Life episode "I Heart Mom ''.
Her first significant success was on the sitcom Car 54, Where Are You? (1961 -- 1963), in which she played Sylvia Schnauzer, the wife of Officer Leo Schnauzer (played by Al Lewis). She was nominated for an Emmy Award for her supporting role in the 1975 drama Queen of the Stardust Ballroom. In January 1975, Rae became a cast member on Norman Lear 's ABC television comedy Hot l Baltimore, wherein she played Mrs. Bellotti, whose dysfunctional adult son Moose, who was never actually seen, lived at the "hot l '' (the "E '' on the hotel 's neon sign was burnt out). Mrs. Bellotti, who was a bit odd herself, would visit Moose and then laugh about all the odd situations that Moose would get into with the others living at the hotel. Rae also appeared in an early season of Sesame Street as Molly the Mail Lady.
In 1978, NBC was losing to both CBS and ABC in sitcom ratings, and Fred Silverman, future producer and former head of CBS, ABC, and NBC, insisted that Norman Lear produce Diff'rent Strokes. Knowing that Rae was one of Lear 's favorite actresses (in addition to Hot l Baltimore, she also appeared in a 1974 episode of All in the Family) he hired her immediately for the role of housekeeper Edna Garrett, and she co-starred with Conrad Bain in all 24 episodes of the first season. Her character proved to be so popular that producers decided to do an episode that could lead to a spinoff. That episode (called "The Girls School '') was about girls attending a fictional school called Eastland. In July 1979, Rae proposed the idea for the spinoff. NBC approved the show, to be called The Facts of Life, which would portray a housemother in a prestigious private school and dealt with such issues facing teenagers as weight issues, depression, drugs, alcohol, and dating.
Rae said in a 2015 interview with Entertainment Tonight, about The Facts of Life series that had an off - stage scale to weigh the girls, when the pressure had the opposite effect that producers were hoping for; "The more they tried to pressure them and weigh them and threaten them, the more they would eat. It 's not the way you handle adolescence. You do n't do that. ''
After working as a character actress / comedian in supporting roles or in guest shots on television series and specials, The Facts Of Life gave Rae not only her best - known role but it finally made her a television star. The role of Edna Garrett was the unifying center of attention of the program as well as a warm, motherly figure for the girls.
The Facts of Life had marginal ratings at first but after a major restructuring and time change, the show became a ratings winner between 1980 and 1986. Midway throughout both the 1984 - 85 and 1985 - 86 seasons, she missed several episodes because she was planning on leaving the show, and the story lines focused more on the other characters. At the beginning of the eighth season, Rae left the show and Cloris Leachman was then brought in as Mrs. Garrett 's sister, Beverly Ann Stickle, for the show 's last two years. The part of Beverly was quite similar to Leachman 's character of Phyllis Lindstrom on The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Phyllis from the 1970s. Unfortunately, the character of Beverly was not as popular with viewers as Mrs. Garrett had been. Nevertheless, Leachman remained with the show until it was canceled in 1988.
In 2001, Rae, Lisa Whelchel, Mindy Cohn, and Kim Fields were reunited in a TV movie, The Facts of Life Reunion. In 2007, the entire cast was invited to attend the TV Land Awards where several members of the cast, including Rae, sang the show 's theme song.
On April 19, 2011, the entire cast was reunited again to attend the TV Land Awards, where the show was nominated and won the award for Pop Culture Icon. The same day, Nancy McKeon and Kim Fields (who played Jo & Tootie, respectively) also gave a speech in honor of her 85th birthday. The cast did likewise on ABC 's Good Morning America, where at the end of the segment, reporter, Cynthia McFadden wished Rae a happy birthday, and the cast sang the show 's theme song.
She married composer John Strauss on November 4, 1951. In the mid 1970s, he came out as bisexual, and the couple divorced in 1976.
Strauss died in 2011 at age 90 following a long battle with Parkinson 's disease. The couple had two sons, Larry and Andrew.
In 1982, Rae had a pacemaker implanted in her chest. In 2009, due to the frequency of pancreatic cancer in her own family, Rae was screened, diagnosed early, and became cancer - free after six months of chemotherapy. Her mother, an uncle, and her elder sister Beverly all reportedly died from pancreatic cancer. However, in 2017, aged 91, Rae was diagnosed with bone cancer.
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where is the g protein linked receptor located | G protein - coupled receptor - wikipedia
G protein - coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven - (pass) - transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptor, and G protein -- linked receptors (GPLR), constitute a large protein family of receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate internal signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. Coupling with G proteins, they are called seven - transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times.
G protein - coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, choanoflagellates, and animals. The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light - sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size from small molecules to peptides to large proteins. G protein - coupled receptors are involved in many diseases, and are also the target of approximately 34 % of all modern medicinal drugs.
There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein - coupled receptors:
When a ligand binds to the GPCR it causes a conformational change in the GPCR, which allows it to act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF). The GPCR can then activate an associated G protein by exchanging the GDP bound to the G protein for a GTP. The G protein 's α subunit, together with the bound GTP, can then dissociate from the β and γ subunits to further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly depending on the α subunit type (G, G, G, G).
GPCRs are an important drug target and approximately 34 % of all Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs target 108 members of this family. The global sales volume for these drugs is estimated to be 180 billion US dollars as of 2018.
The 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Brian Kobilka and Robert Lefkowitz for their work that was "crucial for understanding how G protein - coupled receptors function ''. There have been at least seven other Nobel Prizes awarded for some aspect of G protein -- mediated signaling. As of 2012, two of the top ten global best - selling drugs (Advair Diskus and Abilify) act by targeting G protein - coupled receptors.
The exact size of the GPCR superfamily is unknown, but nearly 800 different human genes (or ~ 4 % of the entire protein - coding genome) have been predicted to code for them from genome sequence analysis. Although numerous classification schemes have been proposed, the superfamily was classically divided into three main classes (A, B, and C) with no detectable shared sequence homology between classes.
The largest class by far is class A, which accounts for nearly 85 % of the GPCR genes. Of class A GPCRs, over half of these are predicted to encode olfactory receptors, while the remaining receptors are liganded by known endogenous compounds or are classified as orphan receptors. Despite the lack of sequence homology between classes, all GPCRs have a common structure and mechanism of signal transduction. The very large rhodopsin A group has been further subdivided into 19 subgroups (A1 - A19).
More recently, an alternative classification system called GRAFS (Glutamate, Rhodopsin, Adhesion, Frizzled / Taste2, Secretin) has been proposed. According to the classical A-F system, GPCRs can be grouped into 6 classes based on sequence homology and functional similarity:
An early study based on available DNA sequence suggested that the human genome encodes roughly 750 G protein - coupled receptors, about 350 of which detect hormones, growth factors, and other endogenous ligands. Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome have unknown functions.
Some web - servers and bioinformatics prediction methods have been used for predicting the classification of GPCRs according to their amino acid sequence alone, by means of the pseudo amino acid composition approach.
GPCRs are involved in a wide variety of physiological processes. Some examples of their physiological roles include:
GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that possess seven membrane - spanning domains or transmembrane helices. The extracellular parts of the receptor can be glycosylated. These extracellular loops also contain two highly conserved cysteine residues that form disulfide bonds to stabilize the receptor structure. Some seven - transmembrane helix proteins (channelrhodopsin) that resemble GPCRs may contain ion channels, within their protein.
In 2000, the first crystal structure of a mammalian GPCR, that of bovine rhodopsin (1F88 ), was solved. In 2007, the first structure of a human GPCR was solved This human β - adrenergic receptor GPCR structure proved highly similar to the bovine rhodopsin. The structures of activated or agonist - bound GPCRs have also been determined. These structures indicate how ligand binding at the extracellular side of a receptor leads to conformational changes in the cytoplasmic side of the receptor. The biggest change is an outward movement of the cytoplasmic part of the 5th and 6th transmembrane helix (TM5 and TM6). The structure of activated beta - 2 adrenergic receptor in complex with G confirmed that the Gα binds to a cavity created by this movement.
GPCR are evolutionarily related to some other proteins with 7 transmembrane domains, such as microbial rhodopsins and adiponectin receptors 1 and 2 (ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2). However, these 7TMH receptors and channels do not associate with G proteins. In addition, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2 are oriented oppositely to GPCRs in the membrane (i.e. GPCRs usually have an extracellular N - terminus, cytoplasmic C - terminus, whereas ADIPORs are inverted).
In terms of structure, GPCRs are characterized by an extracellular N - terminus, followed by seven transmembrane (7 - TM) α - helices (TM - 1 to TM - 7) connected by three intracellular (IL - 1 to IL - 3) and three extracellular loops (EL - 1 to EL - 3), and finally an intracellular C - terminus. The GPCR arranges itself into a tertiary structure resembling a barrel, with the seven transmembrane helices forming a cavity within the plasma membrane that serves a ligand - binding domain that is often covered by EL - 2. Ligands may also bind elsewhere, however, as is the case for bulkier ligands (e.g., proteins or large peptides), which instead interact with the extracellular loops, or, as illustrated by the class C metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), the N - terminal tail. The class C GPCRs are distinguished by their large N - terminal tail, which also contains a ligand - binding domain. Upon glutamate - binding to an mGluR, the N - terminal tail undergoes a conformational change that leads to its interaction with the residues of the extracellular loops and TM domains. The eventual effect of all three types of agonist - induced activation is a change in the relative orientations of the TM helices (likened to a twisting motion) leading to a wider intracellular surface and "revelation '' of residues of the intracellular helices and TM domains crucial to signal transduction function (i.e., G - protein coupling). Inverse agonists and antagonists may also bind to a number of different sites, but the eventual effect must be prevention of this TM helix reorientation.
The structure of the N - and C - terminal tails of GPCRs may also serve important functions beyond ligand - binding. For example, The C - terminus of M muscarinic receptors is sufficient, and the six - amino - acid polybasic (KKKRRK) domain in the C - terminus is necessary for its preassembly with G proteins. In particular, the C - terminus often contains serine (Ser) or threonine (Thr) residues that, when phosphorylated, increase the affinity of the intracellular surface for the binding of scaffolding proteins called β - arrestins (β - arr). Once bound, β - arrestins both sterically prevent G - protein coupling and may recruit other proteins, leading to the creation of signaling complexes involved in extracellular - signal regulated kinase (ERK) pathway activation or receptor endocytosis (internalization). As the phosphorylation of these Ser and Thr residues often occurs as a result of GPCR activation, the β - arr - mediated G - protein - decoupling and internalization of GPCRs are important mechanisms of desensitization. In addition, internalized "mega-complexes '' consisting of a single GPCR, β - arr (in the tail conformation), and heterotrimeric G protein exist and may account for protein signaling from endosomes.
A final common structural theme among GPCRs is palmitoylation of one or more sites of the C - terminal tail or the intracellular loops. Palmitoylation is the covalent modification of cysteine (Cys) residues via addition of hydrophobic acyl groups, and has the effect of targeting the receptor to cholesterol - and sphingolipid - rich microdomains of the plasma membrane called lipid rafts. As many of the downstream transducer and effector molecules of GPCRs (including those involved in negative feedback pathways) are also targeted to lipid rafts, this has the effect of facilitating rapid receptor signaling.
GPCRs respond to extracellular signals mediated by a huge diversity of agonists, ranging from proteins to biogenic amines to protons, but all transduce this signal via a mechanism of G - protein coupling. This is made possible by a guanine - nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) domain primarily formed by a combination of IL - 2 and IL - 3 along with adjacent residues of the associated TM helices.
The G protein - coupled receptor is activated by an external signal in the form of a ligand or other signal mediator. This creates a conformational change in the receptor, causing activation of a G protein. Further effect depends on the type of G protein. G proteins are subsequently inactivated by GTPase activating proteins, known as RGS proteins.
GPCRs include one or more receptors for the following ligands: sensory signal mediators (e.g., light and olfactory stimulatory molecules); adenosine, bombesin, bradykinin, endothelin, γ - aminobutyric acid (GABA), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), melanocortins, neuropeptide Y, opioid peptides, opsins, somatostatin, GH, tachykinins, members of the vasoactive intestinal peptide family, and vasopressin; biogenic amines (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, and melatonin); glutamate (metabotropic effect); glucagon; acetylcholine (muscarinic effect); chemokines; lipid mediators of inflammation (e.g., prostaglandins, prostanoids, platelet - activating factor, and leukotrienes); peptide hormones (e.g., calcitonin, C5a anaphylatoxin, follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ), gonadotropin - releasing hormone ( GnRH ), neurokinin, thyrotropin - releasing hormone ( TRH ), and oxytocin); and endocannabinoids.
GPCRs that act as receptors for stimuli that have not yet been identified are known as orphan receptors.
However, in other types of receptors that have been studied, wherein ligands bind externally to the membrane, the ligands of GPCRs typically bind within the transmembrane domain. However, protease - activated receptors are activated by cleavage of part of their extracellular domain.
The transduction of the signal through the membrane by the receptor is not completely understood. It is known that in the inactive state, the GPCR is bound to a heterotrimeric G protein complex. Binding of an agonist to the GPCR results in a conformational change in the receptor that is transmitted to the bound G subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein via protein domain dynamics. The activated G subunit exchanges GTP in place of GDP which in turn triggers the dissociation of G subunit from the G dimer and from the receptor. The dissociated G and G subunits interact with other intracellular proteins to continue the signal transduction cascade while the freed GPCR is able to rebind to another heterotrimeric G protein to form a new complex that is ready to initiate another round of signal transduction.
It is believed that a receptor molecule exists in a conformational equilibrium between active and inactive biophysical states. The binding of ligands to the receptor may shift the equilibrium toward the active receptor states. Three types of ligands exist: Agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of active states; inverse agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of inactive states; and neutral antagonists are ligands that do not affect the equilibrium. It is not yet known how exactly the active and inactive states differ from each other.
When the receptor is inactive, the GEF domain may be bound to an also inactive α - subunit of a heterotrimeric G - protein. These "G - proteins '' are a trimer of α, β, and γ subunits (known as Gα, Gβ, and Gγ, respectively) that is rendered inactive when reversibly bound to Guanosine diphosphate (GDP) (or, alternatively, no guanine nucleotide) but active when bound to guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Upon receptor activation, the GEF domain, in turn, allosterically activates the G - protein by facilitating the exchange of a molecule of GDP for GTP at the G - protein 's α - subunit. The cell maintains a 10: 1 ratio of cytosolic GTP: GDP so exchange for GTP is ensured. At this point, the subunits of the G - protein dissociate from the receptor, as well as each other, to yield a Gα - GTP monomer and a tightly interacting Gβγ dimer, which are now free to modulate the activity of other intracellular proteins. The extent to which they may diffuse, however, is limited due to the palmitoylation of Gα and the presence of an isoprenoid moiety that has been covalently added to the C - termini of Gγ.
Because Gα also has slow GTP → GDP hydrolysis capability, the inactive form of the α - subunit (Gα - GDP) is eventually regenerated, thus allowing reassociation with a Gβγ dimer to form the "resting '' G - protein, which can again bind to a GPCR and await activation. The rate of GTP hydrolysis is often accelerated due to the actions of another family of allosteric modulating proteins called Regulators of G - protein Signaling, or RGS proteins, which are a type of GTPase - Activating Protein, or GAP. In fact, many of the primary effector proteins (e.g., adenylate cyclases) that become activated / inactivated upon interaction with Gα - GTP also have GAP activity. Thus, even at this early stage in the process, GPCR - initiated signaling has the capacity for self - termination.
GPCRs downstream signals have been shown to possibly interact with integrin signals, such as FAK. Integrin signaling will phosphorylate FAK, which can then decrease GPCR Gαs activity.
If a receptor in an active state encounters a G protein, it may activate it. Some evidence suggests that receptors and G proteins are actually pre-coupled. For example, binding of G proteins to receptors affects the receptor 's affinity for ligands. Activated G proteins are bound to GTP.
Further signal transduction depends on the type of G protein. The enzyme adenylate cyclase is an example of a cellular protein that can be regulated by a G protein, in this case the G protein G. Adenylate cyclase activity is activated when it binds to a subunit of the activated G protein. Activation of adenylate cyclase ends when the G protein returns to the GDP - bound state.
Adenylate cyclases (of which 9 membrane - bound and one cytosolic forms are known in humans) may also be activated or inhibited in other ways (e.g., Ca2+ / Calmodulin binding), which can modify the activity of these enzymes in an additive or synergistic fashion along with the G proteins.
The signaling pathways activated through a GPCR are limited by the primary sequence and tertiary structure of the GPCR itself but ultimately determined by the particular conformation stabilized by a particular ligand, as well as the availability of transducer molecules. Currently, GPCRs are considered to utilize two primary types of transducers: G - proteins and β - arrestins. Because β - arr 's have high affinity only to the phosphorylated form of most GPCRs (see above or below), the majority of signaling is ultimately dependent upon G - protein activation. However, the possibility for interaction does allow for G - protein - independent signaling to occur.
There are three main G - protein - mediated signaling pathways, mediated by four sub-classes of G - proteins distinguished from each other by sequence homology (G, G, G, and G). Each sub-class of G - protein consists of multiple proteins, each the product of multiple genes or splice variations that may imbue them with differences ranging from subtle to distinct with regard to signaling properties, but in general they appear reasonably grouped into four classes. Because the signal transducing properties of the various possible βγ combinations do not appear to radically differ from one another, these classes are defined according to the isoform of their α - subunit.
While most GPCRs are capable of activating more than one Gα - subtype, they also show a preference for one subtype over another. When the subtype activated depends on the ligand that is bound to the GPCR, this is called functional selectivity (also known as agonist - directed trafficking, or conformation - specific agonism). However, the binding of any single particular agonist may also initiate activation of multiple different G - proteins, as it may be capable of stabilizing more than one conformation of the GPCR 's GEF domain, even over the course of a single interaction. In addition, a conformation that preferably activates one isoform of Gα may activate another if the preferred is less available. Furthermore, feedback pathways may result in receptor modifications (e.g., phosphorylation) that alter the G - protein preference. Regardless of these various nuances, the GPCR 's preferred coupling partner is usually defined according to the G - protein most obviously activated by the endogenous ligand under most physiological or experimental conditions.
The above descriptions ignore the effects of Gβγ -- signalling, which can also be important, in particular in the case of activated G - coupled GPCRs. The primary effectors of Gβγ are various ion channels, such as G - protein - regulated inwardly rectifying K channels (GIRKs), P / Q - and N - type voltage - gated Ca channels, as well as some isoforms of AC and PLC, along with some phosphoinositide - 3 - kinase (PI3K) isoforms.
Although they are classically thought of working only together, GPCRs may signal through G - protein - independent mechanisms, and heterotrimeric G - proteins may play functional roles independent of GPCRs. GPCRs may signal independently through many proteins already mentioned for their roles in G - protein - dependent signaling such as β - arrs, GRKs, and Srcs. In addition, further scaffolding proteins involved in subcellular localization of GPCRs (e.g., PDZ - domain - containing proteins) may also act as signal transducers. Most often the effector is a member of the MAPK family.
In the late 1990s, evidence began accumulating to suggest that some GPCRs are able to signal without G proteins. The ERK2 mitogen - activated protein kinase, a key signal transduction mediator downstream of receptor activation in many pathways, has been shown to be activated in response to cAMP - mediated receptor activation in the slime mold D. discoideum despite the absence of the associated G protein α - and β - subunits.
In mammalian cells, the much - studied β - adrenoceptor has been demonstrated to activate the ERK2 pathway after arrestin - mediated uncoupling of G - protein - mediated signaling. Therefore, it seems likely that some mechanisms previously believed related purely to receptor desensitisation are actually examples of receptors switching their signaling pathway, rather than simply being switched off.
In kidney cells, the bradykinin receptor B2 has been shown to interact directly with a protein tyrosine phosphatase. The presence of a tyrosine - phosphorylated ITIM (immunoreceptor tyrosine - based inhibitory motif) sequence in the B2 receptor is necessary to mediate this interaction and subsequently the antiproliferative effect of bradykinin.
Although it is a relatively immature area of research, it appears that heterotrimeric G - proteins may also take part in non-GPCR signaling. There is evidence for roles as signal transducers in nearly all other types of receptor - mediated signaling, including integrins, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), cytokine receptors (JAK / STATs), as well as modulation of various other "accessory '' proteins such as GEFs, guanine - nucleotide dissociation inhibitors (GDIs) and protein phosphatases. There may even be specific proteins of these classes whose primary function is as part of GPCR - independent pathways, termed activators of G - protein signalling (AGS). Both the ubiquity of these interactions and the importance of Gα vs. Gβγ subunits to these processes are still unclear.
There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein - linked receptors: the cAMP signal pathway and the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway.
The cAMP signal transduction contains 5 main characters: stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) or inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri); stimulative regulative G - protein (Gs) or inhibitory regulative G - protein (Gi); adenylyl cyclase; protein kinase A (PKA); and cAMP phosphodiesterase.
Stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) is a receptor that can bind with stimulative signal molecules, while inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri) is a receptor that can bind with inhibitory signal molecules.
Stimulative regulative G - protein is a G - protein linked to stimulative hormone receptor (Rs), and its α subunit upon activation could stimulate the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism. On the contrary, inhibitory regulative G - protein is linked to an inhibitory hormone receptor, and its α subunit upon activation could inhibit the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism.
Adenylyl cyclase is a 12 - transmembrane glycoprotein that catalyzes ATP to form cAMP with the help of cofactor Mg or Mn. The cAMP produced is a second messenger in cellular metabolism and is an allosteric activator of protein kinase A.
Protein kinase A is an important enzyme in cell metabolism due to its ability to regulate cell metabolism by phosphorylating specific committed enzymes in the metabolic pathway. It can also regulate specific gene expression, cellular secretion, and membrane permeability. The protein enzyme contains two catalytic subunits and two regulatory subunits. When there is no cAMP, the complex is inactive. When cAMP binds to the regulatory subunits, their conformation is altered, causing the dissociation of the regulatory subunits, which activates protein kinase A and allows further biological effects.
These signals then can be terminated by cAMP phosphodiesterase, which is an enzyme that degrades cAMP to 5 ' - AMP and inactivates protein kinase A.
In the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway, the extracellular signal molecule binds with the G - protein receptor (G) on the cell surface and activates phospholipase C, which is located on the plasma membrane. The lipase hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4, 5 - bisphosphate (PIP2) into two second messengers: inositol 1, 4, 5 - trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 binds with the IP3 receptor in the membrane of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria to open Ca channels. DAG helps activate protein kinase C (PKC), which phosphorylates many other proteins, changing their catalytic activities, leading to cellular responses.
The effects of Ca are also remarkable: it cooperates with DAG in activating PKC and can activate the CaM kinase pathway, in which calcium - modulated protein calmodulin (CaM) binds Ca, undergoes a change in conformation, and activates CaM kinase II, which has unique ability to increase its binding affinity to CaM by autophosphorylation, making CaM unavailable for the activation of other enzymes. The kinase then phosphorylates target enzymes, regulating their activities. The two signal pathways are connected together by Ca - CaM, which is also a regulatory subunit of adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase in the cAMP signal pathway.
GPCRs become desensitized when exposed to their ligand for a long period of time. There are two recognized forms of desensitization: 1) homologous desensitization, in which the activated GPCR is downregulated; and 2) heterologous desensitization, wherein the activated GPCR causes downregulation of a different GPCR. The key reaction of this downregulation is the phosphorylation of the intracellular (or cytoplasmic) receptor domain by protein kinases.
Cyclic AMP - dependent protein kinases (protein kinase A) are activated by the signal chain coming from the G protein (that was activated by the receptor) via adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP (cAMP). In a feedback mechanism, these activated kinases phosphorylate the receptor. The longer the receptor remains active the more kinases are activated and the more receptors are phosphorylated. In β - adrenoceptors, this phosphorylation results in the switching of the coupling from the G class of G - protein to the G class. cAMP - dependent PKA mediated phosphorylation can cause heterologous desensitisation in receptors other than those activated.
The G protein - coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are protein kinases that phosphorylate only active GPCRs. G - protein - coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are key modulators of G - protein - coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. They constitute a family of seven mammalian serine - threonine protein kinases that phosphorylate agonist - bound receptor. GRKs - mediated receptor phosphorylation rapidly initiates profound impairment of receptor signaling and desensitization. Activity of GRKs and subcellular targeting is tightly regulated by interaction with receptor domains, G protein subunits, lipids, anchoring proteins and calcium - sensitive proteins.
Phosphorylation of the receptor can have two consequences:
As mentioned above, G - proteins may terminate their own activation due to their intrinsic GTP → GDP hydrolysis capability. However, this reaction proceeds at a slow rate (≈. 02 times / sec) and, thus, it would take around 50 seconds for any single G - protein to deactivate if other factors did not come into play. Indeed, there are around 30 isoforms of RGS proteins that, when bound to Gα through their GAP domain, accelerate the hydrolysis rate to ≈ 30 times / sec. This 1500-fold increase in rate allows for the cell to respond to external signals with high speed, as well as spatial resolution due to limited amount of second messenger that can be generated and limited distance a G - protein can diffuse in 0.03 seconds. For the most part, the RGS proteins are promiscuous in their ability to activate G - proteins, while which RGS is involved in a given signaling pathway seems more determined by the tissue and GPCR involved than anything else. In addition, RGS proteins have the additional function of increasing the rate of GTP - GDP exchange at GPCRs, (i.e., as a sort of co-GEF) further contributing to the time resolution of GPCR signaling.
In addition, the GPCR may be desensitized itself. This can occur as:
Once β - arrestin is bound to a GPCR, it undergoes a conformational change allowing it to serve as a scaffolding protein for an adaptor complex termed AP - 2, which in turn recruits another protein called clathrin. If enough receptors in the local area recruit clathrin in this manner, they aggregate and the membrane buds inwardly as a result of interactions between the molecules of clathrin, in a process called opsonization. Once the pit has been pinched off the plasma membrane due to the actions of two other proteins called amphiphysin and dynamin, it is now an endocytic vesicle. At this point, the adapter molecules and clathrin have dissociated, and the receptor is either trafficked back to the plasma membrane or targeted to lysosomes for degradation.
At any point in this process, the β - arrestins may also recruit other proteins -- such as the non-receptor tyrosine kinase (nRTK), c - SRC -- which may activate ERK1 / 2, or other mitogen - activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling through, for example, phosphorylation of the small GTPase, Ras, or recruit the proteins of the ERK cascade directly (i.e., Raf - 1, MEK, ERK - 1 / 2) at which point signaling is initiated due to their close proximity to one another. Another target of c - SRC are the dynamin molecules involved in endocytosis. Dynamins polymerize around the neck of an incoming vesicle, and their phosphorylation by c - SRC provides the energy necessary for the conformational change allowing the final "pinching off '' from the membrane.
Receptor desensitization is mediated through a combination phosphorylation, β - arr binding, and endocytosis as described above. Downregulation occurs when endocytosed receptor is embedded in an endosome that is trafficked to merge with an organelle called a lysosome. Because lysosomal membranes are rich in proton pumps, their interiors have low pH (≈ 4.8 vs. the pH ≈ 7.2 cytosol), which acts to denature the GPCRs. In addition, lysosomes contain many degradative enzymes, including proteases, which can function only at such low pH, and so the peptide bonds joining the residues of the GPCR together may be cleaved. Whether or not a given receptor is trafficked to a lysosome, detained in endosomes, or trafficked back to the plasma membrane depends on a variety of factors, including receptor type and magnitude of the signal. GPCR regulation is additionally mediated by gene transcription factors. These factors can increase or decrease gene transcription and thus increase or decrease the generation of new receptors (up - or down - regulation) that travel to the cell membrane.
G - protein - coupled receptor oligomerisation is a widespread phenomenon. One of the best - studied examples is the metabotropic GABA receptor. This so - called constitutive receptor is formed by heterodimerization of GABA R1 and GABA R2 subunits. Expression of the GABA R1 without the GABA R2 in heterologous systems leads to retention of the subunit in the endoplasmic reticulum. Expression of the GABA R2 subunit alone, meanwhile, leads to surface expression of the subunit, although with no functional activity (i.e., the receptor does not bind agonist and can not initiate a response following exposure to agonist). Expression of the two subunits together leads to plasma membrane expression of functional receptor. It has been shown that GABA R2 binding to GABA R1 causes masking of a retention signal of functional receptors.
Signal transduction mediated by the superfamily of GPCRs dates back to the origin of multicellularity. Mammalian - like GPCRs are found in fungi, and have been classified according to the GRAFS classification system based on GPCR fingerprints. Identification of the superfamily members across the eukaryotic domain, and comparison of the family - specific motifs, have shown that the superfamily of GPCRs have a common origin. Characteristic motifs indicate that three of the five GRAFS families, Rhodopsin, Adhesion, and Frizzled, evolved from the Dictyostelium discoideum cAMP receptors before the split of Opisthokonts. Later, the Secretin family evolved from the Adhesion GPCR receptor family before the split of nematodes.
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kenya was declared a british protectorate in the year | History of Kenya - wikipedia
A part of Eastern Africa, the territory of what is now Kenya has seen human habitation since the beginning of the Lower Paleolithic. The Bantu expansion from a West African centre of dispersal reached the area by the 1st millennium AD. With the borders of the modern state at the crossroads of the Bantu, Nilo - Saharan and Afro - Asiatic ethno - linguistic areas of Africa, Kenya is a truly multi-ethnic state.
The European and Arab presence in Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, but European exploration of the interior began only in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, from 1920 known as the Kenya Colony.
The independent Republic of Kenya was formed in 1964. It was ruled as a de facto one - party state by the Kenya African National Union (KANU), it was an alliance led by Jomo Kenyatta during 1963 to 1978. Kenyatta was succeeded by Daniel arap Moi, who ruled until 2002. Moi attempted to transform the de facto one - party status of Kenya into a de jure status during the 1980s, but with the end of the Cold War, the practices of political repression and torture which had been "overlooked '' by the Western powers as necessary evils in the effort to contain communism were no longer tolerated.
Moi came under pressure, notably by US ambassador Smith Hempstone, to restore a multi-party system, which he did by 1991. Moi won elections in 1992 and 1997, which were overshadowed by politically - motivated killings on both sides. During the 1990s, evidence of Moi 's involvement in human rights abuses and corruption (Goldenberg scandal) was uncovered. He was constitutionally barred from running in the 2002 election, which was won by Mwai Kibaki. Widely reported electoral fraud on Kibaki 's side in the 2007 elections resulted in the 2007 -- 2008 Kenyan crisis. Kibaki was succeeded by Uhuru Kenyatta in the 2013 general elections. There have been rumours that his rival Raila Odinga actually won the contest.
In 1929, the first evidence of the presence of ancient early human ancestors in Kenya was discovered when Louis Leakey unearthed 1 million year old Acheulian handaxes at the Kariandusi Prehistoric Site in southwest Kenya. Subsequently, many species of early hominid have been discovered in Kenya. The oldest was found by Martin Pickford in the year 2000 and is the 6 million years old Orrorin tugenensis, named after the Tugen Hills where it was unearthed. It is the second oldest fossil hominid in the world after Sahelanthropus tchadensis.
In 1995 Meave Leakey named a new species of hominid Australopithecus anamensis following a series of fossil discoveries near Lake Turkana in 1965, 1987 and 1994, and is around 4.1 million years old.
In 2011, 3.2 million year old stone tools were discovered at Lomekwi near Lake Turkana - these are the oldest stone tools found anywhere in the world and pre-date the emergence of Homo.
One of the most famous and complete hominid skeletons ever discovered was the 1.6 million year old Homo erectus known as Nariokotome Boy, which was found by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 on an excavation led by Richard Leakey.
The oldest Acheulean tools ever discovered anywhere in the world are from West Turkana, and were dated in 2011 through the method of magnetostratigraphy to about 1.76 million years old.
The first inhabitants of present - day Kenya were hunter - gatherer groups, akin to the modern Khoisan speakers. For the most part, these communities were assimilated into various food producing societies that began moving into Kenya from the 3rd millennium BCE.
Linguistic evidence points to a relative sequence of population movements into Kenya that begins with the entry into northern Kenya of a possibly Southern Cushitic speaking population around the 3rd millennium BCE. They were pastoralists who kept domestic stock, including cattle, sheep, goat, and donkeys. Remarkable megalithic sites from this time period include the possibly archaeoastronomical site Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana. By 1000 BCE and even earlier, pastoralism had spread into central Kenya and northern Tanzania.
In present times the descendants of the Southern Cushitic speakers are located in north central Tanzania near Lake Eyasi. Their past distribution, as determined by the presence of loanwords in other languages, encompasses the known distribution of the Highland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture.
Beginning around 700 BCE, Southern Nilotic speaking communities whose homelands lay somewhere near the common border between Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia moved south into the western highlands and Rift Valley region of Kenya.
The arrival of the Southern Nilotes in Kenya occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa. The past distribution of the Southern Nilotic speakers, as inferred from place names, loan words and oral traditions includes the known distribution of Elmenteitan sites.
The Bantu expansion is thought to have reached western Kenya around 1000 BCE. The walled settlement of Thimlich Ohinga in Nyanza Province is an important site dating to the eastern African Iron Age. Later migrations through Tanzania led to settlement on the Kenyan coast where these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders leading to the development of the Swahili culture.
The Kenyan coast had served host to communities of ironworkers and communities of Bantu subsistence farmers, hunters and fishers who supported the economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production and trade with foreign countries. These communities formed the earliest city states in the region which were collectively known as Azania.
By the 1st century CE, many of the city - states such as Mombasa, Malindi, and Zanzibar began to establish trade relations with Arabs. This led to the increase economic growth of the Swahili states, introduction of Islam, Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language, cultural diffusion, as well as the Swahili city - states becoming a member of a larger trade network. Many historians had long believed that the city states were established by Arab or Persian traders, but archeological evidence has led scholars to recognize the city states as an indigenous development which, though subjected to foreign influence due to trade, retained a Bantu cultural core.
Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples. A Swahili culture developed in the towns, notably Pate, Malindi, and Mombasa. The impact of Arabic and Persian traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture remains controversial. During the Middle Ages,
the East African Swahili coast (including Zanzibar) was a wealthy and advanced region, which consisted of many autonomous merchant cities. Wealth flowed into the cities via the Africans ' roles as intermediaries and facilitators of Indian, Persian, Arab, Indonesian, Malaysian, African and Chinese merchants. All of these peoples enriched the Swahili culture to some degree. The Swahili culture developed its own written language; the language incorporated elements from different civilisations, with Arabic as its strongest quality. Some Arab settlers were rich merchants who, because of their wealth, gained power -- sometimes as rulers of coastal cities.
The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reached Mombasa in 1498. The Portuguese did not intend to found settlements, but to establish naval bases that would give Portugal control of the Indian Ocean. After decades of small - scale conflict, Arabs from Oman defeated the Portuguese in Kenya. Under Seyyid Said, the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1840, the Arabs set up long - distance trade routes into the interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by seminomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long - distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenyan coast on the east and to the kingdoms of Uganda on the west.
The Portuguese became the first Europeans to explore the region of current - day Kenya: Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in April 1498. Da Gama 's voyage successfully reached India (May 1498), and this permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea, thus challenging older trading - networks over mixed land and sea routes, such as the Spice trade routes that utilised the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After the Ottoman Turks had closed traditional land routes to India, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by Gama to break the Venetian trading monopoly. Portuguese rule in East Africa focused mainly on a coastal strip centred in Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in East Africa officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Dom Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in what is now northern Tanzania.
The Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purpose of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels disrupted the commerce of Portugal 's enemies within the western Indian Ocean and the Portuguese demanded high tariffs on items transported through the area, given their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 aimed to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the English, Dutch and Omani Arab incursions into the region during the 17th century. The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in East Africa, besieging Portuguese fortresses and openly attacking naval vessels. Omani forces captured Fort Jesus in 1698, only to lose it in a revolt (1728), but by 1730 the Omanis had expelled the remaining Portuguese from the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts. By this time the Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice - trade sea - route because of the decreasing profitability of that traffic. Portuguese - ruled territories, ports and settlements remained active to the south, in Mozambique, until 1975.
Under Seyyid Said (ruled 1807 - 1856), the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1824, the Arabs set up long - distance trade routes into the interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by seminomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long - distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenyan coast on the east and to the kingdoms of Uganda on the west. Arab, Shirazi and coastal African cultures produced an Islamic Swahili people trading in a variety of up - country commodities, including slaves.
Omani Arab colonisation of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city - states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of plantations, intensification of the slave trade and movement of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region. Arab governance of all the major ports along the East African coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at securing their ' Indian Jewel ' and creation of a system of trade among individuals began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late 19th century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely strangled by the British. The Omani Arabs had no interest in resisting the Royal Navy 's efforts to enforce anti-slavery directives. As the Moresby Treaty demonstrated, whilst Oman sought sovereignty over its waters, Seyyid Said saw no reason to intervene in the slave trade, as the main customers for the slaves were Europeans. As Farquhar in a letter made note, only with the intervention of Said would the European Trade in slaves in the Western Indian Ocean be abolished. As the Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the 1964 revolution, but the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s. Nevertheless, the Omani Arab legacy in East Africa is currently found through their numerous descendants found along the coast that can directly trace ancestry to Oman and are typically the wealthiest and most politically influential members of the Kenyan coastal community.
The first Christian mission was founded on 25 August 1846, by Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German sponsored by the Church Missionary Society of England. He established a station among the Mijikenda on the coast. He later translated the Bible into Swahili.
By 1850 European explorers had begun mapping the interior. Three developments encouraged European interest in East Africa in the first half of the 19th century. First, was the emergence of the island of Zanzibar, located off the east coast of Africa. Zanzibar became a base from which trade and exploration of the African mainland could be mounted. By 1840, to protect the interests of the various nationals doing business in Zanzibar, consul offices had been opened by the British, French, Germans and Americans. In 1859, the tonnage of foreign shipping calling at Zanzibar had reached 19,000 tons. By 1879, the tonnage of this shipping had reached 89,000 tons. The second development spurring European interest in Africa was the growing European demand for products of Africa including ivory and cloves. Thirdly, British interest in East Africa was first stimulated by their desire to abolish the slave trade. Later in the century, British interest in East Africa would be stimulated by German competition.
In 1895 the British government took over and claimed the interior as far west as Lake Naivasha; it set up the East Africa Protectorate. The border was extended to Uganda in 1902, and in 1920 the enlarged protectorate, except for the original coastal strip, which remained a protectorate, became a crown colony. With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the Rift Valley and the surrounding Highlands became reserved for whites. In the 1920s Indians objected to the reservation of the Highlands for Europeans, especially British war veterans. The whites engaged in large - scale coffee farming dependent on mostly Kikuyu labour. Bitterness grew between the Indians and the Europeans.
This area 's fertile land has always made it the site of migration and conflict. There were no significant mineral resources -- none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa.
Imperial Germany set up a protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar 's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of Sir William Mackinnon 's British East Africa Company (BEAC) in 1888, after the company had received a royal charter and concessionary rights to the Kenya coast from the Sultan of Zanzibar for a 50 - year period. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of Tanganyika. The colonial takeover met occasionally with some strong local resistance: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, a Kikuyu chief who ruled Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the BEAC, having been subject to considerable harassment, burnt down Lugard 's fort in 1890. Waiyaki was abducted two years later by the British and killed.
Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on 1 July 1895 established direct rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening (1902) the fertile highlands to white settlers.
A key to the development of Kenya 's interior was the construction, started in 1895, of a railway from Mombasa to Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, completed in 1901. This was to be the first piece of the Uganda Railway. The British government had decided, primarily for strategic reasons, to build a railway linking Mombasa with the British protectorate of Uganda. A major feat of engineering, the "Uganda railway '' (that is the railway inside Kenya leading to Uganda) was completed in 1903 and was a decisive event in modernising the area. As governor of Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard was instrumental in initiating railway extension policy that led to construction of the Nairobi - Thika and Konza - Magadi railways.
Some 32,000 workers were imported from British India to do the manual labour. Many stayed, as did most of the Indian traders and small businessmen who saw opportunity in the opening up of the interior of Kenya. Rapid economic development was seen as necessary to make the railway pay, and since the African population was accustomed to subsistence rather than export agriculture, the government decided to encourage European settlement in the fertile highlands, which had small African populations. The railway opened up the interior, not only to the European farmers, missionaries and administrators, but also to systematic government programmes to attack slavery, witchcraft, disease and famine. The Africans saw witchcraft as a powerful influence on their lives and frequently took violent action against suspected witches. To control this, the British colonial administration passed laws, beginning in 1909, which made the practice of witchcraft illegal. These laws gave the local population a legal, nonviolent way to stem the activities of witches.
By the time the railway was built, military resistance by the African population to the original British takeover had petered out. However new grievances were being generated by the process of European settlement. Governor Percy Girouard is associated with the debacle of the Second Maasai Agreement of 1911, which led to their forceful removal from the fertile Laikipia plateau to semi-arid Ngong. To make way for the Europeans (largely Britons and whites from South Africa), the Maasai were restricted to the southern Loieta plains in 1913. The Kikuyu claimed some of the land reserved for Europeans and continued to feel that they had been deprived of their inheritance.
In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs. When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.
In building the railway the British had to confront strong local opposition, especially from Koitalel Arap Samoei, a diviner and Nandi leader who prophesied that a black snake would tear through Nandi land spitting fire, which was seen later as the railway line. For ten years he fought against the builders of the railway line and train. The settlers were partly allowed in 1907 a voice in government through the legislative council, a European organisation to which some were appointed and others elected. But since most of the powers remained in the hands of the Governor, the settlers started lobbying to transform Kenya in a Crown Colony, which meant more powers for the settlers. They obtained this goal in 1920, making the Council more representative of European settlers; but Africans were excluded from direct political participation until 1944, when the first of them was admitted in the Council.
Kenya became a military base for the British in the First World War (1914 -- 1918), as efforts to subdue the German colony to the south were frustrated. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. However Lt Col Paul von Lettow - Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerilla warfare campaign, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow the British deployed Indian Army troops from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior by foot. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long - term politicisation.
Before the war, African political focus was diffuse. But after the war, problems caused by new taxes and reduced wages and new settlers threatening African land led to new movements. The experiences gained by Africans in the war coupled with the creation of the white - settler - dominated Kenya Crown Colony, gave rise to considerable political activity in the 1920s which culminated in Archdeacon Owen 's "Piny Owacho '' (Voice of the People) movement and the "Young Kikuyu Association '' (renamed the "East African Association '') started in 1921 by Harry Thuku (1895 -- 1970), which gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience. From the 1920s, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation, the ban on female circumcision and support for Thuku.
Most political activity between the wars was local, and this succeeded most among the Luo of Kenya, where progressive young leaders became senior chiefs. By the later 1930s government began to intrude on ordinary Africans through marketing controls, stricter educational supervision and land changes. Traditional chiefs became irrelevant and younger men became communicators by training in the missionary churches and civil service. Pressure on ordinary Kenyans by governments in a hurry to modernise in the 1930s to 1950s enabled the mass political parties to acquire support for "centrally '' focused movements, but even these often relied on local communicators.
During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea. By the 1930s, approximately 30,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms, and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled.
Kenya became a focus of resettlement of young, upper class British officers after the war, giving a strong aristocratic tone to the white settlers. If they had £ 1,000 in assets they could get a free 1,000 acres (4 km); the goal of the government was to speed up modernisation and economic growth. They set up coffee plantations, which required expensive machinery, a stable labour force, and four years to start growing crops. The veterans did escape democracy and taxation in Britain, but they failed in their efforts to gain control of the colony. The upper class bias in migration policy meant that whites would always be a small minority. Many of them left after independence.
Power remained concentrated in the governor 's hands; weak legislative and executive councils made up of official appointees were created in 1906. The European settlers were allowed to elect representatives to the Legislative Council in 1920, when the colony was established. The white settlers, 30,000 strong, sought "responsible government, '' in which they would have a voice. They opposed similar demands by the far more numerous Indian community. The European settlers gained representation for themselves and minimised representation on the Legislative Council for Indians and Arabs. The government appointed a European to represent African interests on the Council. In the "Devonshire declaration '' of 1923 the Colonial Office declared that the interests of the Africans (comprising over 95 % of the population) must be paramount -- achieving that goal took four decades. Historian Charles Mowat explained the issues:
In the Second World War (1939 -- 45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia. The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called "askaris ''. The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the King 's African Rifles (KAR). Looking for middle class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defence forces, created a new class of modernised Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.
British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang'a District 1920 -- 45. Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and "betterment '' of farming in the colonial tribal reserves. While criticised as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state 's agrarian reforms.
Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the Luo the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch 's extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self - sufficient with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernise traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.
As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya 's first African political protest movement, the Young Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku. After the Young Kikuyu Association was banned by the government, it was replaced by the Kikuyu Central Association in 1924.
In 1944 Thuku founded and was first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was an African nationalist organisation that demanded access to white - owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya 's legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic group. In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans.
In response to the rising pressures the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 African and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954.
A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the Mau Mau Uprising, an armed local movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers. It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa. The protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. Harry Thuku said in 1952, "To - day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why? Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau. '' The British killed over 12,000 Mau Mau militants. Mau Mau carried out many atrocities with the violence on all sides reflecting the ferocity of the movement and the ruthlessness with which the British suppressed it. Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961. To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee licence, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union.
After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council under a weighted franchise based on education. The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of "one man, one vote. '' However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage.
At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the British settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell. However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), with the slogan "Uhuru, '' or "Freedom, '' was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader James S. Gichuru and labour leader Tom Mboya. Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labour and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skilfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement. A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by R. Ngala and M. Muliro. In the elections of February 1961, KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians and Arabs). Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October.
In 1959, nationalist leader Tom Mboya began a programme, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the programme anyway. The next year Senator John F. Kennedy helped fund the programme, which trained some 70 % of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist Wangari Maathai.
In 1962, a KANU - KADU coalition government, including both Kenyatta and Ngala, was formed. The 1962 constitution established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 117 - member House of Representatives and a 41 - member Senate. The country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions, each with its own regional assembly. The quota principle of reserved seats for non-Africans was abandoned, and open elections were held in May 1963. KADU gained control of the assemblies in the Rift Valley, Coast and Western regions. KANU won majorities in the Senate and House of Representatives, and in the assemblies in the Central, Eastern and Nyanza regions. Kenya now achieved internal self - government with Jomo Kenyatta as its first president. The British and KANU agreed, over KADU protests, to constitutional changes in October 1963 strengthening the central government. Mau Mau members, made up primarily of Kikuyu and carried out violent attacks against colonial leaders and white settlers. Between 1952 and 1956, the British defeated the Mau Mau through a brutal campaign of military action and widespread detention of the Kikuyu. However, the Mau Mau Rebellion also persuaded the British that social and political reforms were necessary. In 1953, Kenyatta was charged with leading the Mau Mau rebellion and sentenced to seven years in prison. Kenya attained independence on 12 December 1963 with Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State. In 1964 Kenya became a republic and constitutional changes further centralised the government.
The British government bought out the white settlers and they mostly left Kenya. The Indian minority dominated retail business in the cities and most towns, but was deeply distrusted by the Africans. As a result, 120,000 of the 176,000 Indians kept their old British passports rather than become citizens of an independent Kenya; large numbers left Kenya, most of them headed to Britain.
Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978 most of the country 's wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Gikuyu - Embu - Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30 % of the population. At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta 's support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands "stolen by the whites '' -- even when these had previously belonged to other groups. The other groups, a 70 % majority, were outraged, setting up long - term ethnic animosities.
The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU. KANU was the only party 1964 -- 66 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People 's Union (KPU). It was led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice-president and Luo elder. KPU advocated a more "scientific '' route to socialism -- criticising the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities -- as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union. In June 1969 Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country KPU was banned. The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. Kenya thereby became a one - party state under KANU.
Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one - party rule allowed Mzee ("Old Man '') Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, claimed he achieved "political stability. '' Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya 's very rapid population growth rate and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position in the country of Asians and Europeans.
At Kenyatta 's death (22 August 1978), Vice-President Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On 14 October, Moi formally became President after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one - party state. On 1 August members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army the General Service Unit (GSU) -- paramilitary wing of the police -- and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.
Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance. Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda did not win approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The EAC collapsed in 1977 and it was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya 's relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.
Kenyatta died in 1978 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi (b. 1924) who ruled as President 1978 -- 2002. Moi, a member of the Kalenjin ethnic group, quickly consolidated his position and governed in an authoritarian and corrupt manner. By 1986, Moi had concentrated all the power -- and most of its attendant economic benefits -- into the hands of his Kalenjin tribe and of a handful of allies from minority groups.
On 1 August 1982, lower - level air force personnel, led by Senior Private Grade - I Hezekiah Ochuka and backed by university students, attempted a coup d'état to oust Moi. The putsch was quickly suppressed by forces commanded by Chief of General Staff Mahamoud Mohamed, a veteran Somali military official. In the coup 's aftermath, some of Nairobi 's poor Kenyans attacked and looted stores owned by Asians. Robert Ouko, the senior Luo in Moi 's cabinet, was appointed to expose corruption at high levels, but was murdered a few months later. Moi 's closest associate was implicated in Ouko 's murder; Moi dismissed him but not before his remaining Luo support had evaporated. Germany recalled its ambassador to protest the "increasing brutality '' of the regime and foreign donors pressed Moi to allow other parties, which was done in December 1991 through a constitutional amendment.
On the heels of the Garissa massacre of 1980, Kenyan troops committed the Wagalla massacre in 1984 against thousands of civilians in the North Eastern Province. An official probe into the atrocities was later ordered in 2011.
After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament repealed the one - party section of the constitution. The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures switched parties. But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911 -- 1994), a Luo and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically based factions. In the first open presidential elections in a quarter century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37 % of the vote, Matiba received 26 %, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic Party) 19 %, and Odinga 18 %. In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of the 188 seats at stake. Moi 's government in 1993 agreed to economic reforms long urged by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which restored enough aid for Kenya to service its $7.5 billion foreign debt.
Obstructing the press both before and after the 1992 elections, Moi continually maintained that multiparty politics would only promote tribal conflict. His own regime depended upon exploitation of inter-group hatreds. Under Moi, the apparatus of clientage and control was underpinned by the system of powerful provincial commissioners, each with a bureaucratic hierarchy based on chiefs (and their police) that was more powerful than the elected members of parliament. Elected local councils lost most of their power, and the provincial bosses were answerable only to the central government, which in turn was dominated by the president. The emergence of mass opposition in 1990 -- 91 and demands for constitutional reform were met by rallies against pluralism. The regime leaned on the support of the Kalenjin and incited the Maasai against the Kikuyu. Government politicians denounced the Kikuyu as traitors, obstructed their registration as voters and threatened them with dispossession. In 1993 and after, mass evictions of Kikuyu took place, often with the direct involvement of army, police and game rangers. Armed clashes and many casualties, including deaths, resulted.
Further liberalisation in November 1997 allowed the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26. President Moi won re-election as President in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly retained its parliamentary majority.
Moi ruled using a strategic mixture of ethnic favouritism, state repression and marginalisation of opposition forces. He utilised detention and torture, looted public finances and appropriated land and other property. Moi sponsored irregular army units that attacked the Luo, Luhya and Kikuyu communities, and he disclaimed responsibility by assigning the violence to ethnic clashes arising from a land dispute. Beginning in 1998, Moi engaged in a carefully calculated strategy to manage the presidential succession in his and his party 's favour. Faced with the challenge of a new, multiethnic political coalition, Moi shifted the axis of the 2002 electoral contest from ethnicity to the politics of generational conflict. The strategy backfired, ripping his party wide open and resulting in its humiliating defeat of his candidate, Kenyatta 's son, in the December 2002 general elections.
Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya 's first President, as his successor. A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi 's former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was elected President by a large majority.
On 27 December 2002, by 62 % the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (b. 1931) to the presidency. Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union 's (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a cabinet, to seek international support and to balance power within the NaRC.
Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The annual rate of growth improved from − 1.6 % in 2002 to 2.6 % by 2004, 3.4 % in 2005, and 5.5 % in 2007. However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well - off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May -- November 2007 alone.
Once regarded as the world 's "most optimistic, '' Kibaki 's regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self - destruction of Kibaki 's National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945 --) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).
In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM charged the Kikuyu with having grabbed everything and all the other tribes having lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December 2007 elections the ODM won majority seats in Parliament, but the presidential elections votes were marred by claims of rigging by both sides. It may never be clear who won the elections, but it was roughly 50: 50 before the rigging started.
"Majimboism '' was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today "majimboism '' is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fuelling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted today 's majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralised government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands -- corruption, aloofness, favouritism and its flip side, marginalisation. In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu traders settled decades ago. In February 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community were displaced from Rift Valley province. Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organising into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu - dominated areas like Nakuru. "We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism, '' wrote one of Kenya 's leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.
The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo Kenyatta era (1963 -- 1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.
Between 1980 and 2000 total fecundity in Kenya fell by about 40 %, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10 %. The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility. The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government 's active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not promote until 1995.
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is cn tower the tallest building in canada | CN Tower - Wikipedia
The CN Tower (French: Tour CN) is a 553.3 m - high (1,815.3 ft) concrete communications and observation tower in downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Built on the former Railway Lands, it was completed in 1976, and held the record for the world 's tallest free - standing structure for 32 years from 1975 -- 2007 and was the world 's tallest tower until 2009 being overtaken by Burj Khalifa and Canton Tower, respectively. It is now the third tallest tower in the world and remains the tallest free - standing structure in the Western Hemisphere, a signature icon of Toronto 's skyline, attracting more than two million international visitors annually.
Its name "CN '' originally referred to Canadian National, the railway company that built the tower. Following the railway 's decision to divest non-core freight railway assets prior to the company 's privatization in 1995, it transferred the tower to the Canada Lands Company, a federal Crown corporation responsible for real estate development.
In 1995, the CN Tower was declared one of the modern Seven Wonders of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It also belongs to the World Federation of Great Towers.
The idea of the CN Tower originated in 1968 when the Canadian National Railway wanted to build a large TV and radio communication platform to serve the Toronto area, as well as demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry and CN in particular. These plans evolved over the next few years, and the project became official in 1972.
The tower would have been part of Metro Centre (see CityPlace), a large development south of Front Street on the Railway Lands, a large railway switching yard that was being made redundant by newer yards outside the city. Key project team members were NCK Engineering as structural engineer; John Andrews Architects; Webb, Zerafa, Menkes, Housden Architects; Foundation Building Construction; and Canron (Eastern Structural Division).
As Toronto grew rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s, multiple skyscrapers were constructed in the downtown core, most notably First Canadian Place. The reflective nature of the new buildings compromised the quality of broadcast signals necessitating new, higher antennas that were at least 300 m (980 ft) tall.
At the time, most data communications took place over point - to - point microwave links, whose dish antennae covered the roofs of large buildings. As each new skyscraper was added to the downtown, former line - of - sight links were no longer possible. CN intended to rent "hub '' space for microwave links, visible from almost any building in the Toronto area.
The CN Tower can be seen from at least as far away as Kennedy Street in Aurora, Ontario, approximately 40 km (25 mi) to the north, 60 km (37 mi) east of Toronto, in Oshawa, and from several points on the south shore of Lake Ontario, 48 km (30 mi) to the south in the U.S. state of New York.
The original plan for the tower envisioned a tripod consisting of three independent cylindrical "pillars '' linked at various heights by structural bridges. Had it been built, this design would have been considerably shorter, with the metal antenna located roughly where the concrete section between the main level and the SkyPod lies today. As the design effort continued, it evolved into the current design with a single continuous hexagonal core to the SkyPod, with three support legs blended into the hexagon below the main level, forming a large Y - shape structure at the ground level.
The idea for the main level in its current form evolved around this time, but the Space Deck (now named SkyPod) was not part of the plans until some time later. One engineer in particular felt that visitors would feel the higher observation deck would be worth paying extra for, and the costs in terms of construction were not prohibitive. It was also some time around this point that it was realized that the tower could become the world 's tallest structure, and plans were changed to incorporate subtle modifications throughout the structure to this end.
Construction on the CN Tower began on February 6, 1973, with massive excavations at the tower base for the foundation. By the time the foundation was complete, 56,000 t (61,729 short tons; 55,116 long tons) of earth and shale were removed to a depth of 15 m (49.2 ft) in the centre, and a base incorporating 7,000 m (9,156 cu yd) of concrete with 450 t (496 short tons; 443 long tons) of rebar and 36 t (40 short tons; 35 long tons) of steel cable had been built to a thickness of 6.7 m (22.0 ft). This portion of the construction was fairly rapid, with only four months needed between the start and the foundation being ready for construction on top.
To create the main support pillar, workers constructed a hydraulically raised slipform at the base. This was a fairly unprecedented engineering feat on its own, consisting of a large metal platform that raised itself on jacks at about 6 m (19.7 ft) per day as the concrete below set. Concrete was poured continuously by a team of 1,532 people until February 22, 1974, during which it had already become the tallest structure in Canada, surpassing the recently built Inco Superstack in Sudbury, which was built using similar methods.
In total, the tower contains 40,500 m (52,972 cu yd) of concrete, all of which was mixed on - site in order to ensure batch consistency. Through the pour, the vertical accuracy of the tower was maintained by comparing the slip form 's location to massive plumb bobs hanging from it, observed by small telescopes from the ground. Over the height of the tower, it varies from true vertical accuracy by only 29 mm (1.1 in).
In August 1974, construction of the main level commenced. Using 45 hydraulic jacks attached to cables strung from a temporary steel crown anchored to the top of the tower, twelve giant steel and wooden bracket forms were slowly raised, ultimately taking about a week to crawl up to their final position. These forms were used to create the brackets that support the main level, as well as a base for the construction of the main level itself. The Space Deck (currently named SkyPod) was built of concrete poured into a wooden frame attached to rebar at the lower level deck, and then reinforced with a large steel compression band around the outside.
The antenna was originally to be raised by crane as well, but during construction the Sikorsky S - 64 Skycrane helicopter became available when the United States Army sold one to civilian operators. The helicopter, named "Olga '', was first used to remove the crane, and then flew the antenna up in 36 sections.
The flights of the antenna pieces were a minor tourist attraction of their own, and the schedule was printed in the local newspapers. Use of the helicopter saved months of construction time, with this phase taking only three and a half weeks instead of the planned six months. The tower was topped - off on April 2, 1975, after 26 months of construction, officially capturing the height record from Moscow 's Ostankino Tower, and bringing the total mass to 118,000 t (130,073 short tons; 116,136 long tons).
Two years into the construction, plans for Metro Centre were scrapped, leaving the tower isolated on the Railway Lands in what was then a largely abandoned light - industrial space. This caused serious problems for tourists to access the tower. Ned Baldwin, project architect with John Andrews, wrote at the time that "All of the logic which dictated the design of the lower accommodation has been upset, '' and that "Under such ludicrous circumstances Canadian National would hardly have chosen this location to build. ''
Constructing the base, July 1973
Brackets being raised, August 1974
Helicopter lifting part of antenna, March 1975
Main pod construction, April 1975
Nearing completion, December 1975
Two months after opening, August 1976
The CN Tower opened to the public on June 26, 1976. The construction costs of approximately CA $ 63 million ($260 million in 2016 dollars) were repaid in fifteen years. Canadian National Railway sold the tower prior to taking the company private in 1995, when it decided to divest all operations not directly related to its core freight shipping businesses.
From the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, the CN Tower was practically the only development along Front Street West; it was still possible to see Lake Ontario from the foot of the CN Tower due to the expansive parking lots and lack of development in the area at the time. As the area around the tower was developed, particularly with the completion of the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in 1984 and the SkyDome in 1989 (renamed Rogers Centre in 2005), the former Railway Lands were redeveloped and the tower became the centre of a newly developing entertainment area. Access was greatly improved with the construction of the SkyWalk in 1989, which connected the tower and SkyDome to the nearby Union Station railway and subway station, and, in turn, to the city 's PATH underground pedestrian system. By the mid-1990s, it was the centre of a thriving tourist district. The entire area continues to be an area of intense building, notably a boom in condominium construction in the first two decades of the 21st century, as well as the 2013 opening of the Ripley 's Aquarium by the base of the tower.
The CN Tower consists of several substructures. The main portion of the tower is a hollow concrete hexagonal pillar containing the stairwells and power and plumbing connections. The Tower 's six elevators are located in the three inverted angles created by the Tower 's hexagonal shape (two elevators per angle). Each of the three elevator shafts is lined with glass, allowing for views of the city as the glass - windowed elevators make their way through the Tower. The stairwell was originally located in one of these angles (the one facing north), but was moved into the central hollow of the Tower; the Tower 's new fifth and sixth elevators were placed in the hexagonal angle that once contained the stairwell. On top of the main concrete portion of the Tower is a 102 - metre (334.6 ft) tall metal broadcast antenna, carrying TV and radio signals. There are three visitor areas: the Glass Floor and Outdoor Observation Terrace which are both located at an elevation of 342 metres (1,122 ft), the Indoor Lookout Level (formerly known as "Indoor Observation Level '') located at 346 metres (1,135 ft), and the higher SkyPod (formerly known as "Space Deck '') at 446.5 metres (1,465 ft), just below the metal antenna. The hexagonal shape can be seen between the two areas; however, below the main deck, three large supporting legs give the tower the appearance of a large tripod.
The main deck level is seven storeys, some of which are open to the public. Below the public areas -- at 338 m (1,108.9 ft) -- is a large white donut - shaped radome containing the structure 's microwave receivers. The glass floor and outdoor observation deck are at 342 metres (1,122.0 ft). The glass floor has an area of 24 m (258 sq ft) and can withstand a pressure of 4,100 kilopascals (595 psi). The floor 's thermal glass units are 64 mm (2.5 in) thick, consisting of a pane of 25 - millimetre (1.0 in) laminated glass, 25 mm (1.0 in) airspace and a pane of 13 mm (0.5 in) laminated glass. Some people experience acrophobia when standing on the glass floor and looking down at the ground 342 m (1,122.0 ft) below. In 2008, one elevator was upgraded to add a glass floor panel, believed to have the highest vertical rise of any elevator equipped with this feature. The Horizons Cafe and the lookout level are at 346 metres (1,135.2 ft). The 360 Restaurant, a revolving restaurant that completes a full rotation once every 72 minutes, is at 351 m (1,151.6 ft). When the tower first opened, it also featured a disco named Sparkles (at the Indoor Observation Level), billed as the highest disco and dance floor in the world.
The SkyPod was once the highest public observation deck in the world until it was surpassed by the Shanghai World Financial Center in 2008.
A metal staircase reaches the main deck level after 1,776 steps, and the SkyPod 100 m (328 ft) above after 2,579 steps; it is the tallest metal staircase on Earth. These stairs are intended for emergency use only and are not open to the public, except for two times per year for charity stair - climb events. The average climber takes approximately 30 minutes to climb to the base of the radome, but the fastest climb on record is 7 minutes and 52 seconds in 1989 by Brendan Keenoy, an Ontario Provincial Police officer. In 2002, Canadian Olympian and Paralympic champion Jeff Adams climbed the stairs of the tower in a specially designed wheelchair. The stairs were originally on one of the three sides of the tower (facing north), with a glass view, but these were later replaced with the third elevator pair and the stairs were moved to the inside of the core. Top climbs on the new, windowless stairwell used since around 2003 have generally been over ten minutes.
Inside 360 Restaurant
Main Pod
Cross-section of Main Pod
Standing on glass floor
View though glass floor
On August 1, 2011, the CN Tower opened the EdgeWalk, an amusement in which thrill - seekers can walk on and around the roof of the main pod of the tower at 356 m (1,168.0 ft), which is directly above the 360 Restaurant. It is the world 's highest full - circle, hands - free walk. Visitors are tethered to an overhead rail system and walk around the edge of the CN Tower 's main pod above the 360 Restaurant on a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) metal floor. The attraction is closed throughout the winter season and during periods of electrical storms and high winds.
One of the notable guests who visited EdgeWalk includes comedian Rick Mercer, as featured on his CBC Television show, Rick Mercer Report. He was accompanied by pop singer Jann Arden.
A freezing rain storm on March 2, 2007, resulted in a layer of ice several centimetres thick forming on the side of the tower and other downtown buildings. The sun thawed the ice, and winds of up to 90 km / h (56 mph) blew some of it away from the structure. There were fears that cars and windows of nearby buildings would be smashed by large chunks of ice. In response, police closed some streets surrounding the tower. During morning rush hour on March 5 of the same year, police expanded the area of closed streets to include the Gardiner Expressway 310 metres (1,017 ft) away from the tower, as increased winds blew the ice farther away, as far north as King Street, 490 m (1,608 ft) away, where a taxicab window was shattered.
Subsequently, on March 6, 2007, the Gardiner Expressway reopened after winds abated.
In August 2000, a fire broke out at the Ostankino Tower in Moscow killing three people and causing extensive damage. The fire was blamed on poor maintenance and outdated equipment. The failure of the fire - suppression systems and the lack of proper equipment for firefighters allowed the fire to destroy most of the interior and spark fears the tower might even collapse.
The Ostankino Tower was completed nine years before the CN Tower, and is only 13 m (43 ft) shorter. The parallels between the towers led to some concern that the CN Tower could be at risk of a similar tragedy. However, Canadian officials subsequently stated that it is "highly unlikely '' that a similar disaster could occur at the CN Tower, as it has important safeguards that were not present in the Ostankino Tower. Specifically, officials cited:
Officials also noted that the CN Tower has an excellent safety record, although there was an electrical fire in the antennae on August 16, 2017 -- the tower 's first fire. Moreover, other supertall structures built between 1967 and 1976 -- such as the Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower), the World Trade Center (until its destruction on September 11, 2001), the Fernsehturm Berlin, the Aon Center, the John Hancock Center, and First Canadian Place -- also have excellent safety records, which suggests that the Ostankino Tower accident was a rare safety failure, and that the likelihood of similar events occurring at other supertall structures is extremely low.
The CN Tower was originally lit at night with incandescent lights, which were removed in 1997, because they were inefficient and expensive to repair. In June 2007, the tower was outfitted with 1,330 super-bright LED lights inside the elevator shafts, shooting over the main pod and upward to the top of the tower 's mast to light the tower from dusk until 2 a.m. The official opening ceremony took place on June 28 before the Canada Day holiday weekend.
The tower changes its lighting scheme on holidays and to commemorate major events. After the 95th Grey Cup in Toronto, the tower was lit in green and white to represent the colours of the Grey Cup champion Saskatchewan Roughriders. From sundown on August 27, 2011, to sunrise the following day, the tower was lit in orange, the official colour of the New Democratic Party (NDP), to commemorate the death of federal NDP leader and leader of the official opposition Jack Layton. When former South African president Nelson Mandela died, the tower was lit in the colours of the South African flag. When former federal finance minister under Stephen Harper 's Conservatives Jim Flaherty died, the tower was lit in green to reflect his Irish Canadian heritage. On the night of the attacks on Paris on November 13, 2015, the tower displayed the colours of the French flag.
Programmed from a desktop computer with a wireless network interface controller in Burlington, Ontario, the LEDs use less energy to light than the previous incandescent lights (10 % less energy than the dimly lit version and 60 % less than the brightly lit version). The estimated cost to use the LEDs is $1,000 per month.
During the spring and autumn bird migration seasons, the lights would be turned off to comply with the voluntary Fatal Light Awareness Program, which "encourages buildings to dim unnecessary exterior lighting to mitigate bird mortality during spring and summer migration. ''
The CN Tower is the tallest freestanding structure in the Western Hemisphere. As of 2013, there are only two other freestanding structures in the Western Hemisphere which exceed 500 m (1,640.4 ft) in height; the Willis Tower in Chicago, which stands at 527 m (1,729.0 ft) when measured to its pinnacle; and the topped - out One World Trade Center in New York City, which has a pinnacle height of 541.33 m (1,776.0 ft), or approximately 12 m (39.4 ft) shorter than the CN Tower. Due to the symbolism of the number 1776 (the year of the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence), the height of One World Trade Center is unlikely to be increased. The proposed Chicago Spire was expected to exceed the height of the CN Tower, but its construction was halted early due to financial difficulties amid the Great Recession, and was eventually cancelled in 2010.
Guinness World Records has called the CN Tower "the world 's tallest self - supporting tower '' and "the world 's tallest free - standing tower ''. Although Guinness did list this description of the CN Tower under the heading "tallest building '' at least once, it has also listed it under "tallest tower '', omitting it from its list of "tallest buildings. '' In 1996, Guinness changed the tower 's classification to "World 's Tallest Building and Freestanding Structure ''. Emporis and the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat both listed the CN Tower as the world 's tallest free - standing structure on land, and specifically state that the CN Tower is not a true building, thereby awarding the title of world 's tallest building to Taipei 101, which is 44 metres (144 ft) shorter than the CN Tower. The issue of what was tallest became moot when Burj Khalifa, then under construction, exceeded the height of the CN Tower in 2007 (see below).
Although the CN Tower contains a restaurant, a gift shop and multiple observation levels, it does not have floors continuously from the ground, and therefore it is not considered a building by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) or Emporis. CTBUH defines a building as "a structure that is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing purposes. An essential characteristic of a building is that it has floors. '' The CN Tower and other similar structures -- such as the Ostankino Tower in Moscow, Russia; the Oriental Pearl Tower in Shanghai, China; the Stratosphere Tower in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA; and the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France -- are categorized as "towers '', which are free - standing structures that may have observation decks and a few other habitable levels, but do not have floors from the ground up. The CN Tower was the tallest tower by this definition, until 2010 (see below).
Taller than the CN Tower are numerous radio masts and towers, which are held in place by guy - wires, the tallest being the KVLY - TV mast in Blanchard, North Dakota, USA at 628 metres (2,060 ft) tall, leading to a distinction between these and "free - standing '' structures. Additionally, the Petronius Platform stands 610 metres (2,001 ft) above its base on the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico, but only the top 75 metres (246 ft) of this oil and natural gas platform are above water, and the structure is thus partially supported by its buoyancy. Like the CN Tower, none of these taller structures are commonly considered buildings.
On September 12, 2007, Burj Khalifa, which is a hotel, residential and commercial building in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and was formerly known as Burj Dubai before opening, passed the CN Tower 's 553.33 - metre height. The CN Tower held the record of tallest free - standing structure on land for over 30 years.
After Burj Khalifa had been formally recognized by the Guinness World Records as the world 's tallest freestanding structure, Guinness re-certified CN Tower as the world 's tallest freestanding tower. The tower definition used by Guinness was defined by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat as ' a building in which less than 50 % of the construction is usable floor space '. Guinness World Records editor - in - chief Craig Glenday announced that Burj Khalifa was not classified as a tower because it has too much usable floor space to be considered to be a tower. CN Tower still held world records for highest above ground wine cellar (in 360 Restaurant) at 351 metres, highest above ground restaurant at 346 metres (Horizons Restaurant), and tallest free - standing concrete tower during Guinness 's recertification. The CN Tower was surpassed in 2009 by the Canton Tower in Guangzhou, China, which stands at 604 metres (1,982 ft) tall, as the world 's tallest tower; which in turn was surpassed by the Tokyo Skytree in 2011, which currently is the tallest tower at 634.0 metres (2,080.1 ft) in height. The CN Tower, as of 2017, stands as the eighth - tallest free - standing structure on land in the world and the third - tallest free - standing tower.
Since the construction of the tower had been completed, it has gained the following world height records:
The CN Tower has been and continues to be used as a communications tower for a number of different media and by numerous companies.
There is no AM broadcasting on the CN Tower. The FM antennas are situated 421 metres (1,381 ft) above ground.
The CN Tower has its own mascot, which resembles the tower itself.
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what is hydrolysis and what type of weathering is it | Weathering - Wikipedia
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth 's atmosphere, water, and biological organisms. Weathering occurs in situ (on site), that is, in the same place, with little or no movement, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations.
Two important classifications of weathering processes exist -- physical and chemical weathering; each sometimes involves a biological component. Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure. The second classification, chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals. While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments, chemical reactions are most intense where the climate is wet and hot. However, both types of weathering occur together, and each tends to accelerate the other. For example, physical abrasion (rubbing together) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface area, making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions. The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals (feldspars and micas) to secondary minerals (clays and carbonates) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms.
The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil. The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material; thus, a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals needed for good fertility, while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types (as in glacial, aeolian or alluvial sediments) often makes more fertile soil. In addition, many of Earth 's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-deposition.
Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering or disaggregation, is the class of processes that causes the disintegration of rocks without chemical change. The primary process in physical weathering is abrasion (the process by which clasts and other particles are reduced in size). However, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. Physical weathering can occur due to temperature, pressure, frost etc. For example, cracks exploited by physical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action, thus amplifying the rate of disintegration.
Abrasion by water, ice, and wind processes loaded with sediment can have tremendous cutting power, as is amply demonstrated by the gorges, ravines, and valleys around the world. In glacial areas, huge moving ice masses embedded with soil and rock fragments grind down rocks in their path and carry away large volumes of material. Plant roots sometimes enter cracks in rocks and pry them apart, resulting in some disintegration; the burrowing of animals may help disintegrate rock However, such biotic influences are usually of little importance in producing parent material when compared to the drastic physical effects of water, ice, wind, and temperature change.
Thermal stress weathering (sometimes called insolation weathering) results from the expansion and contraction of rock, caused by temperature changes. For example, heating of rocks by sunlight or fires can cause expansion of their constituent minerals. As some minerals expand more than others, temperature changes set up differential stresses that eventually cause the rock to crack apart. Because the outer surface of a rock is often warmer or colder than the more protected inner portions, some rocks may weather by exfoliation -- the peeling away of outer layers. This process may be sharply accelerated if ice forms in the surface cracks. When water freezes, it expands with a force of about 1465 Mg / m ^ 2, disintegrating huge rock masses and dislodging mineral grains from smaller fragments.
Thermal stress weathering comprises two main types, thermal shock and thermal fatigue. Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in deserts, where there is a large diurnal temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night. The repeated heating and cooling exerts stress on the outer layers of rocks, which can cause their outer layers to peel off in thin sheets. The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation. Although temperature changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance thermal expansion in rock. Forest fires and range fires are also known to cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders exposed along the ground surface. Intense localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.
The thermal heat from wildfire can cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders, heat can rapidly expand a boulder and thermal shock can occur. The differential expansion of a thermal gradient can be understood in terms of stress or of strain, equivalently. At some point, this stress can exceed the strength of the material, causing a crack to form. If nothing stops this crack from propagating through the material, it will result in the object 's structure to fail.
Frost weathering, frost wedging, ice wedging or cryofracturing is the collective name for several processes where ice is present. These processes include frost shattering, frost - wedging and freeze -- thaw weathering. Severe frost shattering produces huge piles of rock fragments called scree which may be located at the foot of mountain areas or along slopes. Frost weathering is common in mountain areas where the temperature is around the freezing point of water. Certain frost - susceptible soils expand or heave upon freezing as a result of water migrating via capillary action to grow ice lenses near the freezing front. This same phenomenon occurs within pore spaces of rocks. The ice accumulations grow larger as they attract liquid water from the surrounding pores. The ice crystal growth weakens the rocks which, in time, break up. It is caused by the approximately 10 % (9.87) expansion of ice when water freezes, which can place considerable stress on anything containing the water as it freezes.
Freeze induced weathering action occurs mainly in environments where there is a lot of moisture, and temperatures frequently fluctuate above and below freezing point, especially in alpine and periglacial areas. An example of rocks susceptible to frost action is chalk, which has many pore spaces for the growth of ice crystals. This process can be seen in Dartmoor where it results in the formation of tors. When water that has entered the joints freezes, the ice formed strains the walls of the joints and causes the joints to deepen and widen. When the ice thaws, water can flow further into the rock. Repeated freeze -- thaw cycles weaken the rocks which, over time, break up along the joints into angular pieces. The angular rock fragments gather at the foot of the slope to form a talus slope (or scree slope). The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is called block disintegration. The blocks of rocks that are detached are of various shapes depending on rock structure.
Coastal geography is formed by the weathering of wave actions over geological times or can happen more abruptly through the process of salt weathering.
In pressure release, also known as unloading, overlying materials (not necessarily rocks) are removed (by erosion, or other processes), which causes underlying rocks to expand and fracture parallel to the surface.
Intrusive igneous rocks (e.g. granite) are formed deep beneath the Earth 's surface. They are under tremendous pressure because of the overlying rock material. When erosion removes the overlying rock material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is released. The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses which cause fractures parallel to the rock surface to form. Over time, sheets of rock break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a process known as exfoliation. Exfoliation due to pressure release is also known as "sheeting ''.
Retreat of an overlying glacier can also lead to exfoliation due to pressure release.
Salt crystallization, otherwise known as haloclasty, causes disintegration of rocks when saline solutions seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind. These salt crystals expand as they are heated up, exerting pressure on the confining rock.
Salt crystallization may also take place when solutions decompose rocks (for example, limestone and chalk) to form salt solutions of sodium sulfate or sodium carbonate, of which the moisture evaporates to form their respective salt crystals.
The salts which have proved most effective in disintegrating rocks are sodium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and calcium chloride. Some of these salts can expand up to three times or even more.
It is normally associated with arid climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation and therefore salt crystallization. It is also common along coasts. An example of salt weathering can be seen in the honeycombed stones in sea wall. Honeycomb is a type of tafoni, a class of cavernous rock weathering structures, which likely develop in large part by chemical and physical salt weathering processes.
Living organisms may contribute to mechanical weathering (as well as chemical weathering, see ' biological ' weathering below). Lichens and mosses grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical microenvironment. The attachment of these organisms to the rock surface enhances physical as well as chemical breakdown of the surface microlayer of the rock. On a larger scale, seedlings sprouting in a crevice and plant roots exert physical pressure as well as providing a pathway for water and chemical infiltration.
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions. Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface environment. New or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock. In this the processes of oxidation and hydrolysis are most important. Chemical weathering is enhanced by such geological agents as the presence of water and oxygen, as well as by such biological agents as the acids produced by microbial and plant - root metabolism.
The process of mountain block uplift is important in exposing new rock strata to the atmosphere and moisture, enabling important chemical weathering to occur; significant release occurs of Ca and other ions into surface waters.
Rainfall is acidic because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the rainwater producing weak carbonic acid. In unpolluted environments, the rainfall pH is around 5.6. Acid rain occurs when gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere. These oxides react in the rain water to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to 4.5 or even 3.0. Sulfur dioxide, SO, comes from volcanic eruptions or from fossil fuels, can become sulfuric acid within rainwater, which can cause solution weathering to the rocks on which it falls.
Some minerals, due to their natural solubility (e.g. evaporites), oxidation potential (iron - rich minerals, such as pyrite), or instability relative to surficial conditions (see Goldich dissolution series) will weather through dissolution naturally, even without acidic water.
One of the most well - known solution weathering processes is carbonation, the process in which atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to solution weathering. Carbonation occurs on rocks which contain calcium carbonate, such as limestone and chalk. This takes place when rain combines with carbon dioxide or an organic acid to form a weak carbonic acid which reacts with calcium carbonate (the limestone) and forms calcium bicarbonate. This process speeds up with a decrease in temperature, not because low temperatures generally drive reactions faster, but because colder water holds more dissolved carbon dioxide gas. Carbonation is therefore a large feature of glacial weathering.
The reactions as follows:
Carbonation on the surface of well - jointed limestone produces a dissected limestone pavement. This process is most effective along the joints, widening and deepening them.
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH - ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.
When rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For example, iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum.
Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process affecting silicate and carbonate minerals. In such reactions, pure water ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate minerals. An example reaction:
This reaction theoretically results in complete dissolution of the original mineral, if enough water is available to drive the reaction. In reality, pure water rarely acts as a H donor. Carbon dioxide, though, dissolves readily in water forming a weak acid and H donor.
This hydrolysis reaction is much more common. Carbonic acid is consumed by silicate weathering, resulting in more alkaline solutions because of the bicarbonate. This is an important reaction in controlling the amount of CO in the atmosphere and can affect climate.
Aluminosilicates when subjected to the hydrolysis reaction produce a secondary mineral rather than simply releasing cations.
Within the weathering environment chemical oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe (iron) and combination with oxygen and water to form Fe hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite, and hematite. This gives the affected rocks a reddish - brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. This process is better known as ' rusting ', though it is distinct from the rusting of metallic iron. Many other metallic ores and minerals oxidize and hydrate to produce colored deposits, such as chalcopyrites or CuFeS oxidizing to copper hydroxide and iron oxides.
A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through release of acidic compounds, i.e. the effect of moss growing on roofs is classed as weathering. Mineral weathering can also be initiated or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Lichens on rocks are thought to increase chemical weathering rates. For example, an experimental study on hornblende granite in New Jersey, USA, demonstrated a 3x -- 4x increase in weathering rate under lichen covered surfaces compared to recently exposed bare rock surfaces.
The most common forms of biological weathering are the release of chelating compounds (i.e. organic acids, siderophores) and of acidifying molecules (i.e. protons, organic acids) by plants so as to break down aluminium and iron containing compounds in the soils beneath them. Decaying remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause chemical weathering. Extreme release of chelating compounds can easily affect surrounding rocks and soils, and may lead to podsolisation of soils.
The symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi associated with tree root systems can release inorganic nutrients from minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees, thus contributing to tree nutrition. It was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can impact mineral stability leading to the release of inorganic nutrients. To date a large range of bacterial strains or communities from diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize mineral surfaces or to weather minerals, and for some of them a plant growth promoting effect was demonstrated. The demonstrated or hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and dissolution reactions as well as the production of weathering agents, such as protons, organic acids and chelating molecules.
Buildings made of any stone, brick or concrete are susceptible to the same weathering agents as any exposed rock surface. Also statues, monuments and ornamental stonework can be badly damaged by natural weathering processes. This is accelerated in areas severely affected by acid rain.
Three groups of minerals often remain in well - weathered soils: silicate clays, very resistant end products including iron and aluminium oxide clays, and very resistant primary minerals such as quartz. In highly weathered soils of humid tropical and subtropical regions, the oxides of iron and aluminium, and certain silicate clays with low Si / Al ratios, predominate because most other constituents have been broken down and removed.
Salt weathering of building stone on the island of Gozo, Malta
Salt weathering of sandstone near Qobustan, Azerbaijan.
This Permian sandstone wall near Sedona, Arizona, United States has weathered into a small alcove.
Weathering effect of acid rain on statues
Weathering effect on a sandstone statues in Dresden, Germany
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how did the jamaican bobsled do in the olympics | Jamaica national bobsleigh team - wikipedia
The Jamaican national bobsleigh team represents Jamaica in international bobsledding competitions. The team first gained fame during their debut in the 1988 Winter Olympic Games four - man bobsled in Calgary, Alberta, where they were seen as underdogs as they represented a tropical nation in a winter sport. The team returned to the Winter Olympics in the two - man bobsled in 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2014, and with a women 's team for the first time in 2018. The team either failed to qualify or did not have a team during the other Winter Olympics.
The team, consisting of Devon Harris, Dudley Stokes, Michael White, Freddy Powell, and last minute replacement Chris Stokes, debuted at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta. The team was coached by Howard Siler, an Olympic bobsledder for the United States in 1972 and 1980. They quickly became very popular, largely because of their status as the ultimate "underdog '' story of the games. Alongside the novelty of a tropical country competing in a cold - weather sport, the team had very little experience going down a bobsled track, and borrowed spare sleds from other countries to compete. In a show of sporting camaraderie across national boundaries, other bobsledders were quick to give them guidance and support. They did not officially finish after losing control of the sled and crashing during one of their qualifiers. The movie Cool Runnings is loosely based on their experience at the 1988 games.
The team returned to the Olympics in the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, but finished poorly. They qualified again for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. There, the Jamaican four sled stunned many of their critics by finishing in 14th place, ahead of the United States, Russia, Australia and France.
In 2000, the Jamaican bobsleigh team won the gold medal at the World Push Championships in Monaco. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, the 2 - man team of Winston Watts (pilot) and Lascelles Brown (brakeman), set the Park City bobsled track record and the Olympic record for the push - start segment of the 2 - man race at 4.78 seconds. Jamaica failed to qualify for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, or the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada. They did however, qualify for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia as a two - man bobsled.
Jamaica also competed in women 's bobsleigh, with a crew of two, consisting of pilot Porscha Morgan and Wycombe Cole on brakes, winning World Push Championship titles in 2000 and 2001. They achieved the fastest push times in all runs, resulting in a landslide victory. These women gave birth to the Jamaican women bobsleigh team / program and were seen as contenders in the sport. However, the women 's programme suffered a setback because of lack of funding, and brakeman Wynsome Cole suffered injuries due to a crash, resulting in the team having to withdraw from a few of the competitions.
The Jamaican women 's team was revived after the 2014 Winter Olympics, with KayMarie Jones and Salcia Slack competing in a North American Cup race in November 2014 being the first Jamaican female crew to compete internationally in over a decade. Among the athletes on the revived team is NaTalia Stokes, daughter and niece of former Jamaican bobsledders Chris and Dudley Stokes.
Having qualified for the 2014 Sochi Olympics, but lacking funding, the cryptocurrency Dogecoin community raised on the team 's behalf $30,000 of the approximately $40,000 required within two days. An online campaign was set up, seeking to raise an additional $80,000 through Tilt.com (formerly Crowdtilt). When it closed on 22 January 2014, the campaign had raised $129,687, far surpassing the target.
After the 2014 Olympics former Olympic medallist and former coach of the Dutch and United States bobsleigh teams Todd Hays was appointed head coach and technical director of the Jamaican team. However he had to leave his role after one season due to a lack of funds to pay his salary, although he continued to work with the team in an unofficial capacity. Ahead of the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, the Jamaican Bobsleigh Federation invested significantly in the team, buying a new sled for the women 's crew of Jazmine Fenlator - Victorian and Carrie Russell, and filling a number of coaching positions, with former British, Dutch and Brazilian coach Jo Manning becoming High - Performance Director, former Olympic and World Champion Sandra Kiriasis joining as driving coach and Dudley Stokes being appointed as coach responsible for of performance, mental preparation and general logistics. In January 2018, the Jamaican women 's team secured qualification for the Olympics for the first time. However the men 's team missed out on Olympic qualification by one position in the world rankings. Days ahead of the start of bobsleigh training at the Games, Kiriasis parted ways with the Jamaica Bobsleigh Federation after she was told she would be demoted from her position as driver coach to the role of track and performance analyst. On 21 February Fenlator - Victorian and Russell finished 19th in the two - woman Olympic bobsleigh event.
The current team:
2018 Winter Olympic team:
The 1988 team was the inspiration for the film Cool Runnings (1993). The characters in the film are fictional, although original footage of the crash during a qualifier is used during the film. The film 's depiction of the post-crash rescue was changed to show the bobsledders carrying the sled over the line on their shoulders for dramatic effect.
The 1988 team also inspired the reggae parody song "Jamaican Bobsled '' by The Rock ' n ' Roll Animals, played on the GTR radio station and later released on the CD Yatta, Yatta, Yatta. The song was recorded after Jamaica had announced that they would be entering a bobsledding team into the Olympics, but before the Olympics had actually started; nevertheless, the lyrics accurately predict that the team would crash during one of their runs.
The 1999 team was mentioned in Season 2, episode 4 of Futurama. Fry, one of the main characters, commented that "They came in last at the Olympics, then retired to promote alcoholic beverages. ''
The 2014 team was the inspiration for "The Bobsled Song '' written by Sidney Mills from the reggae band Steel Pulse, Jon Notar and Groove Guild. The music video features 8 - bit graphics. The song is timed to sync up to the team 's Sochi bobsled run. The song was widely shown on television Olympics coverage in the lead - up to the team 's run.
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how old do you have to be to get a tattoo in florida without parental consent | Legal status of Tattooing in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years of age or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor can not enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).
In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and / or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.
Cal. Penal Code 653
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a - 92g
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 § 122 (3) (w)
Fla. Stat. § 381.0775 et seq. Fla. Stat. § 381.075
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes. ''
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.
Ga. Code § 16 - 12 - 5
Ga. Code § 16 - 5 - 71.1
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321 - 379
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent / guardian consent.
Ill. Stat. 410 § 54 / 1 t0 54 / 999
Ind. Code Ann. § 16 - 19 - 3 - 4.1
Iowa Code § 135.37
Kan. Stat. Ann. § 65 - 1940 to 65 - 1954
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 194A. 050; 211.760
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40: 2831 et seq.
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50 -- 100 for a first offense to $300 and / or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 101 to 110
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 201 to 209
N.J.A.C. 8: 27 - 1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 26 - 1A - 7
N.Y. Public Health Law § 460 - 466
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14 - 400
N.D. Code § 12.1 - 31 - 13
Scleral tattooing is illegal.
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders can not be tattooed or pierced.
Minors can not be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent / guardian consent.
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920
RI Gen L § 11 - 9 - 15
S.C. Code § 44 - 34 - 10 to 44 - 34 - 110
S.D. Laws § 9 - 34 - 17
For piercings: Parent / Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor, breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.
Minors may, with parent / guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang - related, or drug - related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person 's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover ''
Tongue splitting prohibited.
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation
Civic / local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.
Va. Code § 15.2 - 912
Va. Code § 18.2 - 371.3.
Wash. Code § 18.300
Wash. Code § 246 - 145 - 001 to 060
Wash. Code § 70.54
W. Va. Code § 16 - 38
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who raps in groove is in the heart | Groove Is in the Heart - wikipedia
"Groove Is in the Heart '' is a song by American dance band Deee - Lite. It was released in August 1990 as the lead single from their debut album, World Clique. The song was a hit in many countries, reaching number one in Australia.
Though the album version was not recorded until 1990, the song was originally written in the late 1980s; it was performed live as early as 1989.
The backing track was built around many samples, primarily the main riff from Herbie Hancock 's track "Bring Down the Birds '' from the Blowup soundtrack and Vernon Burch 's "Get Up '', which provided the drum track and also formed the basis for the famous breakdown featuring a slide whistle. Parliament - Funkadelic legend Bootsy Collins provided guest vocals, and the rap is provided by Q - Tip of A Tribe Called Quest.
Slant Magazine ranked the song second in its 100 Greatest Dance Songs list, adding: "No song delivered the group 's world - conscious Word as colorfully and open - heartedly as "Groove Is in the Heart, '' which flew up the Billboard charts while goosing stuffed shirts ". NME and The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll named "Groove Is in the Heart '' the best single released in the year 1990.
An immediate smash in nightclubs, the song went to number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart and also hit number four on the Billboard Hot 100. It peaked at number 1 for one week in Australia in November 1990.
In the UK, the record was equally popular and was released as a double A-side with "What Is Love '', and, with the UK single released with the subtitle "peanut butter mix '' (because the single was heavily edited and completely omitted the contributions by Bootsy Collins and Q - Tip), it eventually reached number two during September 1990. Its placing second was due to a rule instituted in the UK Singles Chart in the 1980s, which settled any "ties '' over chart positions due to equal sales: the single with sales that had increased most from the previous week would reside above the other, controversially giving "The Joker '' by the Steve Miller Band the top place. Following complaints from Deee - Lite 's record company, WEA, the rule, of which this had been the only case, was scrapped and joint positions were once again allowed. "The Joker '' spent a second week at the number one spot and thereafter convincingly outsold "Groove Is in the Heart ''.
The song was accompanied by a psychedelic music video, with Deee - Lite (in late 1960s outfits), Q - Tip, Maceo Parker and Bootsy Collins superimposed over a cartoonish late 1960s - style background of various shifting shapes and colors. The video opens and closes with quotes by the band: Lady Miss Kier has an opening dialog consisting of "faux - French '' originally spoken in the song 's AA - side, "What Is Love? '', and the ending features Collins saying, "Do n't forget, groove is in the heart, and Deee - Lite have definitely been known to smoke... on stage, that is! '' (itself sampled by Deee - Lite in the song) and Lady Miss Kier exclaiming "Deee - groovy! ''
VH1 placed "Groove Is in the Heart '' at No. 67 in their list of "100 Greatest Songs of the 90 's '' in 2007. In 2011, The Guardian featured the song on their "A history of modern music: Dance ''.
This is an incomplete list of samples used in the song.
Credits adapted from the album liner notes for World Clique.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who is the second prime minister of the india | List of Prime Ministers of India - Wikipedia
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Judiciary:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Political parties
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-- -- -- -- -- -- -- State governments
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The Prime Minister of India is the chief executive of the Government of India. In India 's parliamentary system, the Constitution names the President as head of state de jure, but his or her de facto executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. Appointed and sworn - in by the President, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party or alliance that has a majority in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India 's Parliament.
Since 1947, India has had fourteen Prime Ministers, fifteen including Gulzarilal Nanda who twice acted in the role. The first was Jawaharlal Nehru of the Indian National Congress party, who was sworn - in on 15 August 1947, when India gained independence from the British. Serving until his death in May 1964, Nehru remains India 's longest - serving prime minister. He was succeeded by fellow Congressman Lal Bahadur Shastri, whose 19 - month term also ended in death. Indira Gandhi, Nehru 's daughter, succeeded Shastri in 1966 to become the country 's first woman premier. Eleven years later, she was voted out of power in favour of the Janata Party, whose leader Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress prime minister. After he resigned in 1979, his former deputy Charan Singh briefly held office until Indira Gandhi was voted back six months later. Indira Gandhi 's second stint as Prime Minister ended five years later on the morning of 31 October 1984, when she was gunned down by her own bodyguards. That evening, her son Rajiv Gandhi was sworn - in as India 's youngest premier, and the third from his family. Thus far, members of Nehru -- Gandhi dynasty have been Prime Minister for a total of 37 years and 303 days.
Rajiv 's five - year term ended with his former cabinet colleague, V.P. Singh of the Janata Dal, forming the year - long National Front coalition government in 1989. A six - month interlude under Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar followed, after which the Congress party returned to power, forming the government under P.V. Narasimha Rao in June 1991. Rao 's five - year term was succeeded by four short - lived governments -- the Bharatiya Janata Party 's Atal Bihari Vajpayee for 13 days in 1996, a year each under United Front prime ministers H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral, and Vajpayee again for 19 months in 1998 -- 99. After Vajpayee was sworn - in for the third time, in 1999, he managed to lead his National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government to a full five - year term, the first non-Congressman to do so. Vajpayee was succeeded by Congressman Manmohan Singh, the first Sikh premier, whose United Progressive Alliance government was in office for 10 years between 2004 and 2014. The incumbent Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi who has headed the BJP - led NDA government since 26 May 2014 which is India 's first non-Congress single party majority government.
1952
Prime Minister (Re-elected)
(acting President)
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who wrote the introduction to the voyage out | The Voyage Out - wikipedia
The Voyage Out is the first novel by Virginia Woolf, published in 1915 by Duckworth; and published in the US in 1920 by Doran.
Woolf began work on The Voyage Out in 1910 and had finished an early draft by 1912. The novel had a long and difficult gestation and was not published until 1915. It was written during a period in which Woolf was especially psychologically vulnerable. She suffered from periods of depression and at one point attempted suicide. The resultant work contained the seeds of all that would blossom in her later work: the innovative narrative style, the focus on feminine consciousness, sexuality and death.
In 1981, Louise DeSalvo published an alternate version of The Voyage Out featuring its original title, Melymbrosia. Professor DeSalvo worked for seven years on the project of reconstructing the text of the novel as it might have appeared in 1912, before Woolf had begun serious revisions. She reviewed more than 1,000 manuscript pages from Woolf 's private papers, dating the earlier versions of the work by small organizational clues such as the color of ink used or noticing where a pen had last left off writing. DeSalvo 's Melymbrosia attempts to restore the text of the novel as Woolf had originally conceived it, which contained more candid political commentary on such issues as homosexuality, women 's suffrage, and colonialism. According to DeSalvo, Woolf was "warned by colleagues that publishing such an outspoken indictment of Britain could prove disastrous to her fledgling career ''. The work was heavily revised until it became the novel now known as The Voyage Out, which omits much of the political candour of the original. DeSalvo 's edition was reissued by Cleis Press in 2002.
Rachel Vinrace embarks for South America on her father 's ship and is launched on a course of self - discovery in a kind of modern mythical voyage. The mismatched jumble of passengers provide Woolf with an opportunity to satirise Edwardian life. The novel introduces Clarissa Dalloway, the central character of Woolf 's later novel, Mrs Dalloway. Two of the other characters were modelled after important figures in Woolf 's life. St John Hirst is a fictional portrayal of Lytton Strachey and Helen Ambrose is to some extent inspired by Woolf 's sister, Vanessa Bell. Rachel 's journey from a cloistered life in a London suburb to freedom, challenging intellectual discourse and discovery very likely reflects Woolf 's own journey from a repressive household to the intellectual stimulation of the Bloomsbury Group.
Writing in 1926, E.M. Forster described it as "... a strange, tragic, inspired book whose scene is a South America not found on any map and reached by a boat which would not float on any sea, an America whose spiritual boundaries touch Xanadu and Atlantis ''. Reviewing the book a decade earlier, he wrote this: "It is absolutely unafraid... Here at last is a book which attains unity as surely as Wuthering Heights, though by a different path. ''
Literary scholar Phyllis Rose writes in her introduction to the novel, "No later novel of Woolf 's will capture so brilliantly the excitement of youth. '' And also the excitement and challenge of life. "It 's not cowardly to wish to live, '' says one old man at the end of the book. "It 's the very reverse of cowardly. Personally, I 'd like to go on for a hundred years... Think of all the things that are bound to happen! ''
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when did bach write prelude in c major | Prelude and fugue in C major, BWV 846 - wikipedia
The Prelude and Fugue in C Major, BWV 846, is a keyboard composition written by Johann Sebastian Bach. It is the first prelude and fugue in the first book of The Well - Tempered Clavier, a series of 48 preludes and fugues by the composer. An early version of the prelude, BWV 846A, is found in the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach.
The prelude is 35 bars long and consists mostly of broken chords. Below are the first four bars of the prelude:
The prelude continues like this with different variations on harmony, and change of key. The prelude ends with a single C major chord.
Some earlier editions of the prelude contain an extra bar between bars 22 and 23 known as the "Schwencke measure '', a measure allegedly added by Christian Friedrich Gottlieb Schwencke in an attempt to correct what he or someone else erroneously deemed a "faulty '' progression, even though this sort of progression was standard in Bach 's music.
The fugue is 27 bars long and is written for four voices. It starts with a 2 measure subject in the alto voice. The first voice to join is the soprano, which replies with the answer in the dominant key (G major).
The answer is repeated in the tenor and bass voice, respectively, when they enter. The piece then modulates through various related keys, with the subject being repeated in each of the four voices. The piece eventually ends up back in the home key. It ends with each voice stopping at a note and holding it until the end, forming a C major chord.
Charles Gounod composed a melody that was designed to be based on the prelude; a setting of that melody to Ave Maria is popular. The edition of the prelude used by Gounod contains the Schwencke measure.
Mstislav Rostropovich compared this Prelude to the introductory bars of Bach 's famous Prelude of Cello Suite No. 1, in a video named Rostropovich interprets Bach, filmed in 1991 at the Basilique Sainte Madeleine in Vézelay, France.
"Repent Walpurgis '', the last track on the debut album by progressive rock group Procol Harum contains an arrangement of the prelude by band leader Gary Brooker.
Interactive media
Sheet Music
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information about tribes of andaman and nicobar islands | Jarawas (Andaman Islands) - Wikipedia
(approx. 250 -- 400 (estimate)
The Jarawas (also Järawa, Jarwa) (Jarawa: Aong, pronounced (əŋ)) are an indigenous people of the Andaman Islands in India. They live in parts of South Andaman and Middle Andaman Islands, and their present numbers are estimated at between 250 -- 400 individuals. They have largely shunned interaction with outsiders, and many particulars of their society, culture and traditions are poorly understood.
The Jarawas are recognised as an Adivasi group in India. Along with other indigenous Andamanese peoples, they have inhabited the islands for at least several thousand years, and most likely a great deal longer. The Andaman Islands have been known to outsiders since antiquity; however, until quite recent times they were infrequently visited, and such contacts were predominantly sporadic and temporary. For the greater portion of their history their only significant contact has been with other Andamanese groups. Through many decades, the contact to the tribe has diminished quite significantly.
There is some indication that the Jarawa regarded the now - extinct Jangil tribe as a parent tribe from which they split centuries or millennia ago, even though the Jarawa outnumbered (and eventually out - survived) the Jangil. The Jangil (also called the Rutland Island Aka Bea) were presumed extinct by 1931.
The Jarawa are a designated Scheduled Tribe in India.
Before the 19th century, the Jarawa homelands were located in the southeast part of South Andaman Island and nearby islets. With the establishment of the initial British settlement, these are suspected to have been largely depopulated by disease shortly after 1789. The Great Andamanese tribes were similarly depopulated by the introduction of alcohol and opium, leaving open the western areas which the Jarawa gradually made their new homeland. The spreading of opium and alcohol was to some extent sponsored by the colonial authorities in order to depopulate the Jarawa. The immigration of mainland Indian and Karen (Burmese) settlers, beginning about two centuries ago, accelerated this process. Prior to their initiating contact with settled populations in 1997, the Jarawa were noted for vigorously maintaining their independence and distance from external groups, actively discouraging most incursions and attempts at contact. Since 1998, they have been in increasing contact with the outside world and have increasingly been the initiators of such contact. All contact, especially with tourists, remains extremely dangerous to the Jarawa due to the risk of disease. Of the remaining Andamanese peoples, only the Sentinelese have been able to maintain a more isolated situation, and their society and traditions persist with little variance from their practices they observed before the first significant contacts were made. Today the Jarawa are in regular contact with the outside world through settlements on the fringes of their Reserve, through daily contact with outsiders along the Andaman Trunk Road and at jetties, marketplaces and hospitals near the road and at settlements near the reserve, with some children even showing up at mainstream schools and asking to be educated along with settler children.
The Jarawas are hostile towards outsiders and are sometimes accessible to Indian linguists.
The Jarawas are the only remaining Negrito remnants of the Andaman Islands out of four. Other than having a history as traditional hunter - forager - fishermen, they also had reputations as warriors and uncompromising defenders of their territory. The Jarawas lived through British encroachment in the 19th century, as well as Japanese occupation later on.
Jarawas currently have a population of 270 remaining. Their primary threat is a highway, Andaman Trunk Road, running through their territory and reserve of 1,028 square kilometers of dense evergreen forests.
As the Jarawas are a nomadic tribe, they hunt endemic wild pigs, monitor lizards and other quarry with bows and arrows. They would keep no dogs to help hunting, until recently to become more similar to the Onges and Andamanese.
Since this is an island tribe, food sources in the ocean are highly important to them. Men would fish with bows and arrows in shallow water. Women would catch fish with baskets.
Mollusks, dugongs and turtles are a major part of the Jarawa diet. Besides meat and seafood, Jarawas love to collect fruit, tubers and honey from the forest. In order to get the honey from the bees, they would use a plant extract to calm the bees.
The Jarawa bow, made of chuiood (Sageraca elliptica) is also known as "aao '' in their own language. The arrow is called "patho ''. The wooden head of the arrow is made of areca wood. To make the iron head arrow, called "aetaho '' in their language, they use iron and areca wood or babmo. Their chest guard in order to go hunting or for any raids is called "kekad ''.
The biggest threat to the Jarawa in recent years came from the building of the Great Andaman Trunk Road through their newer western forest homeland in the 1970s. In late 1997, some Jarawa started coming out of their forest to visit nearby settlements for the first time. Within months a serious measles epidemic broke out. In 2006 the Jarawa suffered another outbreak of measles. No deaths were reported.
The impact of the highway, in addition to widespread encroachment, poaching and commercial exploitation of Jarawa lands, caused a lawsuit to be filed with the Calcutta High Court, which has jurisdiction over the islands. The case escalated to the Supreme Court of India as a Public Interest Litigation (PIL). The Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology, the Bombay Natural History Society and Pune - based Kalpavriksh joined in the petition, resulting in a landmark High Court judgment in 2001, directing the administration to take steps to protect the Jarawa from encroachment and contact, as well as preemptively ruling out any program that involved relocating the Jarawa to a new reservation. Planned extensions of the highway were also prohibited by the court. However, the Light of Andamans editorialised that the changes to the Jarawa were likely irreversible and should have been assessed more thoroughly before the road was built.
A major problem is the volume of sightseeing tours that are operated by private companies, where tourists view, photograph or otherwise attempt interactions with Jarawas, who are often begging by the highway. These are illegal under Indian law, and in March 2008, the Tourism Department of the Andaman and Nicobar administration issued a fresh warning to tour operators that attempting contact with Jarawas, photographing them, stopping vehicles while transiting through their land or offering them rides were prohibited under the Protection of Aboriginal Tribes Regulation, 1956 and would be prosecuted under a strict interpretation of the statute. It has been alleged, however, that these rules are openly being flouted with over 500 tourists being taken to view Jarawas daily by private tour operators, while technically being shown as transiting to legitimate destinations and resulting in continuing daily interaction between the Jarawa and day tourists inside the reserve area.
In 2006, the Indian travel company Barefoot had established a resort 3 km distant from the Jarawa reserve. The development was the subject of a recent court case brought by a small section of Andaman authorities who wanted to stop the resort, and appealed against a Calcutta High Court ruling allowing it to continue. Barefoot won that case.
Some Indian tourism companies bring tourists close to their secluded areas where the natives are tossed food from the caravans. In 2012, a video shot by a tourist showed women encouraged to dance by an off - camera policeman.
On 21 January 2013 a Bench of Justices G.S. Singhvi and H.L. Gokhale passed an interim order banning the tourists from taking trunk road passing through Jarawa area. As a response to this interim order, a petition was filed on behalf of local inhabitants which stated that the Andaman Trunk Road is a very vital road and connects more than 350 villages. The Supreme Court therefore, on 5 March 2013 reversed its interim order, allowing the road to be fully re-opened, but with vehicles only being allowed to travel in large convoys four times a day.
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whats the most exspensive car in the world | List of most expensive cars sold at auction - wikipedia
This is a list of the most expensive cars sold in auto auctions through the traditional bidding process, that of those that attracted headline grabbing publicity, mainly for the high price their new owners have paid. A 1962 Ferrari 250 GTO serial number 3851GT sold at Bonham 's Quail Auction on August 14, 2014 for US $38,115,000.00 (including buyers premium), breaking the record previously held by a 1954 Mercedes - Benz W196 R race car, sold for a record $31 million at an auction in England on July 12, 2013. While collectible cars have been sold privately for more, this is the highest price ever paid for a car at a public auction.
The 1904 Rolls - Royce 10 hp Two - Seater is currently listed on the Guinness World Records as the most expensive veteran car to be sold, at the price of US $7,254,290 (equivalent to $8,379,000 in 2016), on a Bonhams auction held at Olympia in London on December 3, 2007.
This list only consists of those that have been sold for at least $4 million in auction sales during a traditional bidding process, inclusive of the mandatory buyers premium and does not include private, unsuccessful (failing to reach its reserve price, incomplete) and out of auction sales.
Common contributing factors affecting the value of auctioned automobiles include:
Aside those mentioned above, the world economy is the other main factor to the value of collectible cars as classic cars are frequently regarded as an alternative investment.
The market began in the 1970s when used Ferraris were exported to Italian exotic car dealers in the United States who were willing to buy every vehicle which they were offered. During the 1973 oil crisis (when prices of exotic cars plummeted rapidly), almost new and top - of - range models frequented in used car lots, a Lamborghini Miura could be bought for $15,000 at the time. A 1960 Ferrari 250 GT SWB California Spider that went on to sell for $4,950,000 in 2009 was offered for sale in the June 1964 issue of Road & Track for US $10,500 (equivalent to $81,000 in 2016), in the April 1976 issue of Hemmings Motor News, the same car was offered at US $16,750 (equivalent to $70,000 in 2016). After a period of ups and downs in the 1970s and early 1980s, interest rates eased, meaning highly desirable exotic cars whose decals once frequented bedroom walls of collectible car fans suddenly became affordable.
During the 1980s boom, investors frequented auctions, causing prices to skyrocket. When cars were sold, they were commonly shifted to storage for investors intending to eventually profit on their accrued collectors value. The high prices drove enthusiasts away from the market, and cars passed from investor to investor with little or no profit gained. The 1980s boom was followed by 1990s bust, and the values of classic cars plummeted, causing most owners to lose considerable portions of their investment portfolio values.
According to the November 1997 issue of Car Magazine, the Ferrari F40 was credited for sparking the price speculation craze.
During the height of the Japanese asset price bubble in the late 1980s, when the yen had strengthened from an exchange rate of about 300 yen per one U.S. dollar in 1985 to about 150 yen per U.S. dollar in 1989, wealthy Japanese buyers began to buy classic cars for effectively half the previous cost in yen. One example of this occurred in 1989, a Ferrari 250 GTO (3909GT) was privately sold to Takeo Kato for $13,837,500. When the bubble burst, it was resold to Talacrest, an Egham (in Surrey) based Ferrari dealer for $2.7 m in 1994, and was eventually sold again to David Morrison (a London - based American) for an estimated $3.5 million. It was most recently passed on in 2001 to John Mozart, via private sale in exchange for a Ferrari 250 TR, who acquired it for an estimated price of $7,000,000.
Although in general, prices of collectible cars have slightly recessed as a result of the recent recession, prices for most high - end collector cars have held their value or continued to rise. Since the 1990s recession, values of the most desirable cars have risen by at least 200 %. This changing trend in value fluctuation can be attributed to most investors thoroughly researching the cars they are interested prior to purchase, in contrast to the short - sighted, spontaneous purchases which destabilized the collectible car market during the 1980 's.
Between 2005 and 2010, the value of vintage cars have increased by an average of 21 %, according to Dietrich Hatlapa of the HAGI Index (Historic Automobile Group International).
One of the largest challenges faced by those who invest in collectible cars is the risk of immediate devaluation following an automobile accident which causes physical damage to the vehicle. The most expensive car crash in recorded motoring history was caused by Christopher Cox, who crashed while driving his Ferrari 250 GTO and completely destroyed its front end. The car itself has an estimated value of approximately $30 million (USD) prior to the incident.
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where did spain finish in 2014 world cup | 2014 FIFA World Cup group B - wikipedia
Group B of the 2014 FIFA World Cup consisted of Spain, the Netherlands, Chile, and Australia. This group contained the finalists of the previous World Cup in 2010: Spain (reigning champion) and the Netherlands (runners - up). Play began on 13 June and ended on 23 June 2014. The Netherlands and Chile progressed to the knockout stage, while Australia and Spain were eliminated after suffering two defeats in their opening two matches. Chile was eliminated by Brazil in the second round after penalties, while the Netherlands made their way to the semi-finals in which they lost to Argentina on penalties. The third place match was won by the Netherlands with a convincing 3 -- 0 victory against Brazil.
The two teams had met in 9 previous matches, including in the 2010 FIFA World Cup Final, won by Spain 1 -- 0 after extra time. This was the first time in the FIFA World Cup that the previous finalists met in the group stage.
Halfway into the first half, the referee judged that Diego Costa caught a trailing leg from Stefan de Vrij 's attempted tackle. Xabi Alonso scored the penalty kick for Spain, shooting into the bottom - right corner with his right foot, putting them into the lead. They were unable to keep the lead until half time though, with Robin van Persie scoring a 15 - yard diving looping header after a long ball from Daley Blind from the left after he spotted Iker Casillas slightly off his line. In the second half, Blind assisted another goal for Netherlands, this time setting up Arjen Robben who controlled the pass before coming inside to finish with his left foot from ten yards out. Twelve minutes later, Netherlands scored again, as De Vrij headed the ball in from a tight angle from a Wesley Sneijder free kick on the left. Spanish goalkeeper Iker Casillas protested that he had been fouled by Van Persie, but the goal was allowed to stand and Casillas received a yellow card for his protest. Not long after this, a backpass from Sergio Ramos was miscontrolled by Casillas with his left leg, resulting in Van Persie gathering the ball and scoring into an empty net for his second goal of the game. The fifth goal for Netherlands was a solo effort from Robben. Having received the ball near the halfway line from a Wesley Sneijder pass, he outran Ramos, Jordi Alba and Casillas, before slotting the ball into the net from 10 yards out with his left foot.
The 5 -- 1 scoreline was the biggest loss margin for a defending champion in the FIFA World Cup, and also Spain 's second biggest loss in the World Cup after their 6 -- 1 thrashing against Brazil in 1950. With their goals, Van Persie and Robben became the first Dutch players to score in three World Cups. Casillas and Xavi joined Andoni Zubizarreta as the only Spanish players to appear in four World Cups.
Man of the Match: Robin van Persie (Netherlands)
Assistant referees: Renato Faverani (Italy) Andrea Stefani (Italy) Fourth official: Svein Oddvar Moen (Norway) Fifth official: Kim Haglund (Norway)
The two teams had met in five previous matches, including in the 1974 FIFA World Cup group stage, a 0 -- 0 draw.
Chile took a 2 -- 0 lead within the first 15 minutes. First, Alexis Sánchez controlled an Eduardo Vargas header in the penalty area to slot home. Two minutes later, Jorge Valdivia 's shot from a Sánchez pass doubled the lead. Australia pulled one back through a Tim Cahill header from a cross by Ivan Franjic before half time.
Australia could not find the equaliser in the second half, and in stoppage time, Chilean substitute Jean Beausejour converted the rebound after Mauricio Pinilla 's shot was saved by Mathew Ryan.
With their respective goals, Cahill became the first Australian player to score in three World Cups, while Beausejour became the first Chilean player to score in two World Cups.
Man of the Match: Alexis Sánchez (Chile)
Assistant referees: Songuifolo Yeo (Ivory Coast) Jean - Claude Birumushahu (Burundi) Fourth official: Roberto Moreno (Panama) Fifth official: Eric Boria (United States)
The two teams had met in three previous matches, all in friendlies, most recently in 2009.
The Netherlands took the lead after Arjen Robben collected a Daley Blind headed pass at the halfway line, burst into the penalty area and scored with a low shot to the goalkeepers left. Soon after the restart, Australia equalised through Tim Cahill 's left - foot volley into the goal from the underside of the bar from Ryan McGowan 's cross. Australia took the lead in the second half with Mile Jedinak 's penalty, awarded for a handball by Daryl Janmaat, but Robin van Persie equalised after he received substitute Memphis Depay 's pass and scored. Ten minutes later, Memphis Depay received a pass from Jonathan de Guzmán and his long range effort beat Australia goalkeeper Mathew Ryan.
With his goal Depay became the youngest ever Dutch scorer in the World Cup at the age of 20.
Man of the Match: Arjen Robben (Netherlands)
Assistant referees: Rédouane Achik (Morocco) Abdelhak Etchiali (Algeria) Fourth official: Bakary Gassama (Gambia) Fifth official: Evarist Menkouande (Cameroon)
The two teams had met in ten previous matches, including twice in the FIFA World Cup group stage, both won by Spain (1950: 2 -- 0; 2010: 2 -- 1).
Chile opened the scoring when Charles Aránguiz squared a pass to Eduardo Vargas to score home in the penalty area. Near the end of the first half Alexis Sánchez 's free kick was parried by Spanish goalkeeper Iker Casillas to Aránguiz who put in the rebound. Spain, which needed at least a point to stay alive in the competition, had its best chance in the second half which fell to Sergio Busquets, but he missed from close range. Spain 's loss confirmed the qualification of both Chile and the Netherlands into the knockout stage, and eliminated both Spain and Australia.
Spain became the fifth defending champions to be knocked out in the group stage, and the first since 1950 to be eliminated after only two games (Italy were drawn into a three - team group and only played two games in 1950).
Man of the Match: Eduardo Vargas (Chile)
Assistant referees: Sean Hurd (United States) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Fourth official: Nawaf Shukralla (Bahrain) Fifth official: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain)
The two teams had never met before. Australia forward Tim Cahill was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.
In a match between two already - eliminated teams, Spain went in front in the 36th minute after Andrés Iniesta threaded a pass down the right to overlapping full - back Juanfran, who then crossed the ball low to David Villa to finish with a back flick of his right foot low to the net. In the second half, Fernando Torres scored Spain 's second with a low finish from the left of the penalty area after a pass from Iniesta, before substitute Juan Mata, receiving a pass from Cesc Fàbregas, scored from the right of the penalty area with a low shot between the goalkeeper 's legs.
Villa 's goal was his ninth career World Cup goal. Already Spain 's record World Cup goalscorer, he also joined Fernando Hierro, Raúl and Julio Salinas as Spanish players who had scored in three World Cups.
Man of the Match: David Villa (Spain)
Assistant referees: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain) Ebrahim Saleh (Bahrain) Fourth official: Norbert Hauata (Tahiti) Fifth official: Aden Marwa (Kenya)
The two teams had never met before. Netherlands forward Robin van Persie was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.
With both teams already assured of qualifying for the knockout stage after their first two matches, this match would decide which team would win the group: the Netherlands needed only a draw while Chile needed a win. The Netherlands went in front in the 77th minute with a header from six yards by substitute Leroy Fer after a Daryl Janmaat cross from the right. Another substitute Memphis Depay got the second in injury time, when he scored from close range after Arjen Robben had made a run down the left before crossing from the byline. With this win the Netherlands won Group B with a perfect record of three wins out of three, while Chile finished as group runners - up.
Man of the Match: Arjen Robben (Netherlands)
Assistant referees: Evarist Menkouande (Cameroon) Felicien Kabanda (Rwanda) Fourth official: Joel Aguilar (El Salvador) Fifth official: William Torres (El Salvador)
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who plays sister monica joan in call the midwife | Judy Parfitt - wikipedia
Judy Catherine Claire Parfitt (born 7 November 1935) is an English theatre, film and television actress. She made her film debut in a minor supporting part in Information Received (1961), followed by supporting role in the BBC television serial David Copperfield (1966). She also appeared as Queen Gertrude in Tony Richardson 's 1969 film adaptation of Hamlet.
Later credits include as Vera Donovan in the Stephen King film adaptation of Dolores Claiborne (1995), and in Girl with a Pearl Earring (2003), the latter for which she earned a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actress. Beginning in 2012, Parfitt has starred on the drama series Call the Midwife as Sister Monica Joan.
Parfitt was born in Sheffield, West Riding of Yorkshire in 1935 to Catherine Josephine (née Caulton) and Lawrence Hamilton Parfitt. As a teenager, she attended Notre Dame High School for Girls and later trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, graduating in 1953.
Parfitt began her career in theatre in 1954, appearing in a production of Fools Rush In at the Amersham Repertory Company.
In 1971, she appeared in the Hammer television film Journey to Murder, opposite Joseph Cotten and hosted by Joan Crawford. In 1978, Parfitt appeared opposite Laurence Olivier, Joan Plowright and Frank Finlay in the episode "Saturday, Sunday, Monday '' of Laurence Olivier Presents. In 1981 she created the role of Eleanor in the Royal Shakespeare Company 's production of Peter Nichols ' Passion Play. In 1984 she played Deidre in Jack Rosenthal 's The Chain. In 1987, she appeared in Maurice.
Two of her most notable past roles are Mildred Layton in The Jewel in the Crown (1984; for which she received her first BAFTA nomination) and Lady Catherine de Bourgh in the 1980 TV serial version of Pride and Prejudice. In 1995, she portrayed Kathy Bates ' former, domineering employer in Dolores Claiborne, who is dying in present - time, but is seen as a vibrant, glowing woman in flashback sequences.
She has appeared in some American television shows, beginning with her regular role as Snow White 's Stepmother, Evil Queen Lillian "Lily '' White in the series The Charmings. Parfitt 's real - life husband Tony Steedman guest - starred as Santa Claus in The Charmings ' second season Christmas special. She appeared on an episode of Murder, She Wrote in 1989, and as the mother of Dr Elizabeth Corday (played by Alex Kingston) on several episodes of ER in 2002.
Parfitt played Lady Mount - Temple in the biopic film Wilde, alongside Stephen Fry, Vanessa Redgrave and Gemma Jones in 1997. In 2003, she played Maria Thins in Girl with a Pearl Earring. The role earned her a BAFTA nomination for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.
She played the domineering American dowager, Mrs van Schuyler, opposite David Suchet, James Fox, Frances de la Tour and David Soul in a feature - length episode of Agatha Christie 's Poirot in the 2004 edition of Death on the Nile. In 2008, she appeared as the primary villainess in Little Dorrit, as the cruel Mrs Clennam, alongside Alun Armstrong, Sue Johnston and Matthew Macfadyen. At Christmas 2011, she appeared in a small role similar to that which she portrayed in Little Dorrit as Aunt Chastity along with Una Stubbs and Phyllida Law in The Bleak Old Shop of Stuff.
In 2012, she began appearing in the BBC TV series Call the Midwife as Sister Monica Joan, an elderly nun who is suffering from the early stages of dementia. The character has a strong educational background, particularly in classical literature, and her apparently random quotes are often used in the programme as a way of reflecting on the unfolding drama. She has also appeared in BBC 's spy tale, The Game; a film, Hello Carter; a Radio 4 show, Hang Ups, and Jessica Hynes 's suffragette sitcom Up the Women.
In 1963 Parfitt and actor Tony Steedman married in Harrow, Middlesex. He died in 2001. The couple had one child, a son, David.
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the fundamental force that is currently the weakest of all is | Fundamental interaction - wikipedia
In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electromagnetic interactions, which produce significant long - range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life, and the strong and weak interactions, which produce forces at minuscule, subatomic distances and govern nuclear interactions. Some scientists speculate that a fifth force might exist but if so, it is not widely accepted nor proven.
Each of the known fundamental interactions can be described mathematically as a field. The gravitational force is attributed to the curvature of spacetime, described by Einstein 's general theory of relativity. The other three are discrete quantum fields, and their interactions are mediated by elementary particles described by the Standard Model of particle physics.
Within the Standard Model, the strong interaction is carried by a particle called the gluon, and is responsible for the binding of quarks together to form hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. As a residual effect, it creates the nuclear force that binds the latter particles to form atomic nuclei. The weak interaction is carried by particles called W and Z bosons, and also acts on the nucleus of atoms, mediating radioactive decay. The electromagnetic force, carried by the photon, creates electric and magnetic fields, which are responsible for chemical bonding and electromagnetic waves, including visible light, and forms the basis for electrical technology. Although the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravity, it tends to cancel itself out within large objects, so over the largest distances (on the scale of planets and galaxies), gravity tends to be the dominant force.
All four fundamental forces are believed to be related, and to unite into a single force at high energies on a minuscule scale, the Planck scale, but particle accelerators can not produce the enormous energies required to experimentally probe this. Efforts to devise a common theoretical framework that would explain the relation between the forces are perhaps the greatest goal of theoretical physicists today. The weak and electromagnetic forces have already been unified with the electroweak theory of Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics. Progress is currently being made in uniting the electroweak and strong fields within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). A bigger challenge is to find a way to quantize the gravitational field, resulting in a theory of quantum gravity (QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical framework with the other three forces. Some theories, notably string theory, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with mass generation within a theory of everything (ToE).
In his 1687 theory, Isaac Newton postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus absolute space and time. Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an attractive force. His law of universal gravitation mathematically stated it to span the entire universe instantly (despite absolute time), or, if not actually a force, to be instant interaction among all objects (despite absolute space.) As conventionally interpreted, Newton 's theory of motion modelled a central force without a communicating medium. Thus Newton 's theory violated the first principle of mechanical philosophy, as stated by Descartes, No action at a distance. Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism, Michael Faraday inferred a field filling space and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one.
In the early 1870s, James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at constant speed in a vacuum. The electromagnetic field theory contradicted predictions of Newton 's theory of motion, unless physical states of the luminiferous aether -- presumed to fill all space whether within matter or in a vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field -- aligned all phenomena and thereby held valid the Newtonian principle relativity or invariance.
The Standard Model of particle physics was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century. In the Standard Model, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with elementary particles, whose behaviours are modelled in quantum mechanics (QM). For predictive success with QM 's probabilistic outcomes, particle physics conventionally models QM events across a field set to special relativity, altogether relativistic quantum field theory (QFT). Force particles, called gauge bosons -- force carriers or messenger particles of underlying fields -- interact with matter particles, called fermions. Everyday matter is atoms, composed of three fermion types: up - quarks and down - quarks constituting, as well as electrons orbiting, the atom 's nucleus. Atoms interact, form molecules, and manifest further properties through electromagnetic interactions among their electrons absorbing and emitting photons, the electromagnetic field 's force carrier, which if unimpeded traverse potentially infinite distance. Electromagnetism 's QFT is quantum electrodynamics (QED).
The electromagnetic interaction was modelled with the weak interaction, whose force carriers are W and Z bosons, traversing the minuscule distance, in electroweak theory (EWT). Electroweak interaction would operate at such high temperatures as soon after the presumed Big Bang, but, as the early universe cooled, split into electromagnetic and weak interactions. The strong interaction, whose force carrier is the gluon, traversing minuscule distance among quarks, is modeled in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). EWT, QCD, and the Higgs mechanism, whereby the Higgs field manifests Higgs bosons that interact with some quantum particles and thereby endow those particles with mass comprise particle physics ' Standard Model (SM). Predictions are usually made using calculational approximation methods, although such perturbation theory is inadequate to model some experimental observations (for instance bound states and solitons.) Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as science 's most experimentally confirmed theory.
Beyond the Standard Model, some theorists work to unite the electroweak and strong interactions within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize "shadow '' particles, such that every known matter particle associates with an undiscovered force particle, and vice versa, altogether supersymmetry (SUSY). Other theorists seek to quantize the gravitational field by the modelling behaviour of its hypothetical force carrier, the graviton and achieve quantum gravity (QG). One approach to QG is loop quantum gravity (LQG). Still other theorists seek both QG and GUT within one framework, reducing all four fundamental interactions to a Theory of Everything (ToE). The most prevalent aim at a ToE is string theory, although to model matter particles, it added SUSY to force particles -- and so, strictly speaking, became superstring theory. Multiple, seemingly disparate superstring theories were unified on a backbone, M - theory. Theories beyond the Standard Model remain highly speculative, lacking great experimental support.
In the conceptual model of fundamental interactions, matter consists of fermions, which carry properties called charges and spin ± ⁄ (intrinsic angular momentum ± ⁄, where ħ is the reduced Planck constant). They attract or repel each other by exchanging bosons.
The interaction of any pair of fermions in perturbation theory can then be modelled thus:
The exchange of bosons always carries energy and momentum between the fermions, thereby changing their speed and direction. The exchange may also transport a charge between the fermions, changing the charges of the fermions in the process (e.g., turn them from one type of fermion to another). Since bosons carry one unit of angular momentum, the fermion 's spin direction will flip from + ⁄ to − ⁄ (or vice versa) during such an exchange (in units of the reduced Planck 's constant).
Because an interaction results in fermions attracting and repelling each other, an older term for "interaction '' is force.
According to the present understanding, there are four fundamental interactions or forces: gravitation, electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction. Their magnitude and behaviour vary greatly, as described in the table below. Modern physics attempts to explain every observed physical phenomenon by these fundamental interactions. Moreover, reducing the number of different interaction types is seen as desirable. Two cases in point are the unification of:
Both magnitude ("relative strength '') and "range '', as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework. It should also be noted that the table below lists properties of a conceptual scheme that is still the subject of ongoing research.
The modern (perturbative) quantum mechanical view of the fundamental forces other than gravity is that particles of matter (fermions) do not directly interact with each other, but rather carry a charge, and exchange virtual particles (gauge bosons), which are the interaction carriers or force mediators. For example, photons mediate the interaction of electric charges, and gluons mediate the interaction of color charges.
Gravitation is by far the weakest of the four interactions at the atomic scale, where electromagnetic interactions dominate. But the idea that the weakness of gravity can easily be demonstrated by suspending a pin using a simple magnet (such as a refrigerator magnet) is fundamentally flawed. The only reason the magnet is able to hold the pin against the gravitational pull of the entire Earth is due to its relative proximity. There is clearly a short distance of separation between magnet and pin where a breaking point is reached, and due to the large mass of Earth this distance is disappointingly small.
Thus gravitation is very important for macroscopic objects and over macroscopic distances for the following reasons. Gravitation:
Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing "cancels '' gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large - scale structure of the universe.
The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large - scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies and black holes and it retards the expansion of the universe. Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as planetary orbits, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground, and animals can only jump so high.
Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times, Aristotle hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this was not the case -- neglecting the friction due to air resistance, and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air - filled balloon vs a water - filled balloon) all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate. Isaac Newton 's law of Universal Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Our present - day understanding of gravitation stems from Albert Einstein 's General Theory of Relativity of 1915, a more accurate (especially for cosmological masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the geometry of spacetime.
Merging general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more general theory of quantum gravity is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless spin - 2 particle called the graviton.
Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least for weak fields) on all but the smallest scales, there are rival theories of gravitation. Those taken seriously by the physics community all reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limitations on what deviations from general relativity are possible.
Proposed extra dimensions could explain why the gravity force is so weak.
Electromagnetism and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modelled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force.
Electroweak theory is very important for modern cosmology, particularly on how the universe evolved. This is because shortly after the Big Bang, the temperature was approximately above 10 K. Electromagnetic force and weak force were merged into a combined electroweak force.
For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979.
Electromagnetism is the force that acts between electrically charged particles. This phenomenon includes the electrostatic force acting between charged particles at rest, and the combined effect of electric and magnetic forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other.
Electromagnetism is infinite - ranged like gravity, but vastly stronger, and therefore describes a number of macroscopic phenomena of everyday experience such as friction, rainbows, lightning, and all human - made devices using electric current, such as television, lasers, and computers. Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic levels, properties of the chemical elements, including all chemical bonding.
In a four kilogram (~ 1 gallon) jug of water there are
of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force of
This is larger than the planet Earth would weigh if weighed on another Earth. The atomic nuclei in one jug also repel those in the other with the same force. However, these repulsive forces are canceled by the attraction of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force. Electromagnetic forces are tremendously stronger than gravity but cancel out so that for large bodies gravity dominates.
Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century that it was discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864, Maxwell 's equations had rigorously quantified this unified interaction. Maxwell 's theory, restated using vector calculus, is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes.
The constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with the letter "c '') can be derived from Maxwell 's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. Einstein 's 1905 theory of special relativity, however, which flows from the observation that the speed of light is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell 's equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.
In another work that departed from classical electro - magnetism, Einstein also explained the photoelectric effect by hypothesizing that light was transmitted in quanta, which we now call photons. Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac combined quantum mechanics with the relativistic theory of electromagnetism. Further work in the 1940s, by Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin - Itiro Tomonaga, completed this theory, which is now called quantum electrodynamics, the revised theory of electromagnetism. Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such as quantum tunneling, in which a certain percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible under the classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices such as transistors to function.
The weak interaction or weak nuclear force is responsible for some nuclear phenomena such as beta decay. Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two aspects of a unified electroweak interaction -- this discovery was the first step toward the unified theory known as the Standard Model. In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak force are the massive gauge bosons called the W and Z bosons. The weak interaction is the only known interaction which does not conserve parity; it is left - right asymmetric. The weak interaction even violates CP symmetry but does conserve CPT.
The strong interaction, or strong nuclear force, is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. At distances greater than 10 femtometers, the strong force is practically unobservable. Moreover, it holds only inside the atomic nucleus.
After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force, today known as the nuclear force, was needed to overcome the electrostatic repulsion, a manifestation of electromagnetism, of the positively charged protons. Otherwise, the nucleus could not exist. Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume that is about 10 m, much smaller than that of the entire atom. From the short range of this force, Hideki Yukawa predicted that it was associated with a massive particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV.
The 1947 discovery of the pion ushered in the modern era of particle physics. Hundreds of hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an extremely complicated theory of hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed. Most notably:
While each of these approaches offered deep insights, no approach led directly to a fundamental theory.
Murray Gell - Mann along with George Zweig first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961. Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as simple models for the interactions of quarks. The first to hypothesize the gluons of QCD were Moo - Young Han and Yoichiro Nambu, who introduced the quark color charge and hypothesized that it might be associated with a force - carrying field. At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks. Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were fractionally charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined.
In 1971, Murray Gell - Mann and Harald Fritzsch proposed that the Han / Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short - distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little later, David Gross, Frank Wilczek, and David Politzer discovered that this theory had the property of asymptotic freedom, allowing them to make contact with experimental evidence. They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD since it became clear that even the long - distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently confined.
Assuming that quarks are confined, Mikhail Shifman, Arkady Vainshtein and Valentine Zakharov were able to compute the properties of many low - lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum. In 1980, Kenneth G. Wilson published computer calculations based on the first principles of QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks. Since then, QCD has been the established theory of the strong interactions.
QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 bosonic particles called gluons. The gluons interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only explains how quarks interact over short distances but also the string - like behavior, discovered by Chew and Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances.
Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four fundamental interactions on the model of electroweak unification.
Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that the three fundamental interactions described by the Standard Model are all different manifestations of a single interaction with symmetries that break down and create separate interactions below some extremely high level of energy. GUTs are also expected to predict some of the relationships between constants of nature that the Standard Model treats as unrelated, as well as predicting gauge coupling unification for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces (this was, for example, verified at the Large Electron -- Positron Collider in 1991 for supersymmetric theories).
Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include string theory, loop quantum gravity, and twistor theory, have secured wide acceptance. Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force - carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the possibility that time - space itself may have a quantum aspect to it.
Some theories beyond the Standard Model include a hypothetical fifth force, and the search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental research in physics. In supersymmetric theories, there are particles that acquire their masses only through supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as moduli can mediate new forces. Another reason to look for new forces is the recent discovery that the expansion of the universe is accelerating (also known as dark energy), giving rise to a need to explain a nonzero cosmological constant, and possibly to other modifications of general relativity. Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as CP violations, dark matter, and dark flow.
In December 2015, two observations in the ATLAS and CMS detectors at the Large Hadron Collider hinted at the existence of a new particle six times heavier than the Higgs Boson. However, after obtaining more experimental data, the anomaly appeared to not be significant.
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which of the following is an issue addressed by the civil rights act of 1991 | Civil Rights Act of 1991 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 is a United States labor law, passed in response to United States Supreme Court decisions that limited the rights of employees who had sued their employers for discrimination. The Act represented the first effort since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to modify some of the basic procedural and substantive rights provided by federal law in employment discrimination cases. It provided the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages and limited the amount that a jury could award.
President Bush had used his veto against the more comprehensive Civil Rights Act of 1990. He feared racial quotas would be imposed but later approved the 1991 version of the bill.
The 1991 Act combined elements from two different civil right acts of the past: the Civil Rights Act of 1866, better known by the number assigned to it in the codification of federal laws as Section 1981, and the employment - related provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, generally referred to as Title VII. The two statutes, passed nearly a century apart, approached the issue of employment discrimination very differently: Section 1981 prohibited only discrimination based on race or color, but Title VII also prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and national origin. Section 1981, which had lain dormant and unenforced for a century after its passage, allowed plaintiffs to seek compensatory damages and trial by jury. Title VII, passed in the 1960s when it was assumed that Southern juries could not render a fair verdict, allowed only trial by the court and provided for only traditional equitable remedies: back pay, reinstatement, and injunctions against future acts of discrimination. By the time the 1991 Act was passed, both allowed for an award of attorneys fees.
The 1991 Act expanded the remedies available to victims of discrimination by amending Title VII of the 1964 Act.
Congress had amended Title VII once before, in 1972, when it broadened the coverage of the Act. It was moved to overhaul Title VII in 1991 and to harmonize it with Section 1981 jurisprudence, with a series of controversial Supreme Court decisions:
The Patterson case had attracted much criticism since it appeared to leave employees who had been victimized by racial harassment on the job with no effective remedies, as they could not prove a violation of Section 1981 and could rarely show any wage losses that they could recover under Title VII. In addition, the Court 's narrow reading of the phrase "make or enforce contracts '' eliminated any liability under Section 1981 for lost promotions and most other personnel decisions that did not constitute a refusal and that was the end to hire or a discharge on the basis of race or color.
Congress addressed the issue by redefining the phrase "make and enforce contracts '' to include "the making, performance, modification, and termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship. '' Congress also clarified that Section 1981 applied to both governmental and private discrimination, the issue that the Supreme Court originally announced it would decide in Patterson.
Congress also believed that the Wards Cove case made it too difficult to prove disparate impact claims under Title VII. The Act was amended to provide that an employee could prove a case by showing either that an individual practice or group of practices resulted in "a disparate impact on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, and the respondent fails to demonstrate that such practice is required by business necessity. '' Congress added, however, "The mere existence of a statistical imbalance in an employer 's workforce on account of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin is not alone sufficient to establish a prima facie case of disparate impact violation. ''
While the majority in Congress supported the burden - shifting rule in Price Waterhouse, it was uncomfortable with an employer 's ability to prove that it would have made the same decision in any event, as a complete defense in a case in which it had been shown that race or gender or another unlawful factor played a significant role in its decision. Congress amended the Act to provide that the employer 's proof that it would have made the same decision in any case was a defense to back pay, reinstatement and other remedies but not to liability per se. The practical effect of this change was to allow a party that proved that the employer discriminated but could not show that it made any practical difference in the outcome could still recover attorney 's fees after showing that the employer discriminated, even if no other remedy was awarded.
Finally, Congress limited the rights of non-parties to attack consent decrees by barring any challenges by parties who knew or should have known of the decree or who were adequately represented by the original parties.
The Court also authorizes jury trials on Title VII claims and allows Title VII plaintiffs to recover emotional distress and punitive damages, while imposing caps on such relief under Title VII. The 1991 Act also made technical changes affecting the length of time allowed to challenge unlawful seniority provisions, to sue the federal government for discrimination, and to bring age discrimination claims, but it allowed successful plaintiffs to recover expert witness fees as part of an award of attorney 's fees and to collect interest on any judgment against the federal government.
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who sings things are going to get easier | O-o-h Child - wikipedia
"O-o-h Child '' is a 1970 single recorded by Chicago soul family group the Five Stairsteps and released on the Buddah label. The Five Stairsteps had previous peripheral success recording in Chicago with Curtis Mayfield; when Mayfield 's workload precluded his continuing to work with the group they were reassigned to Stan Vincent, an in - house producer for Buddah Records, who had recently scored a Top Ten hit with the Lou Christie single "I 'm Gonna Make You Mine ''. The Five Stairsteps ' debut collaboration with Vincent was originally formatted with the group 's rendition of "Dear Prudence '' as the A-side with Vincent 's original composition "O-o-h Child '' as B - side. However, "O-o-h Child '' broke out in the key markets of Philadelphia and Detroit to rise as high as # 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the summer of 1970. The track 's R&B chart impact was more muted with a # 14 peak, although "O-o-h Child '' is now regarded as a "soft soul '' classic. Billboard ranked the record as the No. 21 song of 1970.
The Five Stairsteps ' only pop Top 40 hit, "O-o-h Child '' would be the group 's last R&B top 40 hit (they had several top 40 R&B hits in the 1960s) until 1976 's "From Us to You ''. Included on the band 's The Stairsteps album from 1970, it has become the Stairsteps ' signature song and has inspired more than twenty covers since its release. The song featured various members, including lone female member and eldest sister Alohe, brothers Keni, Dennis, James, lead singer Clarence Burke, Jr. singing in various parts of the song, and also drummer Jerome Brailey on the original recording.
The lyrics tell the listener that "things are gon na get easier '' in times of strife. The song 's uplifting message helped it to become popular among pop and rhythm and blues audiences when it was released.
The song is ranked # 402 on the Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
The Five Stairsteps, ' O-o-h Child ' - 500 GREATEST SONGS OF ALL TIME
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when did lsu start calling their stadium death valley | Tiger Stadium (LSU) - wikipedia
Tiger Stadium, popularly known as Death Valley, is an outdoor stadium located in Baton Rouge, Louisiana on the campus of Louisiana State University. It is the home stadium of the LSU Tigers football team. Prior to 1924, LSU played its home games at State Field, which was located on the old LSU campus in Downtown Baton Rouge.
Tiger Stadium opened with a capacity of 12,000 in 1924. Renovations and expansions have brought the stadium 's current capacity to 102,321, making it the third largest stadium in the SEC, sixth largest stadium in the NCAA and the seventh largest stadium in the world. When filled to capacity, Tiger Stadium ranks as the fifth largest "city '' by population in the state of Louisiana.
Tiger Stadium is well known nationally for having among the best game day atmospheres in college football as well as being one of the most difficult places for an opposing team to play.
Despite being 14 -- 2 at Tiger Stadium, famed Alabama head coach Bear Bryant once remarked that "Baton Rouge happens to be the worst place in the world for a visiting team. It 's like being inside a drum. '' In 2001, ESPN sideline reporter Adrian Karsten said, "Death Valley in Baton Rouge is the loudest stadium I 've ever been in. '' In 2002, (Ohio) coach Terry Hoeppner said of Tiger Stadium, "That 's as exciting an environment as you can have... we had communication problems we have n't had at Michigan and Ohio State. '' In 2003, ESPN 's Chris Fowler called LSU his favorite game day experience. In 2009 former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee stated on Sean Hannity 's Fox News show that "Unfair is playing LSU on a Saturday night in Baton Rouge. ''
Survey after survey has concluded that Tiger Stadium is the most difficult place for a visiting team to play, including surveys by the College Football Association in 1987, The Sporting News in 1989, Gannett News Service in 1995, and Sport Magazine in 1998. More recently, in 2007, ESPN named Tiger Stadium "the scariest place to play '', saying that "Tiger Stadium is, by far, the loudest stadium in the country. ''
In 2009, ESPN writer Chris Low listed Tiger Stadium 's Saturday night atmosphere as unsurpassed in the country, ranking it No. 1 out of the conference 's 12 stadiums. In 2016, Tiger Stadium was again ranked No. 1 out of the conference 's 14 stadiums by USA Today writers Laken Litman & Steven Ruiz.
LSU prefers night games in Tiger Stadium with its opponents, but television coverage requires that many contests be played in the afternoons. The university is conflicted between maximizing its potential to win and needed advertising revenues from television coverage. As explained by Chet Hilburn in The Mystique of Tiger Stadium: 25 Greatest Games: The Ascension of LSU Football, "The Tigers are apt to win more games at night in Tiger Stadium but the university takes in much more revenue for a day game televised by CBS because of the Southeastern Conference contract with the network is so lucrative. ''
In 2008, as Alabama narrowly defeated LSU, Wright Thompson of ESPN.com described Tiger Stadium as "the best place in the world to watch a sporting event. ''
In 2013, the NCAA ranked Tiger Stadium as the loudest stadium in all of college football.
In 2014, the No. 3 - ranked Ole Miss Rebels played the No. 24 - ranked LSU Tigers on October 25. After the Tigers held the Rebels to only 7 points in a 10 -- 7 victory, Ole Miss quarterback Bo Wallace stated, "It 's a crazy atmosphere. This is the craziest place I 've played. ''
With an official seating capacity of 102,321, Tiger Stadium is the ninth - largest stadium in the world by capacity. It is the sixth - largest stadium in the NCAA and the third - largest in the Southeastern Conference, behind Kyle Field at Texas A&M University (106,511 in 2014, 102,512 in 2015) and Neyland Stadium at Tennessee (102,455).
The stadium opened in 1924 and originally seated 12,000 -- the lower half of the current facility 's grandstands on the east and west sidelines. In 1931, 10,000 seats were added to the existing grandstands.
In 1936 capacity was more than doubled with 24,000 seats in the north end zone, turning the stadium into a horseshoe. Money was not allocated in the state budget for the seating expansion, but money was allocated for dormitories. According to local legend, Governor Huey P. Long, who had always taken a personal interest in LSU, ordered that dormitories be built in the stadium, with seating above the student living quarters. However, in a 2015 ESPN story, Bud Johnson, at the time director of LSU 's athletics museum and also a former LSU sports information director, said that the idea actually came from LSU 's athletic director T.P. "Skipper '' Heard, while "the governor helped in other ways. '' Until the late 1980s, the West, North and South Stadium dormitories were featured as part of student housing at LSU, and the football team even lived in them during the 1986 season while the athletic dormitory was being renovated. The dormitories were later converted to office space for Athletic Department staff and faculty and studios for the College of Art & Design 's Fine Arts graduate students, but by 2015 were no longer used.
More than 21,000 seats were added in the south end zone in 1953, turning the stadium into a 67,720 - seat bowl. Unlike the existing stadium structure, they were double - decked in order to fit within the space provided. The first of the two upper decks was added to the west side of the stadium in 1978 to bring capacity to approximately 78,000.
The stadium was upgraded multiple times in the 1980s beginning with replacement of bench seats with chair back seats and waterproofing of the east and west stands in 1985. The playing surface was moved 11 feet to the south to center the field in 1986. The north and south ends of the stadium were waterproofed and chair back seats added in 1987 to bring those sections up to date with the 1985 improvements. Also in 1987 the press box was redecorated, a few more seats were installed at the upper portion of the west lower stands, and all seating within the stadium was renumbered using a uniform seat - width. By the end of the 1980s the stadium held 80,150 spectators.
The official capacity of the stadium was lowered to 80,000 in 1994 when a section of seating was removed for renovations to the visiting team locker room. The east upper deck seating 11,600 was completed in 2000 and brought total capacity to 91,600. The west upper deck was torn down at the end of the 2004 season, and construction began on "The Stadium Club ''. The new suites contain over 3,200 special amenity seats as well as a state - of - the - art press box. The "Paul Manasseh Press Box '' has been named for and dedicated to the memory of the long - time and popular sports information director. Construction on this addition was scheduled to be completed by the beginning of September 2005, but delayed due to Hurricane Katrina. Construction was completed for the 2006 season, bringing the stadium 's capacity to 92,400. A small number of club seats were added before the 2011 season, increasing the capacity to 92,542.
During construction on the west side, a then - record - breaking crowd of 92,664 fans packed Tiger Stadium in a game against Auburn on October 22, 2005, as LSU defeated Auburn in overtime, 20 -- 17. On October 6, 2007, a new record was recorded when 92,910 fans watched as the number 1 - ranked Tigers defeated the number 9 Florida Gators, 28 -- 24. A record - breaking attendance of 93,039 was again set on November 8, 2008, when number 1 Alabama defeated (16) LSU in overtime 27 - 21. The record was breached yet again on October 10, 2009 when the # 1 ranked Florida Gators came into Tiger Stadium and defeated (4) LSU 13 - 3. The attendance was 93,129. The old capacity record of 93,374 was set on November 3, 2012 when (5) LSU lost to (1) Alabama 21 - 17, and the current record of 101,194 was set on September 13, 2014 when (10) LSU defeated Louisiana -- Monroe 31 - 0.
On April 27, 2012, the LSU Board of Supervisors voted unanimously in favor of an $80 million south end - zone upper deck expansion that added 70 "Tiger Den '' suites, over 3,000 club seats and 1,500 + general public seats to bring the total capacity of Tiger Stadium to 102,321, making it the sixth - largest college football stadium in the country. Construction began on October 17, 2012, and was completed by the summer of 2014. The project was privately funded by Tiger Athletic Foundation.
Beginning with the 2017 football season, Tiger Stadium added the "Skyline Club ''. This open air seating located atop the south end zone upper deck is home to a 1,500 seat "beer garden ''. Purchase of a ticket in the Skyline Club includes admission to the seating area, admission to a self - serve food buffet, and the ability to purchase beer and wine.
Tiger Stadium first opened its gates to fans in the fall of 1924 as LSU hosted Tulane in the season finale. Since the first game in Tiger Stadium, LSU has gone on to post a 354 - 138 - 18 (. 716) mark in Death Valley. Moreover, Tiger Stadium is also known for night games, an idea that was first introduced in 1931 against Spring Hill (a 35 - 0 LSU victory). In 2006, LSU celebrated its 75th year of playing night football in Tiger Stadium. LSU has played the majority of its games at night and the Tigers have fared much better under the lights than during the day. Since 1960, LSU is 201 -- 59 -- 3 (. 773) at night in Tiger Stadium compared to a 20 -- 22 -- 3 (. 476) record during the day over that span. LSU lost its first Saturday night game since 2009 against Alabama on Saturday November 3, 2012.
The Jeff Boss Locker Room located in Tiger Stadium is 8,000 square feet and houses 126 lockers with LED lighting. It includes a state - of - the - art sound system, HD televisions, illustrative team graphics and a lighting system. The locker room area includes the main locker room, coaches lounge w / lockers and a private lounge for the head coach. There is also an area dedicated to LSU 's first round NFL Draft picks, a wall listing every Tiger that has been active for an NFL game, plus a list of LSU 's all - time graduates. It was renovated prior to the 2014 football season and was previously renovated for the 1996 season.
The LSU Tigers football locker room in Tiger Stadium is named in honor of equipment manager, Jeff Boss. He was equipment manager for the LSU Tigers football team for 24 years from 1980 -- 2003. The locker room was named after Boss on September 29, 2003.
The LSU Strength and Conditioning facility or LSU North Stadium weight room, is a strength training and conditioning facility at Louisiana State University. Built in 1997, it is located adjacent to the stadium. Measuring 10,000 - square feet with a flat surface, it has 28 multi-purpose power stations, 36 assorted selectorized machines and 10 dumbbell stations along with a plyometric specific area, medicine balls, hurdles, plyometric boxes and assorted speed and agility equipment. It also features 2 treadmills, 4 stationary bikes, 2 elliptical cross trainers, a stepper and stepmill.
The facility was originally constructed to house all of LSU 's sports teams, but is now home to the men 's and women 's basketball, gymnastics, softball, men 's and women 's swimming and diving, men 's and women 's tennis and volleyball teams. The LSU Tigers football strength training and conditioning facility is now located in the LSU Football Operations Center.
Tiger Stadium at LSU served as a temporary relocation site for the New Orleans Saints for four games of the 2005 NFL season after Hurricane Katrina damaged the Superdome and left much of New Orleans under water. The Saints, however, utilized only 79,000 of Tiger Stadium 's seats (the new west side upper deck, which was still under construction, was closed for Saints games). The Saints ' first two games in Baton Rouge came on the Sunday immediately following an LSU home game, meaning field crews had to repaint the field to NFL standards immediately following the completion of LSU 's games, both of which kicked off at 7 p.m. Due to the time crunch, the NFL granted LSU 's request to start the Saints ' games in the late slot (3: 05 p.m. CST). Although none of the Saints ' four Baton Rouge dates sold out due to the effects of Hurricane Katrina, the NFL exempted the Saints from the league 's blackout rules, and the games were televised locally by WAFB and WGMB.
The Saints went 0 - 4 in Tiger Stadium. The first game saw the return of Nick Saban, who led LSU to the national championship two years earlier. Saban 's Miami Dolphins defeated the Saints 21 - 6. The Saints subsequently lost to the Chicago Bears (20 - 17), Tampa Bay Buccaneers (10 - 3) and Carolina Panthers (27 - 10).
Tiger Stadium also hosted the Tulane Green Wave versus Southeastern Louisiana Lions football game on October 1, 2005 due to Hurricane Katrina. Tulane defeated Southeastern Louisiana 28 - 21.
Mike the Tiger in Champions Plaza
West Side
West Side grandstand
North End Zone scoreboard
North End Zone scoreboard at night
View from North End Zone
South End Zone scoreboard (Prior to 2014 expansion)
South End Zone (Prior to 2014 expansion)
2014 South End Zone expansion exterior
2014 South End Zone expansion interior
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when did jk rowling wrote the harry potter books | J.K. Rowling - wikipedia
Joanne Rowling, CH, OBE, FRSL, FRCPE (/ ˈroʊlɪŋ / "rolling ''; born 31 July 1965), writing under the pen names J.K. Rowling and Robert Galbraith, is a British novelist, philanthropist, film and television producer and screenwriter best known for writing the Harry Potter fantasy series. The books have won multiple awards, and sold more than 500 million copies, becoming the best - selling book series in history. They have also been the basis for a film series, over which Rowling had overall approval on the scripts and was a producer on the final films in the series.
Born in Yate, Gloucestershire, England, Rowling was working as a researcher and bilingual secretary for Amnesty International when she conceived the idea for the Harry Potter series while on a delayed train from Manchester to London in 1990. The seven - year period that followed saw the death of her mother, birth of her first child, divorce from her first husband and relative poverty until the first novel in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, was published in 1997. There were six sequels, of which the last, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was released in 2007. Since then, Rowling has written four books for adult readers: The Casual Vacancy (2012) and -- under the pseudonym Robert Galbraith -- the crime fiction novels The Cuckoo 's Calling (2013), The Silkworm (2014) and Career of Evil (2015).
Rowling has lived a "rags to riches '' life story, in which she progressed from living on state benefits to being the world 's first billionaire author. She lost her billionaire status after giving away much of her earnings to charity, but remains one of the wealthiest people in the world. She is the United Kingdom 's bestselling living author, with sales in excess of £ 238M. The 2016 Sunday Times Rich List estimated Rowling 's fortune at £ 600 million, ranking her as the joint 197th richest person in the UK. Time named her a runner - up for its 2007 Person of the Year, noting the social, moral, and political inspiration she has given her fans. In October 2010, Rowling was named the "Most Influential Woman in Britain '' by leading magazine editors. She has supported charities, including Comic Relief, One Parent Families and Multiple Sclerosis Society of Great Britain, and launched her own charity, Lumos.
Although she writes under the pen name J.K. Rowling, her name, before her remarriage, was Joanne Rowling. Anticipating that the target audience of young boys might not want to read a book written by a woman, her publishers asked that she use two initials rather than her full name. As she had no middle name, she chose K (for Kathleen) as the second initial of her pen name, from her paternal grandmother. She calls herself Jo. Following her remarriage, she has sometimes used the name Joanne Murray when conducting personal business. During the Leveson Inquiry she gave evidence under the name of Joanne Kathleen Rowling and her entry in Who 's Who lists her name also as Joanne Kathleen Rowling.
Rowling was born to Peter James Rowling, a Rolls - Royce aircraft engineer, and Anne Rowling (née Volant), a science technician, on 31 July 1965 in Yate, Gloucestershire, England, 10 miles (16 km) northeast of Bristol. Her parents first met on a train departing from King 's Cross Station bound for Arbroath in 1964. They married on 14 March 1965. One of her maternal great - grandfathers, Dugald Campbell, was Scottish, born in Lamlash on the Isle of Arran. Her mother 's paternal grandfather, Louis Volant, was French, and was awarded the Croix de Guerre for exceptional bravery in defending the village of Courcelles - le - Comte during the First World War. Rowling originally believed he had won the Légion d'honneur during the war, as she said when she received it herself in 2009. She later discovered the truth when featured in an episode of the UK genealogy series Who Do You Think You Are?, in which she found out it was a different Louis Volant who won the Legion of Honour. When she heard his story of bravery and discovered the croix de guerre was for "ordinary '' soldiers like her grandfather, who had been a waiter, she stated the croix de guerre was "better '' to her than the Legion of Honour.
Rowling 's sister Dianne was born at their home when Rowling was 23 months old. The family moved to the nearby village Winterbourne when Rowling was four. As a child, Rowling often wrote fantasy stories which she frequently read to her sister. Aged nine, Rowling moved to Church Cottage in the Gloucestershire village of Tutshill, close to Chepstow, Wales. When she was a young teenager, her great - aunt gave her a copy of Jessica Mitford 's autobiography, Hons and Rebels. Mitford became Rowling 's heroine, and Rowling read all of her books.
Rowling has said that her teenage years were unhappy. Her home life was complicated by her mother 's diagnosis with multiple sclerosis and a strained relationship with her father, with whom she is not on speaking terms. Rowling later said that she based the character of Hermione Granger on herself when she was eleven. Sean Harris, her best friend in the Upper Sixth, owned a turquoise Ford Anglia which she says inspired a flying version that appeared in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. Like many teenagers, she became interested in pop music, listening to the Clash, the Smiths and Siouxsie Sioux and adopted the look of the latter with back - combed hair and black eyeliner, a look that she would still sport when beginning university.
As a child, Rowling attended St Michael 's Primary School, a school founded by abolitionist William Wilberforce and education reformer Hannah More. Her headmaster at St Michael 's, Alfred Dunn, has been suggested as the inspiration for the Harry Potter headmaster Albus Dumbledore. She attended secondary school at Wyedean School and College, where her mother worked in the science department. Steve Eddy, her first secondary school English teacher, remembers her as "not exceptional '' but "one of a group of girls who were bright, and quite good at English ''. Rowling took A-levels in English, French and German, achieving two As and a B and was Head Girl.
In 1982, Rowling took the entrance exams for Oxford University but was not accepted and earned a BA in French and Classics at the University of Exeter. Martin Sorrell, a French professor at Exeter, remembers "a quietly competent student, with a denim jacket and dark hair, who, in academic terms, gave the appearance of doing what was necessary ''. Rowling recalls doing little work, preferring to read Dickens and Tolkien. After a year of study in Paris, Rowling graduated from Exeter in 1986. In 1988, Rowling wrote a short essay about her time studying Classics titled "What was the Name of that Nymph Again? or Greek and Roman Studies Recalled ''; it was published by the University of Exeter 's journal Pegasus.
After working as a researcher and bilingual secretary in London for Amnesty International, Rowling moved with her then boyfriend to Manchester, where she worked at the Chamber of Commerce. In 1990, while she was on a four - hour - delayed train trip from Manchester to London, the idea for a story of a young boy attending a school of wizardry "came fully formed '' into her mind.
When she had reached her Clapham Junction flat, she began to write immediately. In December, Rowling 's mother, Anne, died after ten years suffering from multiple sclerosis. Rowling was writing Harry Potter at the time and had never told her mother about it. Her mother 's death heavily affected Rowling 's writing, and she channelled her own feelings of loss by writing about Harry 's own feelings of loss in greater detail in the first book.
An advertisement in The Guardian led Rowling to move to Porto, Portugal, to teach English as a foreign language. She taught at night and began writing in the day while listening to Tchaikovsky 's Violin Concerto. After 18 months in Porto, she met Portuguese television journalist Jorge Arantes in a bar and found they shared an interest in Jane Austen. They married on 16 October 1992 and their child, Jessica Isabel Rowling Arantes (named after Jessica Mitford), was born on 27 July 1993 in Portugal. Rowling had previously suffered a miscarriage. The couple separated on 17 November 1993. Biographers have suggested that Rowling suffered domestic abuse during her marriage, although the extent is unknown. In December 1993, Rowling and her then infant daughter moved to Edinburgh, Scotland, to be near Rowling 's sister with three chapters of what would become Harry Potter in her suitcase.
Seven years after graduating from university, Rowling saw herself as a failure. Her marriage had failed, and she was jobless with a dependent child, but she described her failure as liberating and allowing her to focus on writing. During this period, Rowling was diagnosed with clinical depression and contemplated suicide. Her illness inspired the characters known as Dementors, soul - sucking creatures introduced in the third book. Rowling signed up for welfare benefits, describing her economic status as being "poor as it is possible to be in modern Britain, without being homeless. ''
Rowling was left in despair after her estranged husband arrived in Scotland, seeking both her and her daughter. She obtained an Order of Restraint, and Arantes returned to Portugal, with Rowling filing for divorce in August 1994. She began a teacher training course in August 1995 at the Moray House School of Education, at Edinburgh University, after completing her first novel while living on state benefits. She wrote in many cafés, especially Nicolson 's Café (owned by her brother - in - law), and the Elephant House, wherever she could get Jessica to fall asleep. In a 2001 BBC interview, Rowling denied the rumour that she wrote in local cafés to escape from her unheated flat, pointing out that it had heating. One of the reasons she wrote in cafés was that taking her baby out for a walk was the best way to make her fall asleep.
In 1995, Rowling finished her manuscript for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone on an old manual typewriter. Upon the enthusiastic response of Bryony Evens, a reader who had been asked to review the book 's first three chapters, the Fulham - based Christopher Little Literary Agency agreed to represent Rowling in her quest for a publisher. The book was submitted to twelve publishing houses, all of which rejected the manuscript. A year later she was finally given the green light (and a £ 1,500 advance) by editor Barry Cunningham from Bloomsbury, a publishing house in London. The decision to publish Rowling 's book owes much to Alice Newton, the eight - year - old daughter of Bloomsbury 's chairman, who was given the first chapter to review by her father and immediately demanded the next. Although Bloomsbury agreed to publish the book, Cunningham says that he advised Rowling to get a day job, since she had little chance of making money in children 's books. Soon after, in 1997, Rowling received an £ 8,000 grant from the Scottish Arts Council to enable her to continue writing.
In June 1997, Bloomsbury published Philosopher 's Stone with an initial print run of 1,000 copies, 500 of which were distributed to libraries. Today, such copies are valued between £ 16,000 and £ 25,000. Five months later, the book won its first award, a Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. In February, the novel won the British Book Award for Children 's Book of the Year, and later, the Children 's Book Award. In early 1998, an auction was held in the United States for the rights to publish the novel, and was won by Scholastic Inc., for US $105,000. Rowling said that she "nearly died '' when she heard the news. In October 1998, Scholastic published Philosopher 's Stone in the US under the title of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone, a change Rowling says she now regrets and would have fought if she had been in a better position at the time. Rowling moved from her flat with the money from the Scholastic sale, into 19 Hazelbank Terrace in Edinburgh.
Its sequel, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was published in July 1998 and again Rowling won the Smarties Prize. In December 1999, the third novel, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, won the Smarties Prize, making Rowling the first person to win the award three times running. She later withdrew the fourth Harry Potter novel from contention to allow other books a fair chance. In January 2000, Prisoner of Azkaban won the inaugural Whitbread Children 's Book of the Year award, though it lost the Book of the Year prize to Seamus Heaney 's translation of Beowulf.
The fourth book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, was released simultaneously in the UK and the US on 8 July 2000 and broke sales records in both countries. 372,775 copies of the book were sold in its first day in the UK, almost equalling the number Prisoner of Azkaban sold during its first year. In the US, the book sold three million copies in its first 48 hours, smashing all records. Rowling said that she had had a crisis while writing the novel and had to rewrite one chapter many times to fix a problem with the plot. Rowling was named Author of the Year in the 2000 British Book Awards.
A wait of three years occurred between the release of Goblet of Fire and the fifth Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. This gap led to press speculation that Rowling had developed writer 's block, speculations she denied. Rowling later said that writing the book was a chore, that it could have been shorter, and that she ran out of time and energy as she tried to finish it.
The sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, was released on 16 July 2005. It too broke all sales records, selling nine million copies in its first 24 hours of release. In 2006, Half - Blood Prince received the Book of the Year prize at the British Book Awards.
The title of the seventh and final Harry Potter book was announced on 21 December 2006 as Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. In February 2007 it was reported that Rowling wrote on a bust in her hotel room at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh that she had finished the seventh book in that room on 11 January 2007. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released on 21 July 2007 (0: 01 BST) and broke its predecessor 's record as the fastest - selling book of all time. It sold 11 million copies in the first day of release in the United Kingdom and United States. The book 's last chapter was one of the earliest things she wrote in the entire series.
Harry Potter is now a global brand worth an estimated US $15 billion, and the last four Harry Potter books have consecutively set records as the fastest - selling books in history. The series, totalling 4,195 pages, has been translated, in whole or in part, into 65 languages.
The Harry Potter books have also gained recognition for sparking an interest in reading among the young at a time when children were thought to be abandoning books for computers and television, although it is reported that despite the huge uptake of the books, adolescent reading has continued to decline.
In October 1998, Warner Bros. purchased the film rights to the first two novels for a seven - figure sum. A film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was released on 16 November 2001, and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets on 15 November 2002. Both films were directed by Chris Columbus. The film version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released on 4 June 2004, directed by Alfonso Cuarón. The fourth film, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, was directed by Mike Newell, and released on 18 November 2005. The film of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was released on 11 July 2007. David Yates directed, and Michael Goldenberg wrote the screenplay, having taken over the position from Steve Kloves. Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was released on 15 July 2009. David Yates directed again, and Kloves returned to write the script. Warner Bros. filmed the final instalment of the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, in two segments, with part one being released on 19 November 2010 and part two being released on 15 July 2011. Yates directed both films.
Warner Bros. took considerable notice of Rowling 's desires and thoughts when drafting her contract. One of her principal stipulations was the films be shot in Britain with an all - British cast, which has been generally adhered to. Rowling also demanded that Coca - Cola, the victor in the race to tie in their products to the film series, donate US $18 million to the American charity Reading is Fundamental, as well as several community charity programs.
The first four, sixth, seventh, and eighth films were scripted by Steve Kloves; Rowling assisted him in the writing process, ensuring that his scripts did not contradict future books in the series. She told Alan Rickman (Severus Snape) and Robbie Coltrane (Hagrid) certain secrets about their characters before they were revealed in the books. Daniel Radcliffe (Harry Potter) asked her if Harry died at any point in the series; Rowling answered him by saying, "You have a death scene '', thereby not explicitly answering the question. Director Steven Spielberg was approached to direct the first film, but dropped out. The press has repeatedly claimed that Rowling played a role in his departure, but Rowling stated that she had no say in who directed the films and would not have vetoed Spielberg. Rowling 's first choice for the director had been Monty Python member Terry Gilliam, but Warner Bros. wanted a family - friendly film and chose Columbus.
Rowling had gained some creative control on the films, reviewing all the scripts as well as acting as a producer on the final two - part instalment, Deathly Hallows.
Rowling, producers David Heyman and David Barron, along with directors David Yates, Mike Newell and Alfonso Cuarón collected the Michael Balcon Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema at the 2011 British Academy Film Awards in honour of the Harry Potter film franchise.
In September 2013, Warner Bros. announced an "expanded creative partnership '' with Rowling, based on a planned series of films about Newt Scamander, author of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. The first film, scripted by Rowling, was released in November 2016 and is set roughly 70 years before the events of the main series. In 2016, it was announced that the series would consist of five films, with the second scheduled for release in November 2018.
In 2004, Forbes named Rowling as the first person to become a US - dollar billionaire by writing books, the second - richest female entertainer and the 1,062 nd richest person in the world. Rowling disputed the calculations and said she had plenty of money, but was not a billionaire. The 2016 Sunday Times Rich List estimated Rowling 's fortune at £ 600 million, ranking her as the joint 197th richest person in the UK. In 2012, Forbes removed Rowling from their rich list, claiming that her US $160 million in charitable donations and the high tax rate in the UK meant she was no longer a billionaire. In February 2013 she was assessed as the 13th most powerful woman in the United Kingdom by Woman 's Hour on BBC Radio 4.
In 2001, Rowling purchased a 19th - century estate house, Killiechassie House, on the banks of the River Tay, near Aberfeldy, in Perth and Kinross. Rowling also owns a £ 4.5 million Georgian house in Kensington, west London, on a street with 24 - hour security.
In 2017, Rowling was worth an estimated £ 650 million according to the Sunday Times Rich List. She was named the most highly paid author in the world with earnings of £ 72 million ($95 million) a year by Forbes magazine in 2017.
On 26 December 2001, Rowling married Neil Murray (born 30 June 1971), a Scottish doctor, in a private ceremony at her home, Killiechassie House, near Aberfeldy. Their son, David Gordon Rowling Murray, was born on 24 March 2003. Shortly after Rowling began writing Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, she ceased working on the novel to care for David in his early infancy.
Rowling is a friend of Sarah Brown, wife of former prime minister Gordon Brown, whom she met when they collaborated on a charitable project. When Sarah Brown 's son Fraser was born in 2003, Rowling was one of the first to visit her in hospital. Rowling 's youngest child, daughter Mackenzie Jean Rowling Murray, to whom she dedicated Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, was born on 23 January 2005.
In October 2012, a New Yorker magazine article stated that the Rowling family lived in a seventeenth - century Edinburgh house, concealed at the front by tall conifer hedges. Prior to October 2012, Rowling lived near the author Ian Rankin, who later said she was quiet and introspective, and that she seemed in her element with children. As of June 2014, the family resides in Scotland.
In July 2011, Rowling parted company with her agent, Christopher Little, moving to a new agency founded by one of his staff, Neil Blair. On 23 February 2012, his agency, the Blair Partnership, announced on its website that Rowling was set to publish a new book targeted at adults. In a press release, Rowling said that her new book would be quite different from Harry Potter. In April 2012, Little, Brown and Company announced that the book was titled The Casual Vacancy and would be released on 27 September 2012. Rowling gave several interviews and made appearances to promote The Casual Vacancy, including at the London Southbank Centre, the Cheltenham Literature Festival, Charlie Rose and the Lennoxlove Book Festival. In its first three weeks of release, The Casual Vacancy sold over 1 million copies worldwide.
On 3 December 2012, it was announced that the BBC would be adapting The Casual Vacancy into a television drama miniseries. Rowling 's agent, Neil Blair acted as producer, through his independent production company and with Rick Senat serving as executive producer. Rowling collaborated on the adaptation, serving as an executive producer for the series. The series aired in three parts from 15 February to 1 March 2015.
In 2007, during the Edinburgh Book Festival, author Ian Rankin claimed that his wife spotted Rowling "scribbling away '' at a detective novel in a café. Rankin later retracted the story, claiming it was a joke, but the rumour persisted, with a report in 2012 in The Guardian speculating that Rowling 's next book would be a crime novel. In an interview with Stephen Fry in 2005, Rowling claimed that she would much prefer to write any subsequent books under a pseudonym, but she conceded to Jeremy Paxman in 2003 that if she did, the press would probably "find out in seconds ''.
In April 2013, Little Brown published The Cuckoo 's Calling, the purported début novel of author Robert Galbraith, whom the publisher described as "a former plainclothes Royal Military Police investigator who had left in 2003 to work in the civilian security industry ''. The novel, a detective story in which private investigator Cormoran Strike unravels the supposed suicide of a supermodel, sold 1,500 copies in hardback (although the matter was not resolved as of 21 July 2013; later reports stated that this number is the number of copies that were printed for the first run, while the sales total was closer to 500) and received acclaim from other crime writers and critics -- a Publishers Weekly review called the book a "stellar debut '', while the Library Journal 's mystery section pronounced the novel "the debut of the month ''.
India Knight, a novelist and columnist for The Sunday Times, tweeted on 9 July 2013 that she had been reading The Cuckoo 's Calling and thought it was good for a début novel. In response, a tweeter called Jude Callegari said that the author was Rowling. Knight queried this but got no further reply. Knight notified Richard Brooks, arts editor of the Sunday Times, who began his own investigation. After discovering that Rowling and Galbraith had the same agent and editor, he sent the books for linguistic analysis which found similarities, and subsequently contacted Rowling 's agent who confirmed it was Rowling 's pseudonym. Within days of Rowling being revealed as the author, sales of the book rose by 4,000 %, and Little Brown printed another 140,000 copies to meet the increase in demand. As of 18 June 2013, a signed copy of the first edition sold for US $4,453 (£ 2,950), while an unsold signed first - edition copy was being offered for $6,188 (£ 3,950).
Rowling said that she had enjoyed working under a pseudonym. On her Robert Galbraith website, Rowling explained that she took the name from one of her personal heroes, Robert Kennedy, and a childhood fantasy name she had invented for herself, Ella Galbraith.
Soon after the revelation, Brooks pondered whether Jude Callegari could have been Rowling as part of wider speculation that the entire affair had been a publicity stunt. Some also noted that many of the writers who had initially praised the book, such as Alex Gray or Val McDermid, were within Rowling 's circle of acquaintances; both vociferously denied any foreknowledge of Rowling 's authorship. Judith "Jude '' Callegari was the best friend of the wife of Chris Gossage, a partner within Russells Solicitors, Rowling 's legal representatives. Rowling released a statement saying she was disappointed and angry; Russells apologised for the leak, confirming it was not part of a marketing stunt and that "the disclosure was made in confidence to someone he (Gossage) trusted implicitly ''. Russells made a donation to the Soldiers ' Charity on Rowling 's behalf and reimbursed her for her legal fees. On 26 November 2013 the Solicitors Regulation Authority (SRA) issued Gossage a written rebuke and £ 1,000 fine for breaching privacy rules.
On 17 February 2014, Rowling announced that the second Cormoran Strike novel, named The Silkworm, would be released in June 2014. It sees Strike investigating the disappearance of a writer hated by many of his old friends for insulting them in his new novel.
In 2015, Rowling stated on Galbraith 's website that the third Cormoran Strike novel would include "an insane amount of planning, the most I have done for any book I have written so far. I have colour - coded spreadsheets so I can keep a track of where I am going. '' On 24 April 2015, Rowling announced that work on the third book was completed. Titled Career of Evil, it was released on 20 October 2015 in the United States, and on 22 October 2015 in the United Kingdom.
In 2017, the BBC released a Cormoran Strike television series, starring Tom Burke as Cormoran Strike, it was picked up by HBO for distribution in the United States and Canada.
In March 2017, Rowling revealed the fourth novel 's title via Twitter in a game of "Hangman '' with her followers. After many failed attempts, followers finally guessed correctly. Rowling confirmed that the next novel 's title is Lethal White. While intended for a 2017 release, Rowling revealed on Twitter the book was taking longer than expected and would be the longest book in the series thus far.
Rowling has said it is unlikely she will write any more books in the Harry Potter series. In October 2007 she stated that her future work was unlikely to be in the fantasy genre. On 1 October 2010, in an interview with Oprah Winfrey, Rowling stated a new book on the saga might happen.
In 2007, Rowling stated that she planned to write an encyclopaedia of Harry Potter 's wizarding world consisting of various unpublished material and notes. Any profits from such a book would be given to charity. During a news conference at Hollywood 's Kodak Theatre in 2007, Rowling, when asked how the encyclopaedia was coming along, said, "It 's not coming along, and I have n't started writing it. I never said it was the next thing I 'd do. '' At the end of 2007, Rowling said that the encyclopaedia could take up to ten years to complete.
In June 2011, Rowling announced that future Harry Potter projects, and all electronic downloads, would be concentrated in a new website, called Pottermore. The site includes 18,000 words of information on characters, places and objects in the Harry Potter universe.
In October 2015, Rowling announced via Pottermore that a two - part play she had co-authored with playwrights Jack Thorne and John Tiffany, Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, was the "eighth Harry Potter story '' and that it would focus on the life of Harry Potter 's youngest son Albus after the epilogue of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. On 28 October 2015, the first round of tickets went on sale and sold out in several hours.
In 2000, Rowling established the Volant Charitable Trust, which uses its annual budget of £ 5.1 million to combat poverty and social inequality. The fund also gives to organisations that aid children, one parent families, and multiple sclerosis research.
Rowling, once a single parent, is now president of the charity Gingerbread (originally One Parent Families), having become their first Ambassador in 2000. Rowling collaborated with Sarah Brown to write a book of children 's stories to aid One Parent Families.
In 2001, the UK anti-poverty fundraiser Comic Relief asked three best - selling British authors -- cookery writer and TV presenter Delia Smith, Bridget Jones creator Helen Fielding, and Rowling -- to submit booklets related to their most famous works for publication. Rowling 's two booklets, Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Quidditch Through the Ages, are ostensibly facsimiles of books found in the Hogwarts library. Since going on sale in March 2001, the books have raised £ 15.7 million for the fund. The £ 10.8 million they have raised outside the UK have been channelled into a newly created International Fund for Children and Young People in Crisis. In 2002 Rowling contributed a foreword to Magic, an anthology of fiction published by Bloomsbury Publishing, helping to raise money for the National Council for One Parent Families.
In 2005, Rowling and MEP Emma Nicholson founded the Children 's High Level Group (now Lumos). In January 2006, Rowling went to Bucharest to highlight the use of caged beds in mental institutions for children. To further support the CHLG, Rowling auctioned one of seven handwritten and illustrated copies of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, a series of fairy tales referred to in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. The book was purchased for £ 1.95 million by on - line bookseller Amazon.com on 13 December 2007, becoming the most expensive modern book ever sold at auction. Rowling gave away the remaining six copies to those who have a close connection with the Harry Potter books. In 2008, Rowling agreed to publish the book with the proceeds going to Lumos. On 1 June 2010 (International Children 's Day), Lumos launched an annual initiative -- Light a Birthday Candle for Lumos. In November 2013, Rowling handed over all earnings from the sale of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, totalling nearly £ 19 million.
In July 2012, Rowling was featured at the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in London where she read a few lines from J.M. Barrie 's Peter Pan as part of a tribute to Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children. An inflatable representation of Lord Voldemort and other children 's literary characters accompanied her reading.
Rowling has contributed money and support for research and treatment of multiple sclerosis, from which her mother suffered before her death in 1990. In 2006, Rowling contributed a substantial sum toward the creation of a new Centre for Regenerative Medicine at Edinburgh University, later named the Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic. In 2010 she donated a further £ 10 million to the centre. For reasons unknown, Scotland, Rowling 's country of adoption, has the highest rate of multiple sclerosis in the world. In 2003, Rowling took part in a campaign to establish a national standard of care for MS sufferers. In April 2009, she announced that she was withdrawing her support for Multiple Sclerosis Society Scotland, citing her inability to resolve an ongoing feud between the organisation 's northern and southern branches that had sapped morale and led to several resignations.
In May 2008, bookseller Waterstones asked Rowling and 12 other writers (Sebastian Faulks, Doris Lessing, Lisa Appignanesi, Margaret Atwood, Lauren Child, Richard Ford, Neil Gaiman, Nick Hornby, Michael Rosen, Axel Scheffler, Tom Stoppard and Irvine Welsh) to compose a short piece of their own choosing on a single A5 card, which would then be sold at auction in aid of the charities Dyslexia Action and English PEN. Rowling 's contribution was an 800 - word Harry Potter prequel that concerns Harry 's father, James Potter, and godfather, Sirius Black, and takes place three years before Harry was born. The cards were collated and sold for charity in book form in August 2008.
On 1 and 2 August 2006, she read alongside Stephen King and John Irving at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. Profits from the event were donated to the Haven Foundation, a charity that aids artists and performers left uninsurable and unable to work, and the medical NGO Médecins Sans Frontières. In May 2007, Rowling pledged a donation reported as over £ 250,000 to a reward fund started by the tabloid News of the World for the safe return of a young British girl, Madeleine McCann, who disappeared in Portugal. Rowling, along with Nelson Mandela, Al Gore, and Alan Greenspan, wrote an introduction to a collection of Gordon Brown 's speeches, the proceeds of which were donated to the Jennifer Brown Research Laboratory. After her exposure as the true author of The Cuckoo 's Calling led a massive increase in sales, Rowling announced she would donate all her royalties to the Army Benevolent Fund, claiming she had always intended to, but never expected the book to be a best - seller.
Rowling is a member of both English PEN and Scottish PEN. She was one of 50 authors to contribute to First Editions, Second Thoughts, a charity auction for English PEN. Each author hand annotated a first edition copy of one of their books: In Rowling 's case, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone. The book was the highest selling lot of the event and fetched £ 150,000 ($228,600).
Rowling is a supporter of The Shannon Trust, which runs the Toe by Toe Reading Plan and the Shannon Reading Plan in prisons across Britain, helping and giving tutoring to prisoners who can not read.
Rowling has named communist and civil rights activist Jessica Mitford as her "most influential writer '' saying, "Jessica Mitford has been my heroine since I was 14 years old, when I overheard my formidable great - aunt discussing how Mitford had run away at the age of 19 to fight with the Reds in the Spanish Civil War '', and claims what inspired her about Mitford was that she was "incurably and instinctively rebellious, brave, adventurous, funny and irreverent, she liked nothing better than a good fight, preferably against a pompous and hypocritical target ''. Rowling has described Jane Austen as her favourite author, calling Emma her favourite book in O, The Oprah Magazine. As a child, Rowling has said her early influences included The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis, The Little White Horse by Elizabeth Goudge, and Manxmouse by Paul Gallico.
Rowling is known for her left - wing political views. In September 2008, on the eve of the Labour Party Conference, Rowling announced that she had donated £ 1 million to the Labour Party, and publicly endorsed Labour Prime Minister Gordon Brown over Conservative challenger David Cameron, praising Labour 's policies on child poverty. Rowling is a close friend of Sarah Brown, wife of Gordon Brown, whom she met when they collaborated on a charitable project for One Parent Families.
Rowling discussed the 2008 United States presidential election with the Spanish - language newspaper El País in February 2008, stating that the election would have a profound effect on the rest of the world. She also said that Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton would be "extraordinary '' in the White House. In the same interview, Rowling identified Robert F. Kennedy as her hero.
In April 2010, Rowling published an article in The Times, in which she criticised Cameron 's plan to encourage married couples to stay together by offering them a £ 150 annual tax credit: "Nobody who has ever experienced the reality of poverty could say ' it 's not the money, it 's the message '. When your flat has been broken into, and you can not afford a locksmith, it is the money. When you are two pence short of a tin of baked beans, and your child is hungry, it is the money. When you find yourself contemplating shoplifting to get nappies, it is the money. ''
As a resident of Scotland, Rowling was eligible to vote in the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, and campaigned for the "No '' vote. She donated £ 1 million to the Better Together anti-independence campaign (run by her former neighbour Alistair Darling), the largest donation it had received at the time. In a blog post, Rowling explained that an open letter from Scottish medical professionals raised problems with First Minister Alex Salmond 's plans for a common research funding. Rowling compared some Scottish Nationalists with the Death Eaters, characters from Harry Potter who are scornful of those without pure blood.
On 22 October 2015 a letter was published in The Guardian signed by Rowling (along with over 150 other figures from arts and politics) opposing the cultural boycott of Israel, and announcing the creation of a network for dialogue, called Culture for Coexistence. Rowling later explained her position in more detail, saying that although she opposed most of Benjamin Netanyahu 's actions she did not think the cultural boycott would bring about the removal of Israel 's leader or help improve the situation in Israel and Palestine.
In June 2016, Rowling campaigned against the Referendum to leave the European Union, stating on her website that, "I 'm the mongrel product of this European continent and I 'm an internationalist. I was raised by a Francophile mother whose family was proud of their part - French heritage... My values are not contained or proscribed by borders. The absence of a visa when I cross the channel has symbolic value to me. I might not be in my house, but I 'm still in my hometown. ''
Over the years, some religious people, particularly Christians, have decried Rowling 's books for supposedly promoting witchcraft. Rowling identifies as a Christian. She once said, "I believe in God, not magic. '' Early on she felt that if readers knew of her Christian beliefs they would be able to predict her plot line.
In 2007, Rowling described having been brought up in the Church of England. She said she was the only one in her family who regularly went to church. As a student she became annoyed at the "smugness of religious people '' and worshipped less often. Later, she started to attend a Church of Scotland congregation at the time she was writing Harry Potter. Her eldest daughter, Jessica, was baptised there.
In a 2006 interview with Tatler magazine, Rowling noted that, "like Graham Greene, my faith is sometimes about if my faith will return. It 's important to me. '' She has said that she has struggled with doubt, that she believes in an afterlife, and that her faith plays a part in her books. In a 2012 radio interview, she said that she was a member of the Scottish Episcopal Church, a province of the Anglican Communion.
In 2015, following the referendum on same - sex marriage in Ireland, Rowling joked that if Ireland legalised same - sex marriage, Dumbledore and Gandalf could get married there. The Westboro Baptist Church, in response, stated that if the two got married, they would picket. Rowling responded by saying "Alas, the sheer awesomeness of such a union in such a place would blow your tiny bigoted minds out of your thick sloping skulls. ''
Rowling has had a difficult relationship with the press. She admits to being "thin - skinned '' and dislikes the fickle nature of reporting. Rowling disputes her reputation as a recluse who hates to be interviewed.
By 2011, Rowling had taken more than 50 actions against the press. In 2001, the Press Complaints Commission upheld a complaint by Rowling over a series of unauthorised photographs of her with her daughter on the beach in Mauritius published in OK! magazine. In 2007, Rowling 's young son, David, assisted by Rowling and her husband, lost a court fight to ban publication of a photograph of him. The photo, taken by a photographer using a long - range lens, was subsequently published in a Sunday Express article featuring Rowling 's family life and motherhood. The judgement was overturned in David 's favour in May 2008.
Rowling particularly dislikes the British tabloid the Daily Mail, which has conducted interviews with her estranged ex-husband. As one journalist noted, "Harry 's Uncle Vernon is a grotesque philistine of violent tendencies and remarkably little brain. It is not difficult to guess which newspaper Rowling gives him to read (in Goblet of Fire). '' As of January 2014, she was seeking damages from the Mail for libel over an article about her time as a single mother. Some have speculated that Rowling 's fraught relationship with the press was the inspiration behind the character Rita Skeeter, a gossipy celebrity journalist who first appears in Goblet of Fire, but Rowling noted in 2000 that the character predates her rise to fame.
In September 2011, Rowling was named a "core participant '' in the Leveson Inquiry into the culture, practices and ethics of the British press, as one of dozens of celebrities who may have been the victim of phone hacking. On 24 November 2011, Rowling gave evidence before the inquiry; although she was not suspected to have been the victim of phone hacking, her testimony included accounts of photographers camping on her doorstep, her fiancé being duped into giving his home address to a journalist masquerading as a tax official, her chasing a journalist a week after giving birth, a journalist leaving a note inside her then - five - year - old daughter 's schoolbag, and an attempt by The Sun to "blackmail '' her into a photo opportunity in exchange for the return of a stolen manuscript. Rowling claimed she had to leave her former home in Merchiston because of press intrusion. In November 2012, Rowling wrote an article for The Guardian in reaction to David Cameron 's decision not to implement the full recommendations of the Leveson inquiry, saying she felt "duped and angry ''.
In 2014, Rowling reaffirmed her support for "Hacked Off '' and its campaign towards press self - regulation by co-signing with other British celebrities a declaration to "(safeguard) the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable. ''
Rowling, her publishers, and Time Warner, the owner of the rights to the Harry Potter films, have taken numerous legal actions to protect their copyright. The worldwide popularity of the Harry Potter series has led to the appearance of a number of locally produced, unauthorised sequels and other derivative works, sparking efforts to ban or contain them.
Another area of legal dispute involves a series of injunctions obtained by Rowling and her publishers to prohibit anyone from reading her books before their official release date. The injunction drew fire from civil liberties and free speech campaigners and sparked debates over the "right to read ''.
Rowling has received honorary degrees from St Andrews University, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Napier University, the University of Exeter (which she attended), the University of Aberdeen, and Harvard University, where she spoke at the 2008 commencement ceremony. In 2009 Rowling was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur by French President Nicolas Sarkozy. In 2011, Rowling became an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.
Other awards include:
She was appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to literature and philanthropy.
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to machine a hexagonal nut using indexing head on milling machine | Indexing head - wikipedia
An indexing head, also known as a dividing head or spiral head, is a specialized tool that allows a workpiece to be circularly indexed; that is, easily and precisely rotated to preset angles or circular divisions. Indexing heads are usually used on the tables of milling machines, but may be used on many other machine tools including drill presses, grinders, and boring machines. Common jobs for a dividing head include machining the flutes of a milling cutter, cutting the teeth of a gear, milling curved slots, or drilling a bolt hole circle around the circumference of a part.
The tool is similar to a rotary table except that it is designed to be tilted as well as rotated and often allows positive locking at finer gradations of rotation, including through differential indexing. Most adjustable designs allow the head to be tilted from 10 ° below horizontal to 90 ° vertical, at which point the head is parallel with the machine table.
The workpiece is held in the indexing head in the same manner as a metalworking lathe. This is most commonly a chuck but can include a collet fitted directly into the spindle on the indexing head, faceplate, or between centers. If the part is long then it may be supported with the help of an accompanying tailstock.
Indexing is an operation of dividing a periphery of a cylindrical workpiece into equal number of divisions by the help of index crank and index plate. A manual indexing head includes a hand crank. Rotating the hand crank in turn rotates the spindle and therefore the workpiece. The hand crank uses a worm gear drive to provide precise control of the rotation of the work. The work may be rotated and then locked into place before the cutter is applied, or it may be rotated during cutting depending on the type of machining being done.
Most dividing heads operate at a 40: 1 ratio; that is 40 turns of the hand crank generates 1 revolution of the spindle or workpiece. In other words, 1 turn of the hand crank rotates the spindle by 9 degrees. Because the operator of the machine may want to rotate the part to an arbitrary angle indexing plates are used to ensure the part is accurately positioned.
Direct indexing plate: Most dividing heads have an indexing plate permanently attached to the spindle. This plate is located at the end of the spindle, very close to where the work would be mounted. It is fixed to the spindle and rotates with it. This plate is usually equipped with a series of holes that enables rapid indexing to common angles, such as 30, 45, or 90 degrees. A pin in the base of the dividing head can be extended into the direct indexing plate to lock the head quickly into one of these angles. The advantage of the direct indexing plate is that it is fast and simple and no calculations are required to use it. The disadvantage is that it can only be used for a limited number of angles.
Interchangeable indexing plates are used when the work must be rotated to an angle not available on the direct indexing plate. Because the hand crank is fixed to the spindle at a known ratio (commonly 40: 1) the dividing plates mounted at the handwheel can be used to create finer divisions for precise orientation at irregular angles. These dividing plates are provided in sets of several plates. Each plate has rings of holes with different divisions. For example, an indexing plate might have three rows of holes with 24, 30, and 36 holes in each row. A pin on the hand crank engages these holes. Index plates with up to 400 holes are available. Only one such plate can be mounted to the dividing head at a time. The plate is selected by the machinist based on exactly what angle he wishes to index to.
For example, if a machinist wanted to index (rotate) his workpiece by 22.5 degrees then he would turn the hand crank two full revolutions plus one - half of a turn. Since each full revolution is 9 degrees and a half - revolution is 4.5 degrees, the total is 22.5 (9 + 9 + 4.5 = 22.5). The one - half turn can easily be done precisely using any indexing plate with an even number of holes and rotating to the halfway point (Hole # 8 on the 16 - hole ring).
Brown and Sharpe indexing heads include a set of 3 indexing plates. The plates are marked # 1, # 2 and # 3, or "A '', "B '' and "C ''. Each plate contains 6 rows of holes. Plate # 1 or "A '' has 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 holes. Plate # 2 or "B '' has 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, and 33 holes. Plate # 3 or "C '' has 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, and 49 holes.
Universal Dividing heads: some manual indexing heads are equipped with a power drive provision. This allows the rotation of the dividing head to be connected to the table feed of the milling machine instead of using a hand crank. A set of change gears is provided to select the ratio between the table feed and rotation. This setup allows the machining of spiral or helical features such as spiral gears, worms, or screw type parts because the part is simultaneously rotated at the same time it is moved in the horizontal direction. This setup is called a "PTO dividing head ''.
CNC indexing heads are similar in design to the manual variety except that they have a servo motor coupled to the spindle instead of a hand crank and indexing plates. The servo motor is electronically controlled to index the work to the required position. The control can either be a simple keypad for the operator or it may be fully CNC controlled.
CNC indexing heads may be controlled in two different modes. The most basic method of operation uses simple control functions built into the dividing head. It does not require a CNC machine. The operator enters the desired angle into a control box attached to the indexing head and it automatically rotates to the desired position and locks into place for machining. Changing angles is as simple as typing a new angle value onto the control pad. This is simpler than setting up a manual indexing head because there is no need to interchange indexing plates or to calculate which hole positions to use. It is also faster for repetitive operations because the work can be indexed by simply pressing a button, eliminating the need to count rotations of the hand crank or specific hole positions on the indexing plate. A CNC dividing head may be used in this manner on either manual or CNC machinery.
Most CNC dividing heads are also able to function as a full CNC axis and may be wired into the control of a CNC machine. This enables the machine 's main CNC controller to control the indexing head just like it would control the other axes of the machine. This can be used to machine complex 3D shapes, helices with a non-constant pitch, and similar exotic parts. This mode of operation can not be used on a manual machine tool because it requires a full CNC controller to operate.
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who has written three films that were nominated for a best picture oscar | Academy award for Best Original Screenplay - wikipedia
The Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay is the Academy Award for the best screenplay not based upon previously published material. It was created for 1940 as a separate writing award from the Academy Award for Best Story. Beginning with the Oscars for 1957, the two categories were combined to honor only the screenplay. In 2002, the name of the award was changed from Writing (Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen) to Writing (Original Screenplay).
See also the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, a similar award for screenplays that are adaptations.
Noted novelists and playwrights who have received nominations in this category include: John Steinbeck, Noël Coward, Raymond Chandler, Alain Robbe - Grillet, Edward Bond, Arthur C. Clarke, Lillian Hellman, Neil Simon, Paddy Chayefsky, Tom Stoppard, and Terence Rattigan.
Woody Allen has the most nominations in this category with 16, and the most awards with 3, though Paddy Chayefsky won the Best Adapted Screenplay in 1955 for his adaptation of his teleplay, Marty, and also won for Original Screenplay for The Hospital and Network. Woody Allen also holds the record as the oldest winner (at age 76 for Midnight in Paris, 2011).
Ben Affleck is the youngest winner, at the age of 25 for Good Will Hunting; he co-wrote the screenplay with Matt Damon (age 27 at the time of their award).
Richard Schweizer was the first to win for a foreign - language film, Marie - Louise. Other winners for a non-English screenplay include Albert Lamorisse, Pietro Germi, Claude Lelouch, and Pedro Almodóvar. Lamorisse is additionally the only person to win or even be nominated for Best Original Screenplay for a short film (The Red Balloon, 1956).
Muriel Box was the first woman to win in this category; she shared the award with her husband, Sydney Box, for the 1945 film The Seventh Veil. The Boxes are also the first married couple to win in this category. Only three other married couples won an Oscar in another category -- Earl W. Wallace and Pamela Wallace (for Original Screenplay), Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh (for Adapted Screenplay and Picture), and Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez (for Original Song).
In 1996, Joel Coen and Ethan Coen became the only siblings to win in this category (for Fargo). Francis Ford Coppola (Patton, 1970) and Sofia Coppola (Lost in Translation, 2003) are the only father - daughter pair to win.
Preston Sturges was nominated for two different films in the same year (1944): Hail the Conquering Hero and The Miracle of Morgan 's Creek. Oliver Stone achieved the same distinction in 1986, for Platoon and Salvador. Maurice Richlin and Stanley Shapiro were nominated in 1959 for both Operation Petticoat and Pillow Talk and won for the latter.
Winners are listed first in colored row, followed by the other nominees.
The following individuals have received multiple Best Original Screenplay Awards:
The following individuals received three or more Best Original Screenplay nominations:
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emerson lake & palmer karn evil 9 2nd impression | Karn Evil 9 - wikipedia
"Karn Evil 9 '' is an extended work by progressive rock group Emerson, Lake & Palmer, appearing on the album Brain Salad Surgery. A futuristic fusion of rock and classical themes, it is regarded by some to be their best work together with the song "Tarkus ''. At nearly half an hour long, it is also their longest studio recording.
"Karn Evil 9 '' was written by Keith Emerson, Greg Lake, and former King Crimson lyricist Peter Sinfield. The phrase "Karn Evil '' is an oronym on the word "carnival ''.
It is the fifth and final track on Brain Salad Surgery with a running length of 29 minutes and 37 seconds. The initial release of the album on vinyl found "Karn Evil 9 '' split between the two sides due to its length, with a fade out / fade in between First Impression parts 1 and 2. Subsequent releases on compact disc and digital download have "Karn Evil 9 '' as a single track.
"Karn Evil 9 '' consists of three movements (called "impressions '') with the first impression divided into two parts:
The work 's most recognizable portion to many is First Impression Part 2 and its introduction ("Welcome back, my friends / To the show that never ends ''), which eventually became the title of ELP 's second live album. It is often used as a song dedicated to the opening of sports seasons. First Impression Part 2 is also a common radio staple, although it opens with the intro line and can leave casual radio listeners a bit surprised, not necessarily knowing what led up to that point from Part 1 (the common problem being that combined, First Impression lasts over 13 minutes, and hence would not be accessible on radio played with Parts 1 and 2 together due to its length, so the shorter Part 2 is just played by itself instead).
The story of "Karn Evil 9 '' is told in three parts, with the second part being an instrumental interlude. First Impression, Part 1 begins with a tale of a bleak world (although timeframe is not specified): "Cold and misty morning I heard a warning borne on the air... '' and where humanity is either being destroyed or has fallen into decay and helplessness. First Impression, Part 2 tells how the decadence of the old world is preserved through exhibits that are part of a futuristic carnival show, which exhibits depravities like "seven virgins and a mule, '' along with things that are rare in the future, such as a "real blade of grass. ''
Unlike the rest of "Karn Evil '', the Second Impression 's instrumentation is primarily piano, bass, and drums with a solo by Emerson on a Minimoog set to imitate a steelpan. (Part of such solo very briefly quotes Sonny Rollins 's St. Thomas 's main melody.) There is supposedly a vocal around 2 minutes (15 minutes as a whole song) that sounds like a small child 's voice saying "Daddy, let 's go see the carnival! '' as reference to the first part. However, it is actually Emerson 's voice, just sped up and altered. This impression changes from an upbeat out - of - control tune to a slow interval and then picks up the pace with a structure similar to that of a sonata. It is allegedly about computers scheming against the humans, and the humans completely unsuspecting this. This Impression is often overlooked and is less popular than the others, though it is a rather complex piece, showing the three musicians ' virtuosity.
The Third Impression continues the story begun in the second, describing a war between humans and computers, which can be interpreted in three different ways. One interpretation gives the victory to the humans, who reimpose their dominion over the computers. The second interpretation allows victory to the computers, claiming that the computers were successful in dominating the humans and let them live only for the sake of gloating. The third interpretation, consistent with Peter Sinfield 's original interpretation that "what (Man had) invented ironically takes him over '' has humans winning a war with the help of computers, only to find the computers taking over in the moment of victory.
There is some disagreement as to how much of the lyrics were written by Sinfield. All credits listed show that Lake wrote the lyrics for First Impression alone, but Sinfield himself implies that he co-wrote all lyrics in Karn Evil 9.
First Impression Part 2 was used as the theme tune for the BBC 's Jim Davidson 's Generation Game during the mid late - 1990s. The vocals regarding seven virgins and a mule were omitted.
As of September 2007, First Impression Part 2 is heard in a commercial for Dr Pepper.
It is also used as the intro for the Hard Rock Park website. It has also been used as the song for the introduction of Stockton Thunder.
The song was covered by guitarist Paul Gilbert on his live album Beehive Live and in the end of his instructional video Guitars from Mars II.
First Impression Part 2 can also be heard in the intro of the Episode "Career Day '' in Season 1 of That ' 70s Show, the song goes for about 10 seconds and can be faintly heard for the first minute or so until it stops completely once Eric leaves the basement.
The intro of "Zombies, March! '' by shock rock / thrash metal band GWAR is based on this song.
The Blue Devils Drum & Bugle Corps used Karn Evil 9 for the drum solo in 1984.
It was a favorite of the 1986 World Champion New York Mets baseball team and played in the clubhouse and Shea Stadium before games. It was also used on their official 1986 season highlights home video.
Bon Jovi used it as a lead in to their 1988 - 90 New Jersey Syndicate Tour once the lights went out before their show.
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what's the meaning of london bridge is falling down | London Bridge is falling down - wikipedia
"London Bridge Is Falling Down '' (also known as "My Fair Lady '' or "London Bridge '') is a traditional English nursery rhyme and singing game, which is found in different versions all over the world. It deals with the depredations of London Bridge and attempts, realistic or fanciful, to repair it. It may date back to bridge rhymes and games of the Late Middle Ages, but the earliest records of the rhyme in English are from the seventeenth century. The lyrics were first printed in close to their modern form in the mid-eighteenth century and became popular, particularly in Britain and the United States in the nineteenth century.
The modern melody was first recorded in the late nineteenth century and the game resembles arch games of the Middle Ages, but seems to have taken its modern form in the late nineteenth century. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 502. Several theories have been advanced to explain the meaning of the rhyme and the identity of the "fair lady '' of the refrain. The rhyme is one of the best known in the world and has been referenced in a variety of works of literature and popular culture.
There is considerable variation in the lyrics of the rhyme. The most frequently used first verse is:
London Bridge is falling down, Falling down, falling down. London Bridge is falling down, My fair lady.
In the version quoted by Iona and Peter Opie in 1951 the full lyrics were:
London Bridge is broken down, Broken down, broken down. London Bridge is broken down, My fair lady. Build it up with wood and clay, Wood and clay, wood and clay, Build it up with wood and clay, My fair lady. Wood and clay will wash away, Wash away, wash away, Wood and clay will wash away, My fair lady. Build it up with bricks and mortar, Bricks and mortar, bricks and mortar, Build it up with bricks and mortar, My fair lady. Bricks and mortar will not stay, Will not stay, will not stay, Bricks and mortar will not stay, My fair lady. Build it up with iron and steel, Iron and steel, iron and steel, Build it up with iron and steel, My fair lady. Iron and steel will bend and bow, Bend and bow, bend and bow, Iron and steel will bend and bow, My fair lady. Build it up with silver and gold, Silver and gold, silver and gold, Build it up with silver and gold, My fair lady. Silver and gold will be stolen away, Stolen away, stolen away, Silver and gold will be stolen away, My fair lady. Set a man to watch all night, Watch all night, watch all night, Set a man to watch all night, My fair lady. Suppose the man should fall asleep, Fall asleep, fall asleep, Suppose the man should fall asleep? My fair lady. Give him a pipe to smoke all night, Smoke all night, smoke all night, Give him a pipe to smoke all night, My fair lady.
The rhyme is constructed of quatrains in trochaic tetrameter catalectic, (each line made up of four metrical feet of two syllables, with the stress falling on the first syllable in a pair; the last foot in the line missing the unstressed syllable), which is common in nursery rhymes. In its most common form it relies on a double repetition, rather than a rhyming scheme, which is a frequently employed device in children 's rhymes and stories. The Roud Folk Song Index, which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number, classifies the song as 502.
A melody is recorded for "London Bridge '' in an edition of John Playford 's The Dancing Master published in 1718, but it differs from the modern tune and no lyrics were given. An issue of Blackwood 's Magazine in 1821 noted the rhyme as a being sung to the tune of "Nancy Dawson '', now better known as "Nuts in May '' and the same tune was given in Richard Thomson 's Chronicles of London Bridge (1827).
Another tune was recorded in Samuel Arnold 's Juvenile Amusements in 1797. E.F. Rimbault 's Nursery Rhymes (1836) has the same first line, but then a different tune. The tune now associated with the rhyme was first recorded in 1879 in the US in A.H. Rosewig 's Illustrated National Songs and Games.
The rhyme is often used in a children 's singing game, which exists in a wide variety of forms, with additional verses. Most versions are similar to the actions used in the rhyme "Oranges and Lemons ''. The most common is that two players hold hands and make an arch with their arms while the others pass through in single file. The "arch '' is then lowered at the song 's end to "catch '' a player. In the United States it is common for two teams of those that have been caught to engage in a tug of war. In England until the nineteenth century the song may have been accompanied by a circle dance, but arch games are known to have been common across late medieval Europe.
Five of nine versions published by Alice Gomme in 1894 included references to a prisoner who has stolen a watch and chain. This may be a late nineteenth century addition from another game called "Hark the Robbers '', or "Watch and Chain ''. This rhyme is sung to the same tune and may be an offshoot of "London Bridge '' or the remnant of a distinct game. In one version the first two verses have the lyrics:
Who has stole my watch and chain, Watch and chain, watch and chain; Who has stole my watch and chain, My fair lady? Off to prison you must go, You must go, you must go; Off to prison you must go, My fair lady.
Similar rhymes can be found across Europe, pre-dating the records in England. These include "Knippelsbro Går Op og Ned '' from Denmark, "Die Magdeburger Brück '' from Germany, "pont chus '' from sixteenth - century France; and "Le porte '', from fourteenth - century Italy. It is possible that the rhyme was acquired from one of these sources and then adapted to fit the most famous bridge in England.
One of the earliest references to the rhyme in English is in the comedy The London Chaunticleres, printed in 1657, but probably written about 1636, in which the dairy woman Curds states that she had "danced the building of London - Bridge '' at the Whitsun Ales in her youth, although no words or actions are mentioned. Widespread familiarity with the rhyme is suggested by its use by Henry Carey in his satire Namby Pamby (1725), as:
Namby Pamby is no Clown,
London Bridge is broken down: Now he courts the gay Ladee Dancing o'er The Lady - Lee.
The oldest extant version could be that recalled by a correspondent to the Gentleman 's Magazine in 1823, which he claimed to have heard from a woman who was a child in the reign of Charles II (r. 1660 -- 85) and had the lyrics:
London Bridge is broken down, Dance over the Lady Lea; London Bridge is broken down, With a gay lady (la - dee).
The subsequent verses followed this form, each repeating in the lines below in place of "London bridge is broken down '':
Then we must build it up again. What shall we build it up withal? Build it up with iron and steel, Iron and steel will bend and break. Build it up with wood and stone, Wood and stone will fall away. Then we must set a man to watch, Suppose the man should fall asleep? Then we must put a pipe in his mouth, Suppose the pipe should fall and break? Then we must set a dog to watch, Suppose the dog should run away? Then we must chain him to a post.
The earliest printed English version is in the oldest extant collection of nursery rhymes, Tommy Thumb 's Pretty Song Book, printed by John Newbery in London (c. 1744), with the following text:
London Bridge Is Broken down, Dance over my Lady Lee. London Bridge Is Broken down With a gay Lady. How shall we build It up again, Dance over my Lady Lee, &c. Build it up with Gravel, and Stone, Dance over my Lady Lee, &c. Gravel, and Stone, Will wash away, Dance over my Lady Lee, &c. Build it up with Iron, and Steel, Dance over my Lady Lee, &c. Iron, and Steel, Will bend, and Bow, Dance over my Lady Lee, &c. Build it up with Silver, and Gold, Dance over my Lady Lee, &c. Silver, and Gold Will be stolen away, Dance over my Lady Lee, &c. Then we'l set A man to Watch, Dance over my Lady Lee. Then we'l set A man to Watch, With a gay Lady.
A version from James Ritson 's Gammer Gurton 's Garland (1784) is similar but replaces the last verse with:
Build it up with stone so strong, Dance o'er my Lady lee, Huzza! ' twill last for ages long, With a gay lady.
The meaning of the rhyme is not certain. It may simply relate to the many difficulties experienced in bridging the River Thames, but a number of alternative theories have been put forward.
One theory of origin is that the rhyme relates to the supposed destruction of London Bridge by Olaf II of Norway in 1014 (or 1009). The nineteenth - century translation of the Norse saga the Heimskringla, published by Samuel Laing in 1844, included a verse by Óttarr svarti, that looks very similar to the nursery rhyme:
London Bridge is broken down. -- Gold is won, and bright renown. Shields resounding, War - horns sounding, Hild is shouting in the din! Arrows singing, Mail - coats ringing -- Odin makes our Olaf win!
However, modern translations make it clear that Laing was using the nursery rhyme as a model for his very free translation, and the reference to London Bridge does not appear at the start of the verse and it is unlikely that this is an earlier version of the nursery rhyme. Some historians have raised the possibility that the attack never took place. However, the original document detailing the attack was written only about 100 years after what would be a famous event in a highly populated area, leading the majority of historians to conclude that the account is at least relatively accurate. While it might or might not be the origin of the rhyme, this would make King Olaf 's victory the only historically recorded incidence of london bridge "falling down. ''
The theory that the song refers to the burying, perhaps alive, of children in the foundations of the bridge was first advanced by Alice Bertha Gomme (later Lady Gomme) in The Traditional Games of England, Scotland and Ireland (1894 -- 1898) and perpetuated by the usually sceptical Iona and Peter Opie. This was based around the idea that a bridge would collapse unless the body of a human sacrifice were buried in its foundations and that the watchman is actually a human sacrifice, who will then watch over the bridge. However, there is no archaeological evidence for any human remains in the foundations of London Bridge.
Until the mid-eighteenth century the Old London Bridge was the only crossing on the Thames in London. It was damaged in a major fire in 1633, but in the fire of 1666 this damage acted as a fire break and prevented the flames from further damaging the bridge and crossing to the south side of the Thames. With its 19 narrow arches, it impeded river traffic and flow. Central piers were removed to create a wider navigational span. Widening and the removal of its houses was completed in 1763, but it remained relatively narrow and needed continual and expensive repairs. In the early nineteenth century it was decided to replace the bridge with a new construction. New London Bridge was opened in 1831 and survived until it was replaced in 1972. It was then transported and reconstructed in Lake Havasu City, Arizona.
Several attempts have been made to identify the ' fair lady ', ' lady gay ', or lady ' lee / lea ' of the rhyme. They include:
Since the late nineteenth century the rhyme has been seen as one of the most popular and well known in the English - speaking world. It has also been referenced in both literature and popular culture. It was used by T.S. Eliot at the climax of his poem The Waste Land (1922). The final line of the verse was probably the inspiration for the title of Lerner and Loewe 's 1956 musical My Fair Lady. The tune is often used by English football supporters as the basis for chants.
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where is the setting for game of thrones | Game of Thrones - Wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin 's series of fantasy novels, the first of which is A Game of Thrones. It is filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and the United States. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and its seventh season ended on August 27, 2017. The series will conclude with its eighth season premiering either in 2018 or 2019.
Set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, Game of Thrones has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast but centers on three primary story arcs. The first story arc centers on the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms and follows a web of alliances and conflicts among the dynastic noble families either vying to claim the throne or fighting for independence from the throne. The second story arc focuses on the last descendant of the realm 's deposed ruling dynasty, exiled and plotting a return to the throne. The third story arc centers on the longstanding brotherhood charged with defending the realm against the ancient threats of the fierce peoples and legendary creatures that lie far north, and an impending winter that threatens the realm.
Game of Thrones has attracted record viewership on HBO and has a broad, active, international fan base. It has been acclaimed by critics, particularly for its acting, complex characters, story, scope, and production values, although its frequent use of nudity and violence (including sexual violence) has been criticized. The series has received 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series in 2015 and 2016, more than any other primetime scripted television series. Its other awards and nominations include three Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation (2012 -- 2014), a 2011 Peabody Award, and four nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama (2012 and 2015 -- 2017). Of the ensemble cast, Peter Dinklage has won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (2011 and 2015) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film (2012) for his performance as Tyrion Lannister. Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, Kit Harington, Maisie Williams, Diana Rigg, and Max von Sydow have also received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for their performances in the series.
Game of Thrones is roughly based on the storylines of A Song of Ice and Fire, set in the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros and the continent of Essos. The series chronicles the violent dynastic struggles among the realm 's noble families for the Iron Throne, while other families fight for independence from it. It opens with additional threats in the icy North and Essos in the east.
Showrunner David Benioff jokingly suggested "The Sopranos in Middle - earth '' as Game of Thrones ' tagline, referring to its intrigue - filled plot and dark tone in a fantasy setting of magic and dragons. In a 2012 study of deaths per episode, it ranked second out of 40 recent U.S. TV drama series (with an average of 14).
The series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. George R.R. Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters, believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre. Martin has stated that "the true horrors of human history derive not from orcs and Dark Lords, but from ourselves. ''
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin says does not mirror the real world. Just like people 's capacity for good and for evil in real life, Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change. The show allows the audience to view different characters from their perspective, unlike in many other fantasies, and thus the supposed villains can provide their side of the story. Benioff said, "George brought a measure of harsh realism to high fantasy. He introduced gray tones into a black - and - white universe. ''
In early seasons, under the influence of the A Song of Ice and Fire books, main characters were regularly killed off, and this was credited with developing tension among viewers. Later seasons, however, critics pointed out that certain characters had developed "plot armor '', attributing this to the show 's deviating from the books and becoming more of a traditional television series. The series also reflects the substantial death rates in war.
Although the first season closely follows the events of the first novel, later seasons have made significant changes. According to David Benioff, the show is "about adapting the series as a whole and following the map George laid out for us and hitting the major milestones, but not necessarily each of the stops along the way ''.
Tom Holland of The Guardian believes that the novels and their adaptations base aspects of their settings, characters, and plot on events in European history. Most of Westeros is reminiscent of high medieval Europe, from lands and cultures, to the palace intrigue, feudal system, castles, and knightly tournaments. A principal inspiration for the novels is the English Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 85) between the houses of Lancaster and York, reflected in Martin 's houses of Lannister and Stark. The scheming Cersei Lannister evokes Isabella, the "she - wolf of France '' (1295 -- 1358); Isabella and her family (particularly as portrayed in Maurice Druon 's historical - novel series, The Accursed Kings) were also a main inspiration for Martin.
Holland further proposes that other historical antecedents of series elements include Hadrian 's Wall (which becomes Martin 's Wall), the legend of Atlantis (ancient Valyria), Byzantine Greek fire ("wildfire ''), Icelandic sagas of the Viking Age (the Ironborn), the Mongol hordes (the Dothraki), the Hundred Years ' War (1337 -- 1453) and the Italian Renaissance (c. 1400 -- 1500). The series ' popularity has been attributed, in part, to Martin 's skill at fusing these elements into a seamless, credible version of alternate history. Martin acknowledges, "I take (history) and I file off the serial numbers and I turn it up to 11. ''
Game of Thrones has an ensemble cast estimated to be the largest on television; during its third season, 257 cast names were recorded. In 2014, several actor contracts were renegotiated to include a seventh - season option, with raises which reportedly made them among the highest - paid performers on cable TV. In 2016, it was reported that several actor contracts were again renegotiated, with five of the main cast members having increased their salary to £ 2 million per episode for the last two seasons, which would make them the highest paid actors on television. The main cast is listed below.
Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is the head of House Stark, whose members are involved in plot lines throughout most of the series. He and his wife, Catelyn Tully (Michelle Fairley), have five children: Robb (Richard Madden), the eldest, followed by Sansa (Sophie Turner), Arya (Maisie Williams), Bran (Isaac Hempstead - Wright) and Rickon (Art Parkinson), the youngest. Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow (Kit Harington) and his friend, Samwell Tarly (John Bradley), serve in the Night 's Watch under Lord Commander Jeor Mormont (James Cosmo). The Wildlings living north of the Wall include young Gilly (Hannah Murray), and warriors Tormund Giantsbane (Kristofer Hivju) and Ygritte (Rose Leslie).
Others associated with House Stark include Ned 's ward Theon Greyjoy (Alfie Allen), his vassal Roose Bolton (Michael McElhatton), and Bolton 's bastard son, Ramsay Snow (Iwan Rheon). Robb falls in love with the healer Talisa Maegyr (Oona Chaplin), and Arya befriends blacksmith 's apprentice Gendry (Joe Dempsie) and assassin Jaqen H'ghar (Tom Wlaschiha). The tall warrior Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie) serves Catelyn and, later, Sansa.
In King 's Landing, the capital, Ned 's friend King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) shares a loveless marriage with Cersei Lannister (Lena Headey) -- who has taken her twin brother, the Kingslayer Ser Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), as her lover. She loathes her younger brother, the dwarf Tyrion Lannister (Peter Dinklage), who is attended by his mistress Shae (Sibel Kekilli) and the mercenary, or ' sellsword ', Bronn (Jerome Flynn). Cersei 's father is Lord Tywin Lannister (Charles Dance). Cersei also has two young sons: Joffrey (Jack Gleeson) and Tommen (Dean - Charles Chapman). Joffrey is guarded by the scar - faced warrior, Sandor "the Hound '' Clegane (Rory McCann).
The king 's Small Council of advisors includes crafty Master of Coin Lord Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish (Aidan Gillen) and eunuch spymaster Lord Varys (Conleth Hill). Robert 's brother, Stannis Baratheon (Stephen Dillane), is advised by foreign priestess Melisandre (Carice van Houten) and former smuggler Ser Davos Seaworth (Liam Cunningham). The wealthy Tyrell family is primarily represented at court by Margaery Tyrell (Natalie Dormer). The High Sparrow (Jonathan Pryce) is the capital 's principal religious leader. In the southern principality of Dorne, Ellaria Sand (Indira Varma) seeks vengeance against the Lannisters.
Across the Narrow Sea, siblings Viserys (Harry Lloyd) and Daenerys Targaryen (Emilia Clarke) -- the exiled children of the last king of the original ruling dynasty, who was overthrown by Robert Baratheon -- are running for their lives and trying to win back the throne. Daenerys has been married to Khal Drogo (Jason Momoa), the leader of the nomadic Dothraki. Her retinue includes exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont (Iain Glen), her aide Missandei (Nathalie Emmanuel) and the sellsword Daario Naharis (Michiel Huisman).
In January 2006, David Benioff had a phone conversation with George R.R. Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented, and became interested in A Song of Ice and Fire as he had been a fan of fantasy fiction when young but had not read the books before. The literary agent then sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first novel, A Game of Thrones, shared his enthusiasm with D.B. Weiss and suggested that they adapt Martin 's novels into a television series; Weiss finished the first novel in "maybe 36 hours ''. They pitched the series to HBO after a five - hour meeting with Martin (a veteran screenwriter) in a restaurant on Santa Monica Boulevard. According to Benioff, they won Martin over with their answer to his question, "Who is Jon Snow 's mother? ''
Before being approached by Benioff and Weiss, Martin had had other meetings with other scriptwriters, most of them wanting to turn it into a feature film. Martin however deemed it "unfilmable '' and impossible to be done as a feature film, stating that the size of one of his novels is as long as The Lord of the Rings, which had been adapted as three feature films. Similarly, Benioff also said that it would be impossible to turn the novels into a feature film as the scale of the novels is too big for a feature film and dozens of characters would have to be discarded. Benioff added, "a fantasy movie of this scope, financed by a major studio, would almost certainly need a PG - 13 rating. That means no sex, no blood, no profanity. Fuck that. '' Martin himself was pleased with the suggestion that they adapt it as an HBO series, saying that he "never imagined it anywhere else ''. "I knew it could n't be done as a network television series. It 's too adult. The level of sex and violence would never have gone through. ''
The series began development in January 2007. HBO acquired the TV rights to the novels, with Benioff and Weiss as its executive producers, and Martin as a co-executive producer. The intention was for each novel to yield a season 's worth of episodes. Initially, Martin would write one episode per season while Benioff and Weiss would write the rest of the episodes. Jane Espenson and Bryan Cogman were later added to write one episode apiece the first season.
The first and second drafts of the pilot script by Benioff and Weiss were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008, respectively. Although HBO liked both drafts, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008; the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike may have delayed the process. The pilot episode, "Winter Is Coming '', was first shot in 2009; after a poor reception in a private viewing, HBO demanded an extensive re-shoot (about 90 percent of the episode, with cast and directorial changes).
The pilot reportedly cost HBO $5 -- 10 million to produce, while the first season 's budget was estimated at $50 -- 60 million. In the second season, the show received a 15 - percent budget increase for the climactic battle in "Blackwater '' (which had an $8 million budget). Between 2012 and 2015, the average budget per episode increased from $6 million to "at least '' $8 million. The sixth - season budget was over $10 million per episode, for a season total of over $100 million and a series record.
Nina Gold and Robert Sterne are the series ' primary casting directors. Through a process of auditions and readings, the main cast was assembled. The only exceptions were Peter Dinklage and Sean Bean, whom the writers wanted from the start; they were announced as joining the pilot in 2009. Other actors signed for the pilot were Kit Harington as Jon Snow, Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon, Harry Lloyd as Viserys Targaryen and Mark Addy as Robert Baratheon. Addy was, according to showrunners Benioff and Weiss, the easiest actor to cast for the show, being that his audition was on point. Catelyn Stark was scheduled to be played by Jennifer Ehle, but the role was recast with Michelle Fairley. Daenerys Targaryen was also recast, with Emilia Clarke replacing Tamzin Merchant. The rest of the first season 's cast was filled in the second half of 2009.
Although many of the first - season cast were set to return, the producers had a large number of new characters to cast for the second season. Due to this, Benioff and Weiss postponed the introduction of several key characters and merged several characters into one or assigned plot functions to different characters.
Game of Thrones used seven writers in six seasons. Series creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the showrunners, write most of the episodes each season.
A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin wrote one episode in each of the first four seasons. Martin did not write an episode for the later seasons, since he wanted to focus on completing the sixth novel (The Winds of Winter). Jane Espenson co-wrote one first - season episode as a freelance writer.
Bryan Cogman, initially a script coordinator for the series, was promoted to producer for the fifth season. Cogman, who wrote at least one episode for the first five seasons, is the only other writer in the writers ' room with Benioff and Weiss. Before his promotion, Vanessa Taylor (a writer during the second and third seasons) worked closely with Benioff and Weiss. Dave Hill joined the writing staff for the fifth season after working as an assistant to Benioff and Weiss. Although Martin is not in the writers ' room, he reads the script outlines and makes comments.
Benioff and Weiss sometimes assign characters to particular writers; for example, Cogman was assigned to Arya Stark for the fourth season. The writers spend several weeks writing a character outline, including what material from the novels to use and the overarching themes. After these individual outlines are complete, they spend another two to three weeks discussing each main character 's individual arc and arranging them episode by episode. A detailed outline is created, with each of the writers working on a portion to create a script for each episode. Cogman, who wrote two episodes for the fifth season, took a month and a half to complete both scripts. They are then read by Benioff and Weiss, who make notes, and parts of the script are rewritten. All ten episodes are written before filming begins, since they are filmed out of order with two units in different countries.
Benioff and Weiss write each of their episodes together, with one of them writing the first half of the script and the other the second half. After that they begin with passing the drafts back and forth to make notes and rewrite parts of it.
Benioff and Weiss originally intended to adapt the entire, still - incomplete A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels for television. After Game of Thrones began outpacing the published novels in the sixth season, the series was based on a plot outline of the future novels provided by Martin and original content. In April 2016, the showrunners ' plan was to shoot 13 more episodes after the sixth season: seven episodes in the seventh season and six episodes in the eighth. Later that month, the series was renewed for a seventh season with a seven - episode order. As of 2017, seven seasons have been ordered and filmed, adapting the novels at a rate of about 48 seconds per page for the first three seasons.
The first two seasons adapted one novel each. For the later seasons, its creators see Game of Thrones as an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire as a whole rather than the individual novels; this enables them to move events across novels, according to screen - adaptation requirements.
Principal photography for the first season was scheduled to begin on July 26, 2010, and the primary location was the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Exterior scenes in Northern Ireland were filmed at Sandy Brae in the Mourne Mountains (standing in for Vaes Dothrak), Castle Ward (Winterfell), Saintfield Estates (the Winterfell godswood), Tollymore Forest (outdoor scenes), Cairncastle (the execution site), the Magheramorne quarry (Castle Black) and Shane 's Castle (the tourney grounds). Doune Castle in Stirling, Scotland, was also used in the original pilot episode for scenes at Winterfell. The producers initially considered filming the whole series in Scotland, but decided on Northern Ireland because of the availability of studio space.
The first season 's southern scenes were filmed in Malta, a change in location from the pilot episode 's Moroccan sets. The city of Mdina was used for King 's Landing. Filming was also done at Fort Manoel (representing the Sept of Baelor), at the Azure Window on the island of Gozo (the Dothraki wedding site) and at San Anton Palace, Fort Ricasoli, Fort St. Angelo and St. Dominic monastery (all used for scenes in the Red Keep).
Filming of the second season 's southern scenes shifted from Malta to Croatia, where the city of Dubrovnik and nearby locations allowed exterior shots of a walled, coastal medieval city. The Walls of Dubrovnik and Fort Lovrijenac were used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. The island of Lokrum, the St. Dominic monastery in the coastal town of Trogir, the Rector 's Palace in Dubrovnik, and the Dubac quarry (a few kilometers east) were used for scenes set in Qarth. Scenes set north of the Wall, in the Frostfangs and at the Fist of the First Men, were filmed in November 2011 in Iceland: on the Vatnajökull glacier near Smyrlabjörg, the Svínafellsjökull glacier near Skaftafell and the Mýrdalsjökull glacier near Vik on Höfðabrekkuheiði.
Third - season production returned to Dubrovnik, with the Walls of Dubrovnik, Fort Lovrijenac and nearby locations again used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. Trsteno Arboretum, a new location, is the garden of the Tyrells in King 's Landing. The third season also returned to Morocco (including the city of Essaouira) to film Daenerys ' scenes in Essos. Dimmuborgir and the Grjótagjá cave in Iceland were used as well. One scene, with a live bear, was filmed in Los Angeles. The production used three units (Dragon, Wolf and Raven) filming in parallel, six directing teams, 257 cast members and 703 crew members.
The fourth season returned to Dubrovnik and included new locations, including Diocletian 's Palace in Split, Klis Fortress north of Split, Perun quarry east of Split, the Mosor mountain range, and Baška Voda further south. Thingvellir National Park in Iceland was used for the fight between Brienne and the Hound. Filming took 136 days and ended on November 21, 2013. The fifth season added Seville, Spain, used for scenes of Dorne, as well as Córdoba.
The sixth season, which began filming in July 2015, returned to Spain and filmed in Navarra, Guadalajara, Seville, Almeria Girona and Peniscola. Filming also returned to Dubrovnik, Croatia.
Filming of the seven episodes of season 7 began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, with other filming in Iceland, Northern Ireland and many locations in Spain. Spain filming locations included Seville, Cáceres, Almodovar del Rio, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. The series also filmed in Dubrovnik, which is used for location of King 's Landing. Filming continued until the end of February 2017 as necessary to ensure winter weather in some of the European locations.
Each ten - episode season of Game of Thrones has four to six directors, who usually direct back - to - back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series ' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: "Blackwater '' and "The Watchers on the Wall ''. Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.
Alik Sakharov was the pilot 's cinematographer. The series has had a number of cinematographers, and has received seven Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series nominations.
Oral Norrey Ottey, Frances Parker, Martin Nicholson, Crispin Green, Tim Porter and Katie Weiland have edited the series for a varying number of episodes. Weiland received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series in 2015.
Michele Clapton was costume designer for Game of Thrones ' first five seasons before she was replaced by April Ferry. Clapton will return to the show as costume designer for the seventh season.
The costumes used in the show drew inspiration from a number of sources, such as Japanese and Persian armour. Dothraki dress resembles that of the Bedouin (one was made out of fish skins to resemble dragon scales), and the Wildlings wear animal skins like the Inuit. Wildling bone armor is made from molds of actual bones, and is assembled with string and latex resembling catgut. Although the extras who play Wildlings and the Night 's Watch often wear hats (normal in a cold climate), members of the principal cast usually do not so viewers can distinguish the main characters. Björk 's Alexander McQueen high - neckline dresses inspired Margaery Tyrell 's funnel - neck outfit, and prostitutes ' dresses are designed for easy removal. All clothing used is aged for two weeks so it appears realistic on high - definition television.
About two dozen wigs are used for the actresses. Made of human hair and up to 2 feet (61 cm) in length, they cost up to $7,000 each and are washed and styled like real hair. Applying the wigs is time - consuming; Emilia Clarke, for example, requires about two hours to style her brunette hair with a platinum - blonde wig and braids. Other actors, such as Jack Gleeson and Sophie Turner, receive frequent hair coloring. For characters such as Daenerys (Clarke) and her Dothraki, their hair, wigs and costumes are processed to appear as if they have not been washed for weeks.
For the first three seasons, Paul Engelen was Game of Thrones ' main makeup designer and prosthetic makeup artist with Melissa Lackersteen, Conor O'Sullivan and Rob Trenton. At the beginning of the fourth season Engelen 's team was replaced by Jane Walker and her crew, composed of Ann McEwan and Barrie and Sarah Gower.
For the series ' large number of visual effects, HBO hired British - based BlueBolt and Irish - based Screen Scene for season one. Most of the environment builds were done as 2.5 D projections, giving viewers perspective while keeping the programming from being overwhelming. In 2011 the season - one finale, "Fire and Blood '', was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects.
Because the effects became more complex in subsequent seasons (including CGI creatures, fire, and water), German - based Pixomondo became the lead visual - effects producer; nine of its twelve facilities contributed to the project for season two, with Stuttgart the lead. Scenes were also produced by British - based Peanut FX, Canadian - based Spin VFX, and U.S. - based Gradient Effects. "Valar Morghulis '' and "Valar Dohaeris '' earned Pixomondo Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Visual Effects in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
For season four, HBO added German - based Mackevision to the project. The season - four finale, "The Children '', won the 2014 Emmy Award for Visual Effects. Additional producers for season four included Canadian - based Rodeo FX, German - based Scanline VFX and U.S. - based BAKED FX. The muscle and wing movements of the adolescent dragons in seasons four and five were based largely on those of a chicken. Pixomondo retained a team of 22 to 30 people which focused on visualizing Daenerys Targaryen 's dragons, with the average production time per season of 20 to 22 weeks. For the fifth season, HBO added Canadian - based Image Engine and U.S. - based Crazy Horse Effects to its list of main visual - effects producers.
Unusual for a television series, the sound team receives a rough cut of a full season and approaches it as a ten - hour feature film. Although seasons one and two had different sound teams, one team has been in charge of sound since then. For the show 's blood - and - gore sounds, the team often uses a chamois. For dragon screams, mating tortoises and dolphin, seal, lion and bird sounds have been used.
The series ' title sequence was created by production studio Elastic for HBO. Creative director Angus Wall and his collaborators received the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Main Title Design for the sequence, which depicts a three - dimensional map of the series ' fictional world. The map is projected on the inside of a sphere which is centrally lit by a small sun in an armillary sphere. As the camera moves across the map, focusing on the locations of the episode 's events, clockwork mechanisms intertwine and allow buildings and other structures to emerge from the map. Accompanied by the title music, the names of the principal cast and creative staff appear. The sequence concludes after about 90 seconds with the title card and brief opening credits indicating the episode 's writer (s) and director. Its composition changes as the story progresses, with new locations replacing those featuring less prominently or not at all.
The music for the series was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season 's soundtrack, written in about ten weeks before the show 's premiere, was published by Varèse Sarabande in June 2011. Soundtrack albums for subsequent seasons have been released, with tracks by the National, the Hold Steady and Sigur Rós. Djawadi has composed themes for each of the major houses and also for some of the main characters. The themes may evolve over time, as Daenerys Targaryen 's theme started small and then became more powerful after each season. Her theme started first with a single instrument, a cello, and Djawadi later incorporated more instruments for it.
The Westerosi characters of Game of Thrones speak British - accented English, often (but not consistently) with the accent of the English region corresponding to the character 's Westerosi region; Eddard Stark (Warden of the North) speaks in actor Sean Bean 's native northern accent, and the southern lord Tywin Lannister speaks with a southern accent, while characters from Dorne speak English with a Spanish accent. Characters foreign to Westeros often have a non-British accent.
Although English is the common language of Westeros, the producers charged linguist David J. Peterson with constructing Dothraki and Valyrian languages based on the few words in the novels; Dothraki and Valyrian dialogue is often subtitled in English. It has been reported that during the series these fictional languages have been heard by more people than the Welsh, Irish, and Scots Gaelic languages combined.
Game of Thrones is funded by Northern Ireland Screen, a UK government agency financed by Invest NI and the European Regional Development Fund. As of April 2013, Northern Ireland Screen gave the show £ 9.25 million ($14.37 million); according to government estimates, this has benefited the Northern Ireland economy by £ 65 million ($100.95 million).
Tourism Ireland has a Game of Thrones - themed marketing campaign similar to New Zealand 's Tolkien - related advertising. Invest NI and the Northern Ireland Tourist Board also expect the series to generate tourism revenue. According to Arlene Foster, the series has given Northern Ireland the most non-political publicity in its history. The production of Game of Thrones and other TV series also boosted Northern Ireland 's creative industries, contributing to an estimated 12.4 - percent growth in arts, entertainment and recreation jobs between 2008 and 2013 (compared with 4.3 percent in the rest of the UK during the same period).
Tourism organizations elsewhere reported increases in bookings after their locations appeared in Game of Thrones. In 2012, bookings through LateRooms.com increased by 28 percent in Dubrovnik and 13 percent in Iceland. The following year, bookings doubled in Ouarzazate, Morocco (the location of Daenerys ' season - three scenes). Game of Thrones has been attributed as a significant factor in the boom of tourism in Iceland that had a strong impact on its economy. Tourist numbers increased by 30 % in 2015, followed by another 40 % in 2016, with a final figure of 2.4 million visitors expected for 2016, which is around seven times the population of the country.
Game of Thrones is broadcast by HBO in the United States and by its local subsidiaries or other pay television services in other countries, at the same time as in the U.S. or weeks (or months) later. The series ' broadcast in China on CCTV, begun in 2014, was heavily edited to remove scenes of sex and violence in accordance with a Chinese practice of censoring Western TV series to prevent what the People 's Daily calls "negative effects and hidden security dangers ''. This resulted in viewer complaints about the incoherence of what remained. Broadcasters carrying Game of Thrones include Showcase in Australia; HBO Canada, Super Écran and Showcase in Canada; HBO Latin America in Latin America; SoHo and Prime in New Zealand, and Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
The ten episodes of the first season of Game of Thrones were released as a DVD and Blu - ray box set on March 6, 2012. The box set includes extra background and behind - the - scenes material but no deleted scenes, since nearly all the footage shot for the first season was used in the show. The box set sold over 350,000 copies in the first week after release, the largest first - week DVD sales ever for an HBO series, and the series set an HBO - series record for digital - download sales. A collector 's - edition box set was released in November 2012, combining the DVD and Blu - ray versions of the first season with the first episode of season two. A paperweight in the shape of a dragon egg is included in the set.
DVD - Blu - ray box sets and digital downloads of the second season became available on February 19, 2013. First - day sales broke HBO records, with 241,000 box sets sold and 355,000 episodes downloaded. The third season was made available for purchase as a digital download on the Australian iTunes Store, parallel to the U.S. premiere, and was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 18, 2014. The fourth season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on February 17, 2015, and the fifth season on March 15, 2016. The sixth season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. Beginning in 2016, HBO began issuing Steelbook Blu - ray sets which include both Dolby TrueHD 7.1 and Dolby Atmos audio options.
Game of Thrones has been widely pirated, primarily outside the U.S. According to the file - sharing news website TorrentFreak, Game of Thrones has been the most - pirated TV series each year since 2012. Illegal downloads increased to about seven million in the first quarter of 2015, up 45 percent from 2014. An unnamed episode was downloaded about 4,280,000 times through public BitTorrent trackers in 2012, roughly equal to its number of broadcast viewers. Piracy rates were particularly high in Australia, and U.S. Ambassador to Australia Jeff Bleich issued a statement condemning Australian piracy of the series in 2013.
Delays in availability apart from HBO and its affiliates before 2015 and the cost of subscriptions to these services have been cited as causes of the series ' illegal distribution. According to TorrentFreak, a subscription to a service for Game of Thrones would cost up to $25 per month in the United States, up to £ 26 per episode in the UK and up to $52 per episode in Australia.
For "combating piracy '', HBO said in 2013 that it intended to make its content more widely available within a week of the U.S. premiere (including HBO Go). In 2015, the fifth season was simulcast to 170 countries and to HBO Now users. On April 11, the day before the season premiere, screener copies of the first four episodes of the fifth season leaked to a number of file - sharing websites. Within a day of the leak, the files were downloaded over 800,000 times; in one week the illegal downloads reached 32 million, with the season - five premiere alone ("The Wars to Come '') pirated 13 million times. The season - five finale ("Mother 's Mercy '') was the most simultaneously shared file in the history of the BitTorrent filesharing protocol, with over 250,000 simultaneous sharers and over 1.5 million downloads in eight hours. For the sixth season, HBO did not send screeners to the press, so as to prevent the spread of unlicensed copies and possible spoilers.
Observers, including series director David Petrarca and Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes, said that illegal downloads did not hurt the series ' prospects; it benefited from "buzz '' and social commentary, and the high piracy rate did not significantly translate to lost subscriptions. According to Polygon, HBO 's relaxed attitude towards piracy and the sharing of login credentials amounted to a premium - television "free - to - play '' model. At a 2015 Oxford Union debate, series co-creator David Benioff said that he was just glad that people watched the show; illegally downloaded copies of the show sometimes interested viewers enough to buy a copy of the show, especially in countries where the show was not televised. Co-creator D.B. Weiss had mixed feelings, saying that the show was expensive to produce and "if it does n't make the money back, then it ceases to exist ''. However, he was pleased that so many people "enjoy the show so much they ca n't wait to get their hands on it. '' In 2015, Guinness World Records called Game of Thrones the most - pirated television program.
Beginning on January 23, 2015, the last two episodes of season four were shown in 205 IMAX theaters across the United States; Game of Thrones is the first TV series shown in this format. The show earned $686,000 at the box office on its opening day and $1.5 million during its opening weekend; the week - long release grossed $1,896,092.
Game of Thrones was highly anticipated by fans before its premiere, and has become a critical and commercial success. According to The Guardian, by 2014 it was "the biggest drama '' and "the most talked about show '' on television.
Although Game of Thrones was dismissed by some critics before it began, its success has been credited with an increase in the popularity of fantasy themes. On the eve of the second season 's premiere, a CNN.com blog post by Joel Williams read, "After this weekend, you may be hard pressed to find someone who is n't a fan of some form of epic fantasy '' and cited Ian Bogost as saying that the series continues a trend of successful screen adaptations beginning with Peter Jackson 's 2001 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the Harry Potter films establishing fantasy as a mass - market genre; they are "gateway drugs to fantasy fan culture ''. Its success in the face of its genre was attributed by writers to a longing for escapism in popular culture, frequent female nudity and a skill in balancing lighthearted and serious topics (dragons and politics, for example) which provided it with a prestige enjoyed by conventional, top - tier drama series.
The series ' popularity increased sales of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels (republished in tie - in editions), which remained at the top of bestseller lists for months. According to The Daily Beast, Game of Thrones was a favorite of sitcom writers and the series has been referred to in other TV series. With other fantasy series, it has been cited for an increase in the purchase (and abandonment) of huskies and other wolf - like dogs.
Game of Thrones has added to the popular vocabulary. The first season 's scene in which Petyr Baelish explains his motives (or background) while prostitutes had sex in the background gave rise to the word "sexposition '' for providing exposition with sex and nudity. "Dothraki '', the series ' nomadic horsemen, was ranked fourth in a September 2012 Global Language Monitor list of words from television most used on the Internet. In 2012, the media used "Game of Thrones '' as a figure of speech or comparison for situations of intense conflict and deceit, such as the 2012 United States Supreme Court decision regarding healthcare reform legislation, the Syrian Civil War and the ousting of Bo Xilai from the Chinese government.
"Khaleesi '' has increased in popularity as a name for baby girls in the United States. In the novels and the TV series, the word is a title meaning the wife of a Khal (warlord) in the Dothraki language held by Daenerys Targaryen, and not actually a name.
Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim, although the series ' frequent use of nudity and violence has been criticized. Its seasons have appeared on annual "best of '' lists published by The Washington Post (2011), TIME (2011 and 2012) and The Hollywood Reporter (2012).
The performances of the cast have also been praised. Peter Dinklage 's "charming, morally ambiguous, and self - aware '' Tyrion, who earned him Emmy and Golden Globe awards, was noted. "In many ways, Game of Thrones belongs to Dinklage '', wrote Mary McNamara of the L.A. Times before Tyrion became the series ' central figure in season two. Several critics highlighted performances by actresses and children. Fourteen - year - old Maisie Williams, noted in the first season for her debut as Arya Stark, was singled out for her season - two work with veteran actor Charles Dance (Tywin Lannister).
First - season reviewers said the series had high production values, a fully realized world and compelling characters. According to Variety, "There may be no show more profitable to its network than ' Game of Thrones ' is to HBO. Fully produced by the pay cabler and already a global phenomenon after only one season, the fantasy skein was a gamble that has paid off handsomely ''.
The second season was also well received by critics. Entertainment Weekly praised its "vivid, vital, and just plain fun '' storytelling and, according to the Hollywood Reporter, the show made a "strong case for being one of TV 's best series ''; its seriousness made it the only drama comparable to Mad Men or Breaking Bad. The New York Times gave the series a mixed review, criticizing its number of characters, their lack of complexity and a meandering plot.
The third season was very well received by critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 91 out of 100 (indicating "universal acclaim ''). The fourth season was also praised; Metacritic gave it a score of 94 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, again indicating "universal acclaim ''. The fifth season was also well received by critics and has a score of 91 out of 100 (based on 29 reviews) on Metacritic. The sixth season has been praised by critics. It has a score of 73 out of 100 (based on nine reviews) on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The seventh season has a score of 77 out of 100 (based on twelve reviews) on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The series has a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 44 reviews. All episodes had positive reviews of 91 percent or higher on Rotten Tomatoes, and a 97 - percent rating (based on 50 reviews) for the season as a whole. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 95 percent and an average score of 8.6 out of 10 (based on 52 reviews). The season has a rating of 96 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 29 reviews. After the first episode aired, the seventh season held a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 29 reviews.
Despite its otherwise enthusiastic reception by critics, Game of Thrones has been criticized for the amount of female nudity, violence, and sexual violence (especially against women) it depicts, and for the manner in which it depicts these themes. The Atlantic called the series ' "tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and -- especially -- sexual violence '' of the source material "the defining weakness '' of the adaptation. George R.R. Martin responded that he feels obliged to be truthful about history and human nature, and that rape and sexual violence are common in war; and that omitting them from the narrative would have rung false and undermined one of his novels ' themes, its historical realism. HBO said that they "fully support the vision and artistry of Dan and David 's exceptional work and we feel this work speaks for itself. ''
The amount of sex and nudity in the series, especially in scenes that are incidental to the plot, was the focus of much of the criticism aimed at the series in its first and second seasons. Stephen Dillane, who portrays Stannis Baratheon, likened the series ' frequent explicit scenes to "German porn from the 1970s ''. Charlie Anders wrote in io9 that while the first season was replete with light - hearted "sexposition '', the second season appeared to focus on distasteful, exploitative, and dehumanizing sex with little informational content. According to The Washington Post 's Anna Holmes, the nude scenes appeared to be aimed mainly at titillating heterosexual men, right down to the Brazilian waxes sported by the women in the series ' faux - medieval setting, which made these scenes alienating to other viewers. The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan likewise noted that Game of Thrones mostly presented women naked, rather than men, and that the excess of "random boobage '' undercut any aspirations the series might have to address the oppression of women in a feudal society. Saturday Night Live parodied this aspect of the adaptation in a sketch that portrayed the series as retaining a thirteen - year - old boy as a consultant whose main concern was showing as many breasts as possible.
In the third season, which saw Theon Greyjoy lengthily tortured and eventually emasculated, the series was also criticized for its use of torture. New York magazine called the scene "torture porn. '' Madeleine Davies of Jezebel agreed, saying, "it 's not uncommon that Game of Thrones gets accused of being torture porn -- senseless, objectifying violence combined with senseless, objectifying sexual imagery. '' According to Davies, although the series ' violence tended to serve a narrative purpose, Theon 's torture in "The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' was excessive.
A scene in the fourth season 's episode "Breaker of Chains '', in which Jaime Lannister rapes his sister and lover Cersei, triggered a broad public discussion about the series ' depiction of sexual violence against women. According to Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times, the scene caused outrage, in part because of comments by director Alex Graves that the scene became "consensual by the end ''. Itzkoff also wrote that critics fear that "rape has become so pervasive in the drama that it is almost background noise: a routine and unshocking occurrence ''. Sonia Saraiya of The A.V. Club wrote that the series ' choice to portray this sexual act, and a similar one between Daenerys Targaryen and Khal Drogo in the first season -- both described as consensual in the source novels -- as a rape appeared to be an act of "exploitation for shock value ''.
In the fifth season 's episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken '', Sansa Stark is raped by Ramsay Bolton. Most reviewers, including those from Vanity Fair, Salon, The Atlantic, and The Daily Beast, found the scene gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. For example, Joanna Robinson, writing for Vanity Fair, said that the scene "undercuts all the agency that 's been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. '' In contrast, Sara Stewart of The New York Post wondered why viewers were not similarly upset about the many background and minor characters who 'd undergone similar or worse treatment. In response to the scene, pop culture website The Mary Sue announced that it would cease coverage of the series because of the repeated use of rape as a plot device, and U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill said that she would no longer watch it.
As the sixth and seventh seasons saw Daenerys, Sansa and Cersei assume ruling positions, Alyssa Rosenberg of the Washington Post noted that the series could be seen as a "long - arc revenge fantasy about what happens when women who have been brutalized and raped gain power '' -- namely, that their past leaves them too broken to do anything but commit brutal acts in their own turn, and that their personal liberation does not effect the social change needed to protect others from suffering.
A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones have a broad, active international fan base. In 2012 Vulture.com ranked the series ' fans as the most devoted in popular culture, more so than Lady Gaga 's, Justin Bieber 's, Harry Potter 's or Star Wars '. Fans include political leaders such as former U.S. president Barack Obama, former British prime minister David Cameron, former Australian prime minister Julia Gillard and Dutch foreign minister Frans Timmermans, who framed European politics in quotes from Martin 's novels in a 2013 speech.
BBC News said in 2013 that "the passion and the extreme devotion of fans '' had created a phenomenon unlike anything related to other popular TV series, manifesting itself in fan fiction, Game of Thrones - themed burlesque routines and parents naming their children after series characters; writers quoted attributed this success to the rich detail, moral ambiguity, sexual explicitness and epic scale of the series and novels. The previous year, "Arya '' was the fastest - rising girl 's name in the U.S. after it jumped in popularity from 711th to 413th place.
In 2013 about 58 percent of series viewers were male and 42 percent female, and the average male viewer was 41 years old. According to SBS Broadcasting Group marketing director Helen Kellie, Game of Thrones has a high fan - engagement rate; 5.5 percent of the series ' 2.9 million Facebook fans talked online about the series in 2012, compared to 1.8 percent of the more than ten million fans of True Blood (HBO 's other fantasy series). Vulture.com cited Westeros.org and WinterIsComing.net (news and discussion forums), ToweroftheHand.com (which organizes communal readings of the novels) and Podcastoficeandfire.com as fan sites dedicated to the TV and novel series; and podcasts cover Game of Thrones.
Game of Thrones has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, 5 Screen Actors Guild Award, and a Peabody Award. It holds the Emmy - award record for a scripted television series, ahead of Frasier (which received 37). In 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed Game of Thrones as the 40th "best written '' series in television history. In 2015 The Hollywood Reporter placed it at number four on their "best TV shows ever '' list, while in 2016 the show was placed seventh on Empire 's "The 50 best TV shows ever ''. The same year Rolling Stone named it the twelfth "greatest TV Show of all time ''.
The 2011 first season received 13 nominations (including Outstanding Drama Series), and won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (given to Peter Dinklage for his portrayal of Tyrion Lannister) and Outstanding Main Title Design. Other nominations included Outstanding Directing ("Winter Is Coming '') and Outstanding Writing ("Baelor ''). Dinklage was also named Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globe, Satellite and Scream Awards.
In 2012, the second season received six Creative Arts Emmy Awards from 11 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage).
The 2013 third season received 16 Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Emilia Clarke), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Diana Rigg) and Outstanding Writing ("The Rains of Castamere ''), winning two Creative Arts Emmys.
In 2014 the fourth season received four Creative Arts Emmys from 19 nominations, which included Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Lena Headey), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Rigg), Outstanding Directing ("The Watchers on the Wall '') and Outstanding Writing ("The Children '').
The 2015 fifth season won the most Primetime Emmy Awards for a series in a year (12 awards from 24 nominations), including Outstanding Drama Series; other wins included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Directing ("Mother 's Mercy '') and Outstanding Writing ("Mother 's Mercy ''), and eight were Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
In 2016, the sixth season received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards (23). It won for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), Outstanding Writing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), and nine Creative Arts Emmys. Nominations included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage and Kit Harington), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Clarke, Headey and Maisie Williams), Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Max von Sydow) and Outstanding Directing ("The Door '').
The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday - night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on - demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode. For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most - viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos). For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record. By the sixth season the average per - episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is ''. In season seven, the viewers numbers averaged at over 30 millions per episode across all platforms.
The series set records on pay - television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms) and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).
The following graph indicates first - airing viewer numbers in the US:
The series has inspired four video games based on the TV series and novels. The strategy game Game of Thrones Ascent ties into the HBO series, making characters and settings available to players as they appear on television.
HBO has licensed a variety of merchandise based on Game of Thrones, including games, replica weapons and armor, jewelry, bobblehead dolls by Funko, beer by Ommegang and apparel. High - end merchandise includes a $10,500 Ulysse Nardin wristwatch and a $30,000 resin replica of the Iron Throne. In 2013 and 2014, a traveling exhibition of costumes, props, armor and weapons from the series visited major cities in Europe and the Americas.
Thronecast: The Official Guide to Game of Thrones, a series of podcasts presented by Geoff Lloyd and produced by Koink, has been released on the Sky Atlantic website and the UK iTunes store during the series ' run; a new podcast, with analysis and cast interviews, is released after each episode. In 2014 and 2015 HBO commissioned Catch the Throne, two rap albums about the series.
A companion book, Inside HBO 's Game of Thrones (ISBN 978 - 1 - 4521 - 1010 - 3) by series writer Bryan Cogman, was published on September 27, 2012. The 192 - page book, illustrated with concept art and behind - the - scenes photographs, covers the creation of the series ' first two seasons and its principal characters and families.
After the Thrones is a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series. It airs on HBO Now the Monday after each sixth - season episode. The Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience, a 28 - city orchestral tour which will perform the series ' soundtrack with composer Ramin Djawadi, is scheduled to begin February 15, 2017 in Kansas City, Missouri.
After years of speculation about possible successor shows, in May 2017 HBO commissioned five screenwriters -- Max Borenstein, Jane Goldman, Brian Helgeland, Carly Wray and a fifth writer yet to be announced -- to develop individual Game of Thrones successor series. All of the writers are to be working individually with George R.R. Martin. Martin said that all the concepts under discussion are prequels, and some may be set outside Westeros. He also ruled out Robert 's Rebellion (the overthrow of Daenerys 's father by Robert Baratheon) as a possible idea. D.B. Weiss and David Benioff said that they would not be involved with any of the projects, and want to enjoy the successor series as fans. Martin is co-writing two of the four announced scripts. In September 2017, it was announced that Game of Thrones writer Bryan Cogman would be developing a fifth prequel series.
Each season 's individual Blu - ray and DVD set contains several short animated sequences narrated by the show 's cast as their characters as they detail various different events in the history of Westeros. For the seventh season release, it will include the animated prequel series Game of Thrones: Conquest & Rebellion, which is illustrated in a different animation style than previous videos. The series focuses on Aegon Targaryen 's conquest of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros.
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what verse of the bible was sinners in the hands of an angry god based on | Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God - wikipedia
"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God '' is a sermon written by British Colonial Christian theologian Jonathan Edwards, preached to his own congregation in Northampton, Massachusetts to unknown effect, and again on July 8, 1741 in Enfield, Connecticut. Like Edwards ' other works, it combines vivid imagery of Hell with observations of the world and citations of the scripture. It is Edwards ' most famous written work, is a fitting representation of his preaching style, and is widely studied by Christians and historians, providing a glimpse into the theology of the Great Awakening of c. 1730 -- 1755.
This is a typical sermon of the Great Awakening, emphasizing the belief that Hell is a real place. Edwards hoped that the imagery and language of his sermon would awaken audiences to the horrific reality that he believed awaited them should they continue without calling on Christ to be saved. The underlying point is that God has given humanity a chance to confess their sins. Edwards says that it is the mere will of God that keeps wicked men from the depths of Hell. This act of restraint has given humanity a chance to mend their ways and return to Christ.
"There is nothing that keeps wicked men at any one moment out of hell, but the mere pleasure of God. ''
Most of the sermon 's text consists of ten "considerations '':
One church in Enfield, Connecticut, had been largely unaffected during the Great Awakening of New England. Edwards was invited by the pastor of the church to preach to them. Edwards 's aim was to teach his listeners about the horrors of hell, the dangers of sin and the terrors of being lost. Edwards described the shaky position of those who do not follow Christ 's urgent call to receive forgiveness.
In the final section of "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, '' Edwards shows his theological argument throughout scripture and biblical history. Invoking stories and examples throughout the whole Bible. Edwards ends the sermon with one final appeal, "Therefore let everyone that is out of Christ, now awake and fly from the wrath to come. '' According to Edwards, only by returning to Christ can one escape the stark fate he outlines.
Jonathan Edwards was interrupted many times before finishing the sermon by people moaning and crying out, "What shall I do to be saved? '' Although the sermon has received criticism, Edwards ' words have endured and are still read to this day. Edwards ' sermon continues to be the leading example of a Great Awakening sermon and is still used in religious and academic studies.
Since the 1950s, a number of critical perspectives were used to analyse the sermon. The first comprehensive academic analysis of "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God '' was published by Edwin Cady in 1949, who comments on the imagery of the sermon and distinguishes between the "cliché '' and "fresh '' figurative images, stressing how the former related to the colonial life. Lee Stuart questions that the message of the sermon was solely negative and attributes its success to the final passages in which the sinners are actually "comforted ''. Rosemary Hearn argues that it is the logical structure of the sermon that constitutes its most important persuasive element. Lemay looks into the changes in the syntactic categories, like grammatical tenses, in the text of the sermon. Lukasik stresses how in the sermon Edwards appropriates Newtonian physics, especially the image of the gravitational pull that would relentlessly bring the sinners down. Gallagher focuses on the "beat '' of the sermon, and on how the consecutive structural elements of the sermon serve different persuasive aims. Choiński suggests that the rhetorical success of the sermon consists in the use of the "deictic shift '' that transported the hearers mentally into the figurative images of hell.
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when does season 6 of the hundred start | The 100 (TV series) - wikipedia
The 100 (pronounced The Hundred) is an American post-apocalyptic science fiction drama television series that premiered on March 19, 2014, on The CW. The series, developed by Jason Rothenberg, is loosely based on the novel series of the same name by Kass Morgan.
The series follows a group of post-apocalyptic survivors, chiefly a group of adolescents, including Clarke Griffin (Eliza Taylor), Bellamy Blake (Bob Morley), Octavia Blake (Marie Avgeropoulos), Jasper Jordan (Devon Bostick), Monty Green (Christopher Larkin), Raven Reyes (Lindsey Morgan), Finn Collins (Thomas McDonell), John Murphy (Richard Harmon), and Wells Jaha (Eli Goree). They are among the first people from a space habitat, "The Ark '', to return to Earth after a devastating nuclear apocalypse. Other lead characters include Dr. Abby Griffin (Paige Turco), Clarke 's mother; Marcus Kane (Henry Ian Cusick), a council member on the Ark; and Thelonious Jaha (Isaiah Washington), the Chancellor of the Ark and Wells 's father.
In March 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fifth season, which premiered on April 24, 2018. In May 2018, the series was renewed for a sixth season.
The series is set 97 years after a devastating nuclear apocalypse wiped out almost all life on Earth. Over 2,400 survivors live on a single massive station in Earth 's orbit called the Ark, built by connecting surviving pre-apocalypse smaller stations and spacecraft. After the Ark 's life - support systems are found to be failing, 100 juvenile prisoners are sent to the surface in a last attempt to determine whether Earth is habitable. They discover not all humanity was destroyed and some survived the apocalypse: the Grounders, who live in clans locked in a power struggle; the Reapers, another group of Grounders who have become cannibals; and the Mountain Men, who live in Mount Weather, descended from those who locked themselves away before the apocalypse. Under the leadership of Bellamy and Clarke, the 100 attempt to survive the harsh surface conditions, battle hostile Grounders, and establish communication with the Ark.
In the second season, most of the remaining 48 of the 100 are captured and taken to Mount Weather by the Mountain Men. It is eventually revealed that the Mountain Men are transfusing blood from imprisoned Grounders as an anti-radiation treatment. Medical tests of the 100 show an even more potent anti-radiation efficacy: their bone marrow will allow the Mountain Men to survive outside containment. Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the Ark have successfully crash - landed various stations on Earth and begun an alliance with the Grounders to save groups of people, naming the main settlement at Alpha Station "Camp Jaha ''.
In the third season, Alpha Station, now renamed Arkadia, comes under new management when Pike, a former teacher and mentor, is elected as chancellor and begins a war with the Grounders. An artificial intelligence named A.L.I.E. who was commanded to make life better for mankind, is revealed to have responded by solving the problem of human overpopulation by launching the nuclear apocalypse that devastated Earth. The AI takes over the minds of nearly everyone in Arkadia and Polis, the capital city of the Grounders. In the season three finale, Clarke manages to destroy A.L.I.E.
In the fourth season, hundreds of nuclear reactors around the world are melting down due to decades of neglect that will result in 96 % of the planet becoming uninhabitable. Clarke and the others search for ways to survive the coming wave of radiation. When it is discovered that Nightbloods, descendants of first, original Nightbloods, including Becca -- the creator of A.L.I.E. and the first Grounder commander -- can metabolize radiation, Clarke and the others attempt to recreate the formula, but their attempts failed. An old bunker is discovered that can protect 1,200 people for over 5 years; each of the twelve clans select a hundred people to stay in the bunker. A small group decides to return to space and attempt to survive in the remnants of the original Ark.
In the fifth season, which takes place six years after the meltdown of the nuclear reactors, a prisoner transport ship arrives in the only green spot left on Earth, where Clarke and Madi, a Nightblood Grounder who also survived the wave of radiation that swept the planet after the meltdown, have been living. Meanwhile, those who survived in space and in the bunker, have returned safely on the ground. Now, a struggle for the Shallow Valley, between the prisoners and a new, united clan, known as Wonkru, begins. Later, the heroes must find a way to prevent another disaster from ever happening. In the fifth season finale, however, the valley is destroyed and the surviving human race were sent to a new planet to begin their new lives.
The 100 premiered on March 19, 2014. On May 8, 2014, The CW renewed The 100 for a second season, which premiered on October 22, 2014. On January 11, 2015, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on January 21, 2016. On March 12, 2016, The 100 was renewed for a fourth season of 13 episodes, which premiered on February 1, 2017. On March 10, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fifth season, which premiered on April 24, 2018. On May 8, 2018, the series was renewed for a sixth season.
Post production, including ADR recording for the series, was done at the recording studio Cherry Beach Sound.
David J. Peterson, who created Dothraki for Game of Thrones, developed the Trigedasleng language for The Grounders. Jason Rothenberg said it was similar to Creole English. The language is called "Trig '' on the show.
After his constructed language work on Star - Crossed, Peterson was contacted by the producers of The 100 to create a language for the Grounders, an evolution of English. In the setting, around 250 years have passed since the apocalypse, which is a very short time for significant language change. Because of this, Peterson posited an accelerated evolution in which the early Grounders used a cant specifically to obfuscate their speech and to differentiate between friend or foe. Trigedasleng derives from that cant and evolved over several short generations of survivors of the apocalypse.
Filming for the series takes place in and around Vancouver, British Columbia. Production on the pilot occurred during the second quarter of 2013. After the show was picked up to series, filming occurred for the first season between August 2013 and January 2014. Filming for the second season commenced on July 7, 2014, and concluded on January 23, 2015. The third season was filmed between July 15, 2015, and February 2, 2016. Filming for the fourth season commenced on August 2, 2016, and concluded on January 18, 2017. Filming for the fifth season commenced on August 14, 2017, and wrapped up on January 27, 2018.
In late February 2013, Bob Morley and Eli Goree were cast as Bellamy Blake and Wells Jaha, respectively, followed a day later by the casting of Henry Ian Cusick as Marcus Kane. Less than a week later, Eliza Taylor and Marie Avgeropoulos were cast in co-starring roles as Clarke Griffin and Octavia Blake, respectively. Throughout March, the rest of the cast was filled out, with Paige Turco cast as Abigail Walters (now Abigail Griffin), Isaiah Washington as Chancellor Jaha, Thomas McDonnell as Finn Collins, Kelly Hu as Callie Cartwig, and Christopher Larkin as Monty Green.
For the second season, Adina Porter and Raymond J. Barry were cast in recurring roles as Indra and Dante Wallace, respectively, along with Alycia Debnam - Carey as Lexa.
In Canada, Season 1 of The 100 was licensed exclusively to Netflix. The series premiered on March 20, 2014, the day after the mid-season premiere of Season 1 on the CW.
In New Zealand, the series premiered on TVNZ 's on - demand video streaming service on March 21, 2014.
In the UK and Ireland, The 100 premiered on E4 on July 7, 2014. The first episode was viewed by an average audience of 1.39 million, making it the channel 's biggest ever program launch. Season 2 premiered on January 6, 2015, and averaged 1,118,000 viewers. Season 3 premiered on February 17, 2016.
In Australia, The 100 was originally scheduled to premiere on Go! but instead premiered on Fox8 on September 4, 2014. Season 2 premiered on January 8, 2015.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the show 's first season was certified "fresh '', with 72 % of professional reviewers reviewing it positively and the consensus: "Although flooded with stereotypes, the suspenseful atmosphere helps make The 100 a rare high - concept guilty pleasure. '' On Metacritic, the first season scores 63 out of 100 points, based on 26 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
The second season was met with more favorable reviews, holding a rating of 100 % on Rotten Tomatoes and an average rating of 8.1 / 10. On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 81 out of 100, based on 2 critics. In a review of the season 2 finale, Kyle Fowle of The A.V. Club said, "Very few shows manage to really push the boundaries of moral compromise in a way that feels legitimately difficult. Breaking Bad did it. The Sopranos did it. Game of Thrones has done it. Those shows never back down from the philosophical murkiness of their worlds, refusing to provide a tidy, happy ending if it does n't feel right. With ' Blood Must Have Blood, Part Two, ' The 100 has done the same, presenting a finale that does n't shy away from the morally complex stakes it 's spent a whole season building up ''. Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post, in another positive review, wrote: "I can say with some assurance that I 've rarely seen a program demonstrate the kind of consistency and thematic dedication that The 100 has shown in its first two seasons. This is a show about moral choices and the consequences of those choices, and it 's been laudably committed to those ideas from Day 1. ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season received an overall rating of 89 % with an average rating of 7.9 / 10. On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 77 out of 100, based on 3 critics, indicating generally positive reviews. Maureen Ryan of Variety wrote in an early review of the third season: "When looking at the epic feel and varied array of stories on display in season three, which overtly and covertly recalls "The Lord of the Rings '' saga in a number of ways, it 's almost hard to recall how limited the scope and the ambitions of "The 100 '' were two years ago, when a rag - tag band of survivors first crash - landed on Earth. In season three (which the cast and showrunner previewed here), the show is more politically complicated than ever, and the world - building that accompanies the depiction of various factions, alliances and conflicts is generally admirable. '' In a review of the season 3 finale "Perverse Instantiation: Part Two '', Mariya Karimjee of Vulture.com wrote: "Every moment of this finale is pitch - perfect: the choreography of the fight scenes, the plotting and pacing, and the stunning way in which the episode finally reaches it apex. "Perverse Instantiation: Part Two '' elevates the season 's themes and pulls together its disparate story lines, setting us up nicely for season four. '' In another review of the season 3 finale and the season overall, Kyle Fowle of The A.V. Club wrote: "Before we even get to tonight 's action - packed finale of The 100, it needs to be said that this has been a rocky season. The first half of it was defined by shoddy character motivations and oversized villains. The second half of this season has done some work to bring the show back from the brink, focusing on the City of Light and issues of freewill and difficult moral choices, bringing some much needed depth to the third season. That work pays off with "Perverse Instantiation: Part Two, '' a thrilling, forward - thinking finale that provides some necessary closure to this season. '' He gave the finale itself an "A - '' rating.
The fourth season is generally considered to be an improvement over the third season, receiving a 92 % score on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7.3 / 10 based on 12 reviews. On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 80 out of 100, based on 1 critic, indicating generally positive reviews. The second portion of the fourth season has received better reception than the first portion, with the episodes Die All, Die Merrily and Praimfaya often cited as the two best episodes of the season. Die All, Die Merrily has a 9.5 / 10 rating from IGN, a perfect 5 / 5 rating from Vulture and a perfect A rating from The AV Club. Praimfaya has a 9.0 / 10 from IGN and an A rating from The AV Club.
The fifth season currently has a 100 % score on Rotten Tomatoes with an average of 9.2 / 10. This is the highest rating any season of the show has received to date. On Metacritic, the season is assigned a score of 80 out of 100, based on 1 critic, indicating generally positive reviews. All episodes of the season received highly positive reviews, but the third episode Sleeping Giants has received particular high acclaim. In a 4.5 / 5 review from Den of Geek, the episode is described as being a "good ol ' fashioned episode of The 100 '', praising its balance of action, humour, and rich relationships. The episode also gained a 4.5 / 5 rating from TVOverMind, praising the "pulse - pounding action '' and approach to problem solving.
Brian Lowry of The Boston Globe said: "Our attraction to Apocalypse TV runs deep, as our culture plays out different futuristic possibilities. That 's still no reason to clone material, nor is it a reason to deliver characters who are little more than stereotypes. '' Allison Keene of The Hollywood Reporter wrote a negative review, stating: "The sci - fi drama presents The CW 's ultimate vision for humanity: an Earth populated only by attractive teenagers, whose parents are left out in space. '' Kelly West of Cinema Blend gave it a more positive review while noting: "CW 's Thrilling New Sci - fi Drama Is A Keeper. CW 's The 100 seeks to explore that concept and more with a series that 's about equal parts young adult drama, sci - fi adventure and thriller. It takes a little while for the series to warm up, but when The 100 begins to hit its stride, a unique and compelling drama begins to emerge. '' IGN 's editor Eric Goldman also gave the show a more positive review, writing: "Overcoming most of its early growing pains pretty quickly, The 100 was a very strong show by the end of its first season. But Season 2 elevated the series into the upper echelon, as the show become one of the coolest and most daring series on TV these days. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety named the show one of the best of 2015.
In 2016, the year Rolling Stone ranked the show # 36 on its list of the "40 Best Science Fiction TV Shows of All Time '', the episode "Thirteen '' attracted criticism when Lexa, one of the series ' LGBT characters, was killed off. Critics and fans considered the death a continuation of a persistent trope in television in which LGBT characters are killed off far more often than others -- implicitly portraying them as disposable, as existing only to serve the stories of straight characters, or to attract viewers. A widespread debate among writers and fans about the trope ensued, with Lexa 's death cited as a prime example of the trope, and why it should end. Showrunner Jason Rothenberg eventually wrote in response that "I (...) write and produce television for the real world where negative and hurtful tropes exist. And I am very sorry for not recognizing this as fully as I should have ''.
An estimated 2.7 million American viewers watched the series premiere, which received an 18 -- 49 rating of 0.9, making it the most - watched show in its time slot on The CW since 2010, with the series Life Unexpected.
For the second season, see "The 100: Season Two Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. March 12, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2017.
For the third season, see "The 100: Season Three Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. May 20, 2016. Retrieved July 27, 2017.
For the fourth season, see "The 100: Season Four Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. May 25, 2017. Retrieved July 27, 2017.
For the fifth season, see "The 100: Season Five Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. April 25, 2018. Retrieved April 25, 2018.
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how far atmosphere extends from the surface of earth | Atmosphere of Earth - wikipedia
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth 's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
By volume, dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen, 20.95 % oxygen, 0.93 % argon, 0.04 % carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1 % at sea level, and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 × 10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.
The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann.
The three major constituents of Earth 's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25 % of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5 % by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, also see volume (thermodynamics) ppmv: parts per million by volume Water vapor is about 0.25 % by mass over full atmosphere Water vapor strongly varies locally
The relative concentration of gasses remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature / altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth 's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free - moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.
The thermosphere is the second - highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500 -- 1000 km (310 -- 620 mi; 1,600,000 -- 3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth 's surface, contains the ionosphere.
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 ° C (2700 ° F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi).
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80 -- 85 km (50 -- 53 mi; 260,000 -- 280,000 ft) above sea level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around − 85 ° C (− 120 ° F; 190 K).
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar - mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning - induced discharges known as transient luminous events (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet - powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket - powered aircraft.
The stratosphere is the second - lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth 's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1 / 1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth 's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be − 60 ° C (− 76 ° F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 ° C.
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather - producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet - powered aircraft.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from Earth 's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth 's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn ''). The troposphere contains roughly 80 % of the mass of Earth 's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth 's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather - associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller - driven aircraft.
Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth 's surface is 14 ° C (57 ° F; 287 K) or 15 ° C (59 ° F; 288 K), depending on the reference.
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480 × 10 kg (1.135 × 10 lb), about 2.5 % less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth 's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth 's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather.
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1 / e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.
In summary, the mass of Earth 's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:
By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth 's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350 -- 400 km, within the F - layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700 -- 800 km.
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly - named thermosphere above 90 km.
Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg / m (1.2 g / L, 0.0012 g / cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.
The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5 × 10) tonnes or 1 / 1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 × 10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 × 10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 × 10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ± 0.0003 × 10 kg. ''
Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we can not see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.
When light passes through Earth 's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you can not see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun 's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O and O absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows '' of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet - C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400 -- 700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven - meter waves.
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body '' emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 ° C; 10,340 ° F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 ° C; 62 ° F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth 's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO and H O.
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth 's surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.
Atmospheric circulation is the large - scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large - scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth 's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia.
Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases. A major part of carbon - dioxide emissions dissolved in water and reacted with metals such as calcium and magnesium during weathering of crustal rocks to form carbonates that were deposited as sediments. Water - related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.
About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere ''. The influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life - forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30 % lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox ''.
The geological record however shows a continuous relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth -- with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archean Eon an oxygen - containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago.
Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth 's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long - term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.
Before this time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. O showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15 % by the end of the Precambrian. The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, oxygen - requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30 % around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today 's 21 %. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today 's atmosphere contains 21 % oxygen, which is great enough for this rapid development of animals.
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone - depleting substances.
The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.
On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.
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when is decantation process applicable in separating solids from liquids | Decantation - wikipedia
Decantation is a process for the separation of mixtures of immiscible liquids or of a liquid and a solid mixture such as a suspension. The layer closer to the top of the container -- the less dense of the two liquids, or the liquid from which the precipitate or sediment has settled out -- is poured off, leaving the other component or the more dense liquid of the mixture behind. An incomplete separation is witnessed during the separation of two immiscible liquids.
Decantation can be used to separate immiscible liquids that have different densities. For example, when a mixture of water and oil are present in a beaker, a distinct layer between the two consistency is formed, with the oil layer floating on top of the water layer. This separation can be done by pouring oil out of the container, leaving water behind. Generally, this technique gives an incomplete separation as it is difficult to pour off all of the top layer without pouring out some parts of the bottom layer.
A separatory funnel is an alternative apparatus for separating liquid layers. It has a valve at the bottom to allow draining off the bottom layer. It can give a better separation between the two liquids.
Decantation can also separate solid and liquid mixtures by allowing gravity to pull the solid fragments to settle at the bottom of the container. In laboratory situations, decantation of mixtures containing solids and liquids occur in test tubes. To enhance productivity, test tubes should be placed at a 45 ° angle to allow sediments to settle at the bottom of the apparatus.
A centrifuge may also be used in decantation as the natural process of settling down is time consuming and tedious. A centrifuge forces the precipitate to the bottom of the container; if the force is high enough, solids can aggregate to form pellets, making it easier to separate the mixtures. Then the liquid can be more easily poured away, as the precipitate will tend to remain in its compressed form.
Decantation is frequently used to purify a liquid by separating it from a suspension of insoluble particles (e.g. in red wine, where the wine is decanted from the potassium bitartrate crystals to avoid unsavory taste). This makes the wine more tonic and astringent.
Cream accelerates to the top of milk, allowing the separation of milk and cream. Fat is determined in butter by decantation.
To obtain a sample of clear water from muddy water, muddy water is left in a container until the mud settles, and then the clear water is poured into another container.
In sugar industry, processing of sugar beets into granular sugar many liquid - solid separations are encountered e.g. separation of syrups from crystals.
Decantation is also present in nanotechnology. In the synthesis of high quality silver nanowire (AgNW) solutions and fabrication process of high performance electrodes, decantation is also being applied which greatly simplifies the purification process.
After using a desiccant to absorb water from an organic liquid, the organic liquid can often be decanted away from the desiccant.
The process of deriving vinegar also requires decantation to remove fats from the raw substance.
Plasma can be separated from blood through decantation by using a centrifuge.
Mercury is disposed off in water bodies during mining, turning the water unfit and toxic. The elimination of mercury from water can be done by decantation.
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what is the average speed of a f1 car | Formula One car - wikipedia
A Formula One car is a single - seat, open cockpit, open - wheel racing car with substantial front and rear wings, and an engine positioned behind the driver, intended to be used in competition at Formula One racing events. The regulations governing the cars are unique to the championship. The Formula One regulations specify that cars must be constructed by the racing teams themselves, though the design and manufacture can be outsourced.
The modern - day Formula One cars are constructed from composites of carbon fibre and similar ultra-lightweight materials. The minimum weight permissible is 728 kg (1,605 lb) including the driver but not fuel. Cars are weighed with dry - weather tyres fitted. Prior to the 2014 F1 season, cars often weighed in under this limit so teams added ballast in order to add weight to the car. The advantage of using ballast is that it can be placed anywhere in the car to provide ideal weight distribution. This can help lower the car 's centre of gravity to improve stability and also allows the team to fine - tune the weight distribution of the car to suit individual circuits.
The 2006 Formula One season saw the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) introduce a then - new engine formula, which mandated cars to be powered by 2.4 - litre naturally aspirated engines in the V8 engine configuration, with no more than four valves per cylinder. Further technical restrictions, such as a ban on variable intake trumpets, have also been introduced with the new 2.4 L V8 formula to prevent the teams from achieving higher RPM and horsepower too quickly. The 2009 season limited engines to 18,000 rpm in order to improve engine reliability and cut costs.
For a decade, F1 cars had run with 3.0 - litre naturally aspirated engines with all teams settling on a V10 layout by the end of the period; however, development had led to these engines producing between 980 and 1,000 hp (730 and 750 kW), and the cars reaching top speeds of 375 km / h (233 mph) (Jacques Villeneuve with Sauber - Ferrari) on the Monza circuit. Teams started to use exotic alloys in the late 1990s, leading to the FIA banning the use of exotic materials in engine construction, with only aluminium, titanium and iron alloys being allowed for the pistons, cylinders, connecting rods and crankshafts. The FIA has continually enforced material and design restrictions to limit power. Even with the restrictions, the V10s in the 2005 season were reputed to develop 980 hp (730 kW), power levels not seen since the ban on turbo - charged engines in 1989.
The lesser funded teams (the former Minardi team spends less than 50 million, while Ferrari spent hundreds of millions of euros a year developing their car) had the option of keeping the current V10 for another season, but with a rev limiter to keep them competitive with the most powerful V8 engines. The only team to take this option was the Toro Rosso team, which was the reformed and regrouped Minardi.
The engines consume around 450 l (15.9 ft) of air per second. Race fuel consumption rate is normally around 75 l / 100 km travelled (3.1 US mpg, 3.8 imp mpg, 1.3 km / l).
All cars have the engine located between the driver and the rear axle. The engines are a stressed member in most cars, meaning that the engine is part of the structural support framework, being bolted to the cockpit at the front end, and transmission and rear suspension at the back end.
In the 2004 championship, engines were required to last a full race weekend. For the 2005 championship, they were required to last two full race weekends and if a team changes an engine between the two races, they incur a penalty of 10 grid positions. In 2007, this rule was altered slightly and an engine only had to last for Saturday and Sunday running. This was to promote Friday running. In the 2008 season, engines were required to last two full race weekends; the same regulation as the 2006 season. However, for the 2009 season, each driver is allowed to use a maximum of 8 engines over the season, meaning that a couple of engines have to last three race weekends. This method of limiting engine costs also increases the importance of tactics, since the teams have to choose which races to have a new or an already - used engine.
As of the 2014 season, all F1 cars have been equipped with turbocharged 1.6 - litre V6 engines. Turbochargers had previously been banned since 1988. This change may give an improvement of up to 29 % fuel efficiency. One of the many reasons that Mercedes dominated the season early, was due to the placement of the turbocharger 's compressor at one side of the engine, and the turbine at the other; both were then linked by a shaft travelling through the vee of the engine. The benefit is that air is not traveling through as much pipework, in turn reducing turbo lag and increases efficiency of the car. In addition, it means that the air moving through the compressor is much cooler as it is further away from the hot turbine section.
Formula One cars use semi-automatic sequential gearboxes, with regulations stating that 8 forward gears (increased from 7 from the 2014 season onwards) and 1 reverse gear must be used, with rear - wheel drive. The gearbox is constructed of carbon titanium, as heat dissipation is a critical issue, and is bolted onto the back of the engine. Full automatic gearboxes, and systems such as launch control and traction control, are illegal, to keep driver skill important in controlling the car. The driver initiates gear changes using paddles mounted on the back of the steering wheel and electro - hydraulics perform the actual change as well as throttle control. Clutch control is also performed electro - hydraulically, except to and from a standstill, when the driver operates the clutch using a lever mounted on the back of the steering wheel.
A modern F1 clutch is a multi-plate carbon design with a diameter of less than 100 mm (3.9 in), weighing less than 1 kg (2.2 lb) and handling around 720 hp (540 kW). As of the 2009 race season, all teams are using seamless shift transmissions, which allow almost instantaneous changing of gears with minimum loss of drive. Shift times for Formula One cars are in the region of 0.05 seconds. In order to keep costs low in Formula One, gearboxes must last five consecutive events and since 2015, gearbox ratios will be fixed for each season (for 2014 they could be changed only once). Changing a gearbox before the allowed time will cause a penalty of five places drop on the starting grid for the first event that the new gearbox is used.
Aerodynamics have become key to success in the sport and teams spend tens of millions of dollars on research and development in the field each year.
The aerodynamic designer has two primary concerns: the creation of downforce, to help push the car 's tyres onto the track and improve cornering forces; and minimising the drag that gets caused by turbulence and acts to slow the car down.
Several teams started to experiment with the now familiar wings in the late 1960s. Race car wings operate on the same principle as aircraft wings, but are configured to cause a downward force rather than an upward one. A modern Formula One car is capable of developing 6 g lateral cornering force (six times its own weight) thanks to aerodynamic downforce. The aerodynamic downforce allowing this is typically greater than the weight of the car. That means that, theoretically, at high speeds they could drive on the upside down surface of a suitable structure; e.g. on the ceiling.
Early experiments with movable wings and high mountings led to some spectacular accidents, and for the 1970 season regulations were introduced to limit the size and location of wings. Having evolved over time, similar rules are still used today.
In the late 1960s, Jim Hall of Chaparral first introduced "ground effect '' downforce to auto racing. In the mid 1970s, Lotus engineers found out that the entire car could be made to act like a giant wing by the creation of an airfoil surface on its underside which would cause air moving relative to the car to push it to the road. Applying another idea of Jim Hall 's from his Chaparral 2J sports racer, Gordon Murray designed the Brabham BT46B, which used a separately - powered fan system to extract air from the skirted area under the car, creating enormous downforce. After technical challenges from other teams, it was withdrawn after a single race. Rule changes then followed to limit the benefits of ' ground effects ' - firstly a ban on the skirts used to contain the low pressure area, later a requirement for a ' stepped floor '.
Despite the full - sized wind tunnels and vast computing power used by the aerodynamic departments of most teams, the fundamental principles of Formula One aerodynamics still apply: to create the maximum amount of downforce for the minimal amount of drag. The primary wings mounted front and rear are fitted with different profiles depending on the downforce requirements of a particular track. Tight, slow circuits like Monaco require very aggressive wing profiles - you will see that cars run two separate ' blades ' of ' elements ' on the rear wings (two is the maximum permitted). In contrast, high - speed circuits like Monza see the cars stripped of as much wing as possible, to reduce drag and increase speed on the long straights.
Every single surface of a modern Formula One car, from the shape of the suspension links to that of the driver 's helmet - has its aerodynamic effects considered. Disrupted air, where the flow ' separates ' from the body, creates turbulence which creates drag - which slows the car down. Look at a recent car and you will see that almost as much effort has been spent reducing drag as increasing downforce - from the vertical end - plates fitted to wings to prevent vortices forming to the diffuser plates mounted low at the back, which help to re-equalise pressure of the faster - flowing air that has passed under the car and would otherwise create a low - pressure ' balloon ' dragging at the back. Despite this, designers ca n't make their cars too ' slippery ', as a good supply of airflow has to be ensured to help dissipate the vast amounts of heat produced by the engine and brakes.
In recent years, most Formula One teams have tried to emulate Ferrari 's ' narrow waist ' design, where the rear of the car is made as narrow and low as possible. This reduces drag and maximises the amount of air available to the rear wing. The ' barge boards ' fitted to the sides of cars also helped to shape the flow of the air and minimise the amount of turbulence.
Revised regulations introduced in 2005 forced the aerodynamicists to be even more ingenious. In a bid to cut speeds, the FIA robbed the cars of a chunk of downforce by raising the front wing, bringing the rear wing forward and modifying the rear diffuser profile. The designers quickly clawed back much of the loss, with a variety of intricate and novel solutions such as the ' horn ' winglets first seen on the McLaren MP4 - 20. Most of those innovations were effectively outlawed under even more stringent aero regulations imposed by the FIA for 2009. The changes were designed to promote overtaking by making it easier for a car to closely follow another. The new rules took the cars into another new era, with lower and wider front wings, taller and narrower rear wings, and generally much ' cleaner ' bodywork. Perhaps the most interesting change, however, was the introduction of ' moveable aerodynamics ', with the driver able to make limited adjustments to the front wing from the cockpit during a race.
That was usurped for 2011 by the new DRS (Drag Reduction System) rear wing system. This too allows drivers to make adjustments, but the system 's availability is electronically governed - originally it could be used at any time in practice and qualifying (unless a driver is on wet - weather tyres), but during the race could only be activated when a driver is less than one second behind another car at pre-determined points on the track. (From 2013 DRS is available only at the pre-determined points during all sessions). The system is then deactivated once the driver brakes. The system "stalls '' the rear wing by opening a flap, which leaves a 50mm horizontal gap in the wing, thus massively reducing drag and allowing higher top speeds, but also reducing downforce so it is normally used on longer straight track sections or sections which do not require high downforce. The system was introduced to promote more overtaking and is often the reason for overtaking on straights or at the end of straights where overtaking is encouraged in the following corner (s). However, the reception of the DRS system has differed among drivers, fans and specialists. Former Formula 1 driver Robert Kubica has been quoted of saying he "has not seen any overtaking moves in Formula 1 for two years '', suggesting that the DRS is an unnatural way to pass cars on track but it does not actually require driver skill to successfully overtake a competitor, therefore it would not be overtaking.
The use of aerodynamics to increase the cars ' grip was pioneered in Formula One in the late 1960s by Lotus, Ferrari and Brabham.
Early designs linked wings directly to the suspension, but several accidents led to rules stating that wings must be fixed rigidly to the chassis. The cars ' aerodynamics are designed to provide maximum downforce with a minimum of drag; every part of the bodywork is designed with this aim in mind. Like most open - wheel cars they feature large front and rear aerofoils, but they are far more developed than American open - wheel racers, which depend more on suspension tuning; for instance, the nose is raised above the centre of the front aerofoil, allowing its entire width to provide downforce. The front and rear wings are highly sculpted and extremely fine ' tuned ', along with the rest of the body such as the turning vanes beneath the nose, bargeboards, sidepods, underbody, and the rear diffuser. They also feature aerodynamic appendages that direct the airflow. Such an extreme level of aerodynamic development means that an F1 car produces much more downforce than any other open - wheel formula; Indycars, for example, produce downforce equal to their weight (that is, a downforce: weight ratio of 1: 1) at 190 km / h (118 mph), while an F1 car achieves the same at 125 to 130 km / h (78 to 81 mph), and at 190 km / h (118 mph) the ratio is roughly 2: 1.
The bargeboards in particular are designed, shaped, configured, adjusted and positioned not to create downforce directly, as with a conventional wing or underbody venturi, but to create vortices from the air spillage at their edges. The use of vortices is a significant feature of the latest breeds of F1 cars. Since a vortex is a rotating fluid that creates a low pressure zone at its centre, creating vortices lowers the overall local pressure of the air. Since low pressure is what is desired under the car, as it allows normal atmospheric pressure to press the car down from the top, by creating vortices downforce can be augmented while still staying within the rules prohibiting ground effects.
The F1 cars for the 2009 season came under much questioning due to the design of the rear diffusers of the Williams, Toyota and the Brawn GP cars raced by Jenson Button and Rubens Barrichello, dubbed double diffusers. Appeals from many of the teams were heard by the FIA, which met in Paris, before the 2009 Chinese Grand Prix and the use of such diffusers was declared as legal. Brawn GP boss Ross Brawn claimed the double diffuser design as "an innovative approach of an existing idea ''. These were subsequently banned for the 2011 season. Another controversy of the 2010 and ' 11 seasons was the front wing of the Red Bull cars. Several teams protested claiming the wing was breaking regulations. Footage from high speed sections of circuits showed the Red Bull front wing bending on the outsides subsequently creating greater downforce. Test were held on the Red Bull front wing however the FIA could find no way that the wing was breaking any regulation.
Since the start of the 2011 season, cars have been allowed to run with an adjustable rear wing, more commonly known as DRS (drag reduction system), a system to combat the problem of turbulent air when overtaking. On the straights of a track, drivers can deploy DRS, which opens the rear wing, reduces the drag of the car, allowing it to move faster. As soon as the driver touches the brake, the rear wing shuts again. In free practice and qualifying, a driver may use it whenever he wishes to, but in the race, it can only be used if the driver is 1 second, or less, behind another driver at the DRS detection zone on the race track, at which point it can be activated in the activation zone until the driver brakes.
F1 regulations heavily limit the use of ground effect aerodynamics which are a highly efficient means of creating downforce with a small drag penalty. The underside of the vehicle, the undertray, must be flat between the axles. A 10 mm thick wooden plank or skid block runs down the middle of the car to prevent the cars from running low enough to contact the track surface; this skid block is measured before and after a race. Should the plank be less than 9 mm thick after the race, the car is disqualified.
A substantial amount of downforce is provided by using a rear diffuser which rises from the undertray at the rear axle to the actual rear of the bodywork. The limitations on ground effects, limited size of the wings (requiring use at high angles of attack to create sufficient downforce), and vortices created by open wheels lead to a high aerodynamic drag coefficient (about 1 according to Minardi 's technical director Gabriele Tredozi; compare with the average modern saloon car, which has a C value between 0.25 and 0.35), so that, despite the enormous power output of the engines, the top speed of these cars is less than that of World War II vintage Mercedes - Benz and Auto Union Silver Arrows racers. However, this drag is more than compensated for by the ability to corner at extremely high speed. The aerodynamics are adjusted for each track; with a low drag configuration for tracks where high speed is more important like Autodromo Nazionale Monza, and a high traction configuration for tracks where cornering is more important, like the Circuit de Monaco.
With the 2009 regulations, the FIA rid F1 cars of small winglets and other parts of the car (minus the front and rear wing) used to manipulate the airflow of the car in order to decrease drag and increase downforce. As it is now, the front wing is shaped specifically to push air towards all the winglets and bargeboards so that the airflow is smooth. Should these be removed, various parts of the car will cause great drag when the front wing is unable to shape the air past the body of the car. The regulations which came into effect in 2009 have reduced the width of the rear wing by 25 cm, and standardised the centre section of the front wing to prevent teams developing the front wing.
The driver has the ability to fine - tune many elements of the race car from within the machine using the steering wheel. The wheel can be used to change gears, apply rev. limiter, adjust fuel / air mix, change brake pressure, and call the radio. Data such as engine rpm, lap times, speed, and gear are displayed on an LCD screen. The wheel hub will also incorporate gear change paddles and a row of LED shift lights. The wheel alone can cost about $50,000, and with carbon fibre construction, weighs in at 1.3 kilograms. In the 2014 season, certain teams such as Mercedes have chosen to use larger LCDs on their wheels which allow the driver to see additional information such as fuel flow and torque delivery. They are also more customisable owing to the possibility of using much different software.
The fuel used in F1 cars is fairly similar to ordinary petrol, albeit with a far more tightly controlled mix. Formula One fuel can only contain compounds that are found in commercial gasoline, in contrast to alcohol - based fuels used in American open - wheel racing. Blends are tuned for maximum performance in given weather conditions or different circuits. During the period when teams were limited to a specific volume of fuel during a race, exotic high - density fuel blends were used which were actually denser than water, since the energy content of a fuel depends on its mass density.
To make sure that the teams and fuel suppliers are not violating the fuel regulations, the FIA requires Elf, Shell, Mobil, Petronas and the other fuel teams to submit a sample of the fuel they are providing for a race. At any time, FIA inspectors can request a sample from the fueling rig to compare the "fingerprint '' of what is in the car during the race with what was submitted. The teams usually abide by this rule, but in 1997, Mika Häkkinen was stripped of his third - place finish at Spa - Francorchamps in Belgium after the FIA determined that his fuel was not the correct formula, as well as in 1976, both McLaren and Penske cars were forced to the rear of the Italian Grand Prix after the octane number of the mixture was found to be too high.
The 2009 season saw the re-introduction of slick tyres replacing the grooved tyres used from 1998 to 2008.
Tyres can be no wider than 355 and 380 mm (14.0 and 15.0 in) at the rear, front tyre width reduced from 270 mm to 245 mm for the 2010 season. Unlike the fuel, the tyres bear only a superficial resemblance to a normal road tyre. Whereas a roadcar tyre has a useful life of up to 80,000 km (50,000 mi), a Formula One tyre does not even last the whole race distance (a little over 300 km (190 mi)); they are usually changed two or three times per race, depending on the track. This is the result of a drive to maximise the road - holding ability, leading to the use of very soft compounds (to ensure that the tyre surface conforms to the road surface as closely as possible).
Since the start of the 2007 season, F1 had a sole tyre supplier. From 2007 to 2010, this was Bridgestone, but 2011 saw the reintroduction of Pirelli into the sport, following the departure of Bridgestone. Seven compounds of F1 tyre exist; 5 are dry weather compounds (hard, medium, soft, super-soft and ultra soft) while 2 are wet compounds (intermediates for damp surfaces with no standing water and full wets for surfaces with standing water). Two of the dry weather compounds (generally a harder and softer compound) are brought to each race, plus both wet weather compounds. The harder tyre is more durable but gives less grip, and the softer tyre the opposite. In 2009, the slick tyres returned as a part of revisions to the rules for the 2009 season; slicks have no grooves and give up to 18 % more contact with the track. In the Bridgestone years, a green band on the sidewall of the softer compound was painted to allow spectators to distinguish which tyre a driver is on. With Pirelli tyres, the colour of the text and the ring on the sidewall varies with the compounds. Generally, the two dry compounds brought to the track are separated by at least one specification. This was implemented by the FIA to create more noticeable difference between the compounds and hopefully add more excitement to the race when two drivers are on different strategies. The exceptions are the Monaco GP, Singapore Grand Prix and the Hungaroring, where soft and super-soft tyres are brought, because they are notably slow and twisty and require a lot of grip.
Disc brakes consist of a rotor and caliper at each wheel. Carbon composite rotors (introduced by the Brabham team in 1976) are used instead of steel or cast iron because of their superior frictional, thermal, and anti-warping properties, as well as significant weight savings. These brakes are designed and manufactured to work in extreme temperatures, up to 1,000 degrees Celsius (1800 ° F). The driver can control brake force distribution fore and aft to compensate for changes in track conditions or fuel load. Regulations specify this control must be mechanical, not electronic, thus it is typically operated by a lever inside the cockpit as opposed to a control on the steering wheel.
An average F1 car can decelerate from 100 to 0 km / h (62 to 0 mph) in about 15 meters (48 ft), compared with a 2009 BMW M3, which needs 31 meters (102 ft). When braking from higher speeds, aerodynamic downforce enables tremendous deceleration: 4.5 g to 5.0 g (44 to 49 m / s), and up to 5.5 g (54 m / s) at the high - speed circuits such as the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve (Canadian GP) and the Autodromo Nazionale Monza (Italian GP). This contrasts with 1.0 g to 1.5 g (10 to 15 m / s) for the best sports cars (the Bugatti Veyron is claimed to be able to brake at 1.3 g). An F1 car can brake from 200 km / h (124 mph) to a complete stop in just 2.9 seconds, using only 65 metres (213 ft).
Every F1 car on the grid is capable of going from 0 to 160 km / h (100 mph) and back to 0 in less than five seconds. During a demonstration at the Silverstone circuit in Britain, an F1 McLaren - Mercedes car driven by David Coulthard gave a pair of Mercedes - Benz street cars a head start of seventy seconds, and was able to beat the cars to the finish line from a standing start, a distance of only 3.2 miles (5.2 km).
As well as being fast in a straight line, F1 cars have outstanding cornering ability. Grand Prix cars can negotiate corners at significantly higher speeds than other racing cars because of the intense levels of grip and downforce. Cornering speed is so high that Formula One drivers have strength training routines just for the neck muscles. Former F1 driver Juan Pablo Montoya claimed to be able to perform 300 repetitions of 50 lb (23 kg) with his neck.
The combination of light weight (642 kg in race trim for 2013), power (900 bhp with the 3.0 L V10, 780 bhp (582 kW) with the 2007 regulation 2.4 L V8, 950 + bhp with 2016 1.6 L V6 turbo), aerodynamics, and ultra-high - performance tyres is what gives the F1 car its high performance figures. The principal consideration for F1 designers is acceleration, and not simply top speed. Three types of acceleration can be considered to assess a car 's performance:
All three accelerations should be maximised. The way these three accelerations are obtained and their values are:
The 2016 F1 cars have a power - to - weight ratio of 1,400 hp / t (1.05 kW / kg). Theoretically this would allow the car to reach 100 km / h (62 mph) in less than 1 second. However the massive power can not be converted to motion at low speeds due to traction loss and the usual figure is 2.5 seconds to reach 100 km / h (62 mph). After about 130 km / h (80 mph) traction loss is minimal due to the combined effect of the car moving faster and the downforce, hence continuing to accelerate the car at a very high rate. The figures are (for the 2016 Mercedes W07):
The acceleration figure is usually 1.45 g (14.2 m / s) up to 200 km / h (124 mph), which means the driver is pushed by the seat with a force whose acceleration is 1.45 times that of Earth 's gravity.
There are also boost systems known as kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS). These devices recover the kinetic energy created by the car 's braking process. They store that energy and convert it into power that can be called upon to boost acceleration. KERS typically adds 80 hp (60 kW) and weighs 35 kg (77 lb). There are principally two types of systems: electrical and mechanical flywheel. Electrical systems use a motor - generator incorporated in the car 's transmission which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. Once the energy has been harnessed, it is stored in a battery and released at will. Mechanical systems capture braking energy and use it to turn a small flywheel which can spin at up to 80,000 rpm. When extra power is required, the flywheel is connected to the car 's rear wheels. In contrast to an electrical KERS, the mechanical energy does not change state and is therefore more efficient. There is one other option available, hydraulic KERS, where braking energy is used to accumulate hydraulic pressure which is then sent to the wheels when required.
The carbon brakes in combination with tyre technology and the car 's aerodynamics produce truly remarkable braking forces. The deceleration force under braking is usually 4 g (39 m / s), and can be as high as 5 -- 6 g when braking from extreme speeds, for instance at the Gilles Villeneuve circuit or at Indianapolis. In 2007, Martin Brundle, a former Grand Prix driver, tested the Williams Toyota FW29 Formula 1 car, and stated that under heavy braking he felt like his lungs were hitting the inside of his ribcage, forcing him to exhale involuntarily. Here the aerodynamic drag actually helps, and can contribute as much as 1.0 g of braking force, which is the equivalent of the brakes on most road sports cars. In other words, if the throttle is let go, the F1 car will slow down under drag at the same rate as most sports cars do with braking, at least at speeds above 250 km / h (160 mph). The drivers do not utilise engine (compression) braking, although it may seem this way. The only reason they change down gears prior to entering the corner is to be in the correct gear for maximum acceleration on the exit of the corner.
There are three companies who manufacture brakes for Formula One. They are Hitco (based in the US, part of the SGL Carbon Group), Brembo in Italy and Carbone Industrie of France. Whilst Hitco manufacture their own carbon / carbon, Brembo sources theirs from Honeywell, and Carbone Industrie purchases their carbon from Messier Bugatti.
Carbon / carbon is a short name for carbon fibre reinforced carbon. This means carbon fibres strengthening a matrix of carbon, which is added to the fibres by way of matrix deposition (CVI or CVD) or by pyrolysis of a resin binder.
F1 brakes are 278 mm (10.9 in) in diameter and a maximum of 28 mm (1.1 in) thick. The carbon / carbon brake pads are actuated by 6 - piston opposed callipers provided by Akebono, AP Racing or Brembo. The callipers are aluminium alloy bodied with titanium pistons. The regulations limit the modulus of the calliper material to 80 GPa in order to prevent teams using exotic, high specific stiffness materials, for example, beryllium. Titanium pistons save weight, and also have a low thermal conductivity, reducing the heat flow into the brake fluid.
The aerodynamic forces of a Formula 1 car can produce as much as three times the car 's weight in downforce. In fact, at a speed of just 130 km / h (81 mph), the downforce is equal in magnitude to the weight of the car. At low speeds, the car can turn at 2.0 g. At 210 km / h (130 mph) already the lateral force is 3.0 g, as evidenced by the famous esses (turns 3 and 4) at the Suzuka circuit. Higher - speed corners such as Blanchimont (Circuit de Spa - Francorchamps) and Copse (Silverstone Circuit) are taken at above 5.0 g, and 6.0 g has been recorded at Suzuka 's 130 - R corner. This contrasts with a maximum for high performance road cars such as Enzo Ferrari of 1.5 g or Koenigsegg One: 1 of above 1.7 g for the Circuit de Spa - Francorchamps.
The large downforce allows an F1 car to corner at very high speeds. As an example of the extreme cornering speeds; the Blanchimont and Eau Rouge corners at Spa - Francorchamps are taken flat - out at above 300 km / h (190 mph), whereas the race - spec touring cars can only do so at 150 -- 160 km / h (note that lateral force increases with the square of the speed). A newer and perhaps even more extreme example is the Turn 8 at the Istanbul Park circuit, a 190 ° relatively tight 4 - apex corner, in which the cars maintain speeds between 265 and 285 km / h (165 and 177 mph) (in 2006) and experience between 4.5 g and 5.5 g for 7 seconds -- the longest sustained hard cornering in Formula 1.
Top speeds are in practice limited by the longest straight at the track and by the need to balance the car 's aerodynamic configuration between high straight line speed (low aerodynamic drag) and high cornering speed (high downforce) to achieve the fastest lap time. During the 2006 season, the top speeds of Formula 1 cars were a little over 300 km / h (185 mph) at high - downforce tracks such as Albert Park, Australia and Sepang, Malaysia. These speeds were down by some 10 km / h (6 mph) from the 2005 speeds, and 15 km / h (9 mph) from the 2004 speeds, due to the recent performance restrictions (see below). On low - downforce circuits greater top speeds were registered: at Gilles - Villeneuve (Canada) 325 km / h (203 mph), at Indianapolis (USA) 335 km / h (210 mph), and at Monza (Italy) 360 km / h (225 mph). In testing one month prior to the 2005 Italian Grand Prix, Juan Pablo Montoya of the McLaren - Mercedes F1 team recorded a record top speed of 372.6 km / h (231.5 mph), which got officially recognised by the FIA as the fastest speed ever achieved by an F1 car, even though it was not set during an officially sanctioned session during a race weekend. In the 2005 Italian GP Kimi Räikkönen of Mclaren - Mercedes was recorded at 370.1 km / h (229.9 mph). This record was broken at the 2016 Mexican Grand Prix by Williams driver Valtteri Bottas, whose top speed in race conditions was 372.54 km / h (231.48 mph). However, even though this information was shown in FIA 's official monitors, the FIA is yet to accept it as an official record. Bottas had previously set an even higher record top speed during qualifying for the 2016 European Grand Prix, recording a speed of 378.035 km / h (234.9 mph), albeit through the use of slipstream drafting. This top speed is yet to be confirmed by any official method as currently the only source of this information is the Williams team 's Twitter post, while the FIA 's official speed trap data measured Bottas ' speed at 366.1 kmh in that instance. At the moment Montoya 's speed of 372.6 kmh (231.5 mph) is still regarded as the official record, even though it was not set during a sanctioned session.
Away from the track, the BAR Honda team used a modified BAR 007 car, which they claim complied with FIA Formula One regulations, to set an unofficial speed record of 413 km / h (257 mph) on a one way straight line run on 6 November 2005 during a shakedown ahead of their Bonneville 400 record attempt. The car was optimised for top speed with only enough downforce to prevent it from leaving the ground. The car, badged as a Honda following their takeover of BAR at the end of 2005, set an FIA ratified record of 400 km / h (249 mph) on a one way run on 21 July 2006 at Bonneville Speedway. On this occasion the car did not fully meet FIA Formula One regulations, as it used a moveable aerodynamic rudder for stability control, breaching article 3.15 of the 2006 Formula One technical regulations which states that any specific part of the car influencing its aerodynamic performance must be rigidly secured.
1.6 - litre V6 turbo engine and two Energy Recovery Systems (ERS) with ~ 750 hp.
In an effort to reduce speeds and increase driver safety, the FIA has continuously introduced new rules for F1 constructors since the 1980s.
These rules have included the banning of such ideas as the "wing car '' (ground effect) in 1983; the turbocharger in 1989 (these were reintroduced for 2014); active suspension and ABS in 1994; slick tyres (these were reintroduced for 2009); smaller front and rear wings and a reduction in engine capacity from 3.5 to 3.0 litres in 1995; reducing the width of the cars from over 2 metres to around 1.8 metres in 1998; again a reduction in engine capacity from 3.0 to 2.4 litres in 2006; traction control in 1994, and again in 2008 alongside launch control and engine braking after electronic aids were reintroduced in 2001. Yet despite these changes, constructors continued to extract performance gains by increasing power and aerodynamic efficiency. As a result, the pole position speed at many circuits in comparable weather conditions dropped between 1.5 and 3 seconds in 2004 over the prior year 's times. The aerodynamic restrictions introduced in 2005 were meant to reduce downforce by about 30 %, however most teams were able to successfully reduce this to a mere 5 to 10 % downforce loss. In 2006 the engine power was reduced from 950 to 750 bhp (710 to 560 kW) by shifting from the 3.0 L V10s, used for over a decade, to 2.4 L V8s. Some of these new engines were capable of achieving 20,000 rpm during 2006, though for the 2007 season engine development was frozen and the FIA limited all engines to 19,000 rpm to increase reliability and control at increasing engine speeds.
In 2008, the FIA further strengthened its cost - cutting measures by stating that gearboxes are to last for 4 grand prix weekends, in addition to the 2 race weekend engine rule. Furthermore, all teams were required to use a standardised ECU supplied by MES (McLaren Electronic Systems) made in conjunction with Microsoft. These ECUs have placed restrictions on the use of electronic driver aids such as traction control, launch control and engine braking. The emphasis being on reducing costs as well as placing the focus back onto driver skills as opposed to the so - called ' electronic gizmos ' mainly controlling the cars.
Changes were made for the 2009 season to increase dependency on mechanical grip and create overtaking opportunities - resulting in the return to slick tyres, a wider and lower front wing with a standardized centre section, a narrower and taller rear wing, and the diffuser being moved backwards and made taller yet less efficient at producing downforce. Overall aerodynamic grip was dramatically reduced with the banning of complex appendages such as winglets, bargeboards and other aero devices previously used to better direct airflow over and under the cars. The maximum engine speed was reduced to 18,000 rpm to increase reliability further and conform to engine life demand.
Due to increasing environmental pressures from lobby groups and the like, many have called into question the relevance of Formula 1 as an innovating force towards future technological advances (particularly those concerned with efficient cars). The FIA has been asked to consider how it can persuade the sport to move down a more environmentally friendly path. Therefore, in addition to the above changes outlined for the 2009 season, teams were invited to construct a KERS device, encompassing certain types of regenerative braking systems to be fitted to the cars in time for the 2009 season. The system aims to reduce the amount of kinetic energy converted to waste heat in braking, converting it instead to a useful form (such as electrical energy or energy in a flywheel) to be later fed back through the engine to create a power boost. However unlike road car systems which automatically store and release energy, the energy is only released when the driver presses a button and is useful for up to 6.5 seconds, giving an additional 80 hp (60 kW) and 400 kJ. It effectively mimicks the ' push to pass ' button from IndyCar and A1GP series. KERS was not seen in the 2010 championship - while it was not technically banned, the FOTA collectively agreed not to use it. It however made a return for the 2011 season, with all teams except HRT, Virgin and Lotus utilizing the device.
The regulations for the 2014 season limit the maximum fuel mass flow to the engine to 100 kg / h, which reduces the maximum power output from the current 550 kW to about 450 kW. The rules also double the power limit of the electric motor to 120 kW for both acceleration and energy recovery, and increase the maximum amount of energy the KERS is allowed to use to 4 MJ per lap, with charging limited to 2 MJ per lap. An additional electric motor - generator unit may be connected to the turbocharger.
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where do deferred financing costs go on balance sheet | Deferred financing cost - Wikipedia
Deferred financing costs or debt issuance costs is an accounting concept meaning costs associated with issuing debt (loans and bonds), such as various fees and commissions paid to investment banks, law firms, auditors, regulators, and so on. Since these payments do not generate future benefits, they are treated as a contra debt account. The costs are capitalized, reflected in the balance sheet as a contra long - term liability, and amortized using the imputed interest method or over the finite life of the underlying debt instrument, if below de minimus. The unamortized amounts are included in the long - term debt, as a reduction of the total debt (hence contra debt) in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets. Early debt repayment results in expensing these costs.
Under U.S. GAAP, when issuing securities without specific maturity, such as perpetual preferred stock, financing costs reduce the amount of paid in capital associated with that security.
For U.S. federal income tax purposes, DFC are generally amortized over the life of the debt using the straight - line method.
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what are the names of the main kula regions | Kula Plate - wikipedia
The Kula Plate was an oceanic tectonic plate under the northern Pacific Ocean south of the Near Islands segment of the Aleutian Islands. It has been subducted under the North American Plate at the Aleutian Trench, being replaced by the Pacific Plate.
The name Kula is from a Tlingit language word meaning "all gone ''. As the name suggests, the Kula Plate was entirely subducted around 48 Ma and today only a slab in the mantle under the Bering Sea remains.
The Kula Plate began subducting under the Pacific Northwest region of North America during the Late Cretaceous period much like the Pacific Plate does, supporting a large volcanic arc system from northern Washington to southwestern Yukon called the Coast Range Arc.
There was a triple junction of three ridges between the Kula Plate to the north, the Pacific Plate to the west and the Farallon Plate to the east. The Kula Plate was subducted under the North American Plate at a relatively steep angle, so that the Canadian Rockies are primarily composed of thrusted sedimentary sheets with relatively little contribution of continental uplift, while the American Rockies are characterized by significant continental uplift in response to the shallow subduction of the Farallon Plate.
About 55 million years ago, the Kula Plate began an even more northerly motion. Riding on the Kula Plate was the Pacific Rim Terrane consisting of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. It was scraped off and plastered against the continental margin, forming what is today Vancouver Island.
By 40 million years ago, the compressional force of the Kula Plate ceased. The existence of the Kula Plate was inferred from the westward bend in the alternating pattern of magnetic anomalies in the Pacific Plate.
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what kind of dog is in the movie hachi a dog's tale | Hachi: a dog 's Tale - wikipedia
Hachi: A Dog 's Tale is a 2009 British - American drama film. Based on the true story of a faithful Akita Inu, the titular Hachikō, it is directed by Lasse Hallström, is written by Stephen P. Lindsey and Kaneto Shindo, and stars Richard Gere, Joan Allen and Sarah Roemer. The subject is a remake of the 1987 Japanese film, Hachikō Monogatari (ハチ公 物語), literally "The Tale of Hachiko ''.
Hachi: A Dog 's Tale premiered at the Seattle International Film Festival on June 13, 2009, and its first theatrical release was in Japan on August 8. Sony Pictures Entertainment decided to forgo a U.S. theatrical release. The film was given a UK theatrical release on March 12, 2010, courtesy of Entertainment Film Distributors, and opened in over 25 countries throughout 2009 and 2010. The film 's foreign box office returns total $46.7 million as of January 2011.
Hachi is a story of love and devotion between a dog and a man, and based on the true story of Hachikō (ハチ公, November 10, 1923 -- March 8, 1935). The story is told by Ronnie, the man 's grandson. When Ronnie has to give a presentation at school about a personal hero, his chosen subject is his grandfather 's dog, Hachiko. Despite his classmates ' laughing, Ronnie tells the story of how his grandfather, Professor Parker Wilson, finds a lost puppy which has been freighted to America from Japan and accidentally left at the train station of the Professor 's small Rhode Island hometown. The professor ends up taking the puppy home, planning to search out its intended destination and send it on to its real owner. However the search for the puppy 's owner is unsuccessful, and Parker and the puppy begin to form a close connection. From his friend Ken, a Japanese professor, Parker learns that the dog is of the Japanese Akita breed. Ken also translates the symbol on the puppy 's collar as Hachi (ハ) -- Japanese for the number 8 -- signifying good fortune, even though the puppy 's life so far has seemed anything but lucky. Thus the puppy acquires his name, ' Hachiko, or Hachi for short, and although Parker 's wife, Cate, is opposed to keeping the puppy, eventually she relents upon realizing how strong the bond between Parker and Hachi has become.
Over the next year or so, Parker and Hachi become even closer. Parker tries, but Hachi refuses to do dog - like activities such as chasing and fetching. One morning, Parker leaves for work and Hachi follows him to the train station and refuses to leave until Parker walks him home. Later that afternoon, Hachi walks to the station to wait patiently for Parker to return. Parker is surprised to find Hachi waiting for him, and it becomes a daily routine.
One day, Hachi waits patiently as the train arrives, but there is no sign of Parker. He waits, lying in the snow for hours until Parker 's son - in - law Michael comes to get him. Although everyone tries to tell Hachi that Parker has died (of a cerebral hemorrhage during a lecture in class), Hachi does n't understand. Hachi continues to return to the station and wait every day.
As time passes, Cate sells the house and Hachi is sent to live with Parker and Cate 's daughter Andy, her husband Michael, and their baby Ronnie. However, Hachi escapes and finds his way back to the station, where he sits at his usual spot. Andy arrives and takes him home, but after seeing how depressed the dog is she lets him out to return to the station. Hachi waits every day at the train station and sleeps in the rail yard at night. He is fed daily by the train station workers who knew the professor. After seeing a newspaper article about Hachi, Ken visits Hachi.
Cate comes back to visit Parker 's grave on the tenth anniversary of his death and meets Ken. She is stunned to see a now elderly Hachi still waiting at the station. Overcome with grief, Cate sits and waits for the next train with him. At home, Cate tells the now ten - year - old Ronnie about Hachi. Meanwhile, Hachi continues waiting until his body can wait no longer, and is last seen lying in the snow, alone and still, although he is comforted by a final vision of Parker finally appearing and picking him up to go, presumably to the afterlife.
Ronnie concludes his story of why Hachi will forever be his hero. The story has clearly moved the class, with some students holding back tears, including those who had laughed at the beginning. After school, Ronnie, coming off the school bus, is met by his dad and his own puppy, also named Hachi. Ronnie and Hachi walk down the same tracks where Parker and Hachi had spent so much time together.
The movie was based on the real Japanese Akita dog Hachiko, who was born in Ōdate, Japan in 1923. After the death of his owner, Ueno Hidesaburō in 1925, Hachiko returned to the Shibuya train station the next day and every day after that for the next nine years until he died in March 1935. A bronze statue of Hachiko is in front of the Shibuya train station in his honor. Hachikō is known in Japanese as chūken Hachikō (忠 犬 ハチ公) "faithful dog Hachikō '', hachi meaning "eight '' and kō meaning "affection. ''
The majority of filming took place in Bristol, Rhode Island and Woonsocket, Rhode Island. The only spoken reference to the actual location where filming took place is when the newspaper reporter Teddy states he works for the Woonsocket Call (Woonsocket 's daily newspaper).
Additional locations included the University of Rhode Island in Kingston, Rhode Island, along the Providence and Worcester Railroad Mechanical, and the Columbus Theater located in Providence, Rhode Island. A second production unit filmed scenes on - location in Japan. Footage was shot at the (now closed) Reynolds Elementary School in Bristol.
The film received mostly positive reviews from critics. It holds a IMDb rating of 8.1 / 10. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, reported that 62 % of critics gave the film positive reviews with an average rating of 5.8 / 10.
On May 19, 2012, a bronze statue of Hachiko the dog was placed at the train depot at Woonsocket Depot Square, Woonsocket, Rhode Island, where Hachi was filmed. The train depot at One Depot Square has been named Hachiko Place. The Rhode Island statue 's dedication ceremony was part of the Cherry Blossom Festival held in three Rhode Island towns: Pawtucket, Central Falls, and Woonsocket. Dignitaries including the Mayor of Woonsocket and the Consul General of Japan attended the ceremony. Two cherry blossom trees were planted by the statue. A visitor from New Jersey 's Akita - mix (also named Hachi) was invited to participate at the ribbon - cutting ceremony as a "real - life stand - in for Hachiko ''.
Animal trainer Mark Harden and his team trained the three Akitas -- Leyla, Chico and Forrest -- who played the role of Hachi in the movie. Harden adopted Chico after the movie was completed.
The Blackstone Valley Heritage Corridor and the Blackstone Valley Tourism Council have created a handout with useful info for people who want to take a tour of the movie locations for "Hachi ''
According to the movie 's closing cards, the real Hachiko died in March 1934, while the earlier movie, Hachikō Monogatari, and other sources state that he died in March 1935 (9 years and 9 months after Professor Ueno 's death).
The film score of Hachi was composed by Jan A.P. Kaczmarek.
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what is the youngest age to get married in america | Age of marriage in the United states - wikipedia
Unlike most Western countries, half of the US states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage. While in most US states, individuals age 18 have a right to marriage (with two exceptions -- Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21)), all states allow minors to marry in certain circumstances, such as parental consent, judicial consent, pregnancy, or a combination of these situations. Most states allow parties aged 16 and 17 to marry with parental consent alone. In most states, children under 16 can be married too. In the 25 states which have an absolute minimum age set by statute, this age varies between 13 and 17, while in 25 states there is no statutory minimum age if other legal conditions are met. Although in such states there is no set minimum age by statute, the traditional common law minimum age is 14 for boys and 12 for girls - ages which have been confirmed by case law in some states. Over the past 15 years, more than 200,000 minors married in US, and in Tennessee girls as young as 10 were married in 2001.
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how long does it take to complete the first round of the nfl draft | 2018 NFL draft - wikipedia
The 2018 NFL Draft was the 83rd annual meeting of National Football League (NFL) franchises to select newly eligible players for the 2018 NFL season. The draft was held on April 26 -- 28 at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, and was the first draft to take place in an NFL stadium and the first to be held in Texas, which won out in a fourteen city bid. In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
Five quarterbacks were selected in the first round for only the third time in the history of the draft; the first since the 1999 NFL Draft. Also, a pair of siblings -- safety Terrell Edmunds and linebacker Tremaine Edmunds -- were both drafted in the first round, marking the first time brothers have been selected in the opening round of the same draft.
In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
The following is the breakdown of the 256 players selected by position:
In the explanations below, (PD) indicates trades completed prior to the start of the draft (i.e. Pre-Draft), while (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2018 draft.
Coverage of the draft was broadcast NFL Network and ESPN, with Fox also simulcasting NFL Network 's coverage of the first two rounds (serving as a prelude for Fox 's acquisition of Thursday Night Football for the 2018 season). ESPN aired coverage of the last four rounds on ABC, and aired secondary broadcasts of the first round on ESPN2 (featuring the panel of ESPN 's College GameDay, which also broadcast a special edition from outside AT&T Stadium as a pre-show for ESPN 's coverage) and in Spanish on ESPN Deportes.
Telecasts of the first round across all three broadcasters (which included the expansion of coverage to broadcast television) drew a combined Nielsen overnight household rating of 8.4, and total viewership of 11.214 million, making it the most - watched opening round since 2014. ESPN drew the largest single audience, with 5.336 million viewers, while Fox and NFL Network had a combined viewership of 5.74 million across both channels (3.776 and 2.005 million individually).
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who scored first century in 2015 world cup against england | List of Cricket World Cup centuries - wikipedia
In cricket, a player is said to have completed a century when he scores 100 or more runs in a single innings. The Cricket World Cup is the international championship of One Day International (ODI) cricket. The event is organised by the sport 's governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), and is held once in every four years. As of 2015, the latest edition of the tournament, a total of 165 centuries have been scored by 103 players from 15 different teams. Players from all the teams that have permanent ODI status have made centuries. In addition, players from five teams that have temporary ODI status have scored centuries. The Australians lead the list with 26 centuries followed by the Indians with 25.
The first century in the championship was scored by Dennis Amiss of England when he made 137 against India in the 1975 World Cup. The same day New Zealand 's Glenn Turner scored 171 not out against East Africa. It remained the highest individual total over the next two editions until Indian cricketer Kapil Dev scored 175 not out against Zimbabwe in 1983. Following that, the record was broken successively by Viv Richards (181) in 1987, Gary Kirsten (188 not out) in 1996, Chris Gayle (215) and Martin Guptill (237 not out) both in 2015. India cricketer Sachin Tendulkar holds the record for the highest number of centuries with six, followed by Australia 's Ricky Ponting and Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara with five each. Mark Waugh, Sourav Ganguly, Mahela Jayawardene, AB de Villiers and Tillakaratne Dilshan are joint - third with four centuries. Three players have scored three centuries in a single tournament -- Waugh, Ganguly, and Matthew Hayden -- in 1996, 2003, 2007 respectively, while Sangakkara made four consecutive centuries in the 2015 World Cup. Ireland 's Kevin O'Brien recorded the fastest century when he reached the figure in 50 balls, against England in the 2011 World Cup. In 1992, Andy Flower of Zimbabwe -- making his ODI debut in a World Cup -- scored a century. In the 2015 tournament, 38 centuries were scored, making it the highest number in a single tournament, while the 1979 competition had the least with two.
As of 2015, six centuries have been scored in the finals, of which five resulted in victories. Adam Gilchrist holds the record for the highest score in a final when he scored 149 against Sri Lanka at the 2007 World Cup. His century came off 72 balls, making it the fastest in a final.
Viv Richards scored a match - winning century in the 1979 World Cup Final.
Ricky Ponting scored at least one century in four of the five World Cups he had appeared in.
Martin Guptill holds the record for the highest individual score in World Cup history.
Adam Gilchrist holds the record for the quickest century in a final.
Kevin O'Brien holds the record for the fastest century in a World Cup.
Kumar Sangakkara scored four consecutive centuries in the 2015 tournament, a record in ODIs.
Note: Italics denote the players who are currently active at international level
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when was schizoaffective disorder added to the dsm | Schizoaffective disorder - wikipedia
Schizoaffective disorder (SZA, SZD or SAD) is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal thought processes and deregulated emotions. The diagnosis is made when the person has features of both schizophrenia and a mood disorder -- either bipolar disorder or depression -- but does not strictly meet diagnostic criteria for either alone. The bipolar type is distinguished by symptoms of mania, hypomania, or mixed episode; the depressive type by symptoms of depression only. Common symptoms of the disorder include hallucinations, paranoid delusions, and disorganized speech and thinking. The onset of symptoms usually begins in young adulthood, currently with an uncertain lifetime prevalence because the disorder was redefined, but DSM - IV prevalence estimates have been less than one percent of the population, in the range of 0.5 to 0.8 percent. Diagnosis is based on observed behavior and the person 's reported experiences.
Genetics, neurobiology, early and current environment, behavioral, social, and experiential components appear to be important contributory factors; some recreational and prescription drugs may cause or worsen symptoms. No single isolated organic cause has been found, but extensive evidence exists for abnormalities in the metabolism of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), dopamine, and glutamic acid in people with schizophrenia, psychotic mood disorders, and schizoaffective disorder. People with schizoaffective disorder are likely to have co-occurring conditions, including anxiety disorders and substance use disorders. Social problems such as long - term unemployment, poverty and homelessness are common. The average life expectancy of people with the disorder is shorter than those without it, due to increased physical health problems from an absence of health promoting behaviors such as a sedentary lifestyle, and a higher suicide rate.
The mainstay of current treatment is antipsychotic medication combined with mood stabilizer medication or antidepressant medication, or both. There is growing concern by some researchers that antidepressants may increase psychosis, mania, and long - term mood episode cycling in the disorder. When there is risk to self or others, usually early in treatment, hospitalization may be necessary. Psychiatric rehabilitation, psychotherapy, and vocational rehabilitation are very important for recovery of higher psychosocial function. As a group, people with schizoaffective disorder diagnosed using DSM - IV and ICD - 10 criteria have a better outcome than people with schizophrenia, but have variable individual psychosocial functional outcomes compared to people with mood disorders, from worse to the same. Outcomes for people with DSM - 5 diagnosed schizoaffective disorder depend on data from prospective cohort studies, which have n't been completed yet.
In DSM - 5 and ICD - 10, schizoaffective disorder is in the same diagnostic class as schizophrenia, but not in the same class as mood disorders. The diagnosis was introduced in 1933, and its definition was slightly changed in the DSM - 5, published in May 2013, because the DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder definition leads to excessive misdiagnosis. The changes made to the schizoaffective disorder definition were intended to make the DSM - 5 diagnosis more consistent (or reliable), and to substantially reduce the use of the diagnosis. Additionally, the DSM - 5 schizoaffective disorder diagnosis can no longer be used for first episode psychosis.
Schizoaffective disorder is defined by mood disorder - free psychosis in the context of a long - term psychotic and mood disorder. Psychosis must meet criterion A for schizophrenia which may include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, thinking or behavior and negative symptoms. Both delusions and hallucinations are classic symptoms of psychosis. Delusions are false beliefs which are strongly held despite evidence to the contrary. Beliefs should not be considered delusional if they are in keeping with cultural beliefs. Delusional beliefs may or may not reflect mood symptoms (for example, someone experiencing depression may or may not experience delusions of guilt). Hallucinations are disturbances in perception involving any of the five senses, although auditory hallucinations (or "hearing voices '') are the most common. A lack of responsiveness or negative symptoms include alogia (lack of spontaneous speech), blunted affect (reduced intensity of outward emotional expression), avolition (loss of motivation), and anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure). Negative symptoms can be more lasting and more debilitating than positive symptoms of psychosis.
Mood symptoms are of mania, hypomania, mixed episode, or depression, and tend to be episodic rather than continuous. A mixed episode represents a combination of symptoms of mania and depression at the same time. Symptoms of mania include elevated or irritable mood, grandiosity (inflated self - esteem), agitation, risk - taking behavior, decreased need for sleep, poor concentration, rapid speech, and racing thoughts. Symptoms of depression include low mood, apathy, changes in appetite or weight, disturbances in sleep, changes in motor activity, fatigue, guilt or feelings of worthlessness, and suicidal thinking.
A combination of genetic and environmental factors are believed to play a role in the development of schizoaffective disorder.
Genetic studies do not support the view that schizophrenia, psychotic mood disorders and schizoaffective disorder are distinct etiological entities, but rather the evidence suggests the existence of common inherited vulnerability that increases the risks for all these syndromes. Some susceptibility pathways may be specific for schizophrenia, others for bipolar disorder, and yet other mechanisms and genes may confer risk for mixed schizophrenic and affective (or mood disorder) psychoses, but there is no support from genetics for the view that these are distinct disorders with distinct etiologies and pathogenesis. Laboratory studies of putative endophenotypes, brain imaging studies, and post mortem studies shed little additional light on the validity of the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis, as most studies combine subjects with different chronic psychoses in comparison to healthy subjects.
Viewed broadly then, biological and environmental factors interact with a person 's genes in ways which may increase or decrease the risk for developing schizoaffective disorder; exactly how this happens (the biological mechanism) is not yet known. Schizophrenia spectrum disorders, of which schizoaffective disorder is a part, have been increasingly linked to advanced paternal age at the time of conception, a known cause of genetic mutations. The physiology of people diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder appears to be similar, but not identical, to that of those diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; however, human neurophysiological function in normal brain and mental disorder syndromes is not fully understood.
A clear causal connection between drug use and psychotic spectrum disorders, including schizoaffective disorder, has been difficult to prove. In the specific case of marijuana or cannabis, however, evidence supports a link between earlier onset of psychotic illness and cannabis use. The more often cannabis is used, particularly in early adolescence, the more likely a person is to develop a psychotic illness, with frequent use being correlated with double the risk of psychosis and schizoaffective disorder. A 2009 Yale review stated that in individuals with an established psychotic disorder, cannabinoids can exacerbate symptoms, trigger relapse, and have negative consequences on the course of the illness. While cannabis use is accepted as a contributory cause of schizoaffective disorder by many, it remains controversial, since not all young people who use cannabis later develop psychosis, but those who do use cannabis have an increased odds ratio of about 3.
There is evidence that the two major component cannabinoids in cannabis have different effects: tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which causes a "high, '' may increase propensity to psychosis; while cannabidiol (CBD), which does n't cause a "high '' and may have neuroprotective effects -- that is, reduce psychosis and have mood stabilizing effects.
About half of those with schizoaffective disorder use drugs or alcohol excessively. There is evidence that alcohol abuse via a kindling mechanism can occasionally cause the development of a chronic substance induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizoaffective disorder. There is little evidence to suggest that psychotic individuals choose specific drugs to self - medicate; there is some support for the hypothesis that they use drugs to cope with unpleasant states such as depression, anxiety, boredom and loneliness.
Amphetamine, cocaine, and to a lesser extent alcohol, can result in psychosis that presents clinically like psychosis in schizoaffective disorder. It is well understood that methamphetamine and cocaine use can result in methamphetamine - and cocaine - induced psychosis, respectively, that may persist even when users remain abstinent. Alcohol - induced psychosis can also persist during abstinence, though it appears to do so at a lower rate, than when it is being abused.
Although it is not generally believed to be a cause of the illness, people with schizoaffective disorder use nicotine at much greater rates than the general population.
Psychosis as a symptom of a psychiatric disorder is first and foremost a diagnosis of exclusion. So a new - onset episode of psychosis can not be considered to be a symptom of a psychiatric disorder until other relevant and known medical causes of psychosis are excluded, or ruled out. Many clinicians improperly perform, or entirely miss this step, introducing avoidable diagnostic error and misdiagnosis.
An initial assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination. Although no biological laboratory tests exist which confirm schizoaffective disorder, biological tests should be performed to exclude psychosis associated with or caused by substance use, medications, toxins or poisons, surgical complications, or other medical illnesses. Since non-medical mental health practitioners are not trained to exclude medical causes of psychosis, people experiencing psychosis should be referred to an emergency department or hospital.
Delirium should be ruled out, which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness, indicating other underlying factors which includes medical illnesses. Excluding medical illnesses associated with psychosis is performed by using blood tests to measure:
Other investigations which may be performed include:
Blood tests are not usually repeated for relapse in people with an established diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder, unless there is a specific medical indication. These may include serum BSL if olanzapine has previously been prescribed, thyroid function if lithium has previously been taken to rule out hypothyroidism, liver function tests if chlorpromazine has been prescribed, CPK levels to exclude neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and a urinalysis and serum toxicology screening if substance use is suspected. Assessment and treatment may be done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to self or others.
Because psychosis may be precipitated or exacerbated by common classes of psychiatric medications, such as antidepressants, ADHD stimulant medications, and sleep medications, prescribed medication - induced psychosis should be ruled out, particularly for first - episode psychosis. This is an essential step to reduce diagnostic error and to evaluate potential medication sources of further patient harm. Regarding prescribed medication sources of patient harm, Yale School of Medicine Professor of Psychiatry Malcolm B. Bowers, Jr, MD wrote:
Illicit drugs are n't the only ones that precipitate psychosis or mania -- prescribed drugs can too, and in particular, some psychiatric drugs. We investigated this and found that about 1 in 12 psychotic or manic patients in an inpatient psychiatric facility are there due to antidepressant - induced psychosis or mania. That 's unfortunate for the field (of psychiatry) and disastrous for some of our patients.
It is important to be understood here. I want to call attention to the fact that some persons with a family history of even the subtler forms of bipolar disorder or psychosis are more vulnerable than others to the mania - or psychosis - inducing potential of antidepressants, stimulants and sleeping medications. While I 'm not making a blanket statement against these medications, I am urging caution in their use. I believe (clinicians) should ask patients and their families whether there is a family history of bipolar disorder or psychosis before prescribing these medications. Most patients and their families do n't know the answer when they are first asked, so time should be allowed for the patient to ask family or relatives, between the session when asked by (the clinician) and a follow - up session. This may increase the wait for a medication slightly, but because some patients are vulnerable, this is a necessary step for (the clinician) to take. I believe that psychiatry as a field has not emphasized this point sufficiently. As a result, some patients have been harmed by the very treatments that were supposed to help them; or to the disgrace of psychiatry, harmed and then misdiagnosed.
Substance - induced psychosis should also be ruled out. Both substance - and medication - induced psychosis can be excluded to a high level of certainty while the person is psychotic, typically in an emergency department, using both a
Some dietary supplements may also induce psychosis or mania, but can not be ruled out with laboratory tests. So a psychotic person 's family, partner, or friends should be asked whether he or she is currently taking any dietary supplements.
Common mistakes made when diagnosing psychotic patients include:
Only after these relevant and known causes of psychosis have been ruled out can a psychiatric differential diagnosis be made. A mental health clinician will incorporate family history, observation of a psychotic person 's behavior while the person is experiencing active symptoms, to begin a psychiatric differential diagnosis. Diagnosis also includes self - reported experiences, as well as behavioral abnormalities reported by family members, friends, or significant others. Mistakes in this stage include:
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing schizoaffective disorder are from the American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 5.
The DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder definition was plagued by problems of being inconsistently (or unreliably) used on patients; when the diagnosis is made, it does n't stay with most patients over time; and it has questionable diagnostic validity (that is, it does n't describe a distinct disorder, nor predict any particular outcome). These problems have been slightly reduced (or "modestly improved '') in the DSM - 5 according to Carpenter.
When psychotic symptoms are confined to an episode of mania or depression (with or without mixed features), the diagnosis is that of a "psychotic '' mood disorder, namely either bipolar disorder or major depression). Only when psychotic states persist in a sustained fashion for two weeks or longer without concurrent affective symptoms is the diagnosis schizoaffective disorder or schizophrenia.
The second cardinal guideline in the DSM - 5 diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is one of timeframe.
These two changes are intended by the DSM - 5 workgroup to accomplish two goals:
If the schizoaffective diagnosis is used less often, other diagnoses (like psychotic mood disorders and schizophrenia) are likely to be used more often; but this is hypothetical until real - world data arrive. Validity problems with the diagnosis remain and await further work in the fields of psychiatric genetics, neuroimaging, and cognitive science that includes the overlapping fields of cognitive, affective, and social neuroscience, which may change the way schizoaffective disorder is conceptualized and defined in future versions of the DSM and ICD.
One of two types of schizoaffective disorder may be noted in a diagnosis based on the mood component of the disorder:
The American Psychiatric Association 's DSM - IV criteria for schizoaffective disorder persisted for 19 years (1994 -- 2013). Clinicians adequately trained in diagnosis used the schizoaffective diagnosis too often, largely because the criteria were poorly defined, ambiguous, and hard to use (or poorly operationalized). Poorly trained clinicians used the diagnosis without making necessary exclusions of common causes of psychosis, including some prescribed psychiatric medications. Specialty books written by experts on schizoaffective disorder have existed for over eight years before DSM - 5 describing the overuse of the diagnosis.
Carpenter and the DSM - 5 schizoaffective disorders workgroup analyzed data made available to them in 2009, and reported in May 2013 that:
a recent review of psychotic disorders from large private insurance and Medicare databases in the U.S. found that the diagnosis of DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder was used for about a third of cases with non-affective psychotic disorders. Hence, this unreliable and poorly defined diagnosis is clearly overused.
As stated above, the DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder diagnosis is very inconsistently used or unreliable. A diagnosis is unreliable when several different mental health professionals observing the same individual make different diagnoses excessively. Even when a structured DSM - IV diagnostic interview and best estimate procedures were made by experts in the field that included information from family informants and prior clinical records, reliability was still poor for the DSM - IV schizoaffective diagnosis.
The DSM - IV schizoaffective diagnosis is n't stable over time either. An initial diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder during time spent at a psychiatric inpatient facility was stable at 6 - month and 24 - month follow ups for only 36 % of patients. By comparison, diagnostic stability was 92 % for schizophrenia, 83 % for bipolar disorder and 74 % for major depression. Most patients diagnosed with DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder are later diagnosed with a different disorder, and that disorder is more stable over time than the DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder diagnosis.
In April 2009, Carpenter and the DSM - 5 schizoaffective disorder workgroup reported that they were "developing new criteria for schizoaffective disorder to improve reliability and face validity, '' and were "determining whether the dimensional assessment of mood (would) justify a recommendation to drop schizoaffective disorder as a diagnostic category. '' Speaking to an audience at the May 2009 annual conference of the American Psychiatric Association, Carpenter said:
We had hoped to get rid of (DSM - IV) schizoaffective (disorder) as a diagnostic category because we do n't think it 's (a) valid (scientific entity) and we do n't think it 's reliable. On the other hand, we think it 's absolutely indispensable to clinical practice.
A major reason why DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder was indispensable to clinical practice is because it offered clinicians a diagnosis for patients with psychosis in the context of mood disorder whose clinical picture, at the time diagnosed, appeared different from DSM - IV "schizophrenia '' or "mood disorder with psychotic features. ''
But DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder carries an unnecessarily worse prognosis than a "mood disorder with psychotic features '' diagnosis, because long - term data revealed that a significant proportion of DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder patients had 15 - year outcomes indistinguishable from patients with mood disorders with or without psychotic features, even though the clinical picture at the time of first diagnosis looked different from both schizophrenia and mood disorders.
These problems with the DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder definition result in most people the diagnosis is used on being misdiagnosed; furthermore, outcome studies done 10 years after the diagnosis was released showed that the group of patients defined by the DSM - IV and ICD - 10 schizoaffective diagnosis had significantly better outcomes than predicted, so the diagnosis carries a misleading and unnecessarily poor prognosis. The DSM - IV criteria for schizoaffective disorder will continue to be used on U.S. board examinations in psychiatry through the end of 2014; established practitioners may continue to use the problematic DSM - IV definition much further into the future also.
The new schizoaffective disorder criteria continue to have questionable diagnostic validity. Questionable diagnostic validity does not doubt that people with symptoms of psychosis and mood disorder need treatment -- psychosis and mood disorder must be treated. Instead, questionable diagnostic validity means there are unresolved problems with the way the DSM - 5 categorizes and defines schizoaffective disorder.
A core concept in modern psychiatry since DSM - III was released in 1980, is the categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia, known as the Kraepelinian dichotomy. Emil Kraepelin introduced the idea that schizophrenia was separate from mood disorders after observing patients with symptoms of psychosis and mood disorder, over a century ago, in 1898. This was a time before genetics were known and before any treatments existed for mental illness. The Kraepelinian dichotomy was n't used for DSM - I and DSM - II because both manuals were influenced by the dominant psychodynamic psychiatry of the time, but the designers of DSM - III wanted to use more scientific and biological definitions. Consequently, they looked to psychiatry 's history and decided to use the Kraepelinian dichotomy as a foundation for the classification system.
The Kraepelinian dichotomy continues to be used in DSM - 5 despite having been challenged by data from modern psychiatric genetics for over eight years, and there is now evidence of a significant overlap in the genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. According to this genetic evidence, the Kraepelinian categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia at the foundation of the current classification and diagnostic system is a mistaken false dichotomy.
The dichotomy at the foundation of the current system forms the basis for a convoluted schizoaffective disorder definition in DSM - IV that resulted in excessive misdiagnosis. Real life schizoaffective disorder patients have significant and enduring symptoms that bridge what are incorrectly assumed to be categorically separate disorders, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. People with psychotic depression, bipolar disorder with a history of psychosis, and schizophrenia with mood symptoms also have symptoms that bridge psychosis and mood disorders. The categorical diagnostic manuals do n't reflect reality in their separation of psychosis (via the schizophrenia diagnosis) from mood disorder, nor do they currently emphasize the actual overlap found in real - life patients. Thus, they are likely to continue to introduce either - or conceptual and diagnostic error, by way of confirmation bias into clinicians ' mindsets, hindering accurate assessment and treatment.
The new definition continues the lack of parsimony of the old definition. Simpler, clearer, and more usable definitions of the diagnosis were supported by certain members of the DSM - 5 workgroup (see next paragraph); these were debated but deemed premature, because more "research (is) needed to establish a new classification system of equal or greater validity '' to the existing system. Because of DSM - 5 's continuing problematic categorical foundation, schizoaffective disorder 's conceptual and diagnostic validity remains doubtful. After enough research is completed and data exists, future diagnostic advances will need to either eliminate and replace, or soften and bridge, the hard categorical separation of mood disorders from schizophrenia; most likely using a spectrum or dimensional approach to diagnosis.
More parsimonious definitions than the current one were considered by Carpenter and the DSM - 5 workgroup:
One option for the DSM - 5 would have been to remove the schizoaffective disorder category and to add affective (or mood) symptoms (that is, mania, hypomania, mixed episode, or depression) as a dimension to schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder or to define a single category for the co-occurrence of psychosis and mood symptoms. This option was extensively debated but ultimately deemed to be premature in the absence of sufficient clinical and theoretical validating data justifying such a... reconceptualization. Additionally, there appeared to be no practical way to introduce affect (or mood) dimensions covering the entire course of illness, that would capture the current concept of periods of psychosis related and unrelated to mood episodes.
(N) o valid biomarkers or laboratory measures have emerged to distinguish between affective psychosis (or psychotic mood disorders) and schizophrenia. To the contrary, the idea of a dichotomy between these types of conditions has proven naïve. (T) he admixture of "schizophrenic '' and affective (or mood) symptoms is a feature of many, or even most, cases with severe mental illness. Most presenting symptoms of psychosis have little validity in determining diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment response in psychosis. (U) ltimately a more... dimensional approach (to assessment and treatment) will be required.
The field of psychiatry has begun to question its assumptions and analyze its data in order to merge closer with evidence - based medicine. The removal of the "episode diagnosis, '' and the addition of two episodes of psychosis, as qualifications for the DSM - 5 schizoaffective diagnosis, may improve the diagnosis ' consistency over DSM - IV for research purposes, where diagnostic criteria are by necessity followed exactingly. But the new definition remains long, unwieldy, and perhaps still not very useful for community clinicians -- with two psychoses, one for two weeks minimum and without mood disorder (but the person can be mildly or moderately depressed) and the other with significant mood disorder and psychosis lasting for most of the time, and with lasting mood symptoms for most of the residual portion of the illness. Community clinicians used the previous definition "for about a third of cases with non-affective psychotic disorders. '' Non-affective psychotic disorders are, by definition, not schizoaffective disorder. For clinicians to make such sizeable errors of misdiagnosis may imply systemic problems with the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis itself. Already, at least one expert believes the new schizoaffective definition has n't gone far enough to solve the previous definition 's problems.
From a scientific standpoint, modern clinical psychiatry is still a very young, underdeveloped medical specialty because its target organ, the human brain, is not yet well understood. The human brain 's neural circuits, for example, are just beginning to be mapped by modern neuroscience in the Human Connectome Project and CLARITY. Clinical psychiatry, furthermore, has begun to understand and acknowledge its current limitations -- but further steps by the field are required to significantly reduce misdiagnosis and patient harm; this is crucial both for responsible patient care and to retain public trust. Looking forward, a paradigm shift is needed in psychiatric research to address unanswered questions about schizoaffective disorder. The dimensional Research Domain Criteria project currently being developed by the U.S. National Institutes of Mental Health, may be the specific problem solving framework psychiatry needs to develop a more scientifically mature understanding of schizoaffective disorder as well as all other mental disorders.
The primary treatment of schizoaffective disorder is medication, with improved outcomes using combined long - term psychological and social supports. Hospitalization may occur for severe episodes either voluntarily or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntarily. Long - term hospitalization is uncommon since deinstitutionalization beginning in the 1950s, although it still occurs. Community support services including drop - in centers, visits by members of a community mental health team, supported employment and support groups are common. Evidence indicates that regular exercise has a positive effect on the physical and mental health of those with schizoaffective disorder.
Participating in internet forums is sometimes used by people with schizoaffective disorder in addition to outpatient medication treatment.
Skillfully delivered psychosocial treatments are perhaps the most important component of pushing for and encouraging improved overall functioning in schizoaffective disorder. Supportive psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are both helpful. Intensive case management (ICM) has been shown to reduce hospitalizations, improve adherence to treatment, and improve social functioning. With ICM, clients are assigned a case manager responsible for coordination of care and assisting clients to access supports to address needs in multiple areas related to well - being, including housing.
High quality psychosocial or psychiatric rehabilitation is very important for recovery from schizoaffective disorder. Psychiatric or psychosocial rehabilitation focuses on solving community integration problems such as obtaining and keeping housing and increasing involvement in positive social groups. It also focuses on improving and increasing activities of daily living; increasing daily healthy habits (such as normalizing sleep - wake cycles; increasing early morning natural light exposure; increasing moderate exercise (such as 20 -- 30 minutes of moderate to brisk early morning to pre-afternoon walking daily, in order to help normalize circadian rhythms); helping individuals understand the specific benefits of healthy food choices; increasing stress - reduction activities such as yoga, tai chi, or meditation); and decreasing unhealthy behaviors (such as substance abuse and smoking); thereby significantly improving quality of life. High quality psychiatric rehabilitation may also focus on vocational rehabilitation including preparing the client for volunteer, part - time paid work, returning to school for further education, job skills training for full - time flexible or supported employment, and other client self - improvement efforts. Core principles of effective psychiatric rehabilitation must include providing hope when the client lacks it, respect for the client wherever they are in the recovery process, empowering the client, teaching the client wellness planning, and emphasizing the importance for the client to develop social support networks. A long - term goal of psychiatric and vocational rehabilitation is that the client learn and actively engage in active stress management while in education or employment, while receiving treatment.
Psychiatric rehabilitation consists of eight main areas:
Few medications are approved specifically for schizoaffective disorder. In general, medications are chosen to reduce symptoms of psychosis and mood disorder.
Antipsychotic medication is usually required both for acute treatment and the prevention of relapse. There is no single antipsychotic of choice in treating schizoaffective disorder, but atypical antipsychotics should be considered because they have mood - stabilizing activity. Paliperidone is an antipsychotic with FDA approval for the treatment of schizoaffective disorder. Antipsychotics should be used at the minimum dose necessary to control symptoms. Potential side effects include extrapyramidal symptoms, including tremor, muscle stiffness, and restlessness or akathisia. Atypical antipsychotics carry a risk of metabolic syndrome, including weight gain, increased blood sugar, and increased blood cholesterol, so regular monitoring of weight and bloodwork should be carried out. Some atypical antipsychotics, such as ziprasidone and aripiprazole, are associated with less risk than others, such as olanzapine. Medication choice is based on how effectively it reduces symptoms, how few side effects it causes, and cost.
In people with treatment - refractory psychosis, a clozapine trial should be considered. Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic that is recognized as being particularly effective when other antipsychotic agents have failed. Clozapine should also be considered in people with chronic and persistent suicidal thinking and behaviour, as it has been shown to reduce the risk of suicide in patients with schizoaffective disorder and a history of suicidality. Between 0.5 and 2 % of patients taking clozapine may develop a life - threatening complication called agranulocytosis, which is a significant drop in a type of white blood cell. Because of this risk, people taking clozapine must have regular monitoring of blood cell counts.
The management of the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder is similar to the treatment of bipolar disorder, with the goal of preventing mood episodes and cycling. Lithium or anticonvulsant mood stabilizers such as valproic acid, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine are prescribed in combination with an antipsychotic.
For depression, if an antidepressant is prescribed, extra attentiveness must be given by the prescribing clinician due its risk for long - term mood cycle acceleration (that is, inducing more frequent episodes of depression per unit of time) and medication - induced psychosis or mania. For individuals who show emerging psychosis, mania, mixed episode symptoms, or mood cycle acceleration, switching to an antipsychotic plus lithium or lamotrigine is preferable to antidepressants.
For individuals who experience anxiety, anti-anxiety medications can be used, usually on a short - term basis. Benzodiazepines, including lorazepam, clonazepam and diazepam, are types of anti-anxiety medications. Care must be taken when prescribing benzodiazepines due to the risk of the person developing tolerance and dependence.
Electroconvulsive therapy, or ECT, may be considered for patients with schizoaffective disorder experiencing severe depression or severe psychotic symptoms that have not responded to treatment with antipsychotics.
Schizoaffective disorder is estimated to occur in 0.5 to 0.8 percent of people at some point in their life. It is more common in women than men; however, this is because of the high concentration of women in the depressive subcategory, whereas the bipolar subtype has a more or less even gender distribution.
The term schizoaffective psychosis was introduced by the American psychiatrist Jacob Kasanin in 1933 to describe an episodic psychotic illness with predominant affective symptoms, that was thought at the time to be a good - prognosis schizophrenia. Kasanin 's concept of the illness was influenced by the psychoanalytic teachings of Adolf Meyer and Kasanin postulated that schizoaffective psychosis was caused by "emotional conflicts '' of a "mainly sexual nature '' and that psychoanalysis "would help prevent the recurrence of such attacks. '' He based his description on a case study of nine individuals.
Other psychiatrists, before and after Kasanin, have made scientific observations of schizoaffective disorder based on assumptions of a biological and genetic cause of the illness. In 1863, German psychiatrist Karl Kahlbaum (1828 -- 1899) described schizoaffective disorders as a separate group in his vesania typica circularis. Kahlbaum distinguished between cross-sectional and longitudinal observations. (Cross-sectional refers to observation of a single, specific episode of the illness, for example, one episode of psychotic depression; while longitudinal refers to long - term observation of many distinct episodes (similar or different) often occurring over the span of years.) In 1920, psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856 -- 1926), the founder of contemporary scientific psychiatry, observed a "great number '' of cases that had characteristics of both groups of psychoses that he originally posited were two distinct and separate illnesses, dementia praecox (now called schizophrenia) and manic depressive insanity (now called bipolar disorders (plural since there are more than one type of bipolar disorder) and recurrent depression).
Kraepelin acknowledged that "there are many overlaps in this area, '' that is, the area between schizophrenia and mood disorders. In 1959, psychiatrist Kurt Schneider (1887 -- 1967) began to further refine conceptualizations of the different forms that schizoaffective disorders can take since he observed "concurrent and sequential types ''. (The concurrent type of illness he referred to is a longitudinal course of illness with episodes of mood disorder and psychosis occurring predominantly at the same time (now called psychotic mood disorders or affective psychosis); while his sequential type refers to a longitudinal course predominantly marked by alternating mood and psychotic episodes.) Schneider described schizoaffective disorders as "cases in - between '' the traditional Kraepelinian dichotomy of schizophrenia and mood disorders.
The historical clinical observation that schizoaffective disorder is an overlap of schizophrenia and mood disorders is explained by genes for both illnesses being present in individuals with schizoaffective disorder; specifically, recent research shows that schizophrenia and mood disorders share common genes and polygenic variations.
Schizoaffective disorder was included as a subtype of schizophrenia in DSM - I and DSM - II, though research showed a schizophrenic cluster of symptoms in individuals with a family history of mood disorders whose illness course, other symptoms and treatment outcome were otherwise more akin to bipolar disorder than to schizophrenia. DSM - III placed schizoaffective disorder in "Psychotic Disorders Not Otherwise Specified '' before being formally recognized in DSM - III - R. DSM - III - R included its own diagnostic criteria as well as the subtypes, bipolar and depressive. In DSM - IV, published in 1994, schizoaffective disorders belonged to the category "Other Psychotic Disorders '' and included almost the same criteria and the same subtypes of illness as DSM - III - R, with the addition of mixed bipolar symptomatology.
DSM - IV and DSM - IV - TR (published in 2000) criteria for schizoaffective disorder were poorly defined and poorly operationalized. These ambiguous and unreliable criteria lasted 19 years and led clinicians to significantly overuse the schizoaffective disorder diagnosis. Patients commonly diagnosed with DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder showed a clinical picture at time of diagnosis that appeared different from schizophrenia or psychotic mood disorders using DSM - IV criteria, but who as a group, were longitudinally determined to have outcomes indistinguishable from those with mood disorders with or without psychotic features. A poor prognosis was assumed to apply to these patients by most clinicians, and this poor prognosis was harmful to many patients. The poor prognosis for DSM - IV schizoaffective disorder was not based on patient outcomes research, but was caused by poorly defined criteria interacting with clinical tradition and belief; clinician enculturation with unscientific assumptions from the diagnosis ' history (discussed above), including the invalid Kraepelinian dichotomy; and by clinicians being unfamiliar with the scientific limitations of the diagnostic and classification system.
The DSM - 5 schizoaffective disorder workgroup analyzed all of the available research evidence on schizoaffective disorder, and concluded that "presenting symptoms of psychosis have little validity in determining diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment response. '' Given our understanding of overlapping genetics in bipolar disorders, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia, as well as the overlap in treatments for these disorders; but given the lack of specificity of presenting symptoms for determining diagnosis, prognosis or treatment response in these psychotic illness syndromes, the limits of our knowledge are clearer: Presenting symptoms of psychosis describe only presenting symptoms to be treated, and not much more. Schizoaffective disorder was changed to a longitudinal or life course diagnosis in DSM - 5 for this reason.
Evidence is sorely lacking about schizoaffective disorder 's (likely multiple) causes and mechanisms (knowing these leads to specific and consistently effective treatments), and about how exactly mood episodes and psychosis are related (knowing this may lead to a simpler, clearer, and more usable behavioral definition of the disorder; as well as a better diagnostic system). Whether schizoaffective disorder is a variant of schizophrenia (as in DSM - 5 and ICD - 10 classification systems), a variant of bipolar disorder, or part of a dimensional continuum between bipolar disorders and schizophrenia is currently being investigated.
Research into the assessment and treatment of schizoaffective disorder will rely less on DSM and ICD criteria as time progresses, and more on the dimensional Research Domain Criteria currently being developed by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The Research Domain Criteria initiative, led by Bruce Cuthbert, Ph. D., of NIMH, is the inspiration for the Roadmap for Mental Health Research in Europe (ROAMER). The purpose of the Research Domain Criteria initiative is to address the marked variability and overlap within and among the disorder categories, and to foster development of more effective assessment and treatment for each individual patient. Over the coming decades, advances resulting from the Research Domain Criteria in the U.S. and ROAMER in Europe will be incorporated into future versions of the DSM and ICD, with the hope of eventually leading to personalized mental health of greater diagnostic accuracy and with more targeted and useful treatments, including biomedical, psychosocial, and possibly preventive approaches.
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where does the ghan depart from in adelaide | Adelaide Parklands Terminal - Wikipedia
Adelaide Parklands Terminal is the only interstate railway station in Adelaide, South Australia. It is 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the city centre, adjacent to the suburb of Keswick, and is within the southern part of the West Parklands.
The terminal opened on 18 May 1984 as Keswick Terminal (and located near, but not connected to, the similarly named Keswick station). It was developed by Australian National (AN) as a dedicated long - haul passenger rail station, allowing AN to vacate the then State Transport Authority 's Adelaide railway station. In 1986, the Geographic Names Board approved the name Keswick Terminal for the station, and it is now officially classified as a suburb, in the City of West Torrens. The station was included in the sale of Australian National 's passenger operations to Great Southern Rail on 1 November 1997.
In June 2008, the station was renamed Adelaide Parklands Terminal. following Stage One of a plan to "improve guest comfort and amenity, traffic and passenger movement, food and retail facilities, image, identity, presentation and sustainability ''. SA Govt Tourism Minister Jane Lomax - Smith officially opened the terminal on 6 August 2008.
The terminal was built as a dual gauge station being served by the standard gauge Ghan, Indian Pacific and Trans - Australian to the north, and the broad gauge Overland to the south - east. It was also served by regional trains operated by South Australian Railways Bluebird railcars and Commonwealth Railways CB class railcars, and all SA regional trains ceased operation by 1990. The Adelaide to Melbourne line was converted to standard gauge in 1995, and The Overland became a standard - gauge train.
Adelaide is the only city in the world where passengers can catch trains on two distinct transcontinental routes, The Ghan, (to Alice Springs and Darwin), and the Indian Pacific, (to Sydney and Perth). Passengers can also catch The Overland (to Melbourne). These trains are all operated by Great Southern Rail.
The Indian Pacific at the terminal
Main platform with carriages from The Ghan
Terminal entrance (2014)
Choo Choos Cafe (2011)
GM22 at the head of the Trans Australian in 1986. (Note dual gauge tracks)
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which of the following was the most common pattern to roman expansion | Campaign history of the Roman military - wikipedia
From its origin as a city - state on the peninsula of Italy in the 8th century BC, to its rise as an empire covering much of Southern Europe, Western Europe, Near East and North Africa to its fall in the 5th century AD, the political history of Ancient Rome was closely entwined with its military history. The core of the campaign history of the Roman military is an aggregate of different accounts of the Roman military 's land battles, from its initial defense against and subsequent conquest of the city 's hilltop neighbors on the Italian peninsula, to the ultimate struggle of the Western Roman Empire for its existence against invading Huns, Vandals and Germanic tribes. These accounts were written by various authors throughout and after the history of the Empire. Following the First Punic War, naval battles were less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome due to its encompassment of lands of the periphery and its unchallenged dominance of the Mediterranean Sea.
The Roman army battled first against its tribal neighbours and Etruscan towns within Italy, and later came to dominate the Mediterranean and at its height the provinces of Britannia and Asia Minor. As with most ancient civilizations, Rome 's military served the triple purpose of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome 's military typified this pattern, and the majority of Rome 's campaigns were characterised by one of two types. The first is the territorial expansionist campaign, normally begun as a counter-offensive, in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory and allowed Rome to grow from a small town to a population of 55 million in the early empire when expansion was halted. The second is the civil war, which plagued Rome from its foundation to its eventual demise.
Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories, Romans "produced their share of incompetents '' who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome 's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal, to win the battle but lose the war. The history of Rome 's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.
Knowledge of Roman history stands apart from other civilizations in the ancient world. Its chronicles, military and otherwise, document the city 's very foundation to its eventual demise. Although some histories have been lost, such as Trajan 's account of the Dacian Wars, and others, such as Rome 's earliest histories, are at least semi-apocryphal, the extant histories of Rome 's military history are extensive.
Rome 's earliest history, from the time of its founding as a small tribal village, to the downfall of its kings, is the least well preserved. Although the early Romans were literate to some degree, this void may be due to the lack of will to record their history at that time, or such histories as they did record were lost.
Although the Roman historian Livy (59 BC -- 17 AD) lists a series of seven kings of early Rome in his work Ab urbe condita, from its establishment through its earliest years, the first four kings (Romulus, Numa, Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius) may be apocryphal. A number of points of view have been proposed. Grant and others argue that prior to the establishment of the Etruscan kingdom of Rome under the traditional fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus, Rome would have been led by a religious leader of some sort. Very little is known of Rome 's military history from this era, and what history has come down to us is more of a legendary than of factual nature. Traditionally, Romulus, after founding the city, fortified the Palatine Hill, and shortly thereafter, Rome was "equal to any of the surrounding cities in her prowess in war ''.
The first of the campaigns fought by the Romans in this legendary account are the wars with various Latin cities and the Sabines. According to Livy, the Latin village of Caenina responded to the event of the abduction of the Sabine women by invading Roman territory, but were routed and their village captured. The Latins of Antemnae and those of Crustumerium were defeated next in a similar fashion. The remaining main body of the Sabines attacked Rome and briefly captured the citadel, but were then convinced to conclude a treaty with the Romans under which the Sabines became Roman citizens.
There was a further war in the 8th century BC against Fidenae and Veii. In the 7th century BC there was a war with Alba Longa, a second war with Fidenae and Veii and a second Sabine War. Ancus Marcius led Rome to victory against the Latins and, according to the Fasti Triumphales, over the Veientes and Sabines also.
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus ' first war was waged against the Latins. Tarquinius took the Latin town of Apiolae by storm and took great booty from there back to Rome. According to the Fasti Triumphales, the war occurred prior to 588 BC.
His military ability was tested by an attack from the Sabines. Tarquinius doubled the numbers of equites to help the war effort, and defeat the Sabines. In the peace negotiations that followed, Tarquinius received the town of Collatia and appointed his nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, also known as Egerius, as commander of the garrison which he stationed in that city. Tarquinius returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph for his victories that, according to the Fasti Triumphales, occurred on 13 September 585 BC.
Subsequently, the Latin cities of Corniculum, old Ficulea, Cameria, Crustumerium, Ameriola, Medullia and Nomentum were subdued and became Roman.
Early in his reign, Servius Tullius warred against Veii and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. The war helped him to cement his position at Rome. According to the Fasti Triumphales, Servius celebrated three triumphs over the Etruscans, including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC (the date of the third triumph is not legible on the Fasti).
Early in his reign Tarquinius Superbus, Rome 's seventh and final king, called a meeting of the Latin leaders at which he persuaded them to renew their treaty with Rome and become her allies rather than her enemies, and it was agreed that the troops of the Latins would attend at a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina on an appointed day to form a united military force with the troops of Rome. This was done, and Tarquin formed combined units of Roman and Latin troops.
Tarquin next began a war against the Volsci. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he commenced the erection of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus which his father had vowed. He also celebrated a triumph for his victory.
He was next engaged in a war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which had rejected the Latin treaty with Rome. Unable to take the city by force of arms, Tarquin had his son, Sextus Tarquinius, infiltrate the city, gain the trust of its people and command of its army. In time he killed or exiled the city 's leaders, and handed control of the city over to his father.
Tarquin also agreed to a peace with the Aequi, and renewed the treaty of peace between Rome and the Etruscans. According to the Fasti Triumphales, Tarquin also won a victory over the Sabines.
Tarquinius later went to war with the Rutuli. According to Livy, the Rutuli were, at that time, a very wealthy nation. Tarquinius was desirous of obtaining the booty which would come with victory over the Rutuli. Tarquin unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital, Ardea, by storm, and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city. The war was interrupted by the revolution which overthrew the Roman monarchy. The Roman army, camped outside Ardea, welcomed Lucius Junius Brutus as their new leader, and expelled the king 's sons. It is unclear what was the outcome of the siege, or indeed the war.
The first non-apocryphal Roman wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region. Florus writes that at this time "their neighbours, on every side, were continually harassing them, as they had no land of their own... and as they were situated, as it were, at the junction of the roads to Latium and Eturia, and, at whatever gate they went out, were sure to meet a foe. ''
In the semi-legendary period of the early republic, sources record Rome was twice attacked by Etruscan armies. About 509 BC war with Veii and Tarquinii was said to have been instigated by the recently overthrown king Tarquinius Superbus. Again in 508 BC Tarquin persuaded the king of Clusium, Lars Porsenna, to wage war on Rome, resulting in a siege of Rome and afterwards a peace treaty.
Initially, Rome 's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages on a tribal system similar to that of Rome, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one, Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers, as had Rome. Rome defeated the Lavinii and Tusculi in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC, were defeated by the Veientes in the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC, the Sabines in an unnamed battle in 449 BC, the Aequi in the Battle of Mount Algidus in 458 BC, the Aequi and Volsci in 446 BC, in the Battle of Corbio, in 446 BC the Aurunci in the Battle of Aricia, the Capture of Fidenae in 435 BC and the Siege of Veii in 396 BC, and the Capture of Antium in 377 BC. After defeating the Veientes, the Romans had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan neighbours, as well as secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the tribespeople of the Apennine hills.
However, Rome still controlled only a very limited area and the affairs of Rome were minor even to those in Italy and Rome 's affairs were only just coming to the attention of the Greeks, the dominant cultural force at the time. At this point the bulk of Italy remained in the hands of Latin, Sabine, Samnite and other peoples in the central part of Italy, Greek colonies to the south, and the Celtic people, including the Gauls, to the north.
By 390 BC, several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe. Most of this was unknown to the Romans at this time, who still had purely local security concerns, but the Romans were alerted when a particularly warlike tribe, the Senones, invaded the Etruscan province of Siena from the north and attacked the town of Clusium, not far from Rome 's sphere of influence. The Clusians, overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. Perhaps unintentionally the Romans found themselves not just in conflict with the Senones, but their primary target. The Romans met them in pitched battle at the Battle of the Allia around 390 -- 387 BC. The Gauls, under their chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of around 15,000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and partially sacked the town before being either driven off or bought off.
Now that the Romans and Gauls had blooded one another, intermittent Roman - Gallic wars were to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries, including the Battle of Lake Vadimo, the Battle of Faesulae in 225 BC, the Battle of Telamon in 224 BC, the Battle of Clastidium in 222 BC, the Battle of Cremona in 200 BC, the Battle of Mutina in 194 BC, the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC, and the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. The Celtic problem would not be resolved for Rome until the final subjugation of all Gaul following the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC.
After swiftly recovering from the sack of Rome, the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. Despite their successes, their mastery of the whole of Italy was by no means assured. The Samnites were a people just as martial and as rich as the Romans and had the objective of their own to secure more lands in the fertile Italian plains on which Rome itself lay. The First Samnite War of between 343 BC and 341 BC that followed widespread Samnite incursions into Rome 's territory was a relatively short affair: the Romans beat the Samnites in both the Battle of Mount Gaurus in 342 BC and the Battle of Suessula in 341 BC but were forced to withdraw from the war before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War.
Rome was therefore forced to contend by around 340 BC against both Samnite incursions into their territory and, simultaneously, in a bitter war against their former allies. Rome bested the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum, after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule. Perhaps due to Rome 's lenient treatment of their defeated foe, the Latins submitted largely amicably to Roman rule for the next 200 years.
The Second Samnite War, from 327 BC to 304 BC, was a much longer and more serious affair for both the Romans and Samnites, running for over twenty years and incorporating twenty - four battles that led to massive casualties on both sides. The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course: the Samnites seized Neapolis in the Capture of Neapolis in 327 BC, which the Romans then re-captured before losing at the Battle of the Caudine Forks and the Battle of Lautulae. The Romans then proved victorious at the Battle of Bovianum and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards, leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms. By 304 BC the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory, founding several colonies. This pattern of meeting aggression in force and so inadvertently gaining territory in strategic counter-attacks was to become a common feature of Roman military history.
Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC, to open the Third Samnite War. With this success in hand they managed to bring together a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome, all of whom were probably keen to prevent any one faction dominating the entire region. The army that faced the Romans at the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC included Samnites, Gauls, Etruscans and Umbrians. When the Roman army won a convincing victory over these combined forces it must have become clear that little could prevent Roman dominance of Italy and in the Battle of Populonia (282 BC) Rome destroyed the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region.
By the beginning of the 3rd century, Rome had established itself in 282 BC as a major power on the Italian Peninsula, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms. Rome had all but completely defeated the Samnites, mastered its fellow Latin towns, and greatly reduced Etruscan power in the region. However, the south of Italy was controlled by the Greek colonies of Magna Grecia who had been allied to the Samnites, and continued Roman expansion brought the two into inevitable conflict.
In the naval Battle of Thurii, Tarentum appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, ruler of Epirus. Motivated by his diplomatic obligations to Tarentum, and a personal desire for military accomplishment, Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25,000 men and a contingent of war elephants on Italian soil in 280 BC, where his forces were joined by some Greek colonists and a portion of the Samnites who revolted against Roman control, taking up arms against Rome for the fourth time in seventy years.
The Roman army had not yet seen elephants in battle, and their inexperience turned the tide in Pyrrhus ' favour at the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC, and again at the Battle of Ausculum in 279 BC. Despite these victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy. Furthermore, Rome entered into a treaty of support with Carthage, and Pyrrhus found that despite his expectations, none of the other Italic peoples would defect to the Greek and Samnite cause. Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each encounter with the Roman army, and failing to find further allies in Italy, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula and campaigned in Sicily against Carthage, abandoning his allies to deal with the Romans.
When his Sicilian campaign was also ultimately a failure, and at the request of his Italian allies, Pyrrhus returned to Italy to face Rome once more. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum. This time the Romans had devised methods to deal with the war elephants, including the use of javelins, fire and, one source claims, simply hitting the elephants heavily on the head. While Beneventum was indecisive, Pyrrhus realised that his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns, and seeing little hope for further gains, he withdrew completely from Italy.
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome. It had shown that it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and further showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing Magna Grecia. Effectively dominating the Italian peninsula, and with a proven international military reputation, Rome now began to look to expand from the Italian mainland. Since the Alps formed a natural barrier to the north, and Rome was none too keen to meet the fierce Gauls in battle once more, the city 's gaze turned to Sicily and the islands of the Mediterranean, a policy that would bring it into direct conflict with its former ally Carthage.
Rome first began to make war outside the Italian peninsula during the Punic wars against Carthage, a former Phoenician colony that had established on the north coast of Africa and developed into a powerful state. These wars, starting in 264 BC were probably the largest conflicts of the ancient world yet and saw Rome become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean, with territory in Sicily, North Africa, Iberia, and with the end of the Macedonian wars (which ran concurrently with the Punic wars) Greece as well. After the defeat of the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III the Great in the Roman - Syrian War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world.
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when settlements on Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay -- Rome and Carthage -- in order to solve internal conflicts. The willingness of both Rome and Carthage to become embroiled on the soil of a third party may indicate a willingness to test each other 's power without wishing to enter a full war of annihilation; certainly there was considerable disagreement within Rome about whether to prosecute the war at all. The war saw land battles in Sicily early on, such as the Battle of Agrigentum, but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. For the Romans, naval warfare was a relatively unexplored concept. Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of, as all previous Roman wars had been fought on land in Italy. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors.
Rome took to naval warfare "like a brick to water '' and the first few naval battles of the First Punic War such as the Battle of the Lipari Islands were catastrophic disasters for Rome, as might fairly be expected from a city that had no real prior experience of naval warfare. However, after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine known as a Corvus, a Roman naval force under C. Duillius was able to roundly defeat a Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of Mylae. In just four years, a state without any real naval experience had managed to better a major regional maritime power in battle. Further naval victories followed at the Battle of Tyndaris and the Battle of Cape Ecnomus.
After having won control of the seas, a Roman force landed on the African coast under Marcus Regulus, who was at first victorious, winning the Battle of Adys and forcing Carthage to sue for peace. However, the terms of peace that Rome proposed were so heavy that negotiations failed, and in response, the Carthaginians hired Xanthippus of Carthage, a mercenary from the martial Greek city - state of Sparta, to reorganise and lead their army. Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy and then defeated and captured Regulus at the Battle of Tunis.
Despite being defeated on African soil, the Romans with their newfound naval abilities, roundly beat the Carthaginians in naval battle again -- largely through the tactical innovations of the Roman fleet -- at the Battle of the Aegates Islands. Carthage was left without a fleet or sufficient coin to raise a new one. For a maritime power, the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, and the Carthaginians again sued for peace, during which negotiations, Rome battled the Ligures tribe in the Ligurian War and the Insubres in the Gallic War.
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca, a member of the Barcid family of Carthaginian nobility, attacked Saguntum, a city with diplomatic ties to Rome. Hannibal then raised an army in Iberia and famously crossed the Italian Alps with elephants to invade Italy. In the first battle on Italian soil at Ticinus in 218 BC Hannibal defeated the Romans under Scipio the Elder in a small cavalry fight. Hannibal 's success continued with victories in the Battle of the Trebia, the Battle of Lake Trasimene, where he ambushed an unsuspecting Roman army, and the Battle of Cannae, in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of tactical art, and for a while "Hannibal seemed invincible '', able to beat Roman armies at will.
In the three battles of Nola, Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies at the First Battle of Capua, the Battle of the Silarus, the Second Battle of Herdonia, the Battle of Numistro and the Battle of Asculum. By this time Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army. Despite being defeated in Iberia in the Battle of Baecula, Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively by Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius Salinator on the Metaurus River.
Unable to defeat Hannibal himself on Italian soil, and with Hannibal savaging the Italian countryside but unwilling or unable to destroy Rome itself, the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital. In 203 BC at the Battle of Bagbrades the invading Roman army under Scipio Africanus Major defeated the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax and Hannibal was recalled to Africa. At the famous Battle of Zama Scipio decisively defeated -- perhaps even "annihilated '' -- Hannibal 's army in North Africa, ending the Second Punic War.
Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic War and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground. Carthage was almost defenceless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands. The Romans refused the surrender, demanding as their further terms of surrender the complete destruction of the city and, seeing little to lose, the Carthaginians prepared to fight. In the Battle of Carthage the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed, its culture "almost totally extinguished ''.
Rome 's conflict with the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars led them into expansion in the Iberian peninsula of modern - day Spain and Portugal. The Punic empire of the Carthaginian Barcid family consisted of territories in Iberia, many of which Rome gained control of during the Punic Wars. Italy remained the main theatre of war for much of the Second Punic War, but the Romans also aimed to destroy the Barcid Empire in Iberia and prevent major Punic allies from linking up with forces in Italy.
Over the years, Rome had expanded along the southern Iberian coast until in 211 BC it captured the city of Saguntum. Following two major military expeditions to Iberia, the Romans finally crushed Carthaginian control of the peninsula in 206 BC, at the Battle of Ilipa, and the peninsula became a Roman province known as Hispania. From 206 BC onwards the only opposition to Roman control of the peninsula came from within the native Celtiberian tribes themselves, whose disunity prevented their security from Roman expansion.
Following two small - scale rebellions in 197 BC, in 195 -- 194 BC war broke out between the Romans and the Lusitani people in the Lusitanian War, in modern - day Portugal. By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in pacifying the region and bringing it under their control.
About 154 BC, a major revolt was re-ignited in Numantia, which is known as the First Numantine War, and a long war of resistance was fought between the advancing forces of the Roman Republic and the Lusitani tribes of Hispania. The praetor Servius Sulpicius Galba and the proconsul Lucius Licinius Lucullus arrived in 151 BC and began the process of subduing the local population. In 150 BC, Galba betrayed the Lusitani leaders he had invited to peace talks and had them killed, ingloriously ending the first phase of the war.
The Lusitani revolted again in 146 BC under a new leader called Viriathus, invading Turdetania (southern Iberia) in a guerrilla war. The Lusitanians were initially successful, defeating a Roman army at the Battle of Tribola and going on to sack nearby Carpetania, and then besting a second Roman army at the First Battle of Mount Venus in 146 BC, again going on to sack another nearby city. In 144 BC, the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus campaigned successfully against the Lusitani, but failed in his attempts to arrest Viriathus.
In 144 BC, Viriathus formed a league against Rome with several Celtiberian tribes and persuaded them to rise against Rome too, in the Second Numantine War. Viriathus ' new coalition bested Roman armies at the Second Battle of Mount Venus in 144 BC and again at the failed Siege of Erisone. In 139 BC, Viriathus was finally killed in his sleep by three of his companions who had been promised gifts by Rome. In 136 and 135 BC, more attempts were made to gain complete control of the region of Numantia, but they failed. In 134 BC, the Consul Scipio Aemilianus finally succeeded in suppressing the rebellion following the successful Siege of Numantia.
Since the Roman invasion of the Iberian peninsula had begun in the south in the territories around the Mediterranean controlled by the Barcids, the last region of the peninsula to be subdued lay in the far north. The Cantabrian Wars or Astur - Cantabrian Wars, from 29 BC to 19 BC, occurred during the Roman conquest of these northern provinces of Cantabria and Asturias. Iberia was fully occupied by 25 BC and the last revolt put down by 19 BC
Rome 's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome. However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip 's emissaries, along with emissaries from Hannibal, were captured by a Roman fleet. Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere, Rome sought out land allies in Greece to fight a proxy war against Macedon on its behalf and found partners in the Aetolian League of Greek city - states, the Illyrians to the north of Macedon and the kingdom of Pergamon and the city - state of Rhodes, which lay across the Aegean from Macedon.
The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations. When the Aetolians sued for peace with Philip, Rome 's small expeditionary force, with no more allies in Greece, was ready to make peace. Rome had achieved its objective of pre-occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal. A treaty was drawn up between Rome and Macedon at Phoenice in 205 BC which promised Rome a small indemnity, formally ending the First Macedonian War.
Macedon began to encroach on territory claimed by several other Greek city states in 200 BC and these pleaded for help from their newfound ally Rome. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum that he must submit Macedonia to being essentially a Roman province. Philip, unsurprisingly, refused and, after initial internal reluctance for further hostilities, Rome declared war against Philip in the Second Macedonian War. In the Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the Macedonians, and in a second larger battle under the same opposing commanders in 197 BC, in the Battle of Cynoscephalae, Flamininus again beat the Macedonians decisively. Macedonia was forced to sign the Treaty of Tempea, in which it lost all claim to territory in Greece and Asia, and had to pay a war indemnity to Rome.
Between the second and third Macedonian wars Rome faced further conflict in the region due to a tapestry of shifting rivalries, alliances and leagues all seeking to gain greater influence. After the Macedonians had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC, the Greek city - state of Sparta stepped into the partial power vacuum in Greece. Fearing the Spartans would take increasing control of the region, the Romans drew on help from allies to prosecute the Roman - Spartan War, defeating a Spartan army at the Battle of Gythium in 195 BC. They also fought their former allies the Aetolian League in the Aetolian War, against the Istrians in the Istrian War, against the Illyrians in the Illyrian War, and against Achaia in the Achaean War.
Rome now turned its attentions to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire to the east. After campaigns as far abroad as Bactria, India, Persia and Judea, Antiochus moved to Asia Minor and Thrace to secure several coastal towns, a move that brought him into conflict with Roman interests. A Roman force under Manius Acilius Glabrio defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Thermopylae and forced him to evacuate Greece: the Romans then pursued the Seleucids beyond Greece, beating them again in naval battles at the Battle of the Eurymedon and Battle of Myonessus, and finally in a decisive engagement of the Battle of Magnesia.
In 179 BC Philip died and his talented and ambitious son, Perseus of Macedon, took his throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece. He also allied himself with the warlike Bastarnae, and both this and his actions in Greece possibly violated the treaty signed with the Romans by his father or, if not, certainly was not "behaving as (Rome considered) a subordinate ally should ''. Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had greater military success against the Romans than his father, winning the Battle of Callicinus against a Roman consular army. However, as with all such ventures in this period, Rome responded by simply sending another army. The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and the Macedonians, lacking the reserve of the Romans and with King Perseus captured, duly capitulated, ending the Third Macedonian War.
The Fourth Macedonian War, fought from 150 BC to 148 BC, was the final war between Rome and Macedon and began when Andriscus usurped the Macedonian throne. The Romans raised a consular army under Quintus Caecilius Metellus, who swiftly defeated Andriscus at the Second battle of Pydna.
Under Lucius Mummius, Corinth was destroyed following a siege in 146 BC, leading to the surrender and thus conquest of the Achaean League (see Battle of Corinth).
Rome had, in the earlier Punic Wars, gained large tracts of territory in Africa, which they consolidated in the following centuries. Much of that land had been granted to the kingdom of Numidia, a kingdom on the north African coast approximating to modern Algeria, in return for its past military assistance. The Jugurthine War of 111 -- 104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa, after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. In response to Jugurtha 's usurpation of the Numidian throne, a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars, Rome intervened. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation and was granted half the kingdom. Following further aggression and further bribery attempts, the Romans sent an army to depose him. The Romans were defeated at the Battle of Suthul but fared better at the Battle of the Muthul and finally defeated Jugurtha at the Battle of Thala, the Battle of Mulucha, and the Battle of Cirta (104 BC). Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery, ending the war.
Memories of the sack of Rome by Celtic tribes from Gaul in 390 / 387 BC, had been made into a legendary account that was taught to each generation of Roman youth, were still prominent despite their historical distance. In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with the Celtic tribes of the Allobroges and the Arverni, both of which they defeated with apparent ease in the First Battle of Avignon near the Rhone river and the Second Battle of Avignon, the same year.
The Cimbrian War (113 -- 101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons or Teutones migrated from northern Europe into Rome 's northern territories, where they clashed with Rome and her allies. The Cimbrian War was the first time since the Second Punic War that Italia and Rome itself had been seriously threatened, and caused great fear in Rome. The opening action of the Cimbrian War, the Battle of Noreia in 112 BC, ended in defeat and near disaster for the Romans. In 105 BC the Romans were defeated at the Battle of Arausio and was the costliest Rome had suffered since the Battle of Cannae. After the Cimbri inadvertently granted the Romans a reprieve by diverting to plunder Iberia, Rome was given the opportunity to carefully prepare for and successfully meet the Cimbri and Teutons in the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC) where both tribes were virtually annihilated, ending the threat.
The extensive campaigning abroad by Rome, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder from those campaigns, led to the trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their commanders rather than to the state, and a willingness to follow their generals in battle against the state. Rome was plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because in the past century vast tracts of land had been given to veterans who farmed by use of slaves and who came to greatly outnumber their Roman masters. In the last century BC, at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate 's authority, and was made princeps (emperor).
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three Servile Wars against the Roman state; the third, and most serious, may have involved the revolution of 120,000 to 150,000 slaves. Additionally, in 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy, collectively known as the Socii, over the grievance that they shared the risk of Rome 's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Despite defeats such as the Battle of Fucine Lake, Roman troops defeated the Italian militias in decisive engagements, notably the Battle of Asculum. Although they lost militarily, the Socii achieved their objectives with the legal proclamations of the Lex Julia and Lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.
The internal unrest reached its most serious stage in the two civil wars or marches upon Rome by the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla at the beginning of 82 BC. In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Roman senate and its Samnite allies. Whatever the merits of his grievances against those in power of the state, his actions marked a watershed of the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars of the triumvirate, the overthrowing of the Senate as the de facto head of the Roman state, and the eventual endemic usurpation of power by contenders for the emperor - ship in the later Empire.
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus, a large kingdom in Asia Minor, from 120 to 63 BC. He is remembered as one of Rome 's most formidable and successful enemies who engaged three of the most prominent generals of the late Roman Republic: Sulla, Lucullus, and Pompey the Great. In a pattern familiar from the Punic Wars, the Romans came into conflict with him after the two states ' spheres of influence began to overlap. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom, and Rome for her part seemed equally keen for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring. After conquering western Anatolia (modern Turkey) in 88 BC, Roman sources claim that Mithridates ordered the killing of the majority of the 80,000 Romans living there. In the subsequent First Mithridatic War, the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper after the Battle of Chaeronea and later Battle of Orchomenus but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival Marius; consequently, Mithridates VI was defeated but not destroyed. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull.
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex Bithynia as a province. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates. Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night - time Battle of the Lycus. After defeating Mithridates, Pompey invaded Caucacus, subjugated the Kingdom of Iberia and established Roman control over Colchis.
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates, largely from Cilicia. Rome had destroyed many of the states that had previously policed the Mediterranean with fleets, but had failed to step into the gap created. The pirates had seized the opportunity of a relative power vacuum and had not only strangled shipping lanes but had plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia, and had even made descents upon Italy itself. After the Roman admiral Marcus Antonius Creticus (father of the triumvir Marcus Antonius) failed to clear the pirates to the satisfaction of the Roman authorities, Pompey was nominated his successor as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against them. It supposedly took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the western Mediterranean of pirates, and restore communication between Iberia, Africa, and Italy. Plutarch describes how Pompey first swept their craft from the Mediterranean in a series of small actions and through the promise of honouring the surrender of cities and craft. He then followed the main body of the pirates to their strongholds on the coast of Cilicia, and destroyed them there in the naval Battle of Korakesion.
During a term as praetor in Iberia, Pompey 's contemporary Julius Caesar of the Roman Julii clan defeated the Calaici and Lusitani in battle. Following a consular term, he was then appointed to a five - year term as Proconsular Governor of Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (the coast of Dalmatia). Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul, which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. To this end he stirred up popular nightmares of the first sack of Rome by the Gauls and the more recent spectre of the Cimbri and Teutones. When the Helvetii and Tigurini tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 BC and 49 BC. After slaughtering the Helvetii tribe, Caesar prosecuted a "long, bitter and costly '' campaign against other tribes across the breadth of Gaul, many of whom had fought alongside Rome against their common enemy the Helvetii, and annexed their territory to that of Rome. Plutarch claims that the campaign cost a million Gallic lives. Although "fierce and able '' the Gauls were handicapped by internal disunity and fell in a series of battles over the course of a decade.
Caesar defeated the Helvetii in 58 BC at the Battle of the Arar and Battle of Bibracte, the Belgic confederacy known as the Belgae at the Battle of the Axona, the Nervii in 57 BC at the Battle of the Sabis, the Aquitani, Treviri, Tencteri, Aedui and Eburones in unknown battles, and the Veneti in 56 BC. In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions to Britain. In 52 BC, following the Siege of Avaricum and a string of inconclusive battles, Caesar defeated a union of Gauls led by Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50 BC, the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Caesar recorded his own accounts of these campaigns in Commentarii de Bello Gallico ("Commentaries on the Gallic War '').
Gaul never regained its Celtic identity, never attempted another nationalist rebellion, and remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the Western Empire in 476 AD. However, although Gaul itself was to thereafter remain loyal, cracks were appearing in the political unity of Rome 's governing figures -- partly over concerns over the loyalty of Caesar 's Gallic troops to his person rather than the state -- that were soon to drive Rome into a lengthy series of civil wars.
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus to share power and influence. It was always an uncomfortable alliance given that Crassus and Pompey intensely disliked one another. In 53 BC, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire. After initial successes, he marched his army deep into the desert; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in "the greatest Roman defeat since Hannibal '' in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting against Vercingetorix in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar 's political enemies. In 51 BC, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar would not be permitted to stand for Consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, and the same demands were made of Pompey by other factions. Relinquishing his army would leave Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose Civil War over laying down his command and facing trial. The triumvirate was shattered and conflict was inevitable.
Pompey initially assured Rome and the senate that he could defeat Caesar in battle should he march on Rome. However, by the spring of 49 BC, when Caesar crossed the Rubicon river with his invading forces and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Caesar 's army was still under - strength, with certain units remaining in Gaul, but on the other hand Pompey himself only had a small force at his command, and that with uncertain loyalty having served under Caesar. Tom Holland attributes Pompey 's willingness to abandon Rome to waves of panicking refugees as an attempt to stir ancestral fears of invasions from the north. Pompey 's forces retreated south towards Brundisium, and then fled to Greece. Caesar first directed his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Iberia but following campaigning by Caesar in the Siege of Massilia and Battle of Ilerda he decided to attack Pompey in Greece. Pompey initially defeated Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BC but failed to follow up on the victory. Pompey was decisively defeated in the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC despite outnumbering Caesar 's forces two to one. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered in an attempt to ingratiate the country with Caesar and avoid a war with Rome.
Pompey 's death did not see the end of the civil wars since initially Caesar 's enemies were manifold and Pompey 's supporters continued to fight on after his death. In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army when his former commander Titus Labienus, who had defected to the Pompeians several years earlier, defeated him at the Battle of Ruspina. However, after this low point Caesar came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia. Caesar defeated the combined forces of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompey the Younger at the Battle of Munda in Iberia. Labienus was killed in the battle and the Younger Pompey captured and executed.
Despite his military success, or probably because of it, fear spread of Caesar, now the primary figure of the Roman state, becoming an autocratic ruler and ending the Roman Republic. This fear drove a group of senators naming themselves The Liberators to assassinate him in 44 BC. Further civil war followed between those loyal to Caesar and those who supported the actions of the Liberators. Caesar 's supporter Mark Antony condemned Caesar 's assassins and war broke out between the two factions. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Octavian was entrusted with the command of the war against him. In the Battle of Forum Gallorum Antony, besieging Caesar 's assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina, defeated the forces of the consul Pansa, who was killed, but Antony was then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul, Hirtius. At the Battle of Mutina Antony was again defeated in battle by Hirtius, who was killed. Although Antony failed to capture Mutina, Decimus Brutus was murdered shortly thereafter.
Octavian betrayed his party, and came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Lepidus and on 26 November 43 BC the Second Triumvirate was formed, this time in an official capacity. In 42 BC Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fought the indecisive Battle of Philippi with Caesar 's assassins Marcus Brutus and Cassius. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus also committed suicide shortly afterwards.
Civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony failed just as the first had almost as soon as its opponents had been removed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony. Together with Lucius Antonius, Mark Antony 's wife Fulvia raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony 's rights against Octavian but she was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Perugia. Her death led to partial reconciliation between Octavian and Antony who went on to crush the army of Sextus Pompeius, the last focus of opposition to the second triumvirate, in the naval Battle of Naulochus.
As before, once opposition to the triumvirate was crushed, it started to tear at itself. The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC and was not renewed in law and in 31 BC, war began again. At the Battle of Actium, Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle near Greece, using fire to destroy the enemy fleet.
Octavian went on to become Emperor under the name Augustus and, in the absence of political assassins or usurpers, was able to greatly expand the borders of the Empire.
Gallic Wars (58 BC -- 57 BC)
Clades Lolliana (16 BC)
Early Imperial campaigns in Germania (12 BC -- AD 16)
Marcomannic Wars (166 -- 180) (participating Roman units)
Gothic invasion of the Balkans (250 -- 251)
Gothic invasion of the Balkans (254)
Heruli invasion of the Balkans (267 -- 268)
Roman -- Alemannic Wars
Gothic War (376 -- 382)
Visigothic Wars
Vandalic Wars
Anglo - Saxon Wars
Vandalic War (533 -- 534)
Gothic War (535 -- 554)
Secure from interior enemies, Rome achieved great territorial gains in both the East and the West. In the West, following humiliating defeats at the hands of the Sugambri, Tencteri and Usipetes tribes in 16 BC, Roman armies pushed north and east out of Gaul to subdue much of Germania. The Pannonian revolt in 6 AD forced the Romans to cancel their plan to cement their conquest of Germania. Despite the loss of a large army almost to the man of Varus ' famous defeat at the hands of the Germanic leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, Rome recovered and continued its expansion up to and beyond the borders of the known world. Roman armies under Germanicus pursued several more campaigns against the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni, Hermunduri, Chatti, Cherusci, Bructeri, and Marsi. Overcoming several mutinies in the armies along the Rhine, Germanicus defeated the Germanic tribes of Arminius in a series of battles culminating in the Battle of the Weser River.
After Caesar 's preliminary low - scale invasions of Britain, the Romans invaded in force in 43 AD, forcing their way inland through several battles against British tribes, including the Battle of the Medway, the Battle of the Thames, the Battle of Caer Caradoc and the Battle of Mona. Following a general uprising in which the Britons sacked Colchester, St Albans and London, the Romans suppressed the rebellion in the Battle of Watling Street and went on to push as far north as central Scotland in the Battle of Mons Graupius. Tribes in modern - day Scotland and Northern England repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and two military bases were established in Britannia to protect against rebellion and incursions from the north, from which Roman troops built and manned Hadrian 's Wall.
On the continent, the extension of the Empire 's borders beyond the Rhine hung in the balance for some time, with the emperor Caligula apparently poised to invade Germania in 39 AD, and Cnaeus Domitius Corbulo crossing the Rhine in 47 AD and marching into the territory of the Frisii and Chauci. Caligula 's successor, Claudius, ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine, setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire 's expansion in this direction.
Further east, Trajan turned his attention to Dacia, an area north of Macedon and Greece and east of the Danube that had been on the Roman agenda since before the days of Caesar when they had beaten a Roman army at the Battle of Histria. In 85 AD, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia and initially defeated an army the Emperor Domitian sent against them, but the Romans were victorious in the Battle of Tapae in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up.
Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles, defeated the Dacian general Decebalus in the Second Battle of Tapae in 101 AD. With Trajan 's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa, Decebalus once more sought terms. Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in 105 AD. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia, besieging the Dacian capital in the Siege of Sarmizethusa, and razing it to the ground. With Dacia quelled, Trajan subsequently invaded the Parthian empire to the east, his conquests taking the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. Rome 's borders in the east were indirectly governed through a system of client states for some time, leading to less direct campaigning than in the west in this period.
The Kingdom of Armenia between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea became a focus of contention between Rome and the Parthian Empire, and control of the region was repeatedly gained and lost. The Parthians forced Armenia into submission from 37 AD but in 47 AD the Romans retook control of the kingdom and offered it client kingdom status. Under Nero, the Romans fought a campaign between 55 and 63 AD against the Parthian Empire, which had again invaded Armenia. After gaining Armenia once more in 60 AD and subsequently losing it again in 62 AD, the Romans sent Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo in 63 AD into the territories of Vologases I of Parthia. Corbulo succeeded in returning Armenia to Roman client status, where it remained for the next century.
In 69 AD, Marcus Salvius Otho, governor of Lusitania, had the Emperor Galba murdered and claimed the throne for himself. However, Vitellius, governor of the province of Germania Inferior, had also claimed the throne and marched on Rome with his troops. Following an inconclusive battle near Antipolis, Vitellius ' troops attacked the city of Placentia in the Assault of Placentia, but were repulsed by the Othonian garrison.
Otho left Rome on March 14, and marched north towards Placentia to meet his challenger. In the Battle of Locus Castorum the Othonians had the better of the fighting, and Vitellius ' troops retreated to Cremona. The two armies met again on the Via Postunia, in the First Battle of Bedriacum, after which the Othonian troops fled back to their camp in Bedriacum, and the next day surrendered to the Vitellian forces. Otho decided to commit suicide rather than fight on.
Meanwhile, the forces stationed in the Middle East provinces of Judaea and Syria had acclaimed Vespasian as emperor and the Danubian armies of the provinces of Raetia and Moesia also acclaimed Vespasian as emperor. Vespasian 's and Vitellius ' armies met in the Second Battle of Bedriacum, after which the Vitellian troops were driven back into their camp outside Cremona, which was taken. Vespasian 's troops then attacked Cremona itself, which surrendered.
Under pretence of siding with Vespasian, Civilis of Batavia had taken up arms and induced the inhabitants of his native country to rebel. The rebelling Batavians were immediately joined by several neighbouring German tribes including the Frisii. These forces drove out the Roman garrisons near the Rhine and defeated a Roman army at the Battle of Castra Vetera, after which many Roman troops along the Rhine and in Gaul defected to the Batavian cause. However, disputes soon broke out amongst the different tribes, rendering co-operation impossible; Vespasian, having successfully ended the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down his arms, and on his refusal his legions met him in force, defeating him in the Battle of Augusta Treverorum.
Major conflicts
The first Jewish - Roman War, sometimes called The Great Revolt, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews of Judaea Province against the Roman Empire. Judea was already a troubled region with bitter violence among several competing Jewish sects and a long history of rebellion The Jews ' anger turned on Rome following robberies from their temples and Roman insensitivity -- Tacitus says disgust and repulsion -- towards their religion. The Jews began to prepare for armed revolt. Early successes, including the repulse of the First Siege of Jerusalem and the Battle of Beth - Horon, only attracted greater attention from Rome and Emperor Nero appointed general Vespasian to crush the rebellion. Vespasian led his forces in a methodical clearance of the areas in revolt. By the year 68 AD, Jewish resistance in the North had been crushed. A few towns and cities held out for a few years before falling to the Romans, leading to the Siege of Masada in 73 AD and the Second Siege of Jerusalem.
In 115 AD, revolt broke out again in the province, leading to the second Jewish - Roman war known as the Kitos War, and again in 132 AD in what is known as Bar Kokhba 's revolt. Both were brutally crushed.
By the 2nd century AD the territories of Persia were controlled by the Arsacid dynasty and known as the Parthian Empire. Due in large part to their employment of powerful heavy cavalry and mobile horse archers, Parthia was the most formidable enemy of the Roman Empire in the east. As early as 53 BC, the Roman general Crassus had invaded Parthia, but he was killed and his army was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae. In the years following Carrhae, the Romans were divided in civil war and hence unable to campaign against Parthia. Trajan also campaigned against the Parthians from 114 -- 117 AD and briefly captured their capital Ctesiphon, putting the puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. However, rebellions in Babylonia and the Jewish revolts in Judea made it difficult to maintain the captured province and the territories were abandoned.
A revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault in 161 AD, defeating two Roman armies and invading Armenia and Syria. Emperor Lucius Verus and general Gaius Avidius Cassius were sent in 162 AD to counter the resurgent Parthia. In this war, the Parthian city of Seleucia on the Tigris was destroyed and the palace at the capital Ctesiphon was burned to the ground by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD. The Parthians made peace but were forced to cede western Mesopotamia to the Romans.
In 197 AD, Emperor Septimius Severus waged a brief and successful war against the Parthian Empire in retaliation for the support given to a rival for the imperial throne Pescennius Niger. The Parthian capital Ctesiphon was sacked by the Roman army, and the northern half of Mesopotamia was restored to Rome.
Emperor Caracalla, the son of Severus, marched on Parthia in 217 AD from Edessa to begin a war against them, but he was assassinated while on the march. In 224 AD, the Parthian Empire was crushed not by the Romans but by the rebellious Persian vassal king Ardashir I, who revolted, leading to the establishment of Sassanid Empire of Persia, which replaced Parthia as Rome 's major rival in the East.
Throughout the Parthian wars, tribal groups along the Rhine and Danube took advantage of Rome 's preoccupation with the eastern frontier (and the plague that the Romans suffered from after bringing it back from the east) and launched a series of incursions into Roman territories, including the Marcomannic Wars.
After Varus ' defeat in Germania in the 1st century, Rome had adopted a largely defensive strategy along the border with Germania, constructing a line of defences known as limes along the Rhine. Although the exact historicity is unclear, since the Romans often assigned one name to several distinct tribal groups, or conversely applied several names to a single group at different times, some mix of Germanic peoples, Celts, and tribes of mixed Celto - Germanic ethnicity were settled in the lands of Germania from the 1st century onwards. The Cherusci, Bructeri, Tencteri, Usipi, Marsi, and Chatti of Varus ' time had by the 3rd century either evolved into or been displaced by a confederacy or alliance of Germanic tribes collectively known as the Alamanni, first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213 AD.
In around 166 AD, several Germanic tribes pushed across the Danube, striking as far as Italy itself in the Siege of Aquileia in 166 AD, and the heartland of Greece in the Sack of Eleusis.
Although the essential problem of large tribal groups on the frontier remained much the same as the situation Rome faced in earlier centuries, the 3rd century saw a marked increase in the overall threat, although there is disagreement over whether external pressure increased, or Rome 's ability to meet it declined. The Carpi and Sarmatians whom Rome had held at bay were replaced by the Goths and likewise the Quadi and Marcomanni that Rome had defeated were replaced by the greater confederation of the Alamanni.
The assembled warbands of the Alamanni frequently crossed the limes, attacking Germania Superior such that they were almost continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire, whilst Goths attacked across the Danube in battles such as the Battle of Beroa and Battle of Philippopolis in 250 AD and the Battle of Abrittus in 251 AD, and both Goths and Heruli ravaged the Aegean and, later, Greece, Thrace and Macedonia. However, their first major assault deep into Roman territory came in 268 AD. In that year the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion by another new Germanic tribal confederacy, the Goths, from the east. The pressure of tribal groups pushing into the Empire was the end result of a chain of migrations with its roots far to the east: Huns from the Russian steppe attacked the Goths, who in turn attacked the Dacians, Alans and Sarmatians at or within Rome 's borders. The Goths first appeared in history as a distinct people in this invasion of 268 AD when they swarmed over the Balkan peninsula and overran the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Illyricum and even threatened Italia itself.
The Alamanni seized the opportunity to launch a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy. However, the Visigoths were defeated in battle that summer near the modern Italian - Slovenian border and then routed in the Battle of Naissus that September by Gallienus, Claudius and Aurelian, who then turned and defeated the Alemanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus. Claudius ' successor Aurelian defeated the Goths twice more in the Battle of Fanum Fortunae and the Battle of Ticinum. The Goths remained a major threat to the Empire but directed their attacks away from Italy itself for several years after their defeat. By 284 AD, Gothic troops were serving on behalf of the Roman military as federated troops.
The Alamanni on the other hand resumed their drive towards Italy almost immediately. They defeated Aurelian at the Battle of Placentia in 271 AD but were beaten back for a short time after they lost the battles of Fano and Pavia later that year. They were beaten again in 298 AD at the battles of Lingones and Vindonissa but fifty years later they were resurgent again, making incursions in 356 AD at the Battle of Reims, in 357 AD at the Battle of Strasbourg, in 367 AD at the Battle of Solicinium and in 378 AD at Battle of Argentovaria. In the same year the Goths inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern Empire at the Battle of Adrianople, in which the Eastern Emperor Valens was massacred along with tens of thousands of Roman troops.
At the same time, Franks raided through the North Sea and the English Channel, Vandals pressed across the Rhine, Iuthungi against the Danube, Iazyges, Carpi and Taifali harassed Dacia, and Gepids joined the Goths and Heruli in attacks round the Black Sea. At around the same time, lesser - known tribes such as the Bavares, Baquates and Quinquegentanei raided Africa.
At the start of the 5th century, the pressure on Rome 's western borders was growing intense. However, it was not only the western borders that were under threat: Rome was also under threat both internally and on its eastern borders.
Year of the Six Emperors (238)
Reign of Gordian III (238 -- 244)
Reign of Philip the Arab (244 -- 249)
Reign of Decius and Herennius Etruscus (249 -- 251)
Reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251 -- 253)
Reign of Aemilianus (253)
Reign of Valerian & Gallienus (253 -- 260)
Reign of Gallienus (260 -- 268)
Reign of Claudius II (268 -- 270)
Reign of Aurelian (270 -- 275)
An army that was often willing to support its general over its emperor, meant that if commanders could establish sole control of their army, they could usurp the imperial throne from that position. The so - called Crisis of the Third Century describes the turmoil of murder, usurpation and in - fighting that followed the murder of the Emperor Alexander Severus in 235 AD. However, Cassius Dio marks the wider imperial decline as beginning in 180 AD with the ascension of Commodus to the throne, a judgement with which Gibbon concurred, and Matyszak states that "the rot... had become established long before '' even that.
Although the crisis of the 3rd century was not the absolute beginning of Rome 's decline, it nevertheless did impose a severe strain on the empire as Romans waged war on one another as they had not done since the last days of the Republic. Within the space of a single century, twenty - seven military officers declared themselves emperors and reigned over parts of the empire for months or days, all but two meeting with a violent end. The time was characterized by a Roman army that was as likely to be attacking itself as it was an outside invader, reaching a low point around 258 AD. Ironically, while it was these usurpations that led to the breakup of the Empire during the crisis, it was the strength of several frontier generals that helped reunify the empire through force of arms.
The situation was complex, often with three or more usurpers in existence at once. Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger, both rebel generals declared to be emperors by the troops they commanded, clashed for the first time in 193 AD at the Battle of Cyzicus, in which Niger was defeated. However, it took two further defeats at the Battle of Nicaea later that year and the Battle of Issus the following year, for Niger to be destroyed. Almost as soon as Niger 's userpation had been ended, Severus was forced to deal with another rival for the throne in the person of Clodius Albinus, who had originally been allied to Severus. Albinus was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Britain and, crossing over to Gaul, defeated Severus ' general Virius Lupus in battle, before being in turn defeated and killed in the Battle of Lugdunum by Severus himself.
After this turmoil, Severus faced no more internal threats for the rest of his reign, and the reign of his successor Caracalla passed uninterrupted for a while until he was murdered by Macrinus, who proclaimed himself emperor. Despite Macrinus having his position ratified by the Roman senate, the troops of Varius Avitus declared him to be emperor instead, and the two met in battle at the Battle of Antioch in 218 AD, in which Macrinus was defeated. However, Avitus himself, after taking the imperial name Elagabalus, was murdered shortly afterwards and Alexander Severus was proclaimed emperor by both the Praetorian Guard and the senate who, after a short reign, was murdered in turn. His murderers were working on behalf of the army who were unhappy with their lot under his rule and who raised in his place Maximinus Thrax. However, just as he had been raised by the army, Maximinus was also brought down by them and despite winning the Battle of Carthage against the senate 's newly proclaimed Gordian II, he too was murdered when it appeared to his forces as though he would not be able to best the next senatorial candidate for the throne, Gordian III.
Gordian III 's fate is not certain, although he may have been murdered by his own successor, Philip the Arab, who ruled for only a few years before the army again raised a general, Decius, by their proclamation to emperor, who then defeated Philip in the Battle of Verona. Several succeeding generals avoided battling usurpers for the throne by being murdered by their own troops before battle could commence. The lone exception to this rule was Gallienus, emperor from 260 to 268 AD, who confronted a remarkable array of usurpers, most of whom he defeated in pitched battle. The army was mostly spared further infighting until around 273 AD, when Aurelian defeated the Gallic usurper Tetricus in the Battle of Chalons. The next decade saw an incredible number of usurpers, sometimes three at the same time, all vying for the imperial throne. Most of the battles are not recorded, due primarily to the turmoil of the time, until Diocletian, a usurper himself, defeated Carinus at the Battle of the Margus and become emperor.
Some small measure of stability again returned at this point, with the empire split into a Tetrarchy of two greater and two lesser emperors, a system that staved off civil wars for a short time until 312 AD. In that year, relations between the tetrarchy collapsed for good and Constantine I, Licinius, Maxentius and Maximinus jostled for control of the empire. In the Battle of Turin Constantine defeated Maxentius, and in the Battle of Tzirallum, Licinius defeated Maximinus. From 314 AD onwards, Constantine defeated Licinius in the Battle of Cibalae, then the Battle of Mardia, and then again at the Battle of Adrianople, the Battle of the Hellespont and the Battle of Chrysopolis.
Constantine then turned upon Maxentius, beating him in the Battle of Verona and the Battle of Milvian Bridge in the same year. Constantine 's son Constantius II inherited his father 's rule and later defeated the usurper Magnentius in first the Battle of Mursa Major and then the Battle of Mons Seleucus.
Successive emperors Valens and Theodosius I also defeated usurpers in, respectively, the Battle of Thyatira, and the battles of the Save and the Frigidus.
After overthrowing the Parthian confederacy, the Sassanid Empire that arose from its remains pursued a more aggressive expansionist policy than their predecessors and continued to make war against Rome. In 230 AD, the first Sassanid emperor attacked Roman territory first in Armenia and then in Mesopotamia but Roman losses were largely restored by Severus within a few years. In 243 AD, Emperor Gordian III 's army retook the Roman cities of Hatra, Nisibis and Carrhae from the Sassanids after defeating the Sassanids at the Battle of Resaena but what happened next is unclear: Persian sources claim that Gordian was defeated and killed in the Battle of Misikhe but Roman sources mention this battle only as an insignificant setback and suggest that Gordian died elsewhere.
Certainly, the Sassanids had not been cowed by the previous battles with Rome and in 253 AD the Sassanids under Shapur I penetrated deeply into Roman territory several times, defeating a Roman force at the Battle of Barbalissos and conquering and plundering Antiochia in 252 AD following the Siege of Antiochia. The Romans recovered Antioch by 253 AD, and Emperor Valerian gathered an army and marched eastward to the Sassanid borders. In 260 AD at the Battle of Edessa the Sassanids defeated the Roman army and captured the Roman Emperor Valerian.
By the late 3rd century, Roman fortunes on the eastern frontier improved dramatically. During a period of civil upheaval in Persia, emperor Carus led a successful campaign into Persia essentially uncontested, sacking Ctesiphon in 283 AD. During the reign of the Tetrarchy, emperors Diocletian and Galerius brought a decisive conclusion to the war, sacking Ctesiphon in 299 AD and expanding the Roman eastern frontier dramatically with the Treaty of Nisibis. The treaty brought lasting peace between Rome and the Sassanids for almost four decades until the end of Constantine the Great 's reign. In 337 AD, Shapur II broke the peace and began a 26 - year conflict, attempting with little success to conquer Roman fortresses in the region. After early Sassanid successes including the Battle of Amida in 359 AD and the Siege of Pirisabora in 363 AD, Emperor Julian met Shapur in 363 AD in the Battle of Ctesiphon outside the walls of the Persian capital. The Romans were victorious but were unable to take the city, and were forced to retreat due to their vulnerable position in the middle of hostile territory. Julian was killed in the Battle of Samarra during the retreat, possibly by one of his own men.
There were several future wars, although all brief and small - scale, since both the Romans and the Sassanids were forced to deal with threats from other directions during the 5th century. A war against Bahram V in 420 AD over the persecution of the Christians in Persia led to a brief war that was soon concluded by treaty and in 441 AD a war with Yazdegerd II was again swiftly concluded by treaty after both parties battled threats elsewhere.
Many theories have been advanced in way of explanation for decline of the Roman Empire, and many dates given for its fall, from the onset of its decline in the 3rd century to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Militarily, however, the Empire finally fell after first being overrun by various non-Roman peoples and then having its heart in Italy seized by Germanic troops in a revolt. The historicity and exact dates are uncertain, and some historians do not consider that the Empire fell at this point.
The Empire became gradually less Romanised and increasingly Germanic in nature: although the Empire buckled under Visigothic assault, the overthrow of the last Emperor Romulus Augustus was carried out by federated Germanic troops from within the Roman army rather than by foreign troops. In this sense had Odoacer not renounced the title of Emperor and named himself "King of Italy '' instead, the Empire might have continued in name. Its identity, however, was no longer Roman -- it was increasingly populated and governed by Germanic peoples long before 476 AD. The Roman people were by the 5th century "bereft of their military ethos '' and the Roman army itself a mere supplement to federated troops of Goths, Huns, Franks and others fighting on their behalf.
Rome 's last gasp began when the Visigoths revolted around 395 AD. Led by Alaric I, they attempted to seize Constantinople, but were rebuffed and instead plundered much of Thrace in northern Greece. In 402 AD they besieged Mediolanum, the capital of Roman Emperor Honorius, defended by Roman Gothic troops. The arrival of the Roman Stilicho and his army forced Alaric to lift his siege and move his army towards Hasta (modern Asti) in western Italy, where Stilicho attacked it at the Battle of Pollentia, capturing Alaric 's camp. Stilicho offered to return the prisoners in exchange for the Visigoths returning to Illyricum but upon arriving at Verona, Alaric halted his retreat. Stilicho again attacked at the Battle of Verona and again defeated Alaric, forcing him to withdraw from Italy.
In 405 AD, the Ostrogoths invaded Italy itself, but were defeated. However, in 406 AD an unprecedented number of tribes took advantage of the freezing of the Rhine to cross en masse: Vandals, Suevi, Alans and Burgundians swept across the river and met little resistance in the Sack of Moguntiacum and the Sack of Treviri, completely overrunning Gaul. Despite this grave danger, or perhaps because of it, the Roman army continued to be wracked by usurpation, in one of which Stilicho, Rome 's foremost defender of the period, was put to death.
It is in this climate that, despite his earlier setback, Alaric returned again in 410 AD and managed to sack Rome. The Roman capital had by this time moved to the Italian city of Ravenna, but some historians view 410 AD as an alternative date for the true fall of the Roman Empire. Without possession of Rome or many of its former provinces, and increasingly Germanic in nature, the Roman Empire after 410 AD had little in common with the earlier Empire. By 410 AD, Britain had been mostly denuded of Roman troops, and by 425 AD was no longer part of the Empire, and much of western Europe was beset "by all kinds of calamities and disasters '', coming under barbarian kingdoms ruled by Vandals, Suebians, Visigoths and Burgundians.
The remainder of Rome 's territory -- if not its nature -- was defended for several decades following 410 AD largely by Flavius Aëtius, who managed to play off each of Rome 's barbarian invaders against one another. In 436 AD he led a Hunnic army against the Visigoths at the Battle of Arles, and again in 436 AD at the Battle of Narbonne. In 451 AD he led a combined army, including his former enemy the Visigoths, against the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, beating them so soundly that although they later sacked Concordia, Altinum, Mediolanum, Ticinum, and Patavium, they never again directly threatened Rome. Despite being the only clear champion of the Empire at this point Aëtius was slain by the Emperor Valentinian III 's own hand, leading Sidonius Apollinaris to observe, "I am ignorant, sir, of your motives or provocations; I only know that you have acted like a man who has cut off his right hand with his left ''.
Carthage, the second largest city in the empire, was lost along with much of North Africa in 439 AD to the Vandals, and the fate of Rome seemed sealed. By 476 AD, what remained of the Empire was completely in the hands of federated Germanic troops and when they revolted, led by Odoacer and deposed the Emperor Romulus Augustus there was nobody to stop them. Odoacer happened to hold the part of the Empire around Italy and Rome but other parts of the Empire were ruled by Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Franks, Alans and others. The Empire in the West had fallen, and its remnant in Italy was no longer Roman in nature. The Eastern Roman Empire and the Goths continued to fight over Rome and the surrounding area for many years, though by this point Rome 's importance was primarily symbolic.
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who was the spanish explorer who did not explore north america | Hernando de Soto - wikipedia
Hernando de Soto (c. 1495 -- May 21, 1542) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern - day United States (Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama and most likely Arkansas). He is the first European documented as having crossed the Mississippi River.
De Soto 's North American expedition was a vast undertaking. It ranged throughout the southeastern United States, both searching for gold, reported by various Indian tribes and earlier explorers, and a passage to China or the Pacific coast. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River in what is now Guachoya, Arkansas or Ferriday, Louisiana.
Hernando de Soto was born in Extremadura to parents who were both hidalgos, nobility of modest means. The region was poor and many people struggled to survive; young people looked for ways to seek their fortune elsewhere. He was born in Jerez de los Caballeros, in the current province of Badajoz. Three towns -- Badajoz, Barcarrota and Jerez de los Caballeros -- claim to be his birthplace. He spent time as a child at each place. He stipulated in his will that his body be interred at Jerez de los Caballeros, where other members of his family were buried. As he grew to adulthood, the Spanish had retaken control of the Iberian peninsula from Islamic forces. Spain and Portugal were filled with young men seeking a chance for military fame after the defeat of the Moors. With discovery of new lands (which they thought at the time to be East Asia) across the ocean to the west, young men were attracted to rumors of adventure, glory and wealth.
De Soto sailed to the New World with Pedrarias Dávila, appointed as the first Governor of Panama. In 1520 he participated in Gaspar de Espinosa 's expedition to Veragua, and in 1524, he participated in the conquest of Nicaragua under Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. There he acquired an encomienda and a public office in León, Nicaragua.
Brave leadership, unwavering loyalty, and ruthless schemes for the extortion of native villages for their captured chiefs became de Soto 's hallmarks during the conquest of Central America. He gained fame as an excellent horseman, fighter, and tactician. During that time, de Soto was influenced by the achievements of Juan Ponce de León, the first European to reach Florida; Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean coast of the Americas (he called it the "South Sea '' on the south coast of Panama); and Ferdinand Magellan, who first sailed that ocean to East Asia.
In 1530, de Soto became a regidor of León, Nicaragua. He led an expedition up the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula searching for a passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean to enable trade with the Orient, the richest market in the world. Failing that, and without means to explore further, de Soto, upon Pedro Arias Dávila 's death, left his estates in Nicaragua. Bringing his own men on ships which he hired, de Soto joined Francisco Pizarro at his first base of Tumbes shortly before departure for the interior of present - day Peru.
Pizarro quickly made de Soto one of his captains.
When Pizarro and his men first encountered the army of the Inca Atahualpa at Cajamarca, Pizarro sent de Soto with fifteen men to invite Atahualpa to a meeting. When Pizarro 's men attacked Atahualpa and his guard the next day (the Battle of Cajamarca), de Soto led one of the three groups of mounted soldiers. The Spanish captured Atahualpa. De Soto was sent to the camp of the Incan army, where he and his men plundered Atahualpa 's tents.
During 1533, the Spanish held Atahualpa captive in Cajamarca for months while his subjects paid for his ransom by filling a room with gold and silver objects. During this captivity, de Soto became friendly with Atahualpa and taught him to play chess. By the time the ransom had been completed, the Spanish became alarmed by rumors of an Incan army advancing on Cajamarca. Pizarro sent de Soto with 200 soldiers to scout for the rumored army.
While de Soto was gone, the Spanish in Cajamarca decided to kill Atahualpa to prevent his rescue. De Soto returned to report that he found no signs of an army in the area. After executing Atahualpa, Pizarro and his men headed to Cuzco, the capital of the Incan Empire. As the Spanish force approached Cuzco, Pizarro sent his brother Hernando and de Soto ahead with 40 men. The advance guard fought a pitched battle with Incan troops in front of the city, but the battle had ended before Pizarro arrived with the rest of the Spanish party. The Incan army withdrew during the night. The Spanish plundered Cuzco, where they found much gold and silver. As a mounted soldier, de Soto received a share of the plunder that made him very wealthy. It represented riches from Atahualpa 's camp, his ransom, and the plunder from Cuzco.
On the road to Cuzco, Manco Inca Yupanqui, a brother of Atahualpa, had joined Pizarro. Manco had been hiding from Atahualpa in fear of his life, and was happy to gain Pizarro 's protection. Pizarro arranged for Manco to be installed as the Inca leader. De Soto joined Manco in a campaign to eliminate the Incan armies under Quizquiz, who had been loyal to Atahualpa.
By 1534, de Soto was serving as lieutenant governor of Cuzco while Pizarro was building his new capital (which later became known as Lima) on the coast. In 1535 King Charles awarded Diego de Almagro, Francisco Pizarro 's partner, the governorship of the southern portion of the Incan Empire. When de Almagro made plans to explore and conquer the southern part of the Incan empire (Chile), de Soto applied to be his second - in - command, but de Almagro turned him down. De Soto packed up his treasure and returned to Spain.
De Soto returned to Spain in 1536, with wealth gathered from plunder in the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire. He was admitted into the prestigious Order of Santiago and "granted the right to conquer Florida ''. His share was awarded to him by the King of Spain, and he received 724 marks of gold, 17,740 pesos. He married Isabel de Bobadilla, daughter of Pedrarias Dávila and a relative of a confidante of Queen Isabella.
De Soto petitioned King Charles to lead the government of Guatemala with "permission to create discovery in the South Sea. '' He was granted the governorship of Cuba instead. De Soto was expected to colonize the North American continent for Spain within four years, for which his family would be given a sizable piece of land.
Fascinated by the stories of Cabeza de Vaca, who had survived years in North America after becoming a castaway and had just returned to Spain, de Soto selected 620 Spanish and Portuguese volunteers, including some of mixed - race African descent known as Atlantic creoles, to accompany him to govern Cuba and colonize North America. Averaging 24 years of age, the men embarked from Havana on seven of the King 's ships and two caravels of de Soto 's. With tons of heavy armour and equipment, they also carried more than 500 livestock, including 237 horses and 200 pigs, for their planned four - year continental expedition.
De Soto wrote a new will before embarking on his travels. On 10 May 1539, he wrote in his will:
"That a chapel be erected within the Church of San Miguel in Jerez de Los Caballeros, Spain, where De Soto grew up, at a cost of 2,000 ducats, with an altarpiece featuring the Virgin Mary, Our Lady of the Conception, that his tomb be covered in a fine black broadcloth topped by a red cross of the Order of the Knights of Santiago, and on special occasions a pall of black velvet with the De Soto coat of arms be placed on the altar; that a chaplain be hired at the salary of 12,000 maravedis to perform five masses every week for the souls of De Soto, his parents and wife; that thirty masses be said for him the day his body was interred, and twenty for our Lady of the Conception, ten for the Holy Ghost, sixty for souls in purgatory and masses for many others as well; that 150000 maravedis be given annually to his wife Isabel for her needs and an equal amount used yearly to marry off three orphan damsels... the poorest that can be found, '' who would then assist his wife and also serve to burnish the memory of De Soto as a man of charity and substance.
Historians have worked to trace the route of de Soto 's expedition in North America, a controversial process over the years. Local politicians vied to have their localities associated with the expedition. The most widely used version of "De Soto 's Trail '' comes from a study commissioned by the Congress of the United States. A committee chaired by the anthropologist John R. Swanton published The Final Report of the United States De Soto Expedition Commission in 1939. Among other locations, Manatee County, Florida, claims an approximate landing site for de Soto and has a national memorial recognizing that event. In the early 21st century, the first part of the expedition 's course, until de Soto 's battle at Mabila (a small fortress town in present - day central Alabama), is disputed only in minor details. His route beyond Mabila is contested. Swanton reported the de Soto trail ran from there through Mississippi, Arkansas, and Texas.
Historians have more recently considered archeological reconstructions and the oral history of the various Native American peoples that recount the expedition. Most historical places have been overbuilt. More than 450 years have passed between the events and current history tellers, but some oral histories have been found to be highly accurate about historic events.
The Governor Martin Site at the former Apalachee village of Anhaica, located about a mile east of the present Florida capital in Tallahassee, has been documented as definitively associated with de Soto 's expedition. The Governor Martin Site was discovered by archaeologist B. Calvin Jones in March 1987.
As of 2016, the Richardson / UF Village site (8AL100) in Alachua County, west of Orange Lake, appears to have been accepted by archaeologists as the site of the town of Potano visited by the de Soto expedition. The later mission of San Buenaventura de Potano is believed to have been founded here.
Many archaeologists believe the Parkin Site in northeast Arkansas was the main town for the province of Casqui, which de Soto had recorded. They base this on similarities between descriptions from the journals of the de Soto expedition and artifacts of European origin discovered at the site in the 1960s.
Theories of de Soto 's route are based on the accounts of four chroniclers of the expedition.
The first account of the expedition to be published was by the Gentleman of Elvas, an otherwise unidentified Portuguese knight who was a member of the expedition. His chronicle was first published in 1557. An English translation by Richard Hackluyt was published in 1609.
Luys Hernández de Biedma, the King 's factor (the agent responsible for the royal property) with the expedition, wrote a report which still exists. The report was filed in the royal archives in Spain in 1544. The manuscript was translated into English by Buckingham Smith and published in 1851.
De Soto 's secretary, Rodrigo Ranjel, kept a diary, which has been lost. It was apparently was used by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in writing his La historia general y natural de las Indias. Oviedo died in 1557. The part of his work containing Ranjel 's diary was not published until 1851. An English translation of Ranjel 's report was published in 1904.
The fourth chronicle is by Garcilaso de la Vega, known as El Inca (the Inca). Garcilaso de la Vega did not participate in the expedition. He wrote his account, La Florida, known in English as The Florida of the Inca, decades after the expedition, based on interviews with some survivors of the expedition. The book was first published in 1605. Historians have identified problems with using La Florida as a historical account. Milanich and Hudson warn against relying on Garcilaso, noting serious problems with the sequence and location of towns and events in his narrative. They say, "some historians regard Garcilaso 's La Florida to be more a work of literature than a work of history. '' Lankford characterizes Garcilaso 's La Florida as a collection of "legend narratives '', derived from a much - retold oral tradition of the survivors of the expedition.
Milanich and Hudson warn that older translations of the chronicles are often "relatively free translations in which the translators took considerable liberty with the Spanish and Portuguese text. ''
The chronicles describe de Soto 's trail in relation to Havana, from which they sailed; the Gulf of Mexico, which they skirted inland then turned back to later; the Atlantic Ocean, which they approached during their second year; high mountains, which they traversed immediately thereafter; and dozens of other geographic features along their way, such as large rivers and swamps, at recorded intervals. Given that the natural geography has not changed much since de Soto 's time, scholars have analyzed those journals with modern topographic intelligence, to develop a more precise account of the De Soto Trail.
In May 1539, de Soto landed nine ships with over 620 men and 220 horses in an area generally identified as south Tampa Bay. Historian Robert S. Weddle has suggested that he landed at either Charlotte Harbor or San Carlos Bay. He named the land as Espíritu Santo after the Holy Spirit. The ships carried priests, craftsmen, engineers, farmers, and merchants; some with their families, some from Cuba, most from Europe and Africa. Few of the men had traveled before outside of Spain, or even away from their home villages.
Near de Soto 's port, the party found Juan Ortiz, a Spaniard, living with the Mocoso people. Ortiz had been captured by the Uzita while searching for the lost Narváez expedition; he later escaped to Mocoso. Ortiz had learned the Timucua language and served as an interpreter to de Soto as he traversed the Timucuan - speaking areas on his way to Apalachee.
Ortiz established a unique method for guiding the expedition and communicating with the various tribes, who spoke many dialects and languages. He recruited guides from each tribe along the route. A chain of communication was established whereby a guide who had lived in close proximity to another tribal area was able to pass his information and language on to a guide from a neighboring area. Because Ortiz refused to dress as an hidalgo Spaniard, other officers questioned his motives. De Soto remained loyal to Ortiz, allowing him the freedom to dress and live among his friends. Another important guide was the seventeen - year - old boy Perico, or Pedro, from modern - day Georgia. He spoke several of the local tribes ' languages and could communicate with Ortiz. Perico was taken as a guide in 1540. The Spanish had also captured other Indians, whom they used as slaves. Perico was treated better due to his value to the Spaniards.
The expedition traveled north, exploring Florida 's West Coast, and encountering native ambushes and conflicts along the way. De Soto 's first winter encampment was at Anhaica, the capital of the Apalachee people. It is one of the few places on the route where archaeologists have found physical traces of the expedition. The chroniclers described this settlement as being near the "Bay of Horses ''. The bay was named for events of the preceding Narváez expedition. Starving and struggling to escape, the decreasing number of survivors killed and ate their horses while building boats for escape by the Gulf of Mexico.
From their winter location in the western panhandle of Florida, having heard of gold being mined "toward the sun 's rising, '' the expedition turned north - east through what is now the modern state of Georgia. Based on archaeological finds made in 2009 at a remote, privately owned site near the Ocmulgee River, researchers believe that de Soto 's expedition stopped in Telfair County. Artifacts found here include nine glass trade beads, some of which bear a chevron pattern made in Venice, Italy for a limited period of time and believed to be indicative of the de Soto expedition. Six metal objects were also found, including a silver pendant and some iron tools. The rarest items were found within what researchers believe was a large council house of the indigenous people whom de Soto was visiting.
The expedition continued to present - day South Carolina. There the expedition recorded being received by a female chief (Cofitachequi), who gave her tribe 's pearls, food and other goods to the Spanish soldiers. The expedition found no gold, however, other than pieces from an earlier coastal expedition (presumably that of Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón.)
De Soto headed north into the Appalachian Mountains of present - day western North Carolina, where he spent a month resting the horses while his men searched for gold. De Soto next entered eastern Tennessee. At this point, De Soto either continued along the Tennessee River to enter Alabama from the north (according to John R. Swanton), or turned south and entered northern Georgia (according to Charles M. Hudson). The route that Swanton proposed in 1939 is still generally accepted by most archaeologists and by the U.S. government as the route of the de Soto expedition..
De Soto 's expedition spent another month in the Coosa chiefdom, believed to have been connected to the large and complex Mississippian culture, which extended throughout the Mississippi Valley and its tributaries. He turned south toward the Gulf of Mexico to meet two ships bearing fresh supplies from Havana. Along the way, de Soto was led into Mauvila (or Mabila), a fortified city in southern Alabama. The Mobilian tribe, under Chief Tuskaloosa, ambushed de Soto 's army. Other sources suggest de Soto 's men were attacked after attempting to force their way into a cabin occupied by Tuskaloosa. The Spaniards fought their way out, and retaliated by burning the town to the ground. During the nine - hour encounter, about 200 Spaniards died, and 150 more were badly wounded, according to the chronicler Elvas. Twenty more died during the next few weeks. They killed an estimated 2,000 - 6,000 warriors at Mabila, making the battle one of the bloodiest in recorded North American history.
The Spaniards won a Pyrrhic victory, as they had lost most of their possessions and nearly one - quarter of their horses. The Spaniards were wounded and sickened, surrounded by enemies and without equipment in an unknown territory. Fearing that word of this would reach Spain if his men reached the ships at Mobile Bay, de Soto led them away from the Gulf Coast. He moved into inland Mississippi, most likely near present - day Tupelo, where they spent the winter.
In the spring of 1541, de Soto demanded 200 men as porters from the Chickasaw. They refused his demand and attacked the Spanish camp during the night. The Spaniards lost about 40 men and the remainder of their limited equipment. According to participating chroniclers, the expedition could have been destroyed at this point, but the Chickasaw let them go.
On May 8, 1541, de Soto 's troops reached the Mississippi River.
De Soto had little interest in the river, which in his view was an obstacle to his mission. There has been considerable research into the exact location where de Soto crossed the Mississippi River. A commission appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1935 determined that Sunflower Landing, Mississippi was the "most likely '' crossing place. De Soto and his men spent a month building flatboats, and crossed the river at night to avoid the Native Americans who were patrolling the river. De Soto had hostile relations with the native people in this area.
In the late 20th century, research suggests other locations may have been the site of de Soto 's crossing, including three locations in Mississippi: Commerce, Friars Point, and Walls, as well as Memphis, Tennessee. Once across the river, the expedition continued traveling westward through modern - day Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. They wintered in Autiamique, on the Arkansas River.
In 1541, the expedition became the first Europeans recorded as seeing what Native Americans referred to as the Valley of the Vapors, now called Hot Springs, Arkansas. Members of many tribes had gathered at the valley over many years to enjoy the healing properties of the thermal springs. The tribes had developed agreements to put aside their weapons and partake of the healing waters in peace while in the valley. De Soto and his men stayed just long enough to claim the area for Spain.
After a harsh winter, the Spanish expedition decamped and moved on more erratically. Their interpreter Juan Ortiz had died, making it more difficult for them to get directions and food sources, and generally to communicate with the Natives. The expedition went as far inland as the Caddo River, where they clashed with a Native American tribe called the Tula in October 1541. The Spaniards characterized them as the most skilled and dangerous warriors they had encountered. This may have happened in the area of present - day Caddo Gap, Arkansas (a monument to the de Soto expedition was erected in that community). Eventually, the Spaniards returned to the Mississippi River.
De Soto died of a fever on May 21, 1542, in the native village of Guachoya (historical sources disagree as to whether de Soto died near present - day McArthur, Arkansas, or in Louisiana) on the western bank of the Mississippi. Louisiana erected a historical marker.
Before his death, de Soto chose Luis de Moscoso Alvarado, his former maestro de campo (or field commander), to assume command of the expedition. At the time of death, de Soto owned four Indian slaves, three horses, and 700 hogs.
De Soto had encouraged the local natives to believe that he was a deity sun god (as a ploy to gain their submission without conflict). Some of the natives had already become skeptical of de Soto 's deity claims. But his men were anxious to conceal his death. The actual site of his burial is not known. According to one source, de Soto 's men hid his corpse in blankets weighted with sand and sank it in the middle of the Mississippi River during the night.
De Soto 's expedition had explored La Florida for three years without finding the expected treasures or a hospitable site for colonization. They had lost nearly half their men, and most of the horses. By this time, the soldiers were wearing animal skins for clothing. Many were injured and in poor health. The leaders came to a consensus (although not total) to end the expedition and try to find a way home, either down the Mississippi River, or overland across Texas to the Spanish colony of Mexico City.
They decided that building boats would be too difficult and time - consuming, and that navigating the Gulf of Mexico too risky, so they headed overland to the southwest. Eventually they reached a region in present - day Texas that was dry. The native populations were made up mostly of subsistence hunter - gatherers. The soldiers found no villages to raid for food, and the army was still too large to live off the land. They were forced to backtrack to the more developed agricultural regions along the Mississippi, where they began building seven bergantínes, or brigantines. They melted down all the iron, including horse tackle and slave shackles, to make nails for the boats. They survived through the winter, and the spring floods delayed them another two months. By July they set off on their makeshift boats down the Mississippi for the coast.
Taking about two weeks to make the journey, the expedition encountered hostile tribes along the whole course. Natives followed the boats in canoes, shooting arrows at the soldiers for days on end as they drifted through their territory. The Spanish had no effective offensive weapons on the water, as their crossbows had long ceased working. They relied on armor and sleeping mats to block the arrows. About 11 Spaniards were killed along this stretch and many more wounded.
On reaching the mouth of the Mississippi, they stayed close to the Gulf shore heading south and west. After about 50 days, they made it to the Pánuco River and the Spanish frontier town of Pánuco. There they rested for about a month. During this time many of the Spaniards, having safely returned and reflecting on their accomplishments, decided they had left La Florida too soon. There were some fights within the company, leading to some deaths. But, after they reached Mexico City and Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza offered to lead another expedition to La Florida, few of the survivors volunteered. Of the recorded 700 participants at the start, between 300 and 350 survived (311 is a commonly accepted figure). Most of the men stayed in the New World, settling in Mexico, Peru, Cuba, and other Spanish colonies.
From the point of view of the Spanish, de Soto 's excursion to Florida was a failure. They acquired neither gold nor prosperity and founded no colonies. But the expedition had several major consequences.
It contributed to the process of the Columbian Exchange. For instance, some of the swine brought by de Soto escaped and became the ancestors of razorback pigs in the southeastern United States.
De Soto was instrumental in contributing to the development of a hostile relationship between many Native American tribes and Europeans. When his expedition encountered hostile natives in the new lands, more often than not it was his men who instigated the clashes.
More devastating than the battles were the diseases carried chronically by the members of the expedition. Because the indigenous people lacked the immunity which the Europeans had acquired through generations of exposure to these Eurasian diseases, the Native Americans suffered epidemics of illness after exposure to such diseases as measles, smallpox, and chicken pox. Several areas that the expedition crossed became depopulated by disease caused by contact with the Europeans. Seeing the high fatalities and devastation caused, many natives fled the populated areas for the surrounding hills and swamps. In some areas, the social structure changed because of high population losses due to epidemics.
The records of the expedition contributed greatly to European knowledge about the geography, biology, and ethnology of the New World. The de Soto expedition 's descriptions of North American natives are the earliest - known source of information about the societies in the Southeast. They are the only European description of the culture and habits of North American native tribes before these peoples encountered other Europeans. De Soto 's men were both the first and nearly the last Europeans to witness the villages and civilization of the Mississippian culture.
De Soto 's expedition led the Spanish crown to reconsider Spain 's attitude toward the colonies north of Mexico. He claimed large parts of North America for Spain. The Spanish concentrated their missions in the state of Florida and along the Pacific coast.
Many parks, towns, counties, and institutions have been named after Hernando de Soto, to include:
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the song i ain't your mama by jennifer lopez | Ai n't Your Mama - wikipedia
"Ai n't Your Mama '' is a song recorded by American singer Jennifer Lopez. It was written by Meghan Trainor, Theron Thomas, Jacob Kasher Hindlin, Gamal "Lunchmoney '' Lewis, Henry "Cirkut '' Walter and Dr. Luke, while production was handled by the latter two. A pop song with influences of reggae, dancehall and Latin music, the song has percussion, drums, minimal synths and a Latin beat in its main instrumentation. Lyrically, "Ai n't Your Mama '' deals with themes of female empowerment, where the protagonist will not accept a partner who needs to be taken care of.
The song was released on April 7, 2016, by Epic Records and Nuyorican Productions. "Ai n't Your Mama '' became Lopez 's first chart appearance in some European territories in over four years. Though it peaked within the top ten of record charts in a variety of countries, it stalled at 76 in the United States. The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Cameron Duddy and released on May 6, 2016. It has Lopez playing women throughout the decades to show the second wave feminism movement.
In March 2016, six years following her departure from the label, it was announced that Lopez had returned to Epic Records and Sony Music Entertainment, signing a multi-album deal with the label. Lopez had released two albums under the Universal Music Group, Love? (2011) via Island Records and A.K.A. (2014) via Capitol Records. Lopez, who had been working on music in the midst of her Las Vegas residency, confirmed that she would be releasing new material: "I 've been working on music for the past couple of months, and we should be putting something out very soon. '' "Ai n't Your Mama '' is the first single Lopez released since resigning with Epic, and is expected to precede her ninth studio album. Co-writer Meghan Trainor who texted Lopez the song said, "I sent it to her and said, ' Do you like the song? ' and she said, ' I love the song, my kid loves the song -- he 's made me play it five times already so I know it 's a hit. When can I cut it? ', so I said immediately, ' Whenever you want! ' '' Lopez described the concept behind "Ai n't Your Mama '' as "very empowering '', and explained: "Guys have this tendency, once they love you in the beginning and you 're the hottest woman on Earth, and then all of a sudden, it 's like, ' Okay... where 's my food? ' It 's like, ' What!? Are you kidding me? Take me out! What are you doing right now? ' ''
"Ai n't Your Mama '' is a pop song. It was written by Meghan Trainor, Theron Thomas, Jacob Kasher Hindlin, Gamal "Lunchmoney '' Lewis, Henry Walter and Lukasz Gottwald. It was produced by Cirkut and Dr. Luke, with Trainor also providing background vocals. The song 's production features percussion, drums, minimal synths and a "head - bobbing, hip - swaying '' Latin beat, with a reggae groove. According to Forbes ' Hugh McIntyre, "the track has a hint of Latin flare, which nobody does better, though it does n't focus too much on any one sound, instead leaning much more towards typical top 40 fare. '' Sara Geffen of MTV News described it as "minimal but upbeat '', stating that Lopez 's voice takes "center stage ''. Lyrically, the song "celebrates a woman who is independent and wo n't accept a partner who needs to be taken care of '', with Lopez "putting her man in his place for not pulling weight in their relationship ''. Rap - Up characterized the single as "sassy ''. It includes lyrics such as "I ai n't gon na be cooking all day, I ai n't your mama '' and "I ai n't gon na do your laundry, I ai n't your mama... When did you get too comfortable, ' cause I 'm too good for that ''. Entertainment Weekly called it an "anthem celebrating her independence and distaste in overly dependent partners ''.
Lopez announced "Ai n't Your Mama '' during a live video chat on Facebook while promoting the series finale of American Idol, where she played a short preview of the song. The video had already approximately 429,000 views online within the first 2 hours of release. She confirmed that it would be released digitally via iTunes on April 7, 2016. Lopez later posted the video on her Instagram account. Discussing the preview, Mike Wass of the website Idolator called the song a "sultry banger '' and said: "There 's definitely a Latin flavor, but this sounds like a return to urban J. Lo of This Is Me... Then and Rebirth. '' Sasha Geffen from MTV News remarked, "Do n't expect her to get domestic '' and noted that "In what we 're able to hear of the track so far, J. Lo totally rejects patriarchal gender roles ''. Writing for USA Today, Jaleesa M. Jones called the song "the perfect track for exasperated partners everywhere ''. The cover artwork for the single was unveiled on April 6. It features Lopez as a pin - up girl, dressed in "short shorts, stilettos and a white, fitted blouse ''. According to an Australian news site, the photo from the single 's cover art was actually taken back in 2003, for an issue of Esquire.
Within hours of the song 's release, news outlets noted the fact that one of the song 's producers was Dr. Luke. Many fans were outraged by the news as the song had been released less than a few hours after it was announced that singer Kesha 's lawsuit against Luke had been thrown out by the judge presiding over the case (for more information see Kesha v. Dr. Luke). Within hours, many Kesha supporters took to social media urging music buyers to boycott the song. The following day, E! News reported that the song itself was co-written by Dr. Luke and Meghan Trainor in 2014 prior to Kesha filing her lawsuit against Dr. Luke and was originally intended for Trainor 's debut album Title, however Trainor ultimately decided not to use the song. Two years later after it was announced that Lopez had returned to Epic Records, the label that Trainor is also signed to, she recorded her own version of the song with Trainor providing background vocals after Trainor offered her the song. As Dr. Luke had already produced the song two years prior to Lopez recording her version, the two had no interaction during Lopez 's recording of the song.
Robbie Daw of Idolator called it "an instantly - catchy track '' and an "independent - women anthem. '' Jessie Morris of Complex labelled it "an infectious anti-housewife anthem, '' observing that "the track 's hot beat mixed with that searing hook makes ' Ai n't Your Mama ' a radio - ready hit. '' Brennan Carley of Spin named it "a light, tropical bit of froth with some impassioned lyrics and a killer drum bit, '' while Lewis Corner of Digital Spy referred to the song as a "hip - shaking anthem. '' Alexa Camp of Slant Magazine noted that "the song 's subtle reggae groove recalls that of Lopez 's slept - on 2011 single ' I 'm Into You ', '' highlighting "its instantly memorable hook '' and that it "finds the former Fly Girl flipping gender roles on their head, something she also did with the music video for 2014 's ' I Luh Ya Papi '. ''
After a full tracking week, the song debuted at number 92 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, registering 1.8 million streams in the US. By June 16, 2016, "Ai n't Your Mama '' had sold 102,412 digital downloads in the US.
"Ai n't Your Mama '' reached number 5 in Germany, becoming one of the highest peaking singles of Lopez 's career and her first top ten hit since "On the Floor '' (2011). The single has since been certified platinum by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie for exceeding 400,000 units. In Spain, the song debuted at number 51 for the week ending April 17, 2016. It peaked at number 5 nine weeks later, becoming her eleventh top ten hit as a lead artist (fourteenth overall), and spent a total of 15 weeks charting inside the top ten. "Ai n't Your Mama '' was later certified double platinum by Productores de Música de España. In France, the song debuted at number 108 and peaked at number 11 nineteen weeks later, making it her highest peaking single in that country as a lead artist since "On the Floor ''. The song was later certified platinum by Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique. In Austria, the song also peaked at number 11, becoming her highest peaking single as a lead artist since "Dance Again '' (2012). It was later certified gold by IFPI Austria. In Switzerland, the song debuted at number 61 and peaked at number 16 fifteen weeks later, also becoming her highest peaking single as a lead artist since "Dance Again ''.
The music video for "Ai n't Your Mama '' was directed by Cameron Duddy. Lopez previewed the music video on May 6, 2016, posting a "vintage - looking, sepia - toned '' behind the scenes clip which features Lopez dressed as a 1950s housewife, sporting a "voluminous '' Stepford Wives-esque hairstyle. It was released on May 6. Discussing how the video 's concept was developed, Lopez explained: "I just thought, how about we show the progression of women and how we 've grown, but also how things are kind of the same. '' She continued, "So I thought we 'd go from the fifties, sixties, seventies, eighties, to present day, and how today we 're standing up for everything that we really, truly deserve. It 's not about man - hating. We love you. We just want you to see us for all that we are, and never take us for granted. ''
With Duddy and her stylists Rob Zangardi and Mariel Haenn, Lopez created a number of looks which were inspired by "classic fashion ''. Various styles from different periods (ranging from the 1950s to present) appear in the video. Fashion houses such as Thierry Mugler were among the creators behind Lopez 's wardrobe. The 1950s housewife character had a "classic '' look, while also taking inspiration from pin - up models. The 1960s secretary look was inspired by the period drama series Mad Men. The 1970s factory worker had a "Norma Rae type feeling ''. The 1980s businesswoman took inspiration from the film Working Girl, a look which Lopez personally connected to, given she was a young girl during this decade. The last look was described by stylist Haenn as "just a modern day J. Lo ''. In this final dance sequence, Lopez can be seen wearing denim stiletto thigh - high boots designed by Barbadian singer Rihanna with Manolo Blahnik, which had been gifted to Lopez by Rihanna. It was reported that the music video 's production was almost halted due to low funds, which resulted in a product placement specialist being hired two days before the shoot. Product placements in the video include Vogue magazine, Beluga vodka, and Lavazza coffee. The mobile social network application "Friendable '' is also featured.
In the clip, Lopez plays a number of archetypal characters, including: a news anchor who urges women to "rise up against their male oppressors '', a 1950s housewife, a 1960s secretary, an underpaid factory worker in the 1970s (her hotheaded boss played by actor Eric Womack), and a 1980s businesswoman. It opens with the news anchor Lopez having a heated conversation in a phone booth, stating: "I 'm tired, I 've been working all day! No, I ca n't... you should (do it) ''. She then appears in a television news studio, where part of Hillary Clinton 's famous 1995 "Women 's Rights Are Human Rights '' speech, followed by part of Patricia Arquette 's Academy Award speech (specifically Arquette saying, "It 's our time to have wage equality once and for all, and equal rights for women in the United States of America ''), followed by part of Gloria Steinem 's famous 1971 "Address to the Women of America '' speech, can be heard in the background. Lopez disregards the script and begins speaking: "Look, I do n't have to tell you things are bad. Everybody knows things are bad. Taken for granted, ignored, overlooked, under - appreciated. ''
The other characters watch news anchor Lopez through the television as she states, "I 'm mad as hell and I 'm not going to take it anymore! '', which is a reference to a line spoken by character Howard Beale from the satirical film Network (1976). As a result of the news anchor 's speech, all of the women begin rebelling against the males who have been exploiting them. The blonde 1950s housewife stops tending to her husband, sings "I ai n't gon ' be cookin ' all day. I ai n't your mama '', then dumps food over his head. The redheaded 1960s secretary threw vodka back in her boss 's face. Lopez called this her favorite role in the music video, saying "She was the most comical. I like doing comedy a lot, so I got to use my funniness in that '', describing her as "goofy ''. It ends with an all - women march in Brooklyn, New York. Lopez wears a white jumpsuit for a final dance scene.
After its first three days, the music video had garnered over 11 million views. Sasha Geffen of MTV News called the visual "politically charged ''. Leila Cobo of Billboard praised the video as "vastly entertaining '', observing that it depicts the "history of women 's fight for independence '', with various pop culture and social references. Complex magazine writer Suzannah Weiss commended its "powerful plot line '', noting: "It 's an anthem for women dealing with man - children everywhere, and the music video ties it into larger issues of sexism contributing to these relationships. '' Of the video, Dave Quinn of People said, "she 's not mincing words when it comes to the song 's feminist message '', while Richy Rosario of Vibe wrote: "Like many other women who have showcased their plight in gender inequality through art, Ms. Lopez is definitely making a statement. ''
Sabienna Bowman of Bustle magazine commended the music video, "Each frame in the video is loaded with historical imagery that takes you from the beginning of the second wave feminism movement straight through to today. '' Further underlining its context, Bowman noted that "The historical context behind the video is beautifully rendered and full of pop culture nods to famous films, as well as the very real history of the women whose lives were changed by the impact of second wave feminism. '' Conversely, Christina Cauterucci for Slate magazine reacted negatively, labeling the video a "sad premonition of the future of feminism '' and saying that it serves as "a helpful illustration of an ascendant brand of feminism that boasts more marketable style than political substance ''. 2016 presidential candidate Hillary Clinton, whose speech was sampled in the opening sequence, thanked Lopez for the music video, responding: "Women are so much more than the roles they 've been assigned. ''
Lopez premiered "Ai n't Your Mama '' on the series finale of American Idol on April 7, 2016. Speaking of the performance beforehand, she stated: "It 's going to be very high energy ''. Lopez wore a "sparkly '' French maid costume while singing "Ai n't Your Mama '', surrounded by several backup dancers. She followed it with a performance of her hit "Let 's Get Loud '', undergoing a quick costume change. The following month, she performed the song during a private concert at the Hammerstein Ballroom which was hosted by Telemundo. Lopez also added the song to the setlist of her Las Vegas Residency, All I Have.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when was detroit the richest city in america | History of Detroit - wikipedia
The city of Detroit, the largest city in the state of Michigan, was settled in 1701 by French colonists. It is the first European settlement above tidewater in North America. Founded as a New France fur trading post, it began to expand with British and American settlement around the Great Lakes in the nineteenth century, and resource exploitation. But industrialization drove its becoming a world - class industrial powerhouse and the fourth - largest American city by 1920, based on the auto industry. It held that standing through the mid-20th century.
The first Europeans to settle here were French traders and colonists from the New Orleans (the La Louisiane colony. Traders from Montreal and Quebec had to contend with the powerful Five Nations of the League of the Iroquois, who took control of the southern shores of Lakes Erie and Huron through the Beaver Wars of the 17th century, during which they conquered or pushed out lesser tribes.
The region grew initially based on the lucrative inland and Great Lakes connected fur trade, based on continuing relations with influential Native American chiefs and interpreters. The Crown 's administration of New France offered free land to colonists to attract families to the region of Detroit. The population grew steadily, but more slowly than in English private venture - funded colonies. The French had a smaller population base and attracted fewer relatives. During the French and Indian War (1756 - 1763), the French reinforced and improved Fort Detroit (1701) along the Detroit River between 1758 -- 1760. It was subject to repeated attacks by British regular and colonial forces, strengthened by Indian allies.
Fort Detroit was surrendered to the British on November 29, 1760, after the fall of Quebec. Control of the area, and all French territory east of the Mississippi River, was formally transferred to the United Kingdom by the Treaty of Paris (1763) after it defeated France in the Seven Years ' War. The British counted 2,000 people in Detroit in 1760, but the population had dropped to 1,400 by 1773. The city was in the territory which the British reserved for the Indians under the Royal Proclamation of 1763. It was transferred to Quebec under the Quebec Act of 1774. By 1778 in a census taken during the American Revolution, its population was up to 2,144. It was then the third - largest city in the Province of Quebec, after Montreal and Quebec.
After 1773 a steady but growing trickle of Anglo - European settlers took families across the barrier range, or through lower New York State into the Ohio Country -- gradually spreading across present - day Ohio along the south shore of Lake Erie and around the bottom of Lake Huron. After the 1778 Sullivan Expedition broke the power of the Iroquois, the New York corridor joined the gaps of the Allegheny, Cumberland Narrows and Cumberland Gap as mountain passes, enabling settlers to pour west into the mid-west, even as the American Revolution wound down.
After the peace, a flood of settlers poured west, and Detroit reaped its share of population, established itself as a gateway to other traffic to the west and other Great Lakes, and for a time outshone all other cities west of the mountains, save for New Orleans.
During the 19th century, Detroit grew into a thriving hub of commerce and industry. After a devastating fire in 1805, Augustus B. Woodward devised a street plan similar to Pierre Charles L'Enfant 's design for Washington, D.C. Monumental avenues and traffic circles were planned to fan out in radial fashion from Campus Martius Park in the heart of the city. This was intended to ease traffic patterns and trees were planted along the boulevards and parks.
The city spread along Jefferson Avenue, with multiple manufacturing firms taking advantage of the transportation resources afforded by the river and a parallel rail line. In the late 19th century several Gilded Age mansions were built just east of Detroit 's current downtown. Detroit was referred to by some as the Paris of the West for its architecture, and for Washington Boulevard, recently electrified by Thomas Edison. Throughout the 20th century various skyscrapers were built centered on Detroit 's downtown.
Following World War II, the auto industry boomed and the area witnessed suburban expansion. The Detroit metropolitan area has emerged as one of the largest in the United States. Immigrants and migrants have contributed significantly to Detroit 's economy and culture. In the 1990s and the new millennium, the city has experienced increased revitalization. Many areas of the city are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and include National Historic Landmarks. The city with its population migration to the suburbs has had to adjust its role in the midst of a much larger metropolitan area in the 21st century.
Hearths and geological features from the Holcombe beach site near Lake Saint Clair show that Paleo - Indian people settled in the area of Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago. The Mound - builders lived in the area and mounds were noted at several locations in Detroit including at Fort Wayne and Springwells.
In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi and Iroquois peoples. The first Europeans did not penetrate into the region and reach the straits of Detroit until French missionaries and traders worked their way around the League of the Iroquois, with whom they were at war in the 1630s. In the late 1600s, raids led by the Five Nations Iroquois throughout the region led other native peoples to flee, leaving permanent villages abandoned when the French decided to build a fort on the northern border of the Detroit River.
The first recorded mention of the site was in 1670s, when French missionaries found a stone idol venerated by the Indians there and destroyed it with an axe. Early settlers planted twelve missionary pear trees "named for the twelve Apostles '' on the grounds of what is now Waterworks Park.
The city name comes from the Detroit River (French: le détroit du Lac Érie), meaning the strait of Lake Erie, linking Lake Huron and Lake Erie; in the historical context, the strait included Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River. The sieur de Cadillac in 1698 proposed to his government in Paris that Detroit be established as a shelter for displaced Indian allies. Paris approved and in 1701 Cadillac led a party of 100 Frenchmen to establish a post called Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, naming it after his sponsor the comte de Pontchartrain, Minister of Marine under Louis XIV. In 1704 he was given ownership over the strenuous opposition of officials in New France. An investigation by de Pontchartrain showed Cadillac was a tyrannical profiteer whose mischief hurt the French cause, so Cadillac was removed and sent to faraway New Orleans as governor of Louisiana.
Ste. Anne de Détroit, founded 1701, is the second oldest continuously operating Catholic parish in the United States; it was the first building erected in Detroit.
The main business was trading furs with the Indians, using goods supplied from Montreal. It was the largest French village between Montreal and New Orleans. Indian villages of rival tribes grew up near the fort which lead to the Fox Wars in the early 1700s.
Francois Marie Picoté, sieur de Belestre, the last French commander at Fort Detroit (1758 -- 1760), surrendered on November 29, 1760 to the British. Control of the area was formally transferred to the British by the Treaty of Paris (1763). New France was renamed Quebec and the settlement became Detroit. Grants of free land attracted families to Detroit, which grew to 800 people in 1765.
Demonstrating their independent power, several tribes in the region collaborated in Pontiac 's Rebellion in 1763; they overran many smaller forts but could not subdue Detroit.
Detroit was the goal of various U.S. campaigns during the American Revolution, but logistical difficulties in the North American frontier and American Indian allies of Great Britain would keep any armed rebel force from reaching the Detroit area. In the Treaty of Paris (1783), Great Britain ceded territory that included Detroit to the newly recognized United States, though in reality it remained under British control. Great Britain continued to trade with and defend her native allies in the area, and supplied local nations with weapons to harass American settlers and soldiers. The British left in 1796 following the Jay Treaty. In 1794, a Native American alliance, that had received some support and encouragement from the British, was decisively defeated by General Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers near Toledo, Ohio. Wayne negotiated the Treaty of Greenville (1795) with many of these nations, in which tribes ceded the area of Fort Detroit to the United States.
Father Gabriel Richard arrived at Ste. Anne 's in 1796. He helped start the school which evolved into the University of Michigan, started primary schools for white boys and girls as well as for Indians, as a territorial representative to U.S. Congress helped establish a road - building project that connected Detroit and Chicago, and brought the first printing press to Michigan which printed the first Michigan newspaper. In 1805, fire destroyed most of the settlement. A river warehouse and brick chimneys of the wooden homes were the sole structures to survive. Detroit 's motto and seal (as on the Flag) reflect this fire.
Detroit was incorporated as a town by the legislature of the Northwest Territory at Chillicothe, Ohio, on January 18, 1802, effective February 1, 1802. Government was administered by a five - person board of trustees and there was no office of mayor. Following this, Ohio became a state and the eastern half of Michigan was attached to the Indiana Territory.
Before the new territorial government officially began, a fire destroyed nearly all of Detroit on June 11, 1805. The Michigan Territory was established effective June 30, 1805, as a separate territory with Detroit as the capital. The newly appointed governor, William Hull, and the territorial judges (Augustus B. Woodward, Frederick Bates, James Witherell, and John Griffin), constituted the territorial government. They convinced the U.S. Congress to pass an act on April 21, 1806, which authorized them to lay out a town that included all of the old town of Detroit plus an additional 10,000 acres (40 km2) to be used as compensation for persons who lost their house in the fire.
After the fire of 1805, Justice Augustus B. Woodward devised a plan similar to Pierre Charles L'Enfant 's design for Washington, D.C. Detroit 's monumental avenues and traffic circles fan out in a baroque styled radial fashion from Grand Circus Park in the heart of the city 's theater district, which facilitates traffic patterns along the city 's tree - lined boulevards and parks. Main thoroughfares radiate outward from the city center like spokes in a wheel.
On September 13, 1806, the territorial government passed an act incorporating the new city of Detroit. The governor appointed Solomon Sibley as mayor. Shortly afterward, Sibley resigned and Elijah Brush was appointed in his stead. The mayor was appointed by the governor and, under the act of incorporation, was able to disapprove legislation passed by the popularly elected council without any recourse for overriding the mayor. Because of this, many felt that the real aim of the governor in incorporating the city was to remove the popularly elected town officers and exert a more direct influence over governance of the city. This form of government was extremely unpopular, and was repealed on February 4, 1809. However, to prevent resurrection of the popularly elected town government, on September 16, 1810, an act passed repealing all laws pertaining to Michigan that had been passed by the Legislature of the Northwest Territory. This effectively eradicated any trace of legitimacy for the former popularly elected town government.
In the War of 1812, Governor Hull surrendered Detroit to a smaller British force which threatened to allow its Indian allies to kill all American prisoners. The British had bluffed the Americans into believing there were thousands of native troops. Tecumseh marched his native troops through a clearing and then circled the same troops through the clearing again to make it seem there was a much larger native force. Hull was convicted of cowardice and sentenced to death by a court martial, but received a presidential pardon. The U.S. Army recaptured Detroit in 1813 after the British abandoned it and used it as a base to invade Canada and permanently end the threat of Indian raids on American settlements. After the British abandoned Detroit, American forces caught up to the escaping British and natives, and killed Tecumseh. Lewis Cass, as territorial governor, on October 24, 1815, restored control of local affairs to the people of Detroit, with the election of a five - person board of trustees and enactment of a charter for the city of Detroit.
Government under the board of trustees continued until an act of the Territorial Legislature on August 5, 1824, created a Common Council of the City of Detroit. The Council consisted of five aldermen, the mayor, and the recorder. In an act of April 4, 1827, the number of aldermen increased to seven. In 1839, it increased to 14: two aldermen from six wards plus the mayor and recorder. A seventh ward was created in 1848, an eighth in 1849, and the ninth and tenth wards in 1857. Also in 1857, a new city charter provided that the mayor and recorder would no longer sit as members of the council. At this time, the council consisted of 20 members, two aldermen from ten wards. In 1873, a twelfth ward was added and aldermen from an illegally constituted eleventh ward also temporarily sat on the council. In 1875, a properly constituted eleventh ward and a thirteenth ward were added. The city charter of 1883 changed the name of the body to the Board of Aldermen. A few years earlier in 1881, a separately elected ten - person body named Board of Councilmen (also called the City Council), was established. This body was abolished in 1887.
After Detroit rebuilt in the early 19th century, a thriving community soon sprang up, and by the Civil War, over 45,000 people were living in the city, primarily spread along Jefferson Avenue to the east and Fort Street to the west. As in many major American cities, subsequent redevelopment of the central city through the next 150 years has eliminated all but a handful of the antebellum structures in Detroit. The oldest remaining structures are those built as private residences, including a group in the Corktown neighborhood and another set of houses strung along Jefferson Avenue -- notably the Charles Trowbridge House (1826), (the oldest known structure in the city), the Joseph Campau House (1835), the Sibley House (1848), the Beaubien House (1851), and the Moross House (1855). Other extant pre-1860 structures include Fort Wayne (1849); Saints Peter and Paul Church (1848) and Mariner 's Church (1849); and early commercial buildings such as those in the Randolph Street Commercial Buildings Historic District, for example.
The main communication medium from the 1830s until the rise of television in the 1950s was the newspaper. Detroit had a large variety of daily papers, meeting the needs of the political parties have different language groups in the city, as well as the needs of readers concerned with news of business, labor, agriculture, literature, local churches, and polite society.
Prior to the American Civil War, the city 's access to the Canada -- US border made it a key stop for runaway slaves along the underground railroad. The Michigan Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument in Detroit 's Campus Martius Park commemorates the state 's role in the American Civil War. Thousands of Detroiters formed volunteer regiments, including the 24th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment (part of the legendary Iron Brigade) which fought with distinction and suffered 82 % casualties at Gettysburg in 1863. Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying Thank God for Michigan! Following Lincoln 's assassination, General George Armstrong Custer delivered a eulogy to the thousands gathered near Campus Martius Park. Custer led the Michigan Brigade during the American Civil War and called them the Wolverines.
The Detroit race riot of 1863 occurred on March 6, 1863 and was the city 's first such incident, as Irish and German Catholics resisted the mandatory draft laws. At the time, it was reported as "the bloodiest day that ever dawned upon Detroit. '' The casualties of the day included at least two people dead, and many others injured, mostly African - American, 35 buildings were burned to the ground, and a number of other buildings were damaged by fire.
Detroit 's central location in the Great Lakes Region has contributed to its status as a major center for commerce and global trade. As Detroit grew, it emerged as a U.S. transportation hub linking the Great Lakes system of waterways to the Erie Canal and to rail lines. Pharmaceutical firms such as Parke - Davis in the 1870s and the Frederick Stearns Company in the 1890s established a centers between East Jefferson Avenue. Globe Tobacco built a manufacturing facility closer to downtown in 1888.
The rise of manufacturing led to a new class of wealthy industrialists, entrepreneurs, and professionals. Some of these nouveau riche built along East Jefferson, resulting in structures such as the Thomas A. Parker House (1868), the Croul - Palms House (1881), the William H. Wells House (1889), the John N. Bagley House (1889), and the Frederick K. Stearns House (1902).
Detroit began increasingly to expand, and other citizens pushed north of downtown, building houses along Woodward in what was at the time a quiet residential area. The city has many restored historic Victorian structures, notably those in the Brush Park and East Ferry Avenue historic districts. The Elisha Taylor House (1870) and the Hudson - Evans House (1872) are both in Brush Park; the Col. Frank J. Hecker House (1888) and the Charles Lang Freer House (1887) are in the East Ferry Avenue neighborhood. Near the end of the 19th century, apartment living became more acceptable for affluent middle - class families, and upscale apartments, such as the Coronado Apartments (1894), the Verona Apartments (1894), the Palms Apartments (1903), the Davenport Apartments (1905) in the Cass - Davenport Historic District, and the Garden Court Apartments (1915) were constructed to meet the new demand.
These well - to - do late - 19th - century residents also funded the construction of a spate of churches, such as the Cass Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church (1883), the First Presbyterian Church (1889), the Trinity Episcopal Church (1890) (built by James E. Scripps), and the First Unitarian Church (1890).
Detroit has long been a city of immigrants, from the early French and English settlers in the 18th century, through the Irish who settled in the Corktown neighborhood in the 1840s, and the Germans who comprised the largest group. Significant contingents during this period included German and Polish immigrants who settled in Detroit in the 1860 - 1890s.
Conditions were especially favorable for the Irish Catholics. Vinyard finds that they enjoyed many opportunities and suffered "negligible religious prejudice. '' They were especially successful in politics, government service, dockyard and construction jobs, and built numerous churches. They funded the migration of relatives from Ireland. They took very active leadership roles in the Democratic Party and labor unions
European immigrants opened businesses and established communities. German immigrants established German - speaking churches, primarily on the east side of the city, including Saint John 's - St. Luke 's Evangelical Church (1872), St. Joseph Catholic Church (1873), and Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church (1875), as well as social clubs such as the Harmonie Club (1894) and west - side churches such as St. Boniface (1882) and Gethsemane Evangelical Lutheran Church (1891).
Close behind, a wave of Polish immigrants established east - side Roman Catholic parishes such as St. Albertus (1885), Sweetest Heart Of Mary (1893), St. Josaphat 's (1901), St. Stanislaus (1911), and St. Thomas the Apostle Catholic Church (1923). The Poles also settled on the west side, founding West Side Dom Polski (1916). The son of Prussian Polish immigrants, Rev. John A. Lemke, born in Detroit on February 10, 1866, was the first American - born Roman Catholic Priest of Polish descent to be ordained in America. He was baptised at St. Mary Roman Catholic Church (1843), at the corner of St. Antoine and Croghan (Monroe), on February 18, 1866, attended St. Albertus for his primary education, and studied at Detroit College which is now the University of Detroit Mercy where he received a bachelor 's degree in 1884; then, after attending St. Mary 's in Baltimore, he completed his theological studies at St. Francis Seminary in Monroe, Michigan, and he was ordained by the Bishop John Samuel Foley in 1889. The Catholics were especially energetic in building churches, schools, orphanages, hospitals and other charitable institutions.
Nearly nine out of ten Detroiters in 1900 (87 %) lived in single - family homes. European immigrants including German, Dutch, Polish, and Irish ethnics were likely to be home owners in the city. Most immigrants built their own home with the aid of their neighbors, or if still saving the purchase price they rented from fellow ethnics. They used an informal, localized, ethnically controlled housing market that was quite distinct from the professionally operated housing market. Homeownership in Detroit surged in the city 's immigrant neighborhoods by 1900.
In 1887, John Pridgeon, Jr., a Democrat was elected mayor in a landslide after his Republican opponent endorsed prohibition in the heavily German city. Pridgeon 's term was besmirched by multiple scandals involving the Common Council, city commissioners, grand jury investigations, and multiple indictments for bribery and graft. In 1889 Republicans recouped and called for "good government '' by nominating a businessman with no political experience, Hazen S. Pingree after a colorful campaign in which Pingree revealed his tolerance by making a circuit of saloons. One of his first projects was simply paving the streets -- only four streets were paved, and The Detroit Journal described the rest as "150 miles of rotting, rutted, lumpy, dilapidated paving. '' In hot weather some stretches oozed pitch and resin and occasionally caught fire from discarded cigar butts. Warning repeatedly against the dangers of government by the corporations, he launched nationally visible crusades against Detroit 's streetcar, gas, electric, and telephone companies. He successfully forced rate reductions that won him widespread popularity. He won public approval for a citizen - owned electric light plant, and became a national spokesman for municipal ownership and close regulation of utilities and street railways. When the nationwide Panic of 1893 pushed the nation into a deep depression (1893 -- 97), he won approval by opening empty lots to garden farming -- people called them "Pingree 's potato patches. '' He was a steadfast Republican, and had nothing to do with the Populist Party that had considerable support among labor union members. Pingree added to the old stock Yankee Republican base by making large inroads into the German, Polish and Canadian elements. He was reelected in 1891, 1893 and 1895. Pingree was one of the most influential American mayors in the 1890s -- historians now rated him number 4 among all American mayors, and see him as one of the earliest leaders of the Progressive Era. He supported the gold standard in 1896, and worked hard to carry the city and state for William McKinley over silverite William Jennings Bryan in the intensely competitive 1896 presidential election. McKinley carried the city and state and Pingree was elected governor of Michigan.
A thriving carriage trade set the stage for the work of Henry Ford, whose automobile Highland Park Ford Plant in 1910 revolutionized not only automobile manufacturing but virtually created the concept the assembly line and mass production. Ford 's manufacturing innovations were soon adopted by rival automobile manufacturers, most of whom, and their parts suppliers, were headquartered in the Detroit metropolitan area, establishing the city 's fame as the world 's car capital.
Around the start of the 20th century, entrepreneurs in the Detroit area -- notably Henry Ford -- forged into production of the automobile, capitalizing on the already - existing machine tool and coach - building industry in the city. Early automotive production is recognizable by structures such as the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant (1904) (a National Historic Landmark), and multiple structures in the surrounding Piquette Avenue Industrial Historic District (including the now - destroyed E-M-F / Studebaker Plant, 1906) and the New Amsterdam Historic District (including the original Cadillac factory, 1905) and small factories such as the Crescent Brass and Pin Company Building (1905).
Automobile assembly and associated manufacturing soon dominated Detroit, and the newly minted automotive magnates built commercial and office buildings such as General Motors Building (1919), the General Motors Research Laboratory (1928), and the Fisher Building (1928).
Ford revolutionized labor relations with his high wage policy that brought in the best workers in Detroit, and made "Fordism '' world - famous. He began with a $5 a day minimum wage in 1910, about double the going rate at rival firms. It succeeded in stopping the massive turnover rate, raised productivity, lowered overall labor costs and helped to propel the Model T to industry dominance. By the 1920s, however, Ford 's formula of cheap cars with few options fell behind General Motors, which emphasized upscale quality and variety, and provided financing for car buyers.
The development of the automobile industry led to rising demands for labor, which were filled by huge numbers of newcomers from Europe. Between 1900 and 1930, the city 's population soared from 265,000 to over 1.5 million, pushing the boundaries of the city outward. The population boom led to the construction of apartment buildings across the city, aimed at the middle - class auto worker. These include the Somerset Apartments (1922), the Garden Court Apartments (1915), and the Manchester Apartments (1915).
The rise of the automobile also required rethinking transportation within the city. The Chestnut Street - Grand Trunk Railroad bridge (1929) was a result of a grade separation that unsnarled train and automobile traffic. The Fort Street - Pleasant Street and Norfolk & Western Railroad Viaduct (1928) was a product of the same program, routing trucking traffic over the train traffic. And the West Jefferson Avenue - Rouge River Bridge (1922) allowed the Rouge River to be expanded for barge traffic.
Progressivism was energized starting in the 1890s by upper middle class men and women who felt a civic duty to uplift society by "freeing '' it from the tyranny of corrupt politicians who worked hand in hand with unscrupulous saloonkeepers. The most prominent leader was Republican Mayor Hazen S. Pingree. A representative community leader was automaker Henry M. Leland of the Detroit Citizens League. Supported by Detroit 's business, professional, and Protestant religious communities, the League campaigned for a new city charter, an anti-saloon ordinance, and the open shop whereby a worker could get a job even if he did not belong to a labor union.
Reinhold Niebuhr, a German - American Protestant minister trained at Yale Divinity School became nationally famous as a Detroit minister who attacked the KKK, which was strong among white Protestants in the city. In an era when Henry Ford was an American icon, Niebuhr attracted national attention by criticizing the auto industry. He preached the Social Gospel, attacking what he considered the brutalization and insecurity of Ford workers. Niebuhr had moved to the left and was troubled by the demoralizing effects of industrialism on workers. He became an outspoken critic of Ford and allowed union organizers to use his pulpit to expound their message of workers ' rights. Niebuhr attacked poor conditions created by the assembly lines and erratic employment practices.
Niebuhr rejected the prevailing optimism that prevailed in the 1920s. He wrote in his diary:
The historian Ronald H. Stone thinks that Niebuhr never talked to the assembly line workers (many of his parishioners were skilled craftsmen) but projected feelings onto them after discussions with Rev. Samuel Marquis. As some studies of assembly line workers have shown, the work may have been dull, but workers had complex motivations and could find ways to make meaning of their experiences; many boasted about their jobs and tried hard to place their sons on the assembly line. Ford tried but failed to control work habits.
Sociologists who interviewed workers concluded that they were more interested in controlling their home lives than their work lives. The Ford solution was welfare capitalism, paying relatively high wages with added benefits, such as vacations and retirement, that reduced turnover and appealed primarily to family men. Link and Link conclude that by tying half a man 's wages to the company 's profit, Ford managers offered "a highly successful wage incentive plan that simultaneously increased job satisfaction and raised the productivity of labor. ''
At the beginning of the 20th century, historic Gilded Age areas such as Brush Park gave rise to even more upscale neighborhoods, including the Boston - Edison, Indian Village, and Palmer Woods. Woodward Avenue neighborhoods (such as the Warren - Prentis Historic District and the Willis - Selden Historic District) became mixed with apartments and commercial buildings. Many architecturally and historically significant churches and cathedrals arose during this period throughout the city 's neighborhoods.
Automobile wealth along with educational & technological advancements led to a boom in downtown Detroit business, and the construction of a collection of early 20th century skyscrapers. The most notable of these are the Art Deco National Historic Landmark Guardian Building (1928) and The Fisher Building (1928). Many renowned architects including Albert Kahn, Wirt C. Rowland, and others designed and built a number of the cities skyscrapers and landmarks.
Shopping districts sprang up along Park Avenue, Broadway, and Woodward. In 1881, Joseph Lowthian Hudson opened a small men 's clothing store in Detroit. After 10 years he had 8 stores in the midwest and was the most profitable clothing retailer in the country. In 1893, he began construction of J.L. Hudson Department Store at Gratiot and Farmer streets in Detroit. The store grew over the years and a 25 - story tower was added in 1928. The final section was a 12 - story addition in 1946, giving the entire complex 49 acres (20 ha) of floor space.
Multiple hotels were constructed, including the Fort Shelby Hotel (1916), the Detroit - Leland Hotel (1927), the Royal Palm Hotel (1924), and several others.
Extravagant movie palaces such as the Fox (1928) and the Palms (1925) entertained thousands every day. Public buildings, such as Orchestra Hall (1919), the Detroit Public Library (1921), and the Detroit Institute of Arts (1923) were inspired by the City Beautiful Movement.
The development of the automobile industry led to a massive increase in industrial production in the city. This in turn led to rising demands for labor, which were filled by large waves of immigrants from Europe and Canada. The city 's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century, fed largely by this influx who worked in the burgeoning automobile industry and opened neighborhood shops.
Greek immigration began in the late 1890s, and peaked in 1910 - 14. They came as peasants from the villages and became peddlers, grocers and restaurateurs, concentrating in the Greektown neighborhood. Keenly attuned to regionalism and political factionalism in Greece, the community in Detroit was split into numerous small groupings. As Americanization proceeded, the family structure became much less patriarchal, while retaining strong affiliations with the Greek Orthodox Church. A wave of Italian immigrants arrived in 1890 - 1914. Most newcomers came from Europe or Canada, but there also were blacks from the South. Ford and Pullman were among the few major employers who welcomed black workers.
Detroit expanded its borders exponentially annexing all or part of the incorporated villages of Woodmere (1905), Delray (1905), Fairview (1907), St. Clair Heights (1918), and Warrendale (1925) as well as thousands of acres of land in the surrounding townships. Nevertheless, there remained several legally separate cities that formed enclaves inside the city limites, such as Hamtramck and Highland Park. By the 1930s, Poles became a large immigrant group with more than 66,000 Poles residing in Detroit at the time. Between 1900 and 1930, the city 's population soared from 265,000 to over 1.5 million. During World War II, there was a large influx of whites from Appalachia and blacks from the rural South. Arabs (especially Palestinians) arrived in large numbers after 1970.
The Jewish community grew to about 34,000 by 1914, with new arrivals from Eastern Europe. There was little anti-Semitism, however there was considerable tension between the older established German Jews, and the poor new immigrants.
Local politics from the 1870 to the 1910s had been influenced by ethnics, especially German Americans and Irish Catholics who controlled the Democratic Party. This changed after 1910 as the old - stock Protestant business leaders, especially from the automobile industry, led a Progressive Era crusade for efficiency, and elected their own men to office, typified by James J. Couzens (mayor, 1919 -- 22, US Senator, 1922 -- 36). The critical change took place in 1918 when the voters changed the Common Council from a 42 - man body elected on a partisan basis from 21 wards, to a nine - man unit, elected on a non-partisan basis from the city at - large. The ethnics (especially the Germans) and the Democrats lost their political base. After 1930, however, the Democratic party rebuilt its strength, formed an alliance with the United Auto Workers union and restored the leadership of the ethnics, as typified by Frank Murphy (mayor 1930 - 33, governor 1937 - 39). Mayors Jerome Cavanagh (1962 -- 70) and Roman Gribbs (1970 - 74) were the last of the white ethnic mayors, until 2014. The election of Coleman Young (1974 -- 93) as mayor in 1974 brought to power a new generation of black leaders who represented the city 's new majority.
Most young women took jobs before marriage, then quit. Before the growth of high schools after 1900, most women left school after the 8th grade at about age 15. Ciani (2005) shows that type of work they did reflected their ethnicity and marital status. Black mothers were often day labors, usually as domestic servants, because other opportunities were limited. Most mothers receiving pensions were white and sought work only when necessary.
Nursing became professionalized in the late 19th century, opening a new middle - class career for talented young women of all social backgrounds. The School of Nursing at Detroit 's Harper Hospital, begun in 1884, was a national leader. Its graduates worked at the hospital and also in institutions, public health services, as private duty nurses, and volunteered for duty at military hospitals during the Spanish -- American War and the two world wars.
In the early 20th century, the middle - class women of the Detroit Federation of Women 's Clubs ' (DFWC) promoted civic mindedness within the context of traditional gender roles. Most of them were married to prominent business and professional leaders. Issues of public health, sanitation, and public safety were of vital concern to all families. The DFWC pressured city leaders to provide adequate education and sanitation facilities, safe food handling, and traffic safety. They did not form coalitions with working class or ethnic women, nor labor unions.
After the 1928 presidential campaign of Catholic Al Smith, the Democrats mobilize large number of Polish and other Catholic ethnics to make their comeback. Although the election for mayor was nonpartisan, the Democrats rallied behind Judge Frank Murphy, who served as mayor 1930 - 33. The Great Depression was devastating for Detroit, as sales of automobiles plunged and there were large - scale layoffs at all industrial enterprises. Murphy insisted that no one would go hungry, and set up the Mayor 's Unemployment Committee that set up relief soup kitchens and potato gardens. In 1933 Murphy resigned, and Frank Couzens was elected mayor, serving until 1938. He was the son of Republican U.S. Senator James Couzens, who had been mayor in 1919 - 22. In 1933 the city was in a financial crisis, as tax receipts had plunged and welfare spending had skyrocketed. The city had defaulted on its bond payments and had to use promissory notes ('' script ") to pay teachers, policemen and other employees. Couzens restored the city 's financial credibility by cutting the debt and balancing the budget. He obtained large sums of federal relief money, and upgraded the street - lighting program and the sewage system.
With the factories came high - profile labor unions in the 1930s such as the United Auto Workers which initiated disputes with manufacturers. The labor activism during those years increased influence of union leaders in the city such as Jimmy Hoffa of the Teamsters and Walter Reuther of the autoworkers.
The unionization process in autos was led by CIO organizers. The strongest response came not from semi-skilled assembly line men, but from the militant leadership of skilled tool and die makers and British and Irish ethnics. They had been complacent during the late 1920s but reacted with extreme militancy to the hardships of the depression. Following the success of the sit down strikes at General Motors, non-unionized, semi-skilled workers followed suit in numerous plants in 1937. They were supported by the pro-union mood of the city, the New Deal 's permissive political climate, and Governor Frank Murphy 's pro-labor sympathies. They won many concessions and formed numerous locals outside the auto industry. Ford, however, successfully resisted unions until 1941.
The entry of the United States into World War II brought tremendous changes to the city. From 1942 to 1945, production of commercial automobiles in the city ceased entirely, as its factories were used instead to construct M5 tanks, jeeps, and B - 24 bombers for the Allies. The Guardian Building was converted into a headquarters for wartime production. The city made a major contribution to the Allied war effort; a key element of America 's Arsenal of Democracy. Historians note that this accolade was "easily and often corrupted to ' arsehole ' '' by tired Detroiters waiting in lines everywhere.
The B - 24 Liberator, the most produced bomber in history, was used to bomb Germany heavily. Prior to the war, the aviation industry could produce, optimally, one such plane a day at an aircraft plant. By 1943, Ford 's plants managed to produce one B - 24 an hour at a peak of 600 per month in 24 - hour shifts. Many pilots slept on cots waiting for takeoff as the B - 24 rolled off the assembly line at Ford 's Willow Run facility.
Racial tension grew rapidly in World War II, as high paying jobs brought in tens of thousands of families, despite severe housing shortages. The historian of Detroit 's Poles finds that they saw the blacks as "threatening their jobs, homes, communities, and churches. '' An August 1942 Life article, "Detroit is Dynamite '', discussed in detail the city 's labor and race issues, stating that "the news from Detroit is bad this summer... The result is a morale situation which is perhaps the worst in the U.S. '' Because of the city 's importance to the war effort, the article was censored from copies of the magazine sold outside North America. The long - awaited riot exploded in June 1943, as groups of blacks and whites fought it out. The 3 - days of street fighting started on Belle Isle, and killed 25 blacks and 9 whites, wounded 433, and destroyed property valued at $2 million. The U.S. Army was called in to restore order.
In economic terms, the postwar years 1945 - 70 brought high levels of prosperity as the automobile industry had its most prosperous quarter - century.
Although Detroit had a Rapid Transit Commission, it was not popular with the politicians or the public after the strikes of 1946 ended and automobile production resumed. People demanded cars so they could commute from work to spacious houses surrounded by grass instead of riding the trolley to cramped upstairs apartments. During the war, three expressways were built to support the region 's war industries. Furthermore, the wartime model of federal, state, and local governments jointly planning and funding expressways gave a successful model for planning and financing more highways. Progress was slow in 1945 - 47 because of inflation, steel shortages, and the difficulty of building in built - up areas. by the early 1950s highways were in place, and plans were underway to make Detroit a central hub in the forthcoming Interstate Highway System. The new highways had a funding advantage over mass transit because of the availability of federal highway monies coupled with the availability of matching state money. Ultimately, they were paid for by gasoline taxes, which commuters seldom grumbled about.
Other sources indicate the replacement of Detroit 's large electric streetcar network with buses & highways was much more controversial. In 1930, Detroit had 30 electric streetcar lines over 534 miles of track. In 1941, a streetcar ran on Woodward Avenue every 60 seconds at peak times. Wartime restrictions on vital war materials such as rubber and gasoline caused particularly heavy use of the streetcar system during the 1940s. However, between the end of the war and 1949, the city discontinued half of its 20 streetcar lines. Five more were discontinued in 1951 -- three of them switched abruptly to bus lines during a DSR strike. More closings followed until August 1955, when Mayor Albert Cobo, who promoted freeway construction as the way of the future, urged City Council to sell the city 's recently purchased fleet of modern streetcars to Mexico City. It was a controversial move. A newspaper poll showed that Detroiters, by a margin of 3 - to - 1, opposed the switch to buses. Some even jeered the sunken freeways Cobo championed, dubbing them "Cobo canals. '' "A lot of people were against the decision... A common complaint was about the sale of the (new) cars, that the city did n't get its money 's worth. Of course, the city had an answer for anything... '' On April 8, 1956, the last streetcar in Detroit rolled down Woodward Avenue. After less than 10 years in service, Detroit 's fleet of streamlined streetcars was loaded on railcars and shipped to Mexico City, where they ran for another 30 years.
The Hudson 's department store, the second largest in the nation, realized that the limited parking space at its downtown skyscraper would increasingly be a problem for its customers. The solution in 1954 was to open the Northland Center in nearby Southfield, just beyond the city limits. It was the largest suburban shopping center in the world, and quickly became the main shopping destination for northern and western Detroit, and for much of the suburbs. By 1961 the downtown skyscraper accounted for only half of Hudson 's sales; it closed in 1986. The Hudson 's name would latter be discarded all together. The remaining Hudsons were first rebranded as branches of Chicago 's flagship Marshall Field 's State Street, and later rebranded again as branches of New York City 's flagship Macy 's Herald Square.
Ethnic whites enjoyed high wages and suburban life styles. Blacks comprised 4 % of the auto labor force in 1942, 15 % by the war 's end; they held their own and were at 16 % by 1960. They started in unskilled jobs, making them susceptible to layoffs and to replacement when automation came. The powerful United Auto Workers union championed state and federal civil rights legislation, but was in no hurry to advance blacks in the union hierarchy. a large well - paid middle class black community emerged; like their white counterparts, they wanted to own single family homes, fought for respectability, and left the blight and crime of the slums as fast as possible for outlying districts and suburbs.
By 1945, Detroit was running out of space for new factories; tight - knit home - owning neighborhoods rejected the notion of tearing out housing to make room for factories. There was plenty of space in the suburbs, and that is where the factories had to locate. The proposals of liberal UAW leaders such as Walter Reuther for urban redevelopment did not please the UAW 's largely white, conservative membership. The members repeatedly voted for conservative mayoral candidates, such as Republicans Albert Cobo (mayor 1950 - 57) and Louis Miriani (mayor 1957 - 62), for they protected white neighborhoods from residential integration. Home ownership was not just a very large financial investment for individuals, it was also a source of identity for men who remembered the hardships and foreclosures of the Great Depression. Sugrue says, "Economically vulnerable homeowners feared, above all, that an influx of blacks would imperil their precarious investments. ''
As mayor in 1957 - 62, Louis Miriani was best known for completing many of the large - scale urban renewal projects initiated by the Cobo administration. These were largely financed by federal money, due to his rejection of implementing a city tax. Miriani also took strong measures to overcome the growing crime rate in Detroit. The United Automobile Workers (UAW), then at the height of its size and power, officially endorsed Miriani for re-election, stressing what they viewed as his conservative "law and order '' position. However, while some African Americans praised Miriani for helping to break down racial divides, other disagreed with the UAW that Miriani did enough.
Historian David Maraniss cites milestones in 1962 - 64 that marked the city 's sharp decline: the failure of a plan to host the Olympics; urban renewal uprooting black neighborhoods; urgently needed police reforms that stalled; and the failure to transform Detroit through the Model Cities and War on Poverty programs. Tensions started building that exploded in the 1967 riot, the most costly and violent in the country during a summer of numerous riots in cities.
The 1970s brought a worldwide energy crisis with high gasoline prices. For the first time, the American industry faced serious competition from imported automobiles, which were smaller and more fuel - efficient. German Volkswagens and Japanese Toyotas posed a growing threat.
In June 1963, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. gave a major speech in Detroit that foreshadowed his "I Have a Dream '' speech two months later. In Detroit, King was accompanied by Rev. C.L. Franklin, father of singer Aretha Franklin, who was also a musician and songwriter. Detroit played a major role in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s; the Model Cities Program was a key component of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society and War on Poverty. Begun in 1966, it operated five - year - long experiments in 150 cities to develop new anti-poverty programs and alternative forms of municipal government. The ambitious federal urban aid program succeeded in fostering a new generation of mostly black urban leaders.
Detroit had one of the largest Model Cities projects. Mayor Jerome Cavanagh (Mayor 1962 -- 69) was the only elected official to serve on Johnson 's task force. Detroit received widespread acclaim for its leadership in the program, which used $490 million to try to turn a nine - square - mile section of the city (with 134,000 inhabitants) into a model city. The city 's political and business elite, and city planners, along with the black middle class, wanted the federal funding to assist the economic growth of the entire city. They sought to protect the central business district property values from nearby slums and to construct new revenue - generating structures. But, local community organizers and civil rights activists rallied poor residents in opposition to these plans. They said federal renewal funding should be used to replace deteriorating housing stock, whether with new public housing or low - cost housing built by private developers. The Model City program was terminated in Detroit and nationwide in 1974 after major race riots in the late 1960s most of its target cities.
Detroit witnessed growing confrontations between the mostly white police force and inner city blacks, culminating in the massive 12th Street riot in July 1967. The riot erupted in mostly black neighborhoods. Governor George W. Romney ordered the Michigan National Guard into Detroit, and President Johnson sent in U.S. Army troops. The result was 43 dead, 467 injured, over 7,200 arrests, and more than 2,000 buildings destroyed. Thousands of small businesses closed permanently or relocated to safer neighborhoods, and the affected district lay in ruins for decades.
Coleman Young, Detroit 's first black mayor, explained the long - term effects of the riot:
Scholars have produced many studies documenting the fall of Detroit from one of the world 's premier industrial cities in 1945 to a much smaller, weaker city in the 21st century, struggling to survive against the loss of industry and population, against crime, corruption and poverty. Boyle also blames the big corporations. He summarizes the scholarly consensus in 2001:
On August 18, 1970, the NAACP filed suit against Michigan state officials, including Governor William Milliken, charging de facto public school segregation. The trial began April 6, 1971, and lasted 41 days. The NAACP argued that although schools were not legally segregated, the city of Detroit and its surrounding counties had enacted policies to maintain racial segregation in public schools. The NAACP also suggested a direct relationship between unfair housing practices (such as redlining of certain neighborhoods) and educational segregation, which followed segregated neighborhoods. District Judge Steven J. Roth held all levels of government accountable for the segregation in his ruling on Milliken v. Bradley. The Sixth Circuit Court affirmed some of the decision, withholding judgment on the relationship of housing inequality with education. The court specified that it was the state 's responsibility to integrate across the segregated metropolitan area.
The governor and other accused officials appealed the decision to the U.S. Supreme Court, which took up the case February 27, 1974. The subsequent Milliken v. Bradley decision had wide national influence. In a narrow decision, the Court found that schools were a subject of local control and that suburbs could not be forced to solve problems in the city 's school district. According to Gary Orfield and Susan E. Eaton in their 1996 book Dismantling Desegregation, the "Supreme Court 's failure to examine the housing underpinnings of metropolitan segregation '' in Milliken made desegregation "almost impossible '' in northern metropolitan areas. "Suburbs were protected from desegregation by the courts ignoring the origin of their racially segregated housing patterns. '' "Milliken was perhaps the greatest missed opportunity of that period, '' said Myron Orfield, professor of law and director of the Institute on Metropolitan Opportunity at the University of Minnesota. "Had that gone the other way, it would have opened the door to fixing nearly all of Detroit 's current problems. ''
John Mogk, a professor of law and an expert in urban planning at Wayne State University in Detroit, says, "Everybody thinks that it was the riots (in 1967) that caused the white families to leave. Some people were leaving at that time but, really, it was after Milliken that you saw mass flight to the suburbs. If the case had gone the other way, it is likely that Detroit would not have experienced the steep decline in its tax base that has occurred since then. ''
Supreme Justice William O. Douglas ' dissenting opinion in Miliken held that
"there is, so far as the school cases go, no constitutional difference between de facto and de jure segregation. Each school board performs state action for Fourteenth Amendment purposes when it draws the lines that confine it to a given area, when it builds schools at particular sites, or when it allocates students. The creation of the school districts in Metropolitan Detroit either maintained existing segregation or caused additional segregation. Restrictive covenants maintained by state action or inaction build black ghettos... the task of equity is to provide a unitary system for the affected area where, as here, the State washes its hands of its own creations. ''
While 55 percent of Detroiters were counted as white in the 1970 census, by 1980 the city 's proportion of white residents had declined to 34 percent of the population. The population shift was even more stark considering that Detroit was 83 percent white at the time of the city 's all - time population high in 1950. The migration of whites to the suburbs left blacks in control of a city suffering from an inadequate tax base, too few jobs, and swollen welfare rolls. According to Chafets, "Among the nation 's major cities, Detroit was at or near the top of unemployment, poverty per capita, and infant mortality throughout the 1980s. ''
In the 1973 mayoral election the polarization was nearly total, as 92 % of blacks voted for Coleman Young, while 91 % of the whites voted for former police Commissioner John Nichols, although neither appealed to racial issues during the campaign. Although Young had emerged from the far left element in Detroit, he moved to the right after his election. He called an ideological truce and won the support of Detroit 's economic elite. The new mayor was energetic in the construction of the Joe Louis Arena, and upgrading the city 's mediocre mass transit system. Highly controversial was his using eminent domain to purchase and raze an 465 - acre inner - city neighborhood known as Poletown that was home to 3,500 people, mostly Polish property owners, in order to make way for a half - billion dollar General Motors Cadillac assembly plant. Rich argues that he pulled money out of the neighborhood to rehabilitate the downtown business district, because "there were no other options. '' Young tried to rein in the city 's largely white police department, whose aggressive tactics angered black voters.
Young was an outspoken advocate for federal funding for Detroit construction projects, and his administration saw the completion of the Renaissance Center, Detroit People Mover, and several other Detroit landmarks. During Young 's last two terms there he faced angry opposition from neighborhood activists. He usually prevailed, winning re-election by wide margins in 1977, 1981, 1985, and 1989, for a total of 20 years as mayor, based largely on black votes.
Young was blamed for failing to stem the crime epidemic that Detroit became notorious for in the 1970s and 1980s. Dozens of violent black street gangs gained control of the city 's large drug trade, which began with the heroin epidemic of the 1970s and grew into the even larger crack cocaine epidemic of the 1980s and early 1990s. There were numerous major criminal gangs that were founded in Detroit and dominated the drug trade at various times; most were short - lived. They included The Errol Flynns (east side), Nasty Flynns (later the NF Bangers) and Black Killers and the drug consortiums of the 1980s such as Young Boys Inc., Pony Down, Best Friends, Black Mafia Family and the Chambers Brothers. The Young Boys were innovative, opening franchises in other cities, using youth too young to be prosecuted, promoting brand names, and unleashing extreme brutality to frighten away rivals.
Several times during Young 's tenure Detroit was named the arson capital of the U.S., and repeatedly the murder capital of the United States. Often Detroit was listed by FBI crime statistics as the "most dangerous city in America '' during his administration. Crime rates in Detroit peaked in 1991 at more than 2,700 violent crimes per 100,000 people. However, crime continued to be a problem in Detroit long after Young 's tenure as mayor ended; according to national statistics the arson rate in Detroit was 6.3 times the national average in 2003 and the murder rate was 5.1 times the national average. In addition, the majority of Detroit residents, including many blacks, have left the city, leaving a glut of abandoned buildings that have become magnets for drugs, arson, and other crime.
The night of October 30th (the night before Halloween) was a traditional day for pranks but became known as "Devil 's Night '' as Detroit youth went on a rampage in the 1980s. A tradition of light - hearted minor vandalism, such as soaping windows, had emerged in the 1930s, but by the 1980s it had become, said Mayor Coleman, "a vision from hell. '' The arson primarily took place in the inner city, but surrounding suburbs were often affected as well. The crimes became increasingly more destructive. Over 800 fires were set in the peak year 1984, overwhelming the city 's fire department. Hundreds of vacant homes across the city were set ablaze by arsonists. The fires continued to happen but the number was sharply reduced by razing thousands of abandoned houses that often were used to sell drugs as well -- 5,000 in 1989 - 90 alone. Every year the city mobilizes "Angel 's Night, '' with tens of thousands of volunteers patrolling areas at high risk.
The Detroit area emerged as a major metropolitan region with construction of an extensive freeway system in the 1950s and 1960s which expanded in the ensuing decades. The 1950s, 60s, and 70s witnessed an expansion of the cultural phenomenon of U.S. muscle cars including Camaro, Mustang, and Charger. Automotive designers and business executives such as Bill Mitchell, Lee Iacocca, and John DeLorean rose to prominence for their contributions. Freeways facilitated movement throughout the region with millions of people taking up residence in the suburbs. A desire for newer housing and schools accelerated migration from the city to the suburbs. Commensurate with the shift of population and jobs to its suburbs, the city has had to adjust its role within the larger metropolitan area. Downtown Detroit has seen a resurgence in the 21st century as a business center and entertainment hub with the opening of three casino resort hotels. In 1940, the city of Detroit held about one - third of the state 's population, while the metropolitan region currently holds roughly one - half of the state 's population. For the 2010 census, the city of Detroit 's population was 713,777, while metropolitan Detroit 's combined statistical area had a population of 5,218,852. Through much of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, the city completed significant revitalizations. Immigration continues to play a role in the region 's projected growth with the population of Detroit - Ann Arbor - Flint (CMSA) estimated to be 6,191,000 by 2025.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the city began to experience a revival, much of it centered in Downtown, Midtown, and New Center. After purchasing and renovating the historic Fox Theatre and Fox Office Centre in 1987, Mike Ilitch and Marian Ilitch moved Little Caesars Pizza 's headquarters to Downtown Detroit. One Detroit Center (1993) arose on the city skyline. Newer downtown residents are predominantly young professionals. The city has three casino resort hotels - MGM Grand Detroit, MotorCity Casino, and Greektown Casino - with one of the larger gaming industry markets in the U.S. New downtown stadiums Comerica Park and Ford Field were constructed for the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions in 2000 and 2002, respectively; this placed the Lions ' stadium in the city proper for the first time since 1974. In 2008, the city witnessed grand restorations of the historic Book Cadillac Hotel and the Fort Shelby Hotel. The city has hosted major sporting events - the 2005 MLB All - Star Game, 2006 Super Bowl XL, 2006 World Series, WrestleMania 23 in 2007 and the NCAA Final Four in April 2009 - all of which prompted many improvements to the area.
The city 's International Riverfront is a focus of much development which has complemented similar developments in Windsor, Ontario. In 2007, Detroit completed the first major portions of the River Walk, including miles of parks and fountains. The Renaissance Center received a major renovation in 2004. New developments and revitalizations are a mainstay in the city 's plan to enhance its economy through tourism. Along the river, upscale condominiums are rising, such as Watermark Detroit. Some city limit signs, particularly on the Dearborn border say "Welcome to Detroit, The Renaissance City Founded 1701 ''.
In 2004, Compuware established its world headquarters in downtown Detroit followed by Quicken Loans in 2010. Significant landmarks such as the Fox Theatre, Orchestra Hall Detroit Opera House, and the Gem Theater have been restored and host concerts, musicals, and plays. The Detroit Institute of Arts completed a major renovation and expansion in 2007. Many downtown centers such as Greektown, Cobo Center and Campus Martius Park, draw patrons and host activities.
In September 2008, Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick (who had served for six years) resigned following felony convictions. In 2013, Kilpatrick was convicted on 24 federal felony counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud, and racketeering, and was sentenced to 28 years in federal prison.
In July 2013, Michigan state - appointed emergency manager Kevyn Orr asked a federal judge to place the City of Detroit into bankruptcy protection.
In March 2014 the indebted Detroit Water and Sewerage Department began cutting off water to customers homes with unpaid bills over $150, or if the payment was more than 60 days overdue. As of the 15th of July, more than 15,000 homes had been cut off.
Ten people have been awarded the key to the city of Detroit:
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